healthcare

Article
Framing of COVID-19 in Newspapers: A Perspective from the
US-Mexico Border
Rifat Afrin 1, * , Ahasan Harun 2 , Gayle Prybutok 1 and Victor Prybutok 3

1 Department of Rehabilitation and Health Services, College of Health and Public Service, University of
North Texas, Denton, TX 76203, USA
2 Department of Information Systems, Robert C. Vackar College of Business & Entrepreneurship, University of
Texas-Rio Grande Valley, Edinburg, TX 78539, USA
3 Department of Information Technology and Decision Sciences, G. Brint Ryan College of Business,
University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203, USA
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The degree to which the media report a health emergency affects the seriousness with
which the people respond to combat the health crisis. Engagement from local newspapers in the
US has received scant scrutiny, even though there is a sizable body of scholarship on the analysis
of COVID-19 news. We fill this void by focusing on the Rio Grande Valley area of the US-Mexico
border. To understand the differences, we compared such local news coverage with the coverage
of a national news outlet. After collecting the relevant news articles, we used sentiment analysis,
rapid automatic keyword extraction (RAKE), and co-occurrence network analysis to examine the
main themes and sentiments of COVID-19 news articles. The RAKE identified that county-specific
news or local regulations are more prevalent among the key terms in The Monitor which are absent
in USA Today. The co-occurrence network shows the coverage of the disruption of sports season
in USA Today which is not present in The Monitor. The sentiment analysis presents fear emotion
is more dominant in USA Today, but trust emotion becomes more prevalent in The Monitor news
Citation: Afrin, R.; Harun, A.; coverage. These findings show us that, although the subject of the health emergency is the same,
Prybutok, G.; Prybutok, V. Framing local and national newspapers describe it in different ways, and the sentiments they convey are also
of COVID-19 in Newspapers: A not the same.
Perspective from the US-Mexico
Border. Healthcare 2022, 10, 2362. Keywords: newspapers; COVID-19; health communication; community health
https://doi.org/10.3390/
healthcare10122362

Academic Editor: Christian Napoli

1. Introduction
Received: 3 October 2022
Over the past few decades, outbreaks of infectious diseases have become more com-
Accepted: 23 November 2022
mon [1]. Efficient risk management depends on people’s desire to learn about diseases
Published: 24 November 2022
and take precautions to stop them from propagating [2]. Against the backdrop of a dis-
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral ease outbreak, a knowledgeable and involved public is essential for maintaining public
with regard to jurisdictional claims in health [3]. Prior research has explored how journalistic creativity is sparked during such
published maps and institutional affil- emergencies [4]. However, given its vast reach, the absence of a disaster epicenter, harm
iations.
to human lives, and the capacity to inflict damage across the bulk of capitalistic sectors,
the COVID-19 pandemic posed a unique confluence of these factors. Therefore, effective
communication through news media became necessary to maintain public awareness. This
study provides a perspective on how health emergencies are covered in local newspapers
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
of the Rio Grande Valley area of the US-Mexico border.
This article is an open access article
To understand how news and public opinion influence one another, we can resort to
distributed under the terms and news agenda-setting theory [5]. One of the basic tenets of agenda-setting theory is that the
conditions of the Creative Commons public values the same things that the media consider significant or conspicuous [6]. The
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// media has an impact on what topics people perceive to be relevant or significant. McCombs
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ and Shaw [7] created and popularized the hypothesis fifty years ago (1972). Since then, a
4.0/). great deal of empirical and theoretical research has been performed, and it has undergone

Healthcare 2022, 10, 2362. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare10122362 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/healthcare

Healthcare 2022, 10, 2362 2 of 19

numerous adaptations. The idea of second-level or attribute agenda-setting stands out

among them [8,9], which states that media impact not only what the audience considers to
be important but also what the majority think about a topic or some of its attributes.
It may be argued that the emergence of social media has changed the agenda-setting
function of traditional media [10]. However, print news reporting continues to serve as the
main source for the majority of what is later reported in other media, engaging a wider
audience than just newspaper readers [11]
A health emergency’s level of media coverage impacts how seriously people take
it, which could have a big impact on what they do to deal with the issue. Prior research
has examined how scientific and medical issues are presented in the media, focusing on
how infectious diseases are reported in news updates (e.g., [12,13]). However, we still lack
knowledge about how health crises are reported in the press, specifically whether there are
distinctions between local and national reporting in media news frames.
As long as they remain key sources of information for the general public, the media
will continue to have a significant impact on how individuals perceive and respond to
threats [14]. Instead of just disregarding press coverage, it is crucial to understand how such
tales are generated and delivered in certain situations to significantly influence communi-
cation and management actions [14]. The highest readership and influence levels of any
media may be found in newspapers in the United States [15]. For this reason, it is crucial to
examine how a pandemic emergency like COVID-19 was covered by the newspapers to
learn how to prepare for similar situations in the future.
In a journalist’s conscientious pursuit of the truth, Ward [16] contends, the field of
communication ought to redefine what objectivity means going forward rather than striving
to dismiss it entirely. However, despite highlighting the need for trustworthy information,
the COVID-19 pandemic has depleted the required resources of local news organizations to
accurately narrate the effects of the virus on neighborhood populations [17]. Half (57%) of
the 2485 counties in the United States that recorded a COVID-19 infection case in the initial
three weeks of this public health emergency either have only one local newspaper or do not
have any at all [18]. This study highlights the importance of local newspapers by focusing
on how the same COVID-19 pandemic was covered in national and local newspapers.
COVID-19 was undoubtedly one of the most discussed topics in newspapers in 2020.
The previous discussion about public health-related topics such as obesity, HPV vaccine
deviated from the issues that needed attention and focused more on the debates [19,20].
During the emergence of a health crisis, lots of information flows, and thereby it necessitates
a lot of care to handle the information to minimize the risk [21]. In this regard, the question
arises of how newspapers are discussing the pandemic topic. In the United States, people
read newspapers published by local outlets and national outlets to be informed about
emergencies.
Because of the recession, many newspapers are losing advertisement revenues and
forced to cut back workers or shutdown. Rio Grande Valley also suffered the loss of
two local newspapers (The Edinburg Review and Valley Town Crier) because of the pan-
demic [22]. Evidence suggests that when a local newspaper closes, civic involvement
declines, elected leaders become less responsible, corruption spreads more widely, and
voter turnout declines and gets more divisive [23].
How a certain topic is portrayed in the media affects how the public and decision-
makers comprehend and interact with it [24] Journalists can shape or alter the audience’s
perspective of a crisis. Several ways can be applied to do so: the level of attention the
reporters devote to the issue, the emotion and tone used in the news coverage, and how
the issue is presented through frames [25]. Since the beginning, the COVID-19 pandemic
dominates in major news consumption, and it prompted the President to hold press
conferences frequently; but many Americans also depend on their local news outlets to
get information regarding the outbreak [26]. According to a survey, approximately 61%
of the American adult population are “giving about equal attention to both national and
state and local coronavirus news” [27]. Local news has become very important during the
Healthcare 2022, 10, 2362 3 of 19

COVID-19 outbreak period as several newspapers took initiatives to present “COVID-19

case maps” and zip codes and they also provided details about local business closures and
reopening [28]. Therefore, this study was initiated to find how COVID-19 was covered
in the early stages of the pandemic in national and local newspapers to gain a perception
about future health crisis management.
There is now research going on about future pandemic preparedness [29,30] which
implies the US public health needs to be prepared for future pandemics. As news media
is an important medium to disseminate crucial information during a health crisis, we
need to begin with how COVID-19 was covered in American news media. Prior research
has examined how scientific and medical issues are presented in the media, focusing on
how infectious disease is reported in news updates (e.g., [12,13]). However, we still lack
knowledge about how health crises are reported in the local press, specifically whether
there are distinctions between local and national reporting in media news frames. This is a
crucial topic because many people depend on local news sources for information. Hence,
this tendency to read local news may be reinforced whenever a communicable disease
strikes a country’s specific region [2]. As a result, it is necessary to explore how local media
cover health issues. Moreover, some individuals may be only curious to read selected
newspaper sections, like the international affairs section. Therefore, they prefer only to read
major papers because local publications typically do not handle international policy [31]
unless that policy affects that area. How can the value of reading local newspapers be
conveyed if we do not contrast the frames across different types of newspapers during
times of health crisis? Hence, we examine the news headline frames from The Monitor, a
reputable local daily from the heavily affected Rio Grande Valley (RGV), and USA Today, a
renowned national newspaper.
To fulfill our research goal, we will initially use co-occurrence network analysis of
news headlines of the news pieces that mention COVID-19-related key terms between
March and April of 2020. Afterward, we will use rapid automatic keyword extraction
(RAKE) to determine the most prevalent frames in news headlines. These methods assist in
deciphering the key frames that are typically shown in COVID-19 headlines. Then, we will
use the sentiment analysis to reveal the types of feelings these headline frames contain and
whether they have the potential to cause individuals to become anxious and take protective
actions. By nature, the analysis of news headlines is very intricate. A nuanced perception
will be elusive if the analysis is made from a single disciplinary viewpoint. Hence, this
research will take an interdisciplinary approach. In doing so, our research will shed light
on how health professionals and the public may adjust their health responses in reaction to
news coverage by concentrating on the key frames and sentiments identified in this study.
Numerous subfields of the psychosocial and health sciences now regularly conduct
studies integrating qualitative and quantitative research components [32]. This study also
used a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods. For example, an example
of a qualitative method is sentiment analysis [33]. Sentiment analysis finds diverse types
of emotions such as anger, sadness, or trust from the text documents. However, at the
same time these qualitive information also provides us with quantitative information. For
example, the trust emotion is greater in local newspaper “The Monitor” articles than in
national newspaper USA Today.
Triangulation is a technique for boosting the credibility and validity of study findings.
Validity is the degree to which research truly describes or evaluates the notion or concepts
being explored. Credibility is the term used to describe the reliability and plausibility of
a study [34]. By integrating theories, approaches, and observers in a study, triangulation
can assist guarantee that underlying biases brought on by the use of a single approach or a
single observation are addressed [35].
The fact that data representing real-life experiences are regularly used in mixed method
research approaches is a key strength [36]. Because of lockdowns, effects on education and
the economy, and family member losses during the pandemic, it is crucial for my study to
use a mixed method to capture the essence of human lives. It will be impossible to capture
Healthcare 2022, 10, 2362 4 of 19

the substance of experiences or reporting quality during a pandemic by employing only

qualitative or quantitative methodologies. Thanks to mixed approaches, a research subject
can be looked at from many perspectives. For example, one can combine the rich, subjective
perspectives on complex situations offered by qualitative inquiry with the generalizable,
standardized data from quantitative research. In an effort to provide readers with a more
complete explanation, triangulation also makes an effort to examine and describe complex
human behavior through a variety of ways. Triangulation is one of the important goals that
mixed methods research try to fulfill or look for agreement, confirmation, and connection
between the outcomes of several procedures [37].
Co-occurrence network analysis was suggested in earlier research as a valid method for
visualizing potential connections between and among different constructs or attributes [38].
As a result, by initially identifying topic distribution and connections as well as prospective
connections between topics under study, quantitative researchers may profit from the
approach’s results [39]. To locate the keywords, RAKE looks for keyword pairs that are
present in the same sequence, at least twice, and together within the same document. A
potential candidate term is produced by combining such keywords with their correspond-
ing internal stop words. The score for this new term is the total of its member keywords’
scores [40].
Although traditional framing studies have generally used human coders to identify
dominant frames in news articles, the approach is subjective and time-consuming [41,42].
Since the 1990s, when digital technologies first began to take off, a lot of news content has
accumulated, necessitating automated frame detection [43]. A group of machine learning
algorithms known as automated content analysis are used often in medical research and
social sciences and to synthesize both qualitative and quantitative data from large bodies
of text [44]. Or in other words, we can obtain both qualitative and quantitative information
from the techniques of automated content analysis.

2. Background
Studying the initial period of pandemic is necessary because it provides us insight
into communication tactics during the early period of a health emergency. Public health
officials communicated preventive measures for minimizing the rates of infections. News
media organizations also began to rush over to cover COVID-19 by emphasizing various
facets of the pandemic. Hence, it is necessary to study news frames from this initial stage.
Because news media frames are not only about shaping public opinion, but news media
frames also work as a medium of communication to let the public know about pandemic
management interventions [45].
The context is now very different now in 2022. However, health emergency situations
like COVID-19 can happen in the future. Therefore, we need to look back to building
communication strategies for future health emergencies so that the situation will not turn
more severe like COVID-19 and the public and health officials can be more prepared. To
improve early pandemic management techniques, researchers need to consider how the
media report on health crises at their earliest stages.
Willacy, Hidalgo, Starr, and Cameron counties comprise the RGV’s four counties
bordering Mexico. Contrary to the entire Texas state, Texas’ bordering counties have unique
attributes [46]. There is a need for culturally sensitive approaches to increase the outreach
to this demographic [47]. The prevalence and fatality rates for cervical cancer are higher
in the RGV compared to other regions of Texas and to the remainder of the United States.
Notably, compared to women residing in other regions of Texas or the rest of the nation,
women in RGV have a 30% greater cervical cancer frequency with associated fatalities [46].
This region is also especially susceptible to HIV infection due to the enormous number
of people passing through its border crossing points and the economic hardship that
individuals and neighborhoods must endure [48]. Because of increased poverty, low rates
of health insurance coverage, and significant numbers of immigrants from Latin America
during a period when anti-immigrant stances in the US were on the rise, the RGV was
Healthcare 2022, 10, 2362 5 of 19

well-positioned to suffer greatly from the coronavirus pandemic [49]. Thus, it makes us
curious about how the news media in the RGV portrayed the pandemic and how much it
differed from the coverage in a national newspaper.
USA Today is one of the daily U.S. Newspapers with a large readership besides Wall
Street Journal and The New York Times [50]. News from the United States and throughout
the world is delivered via national newspapers [31]. We can know what is happening in the
US and around the globe from USA Today. It can be either political news or sports news
or financial news, in other words all types of news are present in a national newspaper to
attract the attention of diverse readers.
The Monitor has the largest readership in Rio Grande Valley (RGV) [51]. This region’s
economic and health inequities are among the worst in the country. Most locals are Hispanic,
undereducated, and economically underprivileged. They are also underserved in health
care and have poor health outcomes [46].
Even before COVID-19, the RGV, situated in deep South Texas, was of interest to
many academics and researchers all over the U.S. and major American news media. The
RGV’S geographical position at the U.S.-Mexico border, poverty, geopolitics, culture, eco-
diversity, trade activities, public health issues, and immigration, etc. are among the topics
examined [46,52–55]. Among public health issues, the RGV gets attention for its higher rates
of obesity and diabetes among the people living in colonias [56]. According to research from
the Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas, a colonia is a neighborhood along the Texas-Mexico
border that could not have access to many of the most basic amenities, such as clean water,
sanitary sewers, power, good streets, or safe housing [57].
Since the Boston smallpox outbreak of 1721, those responsible for providing the Amer-
ican people with important health information have played two roles: one centered on
dissemination of crucial scientific truths, and the other on dismantling lies and misinfor-
mation [58]. Considering the need for print, broadcasting, and internet media to inform
the public about possible health dangers, the fundamental values of journalism [59] are
consistent with the need to report on the pandemic. Nevertheless, people now question the
accuracy and authenticity of the information published due to the rush of new information
providers populating the digital environment [60]. The need for factual reporting, free
of gossip about health issues, is exemplified by outbreak reporting during COVID-19.
Newspapers were recognized for providing the public with medical information during
the 1918 Spanish flu pandemic [58]. Newspapers reporting COVID-19 continued to educate
the people about what precautions to follow, things to avoid, symptoms people should
watch out for, and where they can get assistance if afflicted [61].

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Data Collection
The news articles were collected using the NewsBank database. NewsBank is a
news database resource. Its headquarters is in Florida, USA. The Monitor is selected to
represent the RGV. Each day, 40,000 copies of this newspaper are distributed [51]. This is a
considerable sum for the RGV. USA Today was selected to represent national newspapers
of the United States. From Monday through Friday, USA today is read by nearly one
million people daily [62]. To identify news articles, we used search terms that included
“COVID-19”, “corona”, “coronavirus”, or “COVID”. These queries yield pertinent details
regarding COVID-19 reporting [12]. 566 news for March and April of 2020 were collected
from The Monitor. For USA Today, 1159 news items were collected for the same time frame.

3.2. Analysis Procedure

We started by using a co-occurrence network method. This co-occurrence network
explains the connections among frequently used words. Every word is represented within
that figure by a node, and edges show its relationships to specific other keywords. Node
sizes are dictated by word frequency, which is likewise relevant for edge size, which is
mostly influenced by the Jaccard coefficient. The Jaccard coefficient, which has a value
Healthcare 2022, 10, 2362 6 of 19

between zero and one, is a statistical measure widely used to assess how similar two
things are [63]. Additionally, the study applied the RAKE (rapid automatic keyword extrac-
tion) technique. This method for extracting terms or phrases from texts is unsupervised,
language- and domain-independent [64]. To extract topics from a text, RAKE creates a list of
probable terms from the article’s content. To identify the phrases, RAKE looks for keyword
combinations that appear across the same document sources in the same sequence and at
least a few times. These words are joined with the stop words that serve as their foundation
to create a potentially qualified term. The new keyword’s overall score is calculated by
averaging the values of each of its component elements.
Co-occurrence networks are advantageous because they show the network of knowl-
edge elements [65] or make a visual representation to understand the themes in text data.
This analysis reveals which themes are essential while also illuminating the connections
between the keywords or themes [66]. Therefore, quantitative researchers may benefit
from the approach’s findings by initially detecting topic distribution and links as well as
potential connections between subjects under study [39]. The co-occurrence network does
not assess the rate of word usage because it just illustrates the relationships among topics.
Therefore, RAKE is employed to achieve that goal.
The study also carried out an automated sentiment assessment. Empirical evidence
shows the significance of sentiments in health-related domains [67]. Due to the enormous
amount of unstructured text data that is currently available, sentiment analysis is growing
in popularity as a research application area [68]. The method of gathering subjective
information about unique sentiments and viewpoints from natural language materials is
known as sentiment analysis [69]. A lexicon-based technique was employed for this study.
This lexicon is a collection of terms with emotional annotation. Keywords in the data are
assigned sentiment ratings based on the results of a lexicon. Regarding communications
across various networks, media acts as a paradigm or platform [70]. Hence, it is crucial to
comprehend how emotional health and information interact [71]. The sentiment analysis
was carried out to emphasize the pandemic’s emotional resonance. Through bar diagrams,
we identified the word count for each emotional valence (joy, trust, surprise, sadness,
fear, anticipation, disgust, and anger). Moreover, a radar chart (a graph representation
for quantifying many dimensions of a phenomenon [72]) and plots have been used to
demonstrate each emotion’s top words or key terms.

4. Results
Figures 1 and 2 show the co-occurrence of the top words in USA Today and The
Monitor, respectively.
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Figure 1. Co-occurrence network for USA

Figure 1. Co-occurrence Today.
network for USA Today.
Figure 1. Co-occurrence network for USA Today.

Figure 2. Co-occurrence network for The Monitor.

Figure 2. Co-occurrence network for The
Figure 2. Co-occurrence Monitor.
network for The Monitor.
Healthcare 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 19

Healthcare 2022, 10, 2362 8 of 19

USA Today contains 11 clusters compared to The Monitor, which has 6. This is not
surprising, as USA Today is a large-scale national newspaper. It discusses various themes
USA Today contains 11 clusters compared to The Monitor, which has 6. This is not
in more detail than a local newspaper to attract the attention of a wider audience. For USA
surprising, as USA Today is a large-scale national newspaper. It discusses various themes
Today, we can see in frame 1 the keywords CDC, shortage, ventilator, mask, etc. For ex-
in more detail than a local newspaper to attract the attention of a wider audience. For
ample,
USA Today,there werewe can supply
see in shortages
frame 1 for thehealth
keywords departments.
CDC, shortage,The lackventilator,
of essential compo-
mask, etc.
nents made testing difficult. Additionally, at the beginning,
For example, there were supply shortages for health departments. The lack of essential there were also struggles for
ventilators.
componentsFrame 2 consists
made testing of theAdditionally,
difficult. virus fear, US national
at the leaders,
beginning, thereAmerica,
were also etc. As the
struggles
experience
for ventilators. of this pandemic
Frame was still
2 consists of the new in the
virus fear,beginning
US national period of March
leaders, and April
America, etc. Asof
2020, people were afraid of the virus. In frame 3, we notice
the experience of this pandemic was still new in the beginning period of March and April the US, expert, question, stu-
dent, college,
of 2020, people etc.were
This afraid
frame of explains
the virus.the threat
In frame of the3, outbreak
we noticetothe different
US, expert,aspects of life,
question,
such as education. Experts tried to answer the concerns of
student, college, etc. This frame explains the threat of the outbreak to different aspects both old and young people.
Frame
of life,4such
provides an idea about
as education. the economy
Experts during the
tried to answer thepandemic
concerns as of we
both canoldseeand
the words
young
loan program,
people. Frame relief aid, small
4 provides an ideabusiness,
about etc. For example,
the economy duringcustomers declined
the pandemic as sharply,
we can see so
small businesses
the words suffered relief
loan program, greatly from
aid, small thebusiness,
pandemic. etc.Both
For frames
example, 5 and 6 showdeclined
customers the dis-
turbance
sharply, so in regular sports events
small businesses because
suffered of thefrom
greatly pandemic. Frame 7 shows
the pandemic. essentials,
Both frames 5 and ser-6
vice, store, etc. This frame discusses what type of stores
show the disturbance in regular sports events because of the pandemic. Frame 7 shows or services should be deemed
essential.
essentials,Frame
service, 8 presents
store, etc.the Thistravel
frame industry
discusses or what
traveltypecompanies.
of stores Because
or services of the travel
should be
bans,
deemed the essential.
travel industry Framesuffered
8 presents at that
the time.
travelFrame
industry 9 presents
or travel family, doctor,Because
companies. and quar- of
antine.
the travelSeveral
bans, families
the travel suffered
industry greatly
suffered from the pandemic
at that time. Frame as 9several
presents members of the
family, doctor,
same family suffered
and quarantine. Several from the virus.
families sufferedMoreover,
greatlythe fromdoctors were anxious
the pandemic aboutmembers
as several keeping
their
of thefamilies
same familysafe, fearing
suffered they would
from the spread the virus tothe
virus. Moreover, their familywere
doctors membersanxious afterabout
per-
forming
keeping their
their duties
families whensafe,they returned
fearing they wouldhome. spread
Frame the 10 provides morefamily
virus to their ideas about
members the
economy as it connects
after performing with frame
their duties when four. As Americans
they returned home.began Frameto10avoid film more
provides theaters or
ideas
shopping
about the malls,
economy the economy
as it connects experienced
with frame a huge toll.As
four. The last framebegan
Americans or frame 11 shows
to avoid film
theaters
the vieworand shopping
response. malls,
Some the polls
economy showed experienced
the response a huge totoll.
the The last frame
pandemic were ormixed
frame
11 shows
views. the view
In other words,andtheir
response.
views Some polls showed
were partisan the response
or divided to thelines.
across party pandemic were
mixed In views.
contrast, In other
in Thewords,Monitor,theirwe views
can seewere thepartisan
governor or divided
and other across
localparty lines.state,
leaders,
In contrast, in The Monitor, we can see the governor
local, etc., in frame 1. Student, employee, Community, and two cities of RGV Brownsville, and other local leaders, state,
local, etc., in frame 1. Student, employee, Community, and
Edinburg are among the words that are present in frame 2. The four counties of the RGV two cities of RGV Brownsville,
EdinburgStarr,
(Willacy, are amongHidalgo, theCameron)
words thatare arepresent
present inin frame
frame 3. 2. The four
Frame counties
4 provides an of
ideatheabout
RGV
(Willacy,
the Starr, Hidalgo,
cancellation of regular Cameron)
gatherings are in present
RGV as in we
framecan3.seeFrame 4 provides
the words school,anrestaurant,
idea about
the cancellation
cancel, suspend, of etc.regular
Framegatherings
5 providesin usRGVwithasmore we canideasee the words
about school, restaurant,
local activities that were
cancel, suspend, etc. Frame 5 provides us with more
hampered because of the pandemic as we see the words shut, operation, Census, idea about local activities that wereetc.
hampered because of the pandemic as we see the words
Frame 6 provides experiences of the people of COVID as we can see the words COVID, shut, operation, Census, etc. Frame
6 provides experiences
confession, and hindrance of theinpeople
more of localCOVID as wesuch
activities can see the words
as local COVID,
elections. confession,
These frames
and hindrance in more local activities such as local elections.
underlie the notion that national and local newspapers report the same health emergency These frames underlie the
notion that national and local newspapers report the same health emergency differently.
differently.
We can
We can seesee more
more differences
differences in in news
news headline
headline frames
frames in in Figures
Figures 3–8.3–8.

Figure 3. Co-occurrences within three words’ distance: nouns and adjectives (USA Today).
Figure 3. Co-occurrences within three words’ distance: nouns and adjectives (USA Today).
Healthcare 2021, 10,
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FOR PEER REVIEW 99of
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Healthcare 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 19

Figure 4.
4. Words following one
one another
another (USA
(USA Today).
Today).
Figure
Figure 4. Words
Words following
following one another (USA Today).
Figure 4. Words following one another (USA Today).

Figure 5. Keywords (noun, pronoun, verb, adjective) identified by RAKE (USA Today).
Figure 5.
Figure 5. Keywords (noun,
Keywords (noun,
5. Keywords pronoun,
(noun, pronoun, verb,
pronoun, verb, adjective)
verb, adjective) identified
adjective) identified by
identified by RAKE
by RAKE (USA
RAKE (USA Today).
(USA Today).
Today).
Figure

Figure 6. Co-occurrences within three words’ distance: nouns and adjectives (The Monitor).
Figure 6. Co-occurrences within three words’ distance: nouns and adjectives (The Monitor).
Figure
Figure 6.
6. Co-occurrences
Co-occurrences within
within three
three words’
words’ distance:
distance: nouns
nounsand
andadjectives
adjectives(The
(TheMonitor).
Monitor).
Healthcare 2022,
Healthcare 2021, 10,
9, xx2362
2021, 9, FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 10of
10 of 19
19
Healthcare FOR 10 of 19

Figure 7.
Figure
Figure 7. Words
Words following one
Words following one another
another (The
(The Monitor).
Monitor).
Monitor).

Figure 8. Keywords (noun,

Figure (noun, pronoun, verb,
verb, adjective) identified
identified by RAKE (The Monitor).
Figure 8. Keywords
Keywords (noun, pronoun,
pronoun, verb, adjective)
adjective) identified by RAKE (The Monitor).
Monitor).

Figures 333and
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York, paper,
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House, America,
toilet paper, stimulus
NFL
Jersey, New York, Las Vegas, White House, toilet paper, NFL draft, reopen America, stim- check,
draft, job
reopen loss, travel
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etc.
ulus In Figure
check, job 7 for
loss, The Monitor,
travel ban, etc.weIn can
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ulus check, job loss, travel ban, etc. In Figure 7 for The Monitor, we can see McAllen mayor, bank,
can see amid
McAllen pandemic,
mayor,
Healthcare 2022, 10, 2362 11 of 19
Healthcare 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 19
Healthcare 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 19

school close, etc. We can also see the words jury trials as they were canceled because of
food
the bank, amid
pandemic. pandemic,
Some school
cities orschool close,
states,close, etc.
suchetc. We can
as New also see
Jersey, the
andtheNewwords
York, jury trials
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in The
food bank, amid pandemic, We can also see words jury trials as they
were
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we can of
see, the
the pandemic.
four Some
counties of cities
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RGV states,
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Monitor
were canceled because of the pandemic. Some cities or states, such as New Jersey, and
New York, are
newspaper. absent in The people
It indicates Monitor, but liveas we can see, the four tocounties of the RGVoutlets
are
New York, are absent inthat
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only
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to read local news outlets to get necessary updates. Simply reading the national newspaper
will
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identified RAKE forUSA
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ica
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McAllen) top key terms for USA Today. Nevertheless, Figure
ica and keep distance are among the topofkeytheterms
RGV are among
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8 shows that four counties and some major cities (Edinburg, McAllen) of the RGV are
by8 RAKE for The
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identified newspaper
by RAKE for The reports
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that local newspaper coverage focus on events in the local areas, but national newspaper
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reports more from a broader view of what is happening in the whole country.
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Figures 9 and 10 demonstrate which types of emotions are more prevalent in the
Figures
newspapers. 9 and 10 demonstrate which types of emotions are more prevalent in the
newspapers.
newspapers.

Figure 9. Number of words representing the sentiment dimensions (USA Today).

Figure9.9.Number
Figure Number of
of words representing
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dimensions (USA
(USA Today).
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Figure 10. Number of words representing the sentiment dimensions (The Monitor).
Figure10.
Figure 10.Number
Number of
of words
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thesentiment
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dimensions(The Monitor).
(The Monitor).
Healthcare 2022,
Healthcare 2021, 10,
2021, 9, xx2362
9, FOR PEER
FOR PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 1212of
12 of 19
of 19

Here, wewe can

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Figure 11. A radar chart of emotional valence.

valence.

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12. Top word distributions
Top word distributions for
for each
each emotional
emotional valence
valence (USA
(USA Today).
Today).
Healthcare 2021,
Healthcare 10,x2362
2022, 9, FOR PEER REVIEW 1313of
of 19
19

Figure
Figure 13.
13. Top
Top word
word distributions
distributions for
for each
each emotional
emotional valence
valence (The
(The Monitor).
Monitor).

The
The Monitor
Monitor uses
usesthe
theword
word“county”
“county”mostmostoften
oftenininthe
thenews
news frames,
frames, and this
and word
this wordis
absent in USA Today. For The Monitor, we can see the words public, shelter,
is absent in USA Today. For The Monitor, we can see the words public, shelter, mayor, mayor, com-
munity, and addresses
community, are among
and addresses somesome
are among of theoftopthewords in positive
top words emotion.
in positive For USA
emotion. For
Today, relief, aid, pay, and supply are among the top words for positive
USA Today, relief, aid, pay, and supply are among the top words for positive emotion. emotion. In the
fear emotion,
In the we can see
fear emotion, we quarantine, fight, threat,
can see quarantine, shortage,
fight, threat, etc., for USA
shortage, Today.
etc., However,
for USA Today.
for The Monitor,
However, for Theemergency and suspension
Monitor, emergency are some of
and suspension arethe
sometop of
words in fear
the top emotion.
words in fear
Although these words
emotion. Although evoke
these wordsfear, the fear,
evoke wordthechoice
wordischoice
somewhat different
is somewhat for bothfornews-
different both
papers.
newspapers.

5. Discussion
5. Discussion
This study
This studypresents
presentshowhownewspapers
newspapers play
play a crucial
a crucial rolerole in society
in society by informing
by informing peo-
people about current issues and how they may affect them in their daily
ple about current issues and how they may affect them in their daily lives. In a health lives. In a health
emergency like
emergency like the
the COVID-19 pandemic, their
COVID-19 pandemic, their significance
significance becomes
becomes even
even more
more vital
vital and
and
imperative [73]. Since the beginning of the outbreak, newspapers have been
imperative [73]. Since the beginning of the outbreak, newspapers have been a great source a great source
of information
of information for for the
the public
public on
on various
various topics,
topics, including
including identifying
identifying aa novel
novel coronavirus
coronavirus
strain, the
strain, thelockdown,
lockdown,masking
maskingand andother
other prohibitions,
prohibitions, governmental
governmental regulations,
regulations, andandde-
details on developments of the COVID-19 vaccines. We can understand
tails on developments of the COVID-19 vaccines. We can understand the COVID-19 pan- the COVID-19
pandemic
demic wellwell in this
in this situation
situation byby analyzing
analyzing emergingand
emerging andextensively
extensivelyreported
reportedconcerns,
concerns,
themes, and challenges and accompanying attitudes by analyzing
themes, and challenges and accompanying attitudes by analyzing the news headlinesthe news headlines from
both local and national perspectives.
from both local and national perspectives.
This study
This study demonstrates
demonstrates thatthat the
the economic
economic consequence
consequence frames
frames are
are common
common in in news
news
headlines for both USA Today and The Monitor. We observe that supply chains and small
headlines for both USA Today and The Monitor. We observe that supply chains and small
businesses are common in the news frames. Major enterprises and investments have
businesses are common in the news frames. Major enterprises and investments have al-
always been financially affected during a crisis [45]. The result could be both favorable
ways been financially affected during a crisis [45]. The result could be both favorable and
and detrimental simultaneously, with some businesses making profits and others losing
detrimental simultaneously, with some businesses making profits and others losing
money. This financial impact [74] on local and national economies is referred to as the
money. This financial impact [74] on local and national economies is referred to as the eco-
economic framing. As the disease spread, the political and economic aspects of the crisis
nomic framing. As the disease spread, the political and economic aspects of the crisis
gained momentum. Government travel advisories had an effect on certain businesses
gained momentum. Government travel advisories had an effect on certain businesses and
and economic sectors. Even though lifting the travel advisory permitted brief economic
economic sectors. Even though lifting the travel advisory permitted brief economic cover-
coverage, the health narrative is prioritized. Stakeholders during this phase provided
age, the health narrative is prioritized. Stakeholders during this phase provided reassur-
reassurance and offered professional guidance that was crucial in this circumstance.
ance Moreover,
and offeredour professional guidance that was crucial in this circumstance.
research illustrates the significance of strategic health communication.
Moreover, our research illustrates
Strategic health communication refers to the significance
information of strategic
about healththat
health issues communication.
should come
Strategic health communication refers to information about health issues that should
Healthcare 2022, 10, 2362 14 of 19

from specialists and disseminated by the media [75]. Health officials, the CDC, health
workers, or health professionals frequently appeared in news headlines. The intention to
immunize against COVID-19 was positively countered by authorities and specialists [75].
People who use information from these news sources that mention health experts have
deep faith in them and are more likely to take preventive measures and get immunized.
Another significant finding is that authorities had a significant presence in news frames.
This is not surprising as reputable media frequently frames its news including attribution of
responsibility [76,77]. National leaders were present in USA Today, whereas state and local
authorities like the governor, judge, and mayor were present in The Monitor. According to
literature, this frame of mentioning authorities is called attribution of responsibility. Coined
by [77], it refers to tying responsibility for seeking answers or resolving issues to either the
government or to people or an organization. From the newspaper headlines for USA Today
and The Monitor, we identified the prevailing viewpoint amid the COVID-19 discussion.
In doing so, we learned about COVID-19-related topics or issues frequently covered in the
headlines of news publications. Through a triangulation of a co-occurrence network, RAKE,
and sentiment analysis, this study offers fascinating insights about COVID-19 coverage in
the news media, showing that while the subject or health topic may be the same, national,
and local newspapers might report it in a different way.
To understand this complex reality, it is essential to be conscious of the various
frames used during the period of medical emergency. As we can see, the pandemic
highlights how important it is to read local newspapers because the headline frames
of local newspapers vary significantly from those of national media. Contrary to prior
pandemics, the overabundance of quasi-news articles in the mass media might cause a
person’s confidence in health crisis journalism to waver, promoting the propagation of
misconceptions. However, this study shows that journalists continue serving the public
as messengers of information despite declining news consumption and trustworthiness.
News media should report the facts/truths, no matter how depressing they may be [78].
The closures have made it harder for some communities to get local news, a condition
known as “news deserts” [79]. Currently, more than one-fifth of Americans reside in such
areas or areas that could soon develop into such news desert areas [79]. Communities suffer
when local newspapers close. Because no one is covering the people or their tales [80], it
raises concern if newspapers are closing. Hence, it is necessary to take appropriate steps in
this regard.
Many people, including politicians, businesspeople, and academics, place a high value
on comprehending topic evolution in big text collections [81]. However, it is challenging
to examine why and how subjects change throughout time. The researchers must not
only thoroughly analyze and distinguish between individual subjects but also pinpoint the
crucial moments and factors that led to them, such as how new topics emerge, what sets
them off or prevents them from developing, and how they progressively transform into
other themes [81]. Therefore, when algorithms automatically detect the dominant topics
from large volumes of news articles and visually present them for us to understand, they
are valuable tools to analyze the newspapers.
The findings of this research have several implications. Newspapers are tasked with
preserving equilibrium in periods when content is quickly evolving [50] (e.g., whether
or not masks are required for public safety). In regards of how much knowledge the
common public can digest, there is also a lot to consider (particularly when the information
is continually pessimistic), however, understanding epidemiology’s graphic presentations
necessitate a high knowledge of numeracy.
There’s also the difficulty of evaluating information (which can sometimes be intricate)
and determining how it affects them, their families, their work, their daily routines, and so
on. The newspapers have a responsibility to cover what’s happening in a way that is both
useful and truthful, as well as to provide knowledge in a manner that is easy to understand,
especially in a time of health emergency. Communicating in several formats—photos,
infographics, first-person stories, news analysis—allows consumers to connect with the
Healthcare 2022, 10, 2362 15 of 19

content in different ways while also assisting the news in striking that balance. The readers
should be aware that, specifically throughout a pandemic, select daily newspapers will
frequently share and update consumers with the most up-to-date information available. As
a result, news organizations must realize that the pandemic may add to readers’ concern,
skepticism, and, regrettably, the perception of fake news.
By selecting the two most widely circulated newspapers in the U.S. national and local
level, we can see the pandemic is covered from totally different angles. Although we can
say authority responsibility frames are present in both newspapers, the focus is on diverse
types of authorities. Both types of newspapers play an important role in informing the
public and serving as a vital network between public health officials and the general people.
Substantial pandemic coverage has ramifications for how people view the seriousness and
effect of the public health issue and can have a significant impact on public actions.
Our analysis also demonstrates how information was constantly changing during
this period. The public may find it challenging to properly comprehend and follow the
best practices for prevention because of news coverage that includes frequently changing
updates (daily figures of infection rate and death), as well as federal and state rules and
recommendations. The audience relies largely on the news media for updates during times
of seclusion and orders to stay at home, not only for statistics but also for information on
societal norms and health policies.
Numerous articles concentrated on community mitigation tactics, like actions that the
general public can take to stop the virus from spreading. This could mean that newspapers
take on the additional role of social duty and public service by offering the most precise,
reliable, and truthful information during a rapid world-changing catastrophe that causes
public fear about economic and health challenges. Newspapers frequently employed
public health terminology to characterize this epidemic, such as “quarantine,” “outbreak,”
“epidemic,” and “pandemic,”. Although the initial reports almost entirely focused on the
epidemiological scenario abroad, once the first cases started to show up in the United
States, the number of articles emphasizing the outbreaks and measures of public health
implemented in the US communities quickly rose.

6. Conclusions
Local newspapers’ front pages have more straightforward reporting that concentrates
on the details of news events, while national newspapers are more prone to look at the
larger picture, their coverage is more interpretative [82]. By applying a co-occurrence
network, we can see the dominant frames for each newspaper. For instance, we can see the
phrases CDC, scarcity, ventilator, mask, etc. for USA Today in frame 1. The virus dread, US
political leaders, America, etc. are all included in frame 2. The governor and other local
officials, including state, local, and other leaders, can be seen in frame 1 of The Monitor.
Rio Grande Valley cities including Brownsville and Edinburg, and students, workers, and
the community. Frame 3 includes the four RGV counties (Willacy, Starr, Hidalgo, and
Cameron). RAKE’s top keywords for The Monitor included four RGV counties and a
few large cities (Edinburg, McAllen). On the other side, RAKE found that the most often
occurring keywords for USA Today were New York, virus fear, small business, reopen
America, and keep distance. The sentiment analysis reveals that, whereas terms associated
with dread predominate in USA Today, the sentiment for The Monitor is one of trust.
Following faith in The Monitor, fear is the second feeling. For USA Today, we can associate
the dread feeling with a quarantine, fight, threat, shortage, etc. However, according to
The Monitor, words associated with fear include emergency and suspension. Despite the
anxiety they inspire, both newspapers use different terms.
The COVID-19 pandemic continues, although a sizable amount of time has elapsed
since it began. Considering this, we identified and analyzed the important thoughts and
feelings expressed in COVID-19-related news headlines in our research. Our approach,
and use of different methods shows that the United States and its national leaders, travel,
economy, and sports are among the highest commonly stated issues in USA Today headlines.
Healthcare 2022, 10, 2362 16 of 19

On the other hand, in the RGV and its four counties, local authorities, education, and local
businesses are the main topics in The Monitor. The same topic, COVID-19, is covered
differently in these two types of newspapers. Hence, it is important to focus on the whole
picture during a health crisis. We will attempt to overcome the limitations of this research
in subsequent works.

7. Future Perspectives
To gather more comprehensive data, additional research might investigate both news-
papers and television. Future research should look at if health crisis situations are politicized
in news media or if news media coverage is generating vaccine hesitancy. Prospective stud-
ies should investigate the detrimental effects of health emergency news on young people’s
mental health using longitudinal designs, reliable/valid measurements of news consump-
tion, and ecological momentary assessments (examination of people’s daily thoughts and
actions). Future research should take randomized controlled trials into account (For ex-
ample, by distributing subscriptions to a sample of the public at random whenever a new
WhatsApp service is launched to examine the psychological effects of distribution of health
crisis news via WhatsApp).
The multi-class sentiment categorization and additional study on a comparison of
all themes from local and national newspapers can be included in this. We can use topic
modeling such as Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) to pinpoint the primary topics of news
headlines. Using a model like LSTM (Long short-term memory), which is a novel and
intriguing technique for detecting emotion and sentiment, is also another route. LSTM
recognizes the long-distance relationships between the words for determining the sentiment
of a sentence [83]. In our upcoming research, we plan to study this model. Finally, to
broaden the study’s focus and gain a comprehensive understanding of the US news media,
we would like to include more newspapers from other US regions in our dataset.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization: R.A; methodology: R.A. and A.H.; validation; G.P. and
V.P.; resources: G.P. and V.P.; writing—original draft preparation, R.A. and A.H.; writing—review and
editing, G.P. and V.P. supervision: G.P. and V.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Ethical review and approval were waived for this study
because this research did not involve any human subjects. Data were collected from the newspa-
pers that we read every day. Hence, an exemption from ethical clearance was obtained from the
Institutional Review Board (IRB) at the University of North Texas, USA.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: All news pieces analyzed in this research are available through the
newspaper databases.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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