QUESTIONS

Unit 1.BIODIVERSITY
Introductory activity: Biodiversity of Rwanda

Read the following text and discuss the questions that follows

Rwanda is located at the heart of the Albertine Rift eco-region in the western arm of the Africa’s Rift
Valley. Habitats of Rwanda are equally varied, ranging from Afro-Montana ecosystems in the northern
and western regions to lowland forests, savannah woodlands and savannah grasslands in the southern
and eastern regions. There are other habitats around volcanic hot springs and old lava flows, especially
in the northern and western part of the country. Rwanda also has several lakes and wetlands which are
rich in different species. Though not yet well surveyed, all these ecosystems host a rich variety of fauna
and flora and micro-organisms. This rich biodiversity is mainly conserved in protected areas including
three national parks, natural forests and wetlands. These cover almost 10 percent of the national territory
while the rest of the country is densely populated (416 people per square kilometer in 2012).
Many tourists visit Rwanda for its beautiful environment and biodiversity made of different species of
plants and animals such as Aloe vera (Igikakarubamba), Muringa oleifera (Muringa), Phaseolus
vulgaris (common bean), Nymphaea thermaru (Endemic plant species that cannot be met elsewhere in
the world, only found in Mashyuza Natural Forest harbors), Colobus polykoma (White-black colobus
monkey), Gorilla gorilla (mountain gorilla) bird Laniarius mufumbiri (Bird species mainly found in
Rweru- Mugera wetland),etc.
The most attracting species in Rwanda is Gorilla gorilla whose habitat is the mountains of
Birunga where they make a large population. Another natural forest, Nyugwe National Park
is a terrestrial ecosystem that contains a large community of different plants and animals.
Rwanda also has different lakes such as Muhazi and Rumira. They are aquatic ecosystems
made of few species of fish, such as tilapias. Tilapias from Lake Muhazi are small, black and
bony fish while those from Lake Rumira look red, big and soft. Tilapias from both lakes still
belong in the same species but show variations.
Many species of animals and plants have been discovered in Rwanda but some species also
disappeared. Today the big garden snails known as Achatina achatina become rare in
Bugesera. Some people use mosquito nets to fish and this reduces the number of fishes. Other
people poached Rhinoceros alba living in Savanah of Akagera National Park.
Honey bees, butterflies and grasshoppers are small in size but still important for different
ecosystem services. Each organism is important for its niche in ecosystem. We need to identify
the biodiversity of our ecosystem. Many tourists enjoy visiting Rwanda for its biodiversity.
1) From the text above, name the interested species not found elsewhere that attract the
tourists and locate where it is found?
2) Mashyuza is one of Natural Forest making biodiversity of Rwanda give any two other
3) Define each of the following biological terms and give an example from the text
above:(a) Species (b) Population (c) Community (d) Habitat (e) Ecosystem (f)
Variation (g) Niche
4) What causes some species to disappear?
5) What can be the consequences of the loss of some species from our biodiversity?
6) Do you support the tourism in Rwanda?

The expected answers

1) The expected answers are:

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a) Nymphaea thermaru, Found in Mashyuza Natural Forest harbors
b) Gishwati-Mukura Forest, he Ibanda - Makera forest, ...
2) The expected answers are:
a) Species is a group of closely related organisms which are capable of interbreeding to produce
fertile offspring
b) Population is a group of Individuals of the same species
c) Community is a group of populations of different species which live in the same place at the same
time, and interact with each other
d) Habitat is a specific area or place in which an individual organism lives
3) Introduction of invasive alien species and genetically modified organisms, Pollution, Climate
change, Overexploitation of natural resources, Habitat loss and the degradation of the environment…
4) They are various consequences of species loss such as: -change in ecosystem goods and services
that lead to different natural dieters including droughts and floods associated to the decrease in food
production, and high spread of diseases.
5) Yes. Because tourism is source of income, poverty alleviation and employment. Rwanda is one
of the countries whose tourism is one of the fastest growing sectors and has shown significant
potential for future growth. Rwanda's tourism industry accounts for a significant portion of foreign
revenue.

Activity 1.1
Use the books from the school library and search further information on the internet. Answer the
following questions:

1) What do you understand by the following terms: biodiversity, species, niche,population, and
community?

2) Discuss the difference between ecological niche and habitat

ANSWERS

Answers for activity 1.1

1) Definitions of biodiversity, species, niche, population, community.
- Biodiversity means variety of life.
- Species is a group of closely related organisms which are capable of interbreeding to produce fertile
offspring.
- Niche is the status or role of an organism in its habitat or the mode of life of an organism within its
habitats
- Population is a group of Individuals of the same species
- Community is a group of populations of different species which live in the same place at the same
time, and interact with each other
2) Difference between ecological niche and habitat

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Answers for self-assessment 1.1
1) Expected answers are:
a) Community is a group of populations of different species which live in the same place at the same
time, and interact with each other while population is a group of Individuals of the same species.
b) Ecological niche is the status or role of an organism in its habitat or the mode of life of an
organism within its habitats wile habitat is a specific area or place in which an individual organism
lives.
2) The two main component of ecosystem are biotic factors and abiotic factors. Biotic components,
or biotic factors, are the living organisms in the environment such as organisms of the same and
different species and abiotic components, also called abiotic factors which are the non-living physical
aspects of the environment such as the sunlight, soil, temperature, wind, water, and air.
3) Expected answer:

Activity 1.2
Use books from the school library and search further information from the internet. Use the
findings
of your research to discuss and to answer the followings:
1) Discuss the values of biodiversity and ecosystem services in Rwanda.
2) What kinds of initiatives and incentive mechanisms put in place by the Government of
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Rwanda to motivate local community biodiversity conservation?
3) Discuss different ways used for biodiversity identification.
4) Discuss the contribution of biodiversity to human well-being.

Answers of activity 1.2

1) Values of biodiversity and ecosystem services in the country and the region.
- Natural ecosystems and their biodiversity constitute our natural capital. Thus, Rwandan economic
prosperity will depend on how we maintain and enhance our assets, including natural capital.
Ecosystem services and economic benefit is of great importance to boost the national economy.

- Biodiversity conservation strengthens other important economic sectors, supporting employment

and local communities‟ welfare.

- Many governments consider tourism as a source of income, poverty alleviation and employment.
Rwanda is one of the countries whose tourism is one of the fastest growing sectors and has shown
significant potential for future growth. Rwanda's tourism industry accounts for a significant portion
of foreign revenue.

- The natural ecosystems in Rwanda contribute to the water for household’s consumption, local,
regional and international water bodies.

- The whole complex constitutes an important fishing area, with high catch yield, in lakes Ihema,
Rwanyakizinga, Mihindi, Nasho, Cyambwe and Rwampanga, plus other marshland products.
- The extensive wetlands play an important hydrological role (fresh water, fresh air, climate
mitigation) of the Akagera /Nile system and contribute to water cycle and the reduction of water loss
by evaporation.
2) Hospital and School building
- Provision of health insurance to people from local communities.
- Continuous mobilization about the necessity of biodiversity conservation
- Develop television shows and other public media (Radio, Social media, Newspapers, etc.) to
communicate biodiversity conservation messages
- Promote Environmental Education activities in schools to reach more people with biodiversity
conservation messages.
3) Different ways of biodiversity identification.

Biodiversity can be categorized into three groups including genetic, species and ecological
diversity. Genetic diversity is the combination of different genes found within a population of a
single species, and the pattern of variation found within different populations of the same species.
Species diversity is the variety and abundance of different types of organisms which inhabit an area.
The variety of habitats that occur within a region, or within the mosaic of patches found within a
landscape constitute an ecosystem diversity.
4) Contribution of biodiversity to human well-being.
- Good human health and productive livelihoods depend on ecosystem products and services, such as
availability of fresh air, fresh water, food, fuel sources, etc...

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- Ecosystem services and goods contribute positively in human health promotion, diseases prevention
and public health. But, biodiversity loss and ecosystem change may limit discovery of new
components of biodiversity used in traditional medicine and put at risk community health
development.

Self-assessment 1.2

1) Define the following terms:

a) An ecosystem,
b) Extinction?
2) Discuss the benefits of biodiversity for human being and the causes of extinction of
species in Rwanda?
3) Discuss the major factors leading to the degradation of ecosystems in Rwanda
4) What would happen if biodiversity is completely lost?
5) Explain how forests contributes to the availability of clean water?
6) Discuss the contribution of ecosystems to cultural traditions in Rwanda.
7) In Rwanda different plants are used in traditional medicine to treat different diseases.
Make a research to list at least 20 medicinal plants and specify the diseases they treat.
8) From the list above describe at least one medicinal plant and get ready to present your
work. The project work should include: written content of 2 pages in minimum and 4
pages in maximum, a testimony on people who were healed, and the plant specimen.
9) Pollution is one of the causes of aquatic biodiversity loss.
a) What do you understand by water pollution?
b) Outline human activities leading to water pollutionμ
c) Discuss how polluted water affect aquatic living organisms?

Answers for self-assessment 1.2

1) Expected answers are:

a) An ecosystem: A natural unit consisting of ecological community controlled by different biotic
and abiotic factors through which energy flows and nutrients recycle
b) Extinction: Extinction is when a species disappears, or is extinguished, from earth. Loss of habitat
is the largest cause of extinction today.

2) Expected answers are:

a) Benefits biodiversity: Biodiversity is important because it affects the air we breathe, the food we
eat, how clean our drinking water is, and is the source of products that come from the earth.
Biodiversity helps control disease, provides us with things we need, and can make us happy just by
providing us with natural beauty.
b) Cause of extinction of species: Overharvesting, Pollution, habitat destruction, Inadvertent
introduction of new predator and competitors to natural flora and fauna.
3) Major factors leading to the degradation of ecosystems in Rwanda.
- Habitat loss and the degradation of the environment
- Introduction of invasive alien species and genetically modified organisms
- Pollution

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- Climate change
- Overexploitation of natural resources

4) Consequences of biodiversity loss:

- They are various consequences of biodiversity loss. At the frontline, there is a change in ecosystem
goods and services.
- These changes lead to different natural dieters including droughts and floods associated to the
decrease in food production, and high spread of diseases.
5) All living organisms’ dependent on other species. For example: a rabbit needs grass to live.
Humans need rabbit and grass to live. If humans do not eat rabbits, the grass dies. Well so do the
rabbit, because there is no grass. And last left, are the humans. They die because rabbits die. Now as
you can see, this is an ongoing cycle. If one thing goes, another does, and so on.
6) Forests on earth filter the usable water again and again, constantly recycling the water we use for
drinking.
7) Ecosystems can affect what type of instruments people play, the kinds of decorations they use, and
mythology.
8) Ten medicinal plants and specific the diseases they treat.

Apart from the examples given above (Source: www. Odishafdc.com/products-medicinal-plants)

student may give other ones. Ask them to describe only one.
Note: the description depends on the example given by the students.
9) (Answers to this question depend on the student view)
10) Expected answers are:
a) Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies
b) Sedimentation, pollution, climate change, deforestation, landscape changes, and urban growth
industrialization...
c) It would be a death of aquatic animals. It means that the main problem caused by water pollution
is that it kills organisms that depend on these water bodies. Dead fish, crabs, birds and sea gulls,
dolphins, and many other animals often wind up on beaches, killed
by pollutants in their habitat.

Activity 1.3
A survey on tree species was conducted in Gako forest by a group of students. Five tree species
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(A to E) were identified and counted. The numbers found during this exercise are summarized
in the following table:

1) The number of species E is less compared to other species though they share the same
sources. Discuss the main causes of this differences.
2) Basing on the data in the above table, suggest how species diversity of tree species can be
calculated.

Answers of activity 1.3

1) Intense predation, interspecific competition and Soil nature
2) First of all, count the number of all species (n) and the total number of all trees(N=125) then use
the following formula D = 1 - (Σ (n/N) 2) When the index equals or is nearby 0 represents infinite
diversity and while when it equals or is nearby 1, this means that there is no diversity. The bigger the
value of D, the lower the diversity and small is D, bigger is the diversity.

D = 1-0.360256=0.639744
Diversity is medium because the value 0.639744 is within between 0 and 1

Self-assessment 1.3
1) Explain the difference between species richness and species evenness
2) Suggest what precautions you may need to take when measuring populations of aquatic
animals or plants.
3) Explain why a habitat with high diversity tends to be more stable than one with lower
diversity.
4) In a survey of trees in a tropical forest, students identified five tree species (A to E).
They counted the numbers of trees in an area 100 m × 100 m and found these results:

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a) Calculate the Simpson’s Index diversity for identified species and explain the
advantage of using data on species diversity and abundance when calculating an
index of diversity.
b) The Simpson’s Index of diversity for vegetation in an open area inhabited by
grasslands was 0.8. For a similar sized area of vegetation beneath some conifer trees
it was 0.2. What do you conclude from these results?

Answers for self-assessment

1) Difference between species richness and species evenness is: the species richness is the number of
species in an area, but species evenness is a measure of how many individuals of each species are
present.
2) Precautions you may need to take when measuring populations of aquatic animals or plants.
- Ensure you sample at different depths in the water.
- Ensure you sample the mud.
- Ensure you sample at different distances from the bank.
- Ensure you have adequate footwear and don't fall in.
3) In a habitat with a high diversity, there is a complex feeding structure and any one species relies
on many others. If one food species disappears, predators can feed on others. In a simple, low-
diversity habitat, one species may rely entirely upon another. If the food species disappears, the
predators will have no food and will also disappear.

Activity 1.4
From your school garden, sample different flowering plant species and answer the following
questions:
1) Specify the techniques used for collecting flowers of different species.
2) What are the advantages of the technique you used for data collection?
3) Did you use a random sampling?
a) If yes, why did you choose it over other sampling techniques?
b) If no, describe the technique you used and specify its advantages over the random sampling.
4) Move around the school garden and collect different specimens of plant species. Name the
collected
species by using their names or letters A, B, C … in case you don’t know their names. Calculate
Simpson index D, Simpson index of diversity and Simpson reciprocal index.
5) Make a 1 dm2 quadrat selected randomly in the school garden. Count the number of each
species of
plants within the surface of your quadrat. Calculate the Simpson diversity index.
6) Using a sweep net and collect the specimens of arthropods. Count the number of each species
of arthropods collected. From the collected specimens calculate the Simpson's Diversity Index
.

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 Answers for activity 1.4
1) Together with your students move around the school garden, students collect different flowers,
and then ask them to make a review on sampling techniques. This can help students to know the kind
of technique they used.
2) This depends on the answer given by students in (1). For example, students said that they used
random sampling; they would give its advantages like to ease the use and accuracy of representation.
Help in conducting research on a larger population.
3) Expected answers are:
- If yes, because it is simple and quick. It helps in conducting research on a larger flower
- If no, you let them give their own ideas and come up with common conclusions
4) To calculate the Simpson' index students would use the formula like D =1-Σ (n/N) 2 where (n) is
the number of individuals in each species collected and (N) is the total number of all species
individuals collected. Quadrat normally consists of a square frame, the most frequently used size
being 1m2. The purpose of using a quadrat is to enable comparable samples to be obtained from areas
of consistent size and shape.
5) The formula is D =1-Σ (n/N) 2 where (n) is the number of individuals in each species collected and
(N) is the total number of all species individuals collected.

6) The formula is D =1-Σ (n/N) 2 where (n) is the number of individuals in each species collected and
(N) is the total number of all species individuals collected.

Self-assessment 1.4
1) Explain the advantages of the random sampling techniques.
2) Use suitable methods, such as frame quadrats, line transects, and belt transects, to assess
the distribution and abundance of insect species in a school garden. Record your data
and use the Simpson index of diversity (D) to calculate the diversity of collected insects.
3) Suggest the benefits of using the following sampling techniques:
a) Quadrats
b) Transect
c) Mark-capture-recapture
4) State the conditions in which quadrats, transect and mark recapture are suitable sampling
methods

Answers for self-assessment 1.4

1) Expected answers are:
a) It eases the use and accuracy of representation.
b) Simple random sampling is as simple and accurate. This gives it a strong advantage when
conducting research on a larger population.
c) You provide the square quadrats 1m2, long wire to each group of students and conduct them in
school garden. Remember to tell them to avoid dangerous insects. Allow students to work themselves
and present their products. The formula used is D =1-Σ(n/N) 2
2) Expected answers are:
a) The benefits of using the following sampling techniques:

(i) Quadrats:
- These techniques are simple.

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- These techniques can be easily ample many different times
- These are good for the ground that is flat

(ii) Transect:
- This is simple technique.
- It may be applied to sample different areas of ecosystem
- This technique indicates change in land as well as organism abundance.

(iii) Mark and recapture

- This technique can be applied for first mobile animals

b) Expected answers:
- Quadrats are used when the organisms to be sampled are immobile.
- Transect technique is used when change over time of topography from the air under the see is
measured.
- Mark and recapture technique is used when to count first moving animas difficult to
see

Activity 1.5
Some of the following figures indicate a positive, negative or non-correlation.

1) Separate the above figures based on positive, negative or absence of correlation

2) What do you understand by the term correlation?

Answer for activity 1.5

- The first figure that is strong positive correlation represent the strongest correlation that is present
for studied items when all the points lie on a straight line in this case, there is linear correlation, and
the correlation coefficient equals 1. If a given variable X increases so does another variable Y, the
relationship is a positive correlation
- If a variable X increases while the variable Y decreases, then the relationship is a negative
correlation.
- There is no correlation at all, when the correlation coefficient is 0
- Correlation is a statistical measure that shows the extent to which two or more variables fluctuate
together.

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- Correlation is most generally defined as the degree to which one phenomenon or random variable is
associated with or can be predicted for another.
- Conditions results that can indicate a positive correlation are: The points lie close to a straight line,
which has a positive gradient. This indicates that as one variable increases the other increases.

- Conclusion about the results when there is no correlation: There is no pattern to the points. This
means correlation coefficient of 0.

Self-assessment 1.5
Use Spearman’s rank correlation and Pearson’s linear correlation to analyze the relationships
between the distribution and abundance of species and abiotic or biotic factors.

End of unit assessment 1

Section A: Answer by true or false
1) Abiotic factors, are the non-living physical aspects of the environment.
2) Mark–release–recapture is a method used to integrate the numbers of mobile animals in a
particular place.
3) A correlation coefficient of 0 means that there is no correlation at all.
4) A sample is a portion, piece, or segment that is representative of a whole area of study.
5) In the Simpson’s index, N represents the total number of organisms of a particular species
Section B: Long and short answer based questions
1) What do you understand by the term biodiversity?
2) What do you think would happen to plants if there were no insects?
3) Suggest different ways to conserve our forests.
4) A student has collected randomly 5 types of species at the following frequencies.

Calculate the Simpson’s diversity index of this community.

5) A team of students conducted the capture-mark-recapture sampling method of tilapia from
lake Muhazi at different time of the day as recorded in the data below:

a) Use Excel sheet to draw the curve of number of fish captured against time
b) Discuss the best time of capturing fish?
6) Describe how diversity is threatened by climate change and human activities.
7) What do you understand by endangered species? Describe one of them.

Answers for self-assessment 1.5

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Use Spearman’s rank correlation and Pearson’s linear correlation to analyze the relationships
between the distribution and abundance of species and abiotic or biotic factors

1.8 End unit assessment

PART I: Answer by true or false
1) True
2) True
3) True
4) True
5) False

PART II: Long and short answer based questions

1) The true answer is no. But students will develop the reasons in different ways. As teacher, you
guide them by basing on the effect of deforestation on life after mentioning the importance of forests.
2) Plants will not reproduce properly due to lack of pollination, and it will end by the plant extinction
3) Cutting of forest should be regulated by adopting methods like Clear cutting, Selective cutting,
and Shelter wood cutting.
- To control over forest fire
- Reforestation and afforestation
- Forest clearance for agricultural purposes checking over.
- Proper usage of forest products and forests.

4) Formula: D =1-Σ(n/N) 2

D=1-0.236978= 0.76
So, Diversity is lower because the value is nearby 1 .
5) Answer:
a) The following is the graph

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b) The best time of capturing fish is from 00:00 up 09:00, because the curve shows the rapid increase
of fish that time.
1.9 Additional activities
1.9.1 Remedial Activitie
1) What do you understand with a Biome?
Answer: Biome is a large ecosystem where plants, animals, insects, and people live in a certain type
of climate
2) What do you think is importance of biodiversity?

Answer: Biodiversity contributes to ecosystem goods and services. The ecosystem goods and
services include:
- Provisioning services (provision of food, air, fire wood, medicines, energy, fresh water…),
- Regulating services (climate regulation, water purification, waste treatment, natural hazard…),
- Supporting services (nutrient cycling, primary production…) and
- Cultural or aesthetic services (recreation, ecotourism…).
3) The value of Simpson' index D ranges between ...... and.......
Answer: The value of this index also ranges between 0 and 1
4) During field activity, name the possible sampling methods you can use?

Answer: Random sampling method, Quadrat sampling method, Frame quadrats, transect sampling,
Belt transects method, Netting, The mark-release-recapture technique.
5) When Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient is used?
Answer: When the graph of results shows that the data are correlated, but not in a linear fashion.
1.9.2 Consolidation activities
1) Why population is different from community

Answer: Because population is a group of individuals of the same species and community is a group
of different population
2) Observe the following figure and try to give its name, its contribution in diseases.Treatment

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Answer: Its name is Aloe vera. It treats different diseases like different infectious diseases and it
boosts immunity.
3) Analyze this formula D = 1 - (Σ (n/N) 2)

Answer: The formula is used when calculating the Simpson index of biodiversity, where (n) is a
number of individuals in each species and (N) is the total number of individuals in all species. The
value of D ranges between 0 and 1
4) What do you think is an advantage of using line transect sampling technique?

Answer:
- It can be used to sample different areas of the ecosystem.
- Shows change in land and organism abundance
5) Observe the figure below and try to write the one which positive, negative and no correlation

Answer:

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1.9.3 Extended activities
1) What will happen to living organisms if they have the same ecological niche?
Answer: There will be competition and it will end by the extinction of some species.
2) Describe the effect of climate change on biodiversity loss

Answer: Increased heat of the Earth’s surface affects biodiversity. It leads to the death of various
microorganisms, animal and plant species which failed to adapt to the new conditions. The following
are some of the likely impacts of climate change on biodiversity:
- The climate change will have differential effects on species. Some species will migrate through
fragmented landscapes whilst others may not be able to do so.
- Many species that are already vulnerable are likely to become extinct.
- Changes in the frequency, intensity, extent, and locations of climatically and no climatically
induced disturbances will affect how and at what rate the existing ecosystems will be replaced by
new plant and animal assemblages.
- Loss or fragmentation of forest habitat due to climate change is a major threat to

biodiversity.
- Climate change negatively affects crop production and cause vulnerable people to depend mostly on
ecosystem services.
- Climate change negatively impacts water bodies by increasing or dropping water levels.
3) In a survey of trees in a dry tropical forest, some students identified five tree species (A to E).
They counted the numbers of trees in an area 100 m × 100 m with these results

a) Calculate the Simpson’s Index diversity for identified species

b) Explain the advantage of using data on species diversity and abundance when calculating an index
of diversity.
c) The Simpson’s Index of diversity for vegetation in an open area inhabited by grasslands was 0.8.
For a similar sized area of vegetation beneath some conifer trees it was 0.2. What do you conclude
from these results?
Answers
a) The answer is given in the following table:

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Introductory activity
Obtain different fruits such as oranges, lemons, avocado, green paper, red paper, bananas,
mangoes and tomatoes
Observe each of the above fruits and sort them out

Questions
a) What characteristics did you use to sort them out?
b) Based on your groups, which fruits are most closely related?

Answers for the introductory activity

a) The colour of fruits, size of fruits, shape, presence or absence of seeds inside, ripeness
b) Oranges are closely related to lemons, and green paper is closely related to red paper.

Activity 2.1
You are provided with cards written on a list of words such as continent, district, country, cell,
province, sector, village and family. Discuss and answer the following questions.
1) Arrange the following words in the order of size
2) Analyse the levels and identify which level has the highest and the least number of people
3) Which one is the largest and which one is the smallest? Why?
4) What is your opinion about the people of the same family and those in the all country?
5) Compare your arrangement above with 8 groups of the biological taxonomic hierarchy.

Answers for learning activity 2.1

1) Continent, country, province, district, sector, cell, village and family
2) Highest is continent and least is a family. Because the continent is larger, there are more people in
a continent than they are in a family.
3) People of the same family are a like because they share the same parents than those of the whole
country.
4) The arrangement of words in a flow chart above is the same as that of taxonomic hierarchy in
student’s book fig.2.1.

Organisms of the same species resemble one another and more to that are far fewer in number than
those in a domain.
As there are many countries in a continent, as it is case with a domain, which can be made up of
many kingdoms e.g. domain Eukarya.

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As one moves from continent to family the number of people reduces. Also from domain to species,
the number of organisms reduces as their features in common increase.

Self-assessment 2.1
1) An African bush elephant belongs to order Proboscidae and family Elephantae. Its
scientific name is Loxodonta africana.
a) Make a table indicating the hierarchy classification of African bush elephant
b) Use the examples from table 2.1 to explain the tem “taxon”
c) Indicate how classification of living things is hierarchical.
2) Classify each of the following organisms under the following kingdom, phylum and
class taxa: honey bee, cockroach, maize, and spider.
3) How are living organisms organized for study purpose?
4) Describe the system of naming species that Linnaeus developed.

Answers for self-assessment 2.1

Answers for a)
1) The following are the answers:
a) Classification of African bush elephant

b) Taxon refers to a unit or a group of classification in a taxonomic hierarchy. In plural form, it is

referred to as taxa. From the table above, the taxa include: domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order,
family, genus and species.
c) Classification is hierarchical because it gives a clear sequence into which organisms are classified
from the largest taxon to the smallest group called species.
2) Classification of the organisms below

3) Biologists use a classification system to name organisms with a universally accepted name. They
also group organisms in a logical manner. Here, organisms placed into particular groups are more
similar to one another than they are to organisms in other groups.For each species is assigned a two
part scientific name in what is termed as binomial nomenclature.

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Activity 2.2.
Using books from the school library brainstorm the characteristics of each of the three biological domains

Answers for learning activity 2.2:

Characteristic features of domain Bacteria
- Cells with no nucleus
- DNA exists in circular chromosome and does not have histone proteins associated with it
- Smaller circular molecules of DNA called plasmids are often present
- No membrane-bound organelles (such as mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi body,
chloroplasts) are present
- Ribosome are smaller than in eukaryotic cells

Domain Archaea
- Cells with no membrane-bound organelles
- DNA exists in circular chromosome and does not have histone proteins associated with it
- Smaller circular molecules of DNA called plasmids are often present
- Ribosome are smaller than in eukaryotic cells, but they have features that are similar to those in
eukaryotic ribosome, not to bacterial ribosome
- Cell wall always presents, but does not contain peptidoglycans.

Domain Eukarya
Their characteristic features are:
- Cells with a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
- DNA in the nucleus arranged as linear chromosomes with histone proteins
- Ribosome’s in the cytosol are larger than in prokaryotes, while chloroplasts and mitochondria have
ribosome, like those in prokaryotes.
- Chloroplast and mitochondrial DNA is circular as in prokaryotes
- A great diversity of forms: unicellular, colonial and multicellular organisms
- Cell division is by mitosis

Self-assessment 2.2
1) What are the three domains of living things?
2) Discuss the ways in which a domain differs from a kingdom?
3) It is confirmed that: “Some bacteria can survive in extreme temperatures such as hot
springs”. Justify this statement.
4) How is the information about evolutionary or phylogenetic relationships useful in
classification of the living things?
5) What gene indicates that yeasts and humans share a common ancestor?

Answers for Self-assessment 2.2

1) The three domains of organisms are; Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya
2) Domain in the current classification is so far recognized as the largest group in the taxonomic
hierarchy while a kingdom is the second largest group of classification. Ie organisms in a domain are
further classified into kingdoms.

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3) This true mainly about archaeabacteria that live in hot and acidic springs where temperatures
exceed 100°∁ and the pH may be as low as 2. These are termed as thermo acidophilic bacteria.

- However, some can inhabit anaerobic habitats and give off methane as a product of their
metabolism. They live in guts of cattle and are responsible for intestinal gases. These are referred to
as methanogenic Archaeabacteria.
- Some are halophilic archaeabacteria and they live in very salty conditions such salt flats. They can
grow in salt concentrations approaching saturation.
- Because they tolerate extreme conditions similar to those that are thought to have existed at the
dawn of life, Archaea are believed to have been the first forms of life on earth.
4) Organisms are placed in various taxonomic groups basing on evolutionary descent. Scientists
compare the DNA of different organisms to establish similarities between them and reconstruct
possible evolutionary relationship.
5) A gene that codes for a protein.

Activity 2.3.1
1) Collect organisms from a habitat near your school including a housefly, spider, frog,
gecko, bean/maize plant, moulds/mushroom, spirogyra (algae) and a hen.
2) If any of the organisms are small rapidly moving land animals such as insects,
anaesthetise them by placing them in an ether/ethanol bottle for few seconds.
3) Examine each organism, using a hand lens or a microscope if necessary.
4) Using a table identify the kingdom to which each organism belongs. State the
characteristic features that you have based on to classify.
Answers for learning activity2.3

Characteristics of animals
- Multicellular eukaryotes with many different types of specialized cells
- Cells that are differentiated to form tissues and organs

- Cells do not have chloroplasts and cannot photosynthesize (although some, such as coral polyps
have photosynthetic protoctists living within their tissues)

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- Cell vacuoles are small and temporary (for example lysosomes and food vacuoles)
- Heterotrophic nutrition
Characteristics of plants
- Multicellular eukaryotes with cells that are differentiated to form tissues and organs.
- Few types of specialized cells
- Some cells have chloroplasts and photosynthesizes
- Cells have large, often permanent vacuoles for support Autotrophic nutrition
- Cell walls are always present and are made of cellulose.
Characteristics of fungi are
- Eukaryotic organisms.
- Do not have chlorophyll and do not photosynthesise
- Heterotrophic nutrition – they use organic compounds made by other organisms as their source of
energy and source of molecules for metabolism
- Reproduce by means of spores

Characteristics of protists are

- Eukaryotic organisms
- Mostly single-celled, or exist as groups of similar cells
- Some have animal-like cells (no cell wall) and are sometimes known as protozoa
- Others have plant-like cells (with cellulose cell walls and chloroplasts) and are sometimes known as
algae.
Activity 2.3.2
Make research on different phyla of kingdom Animalia, and then specify
characteristics and examples of each phylum.

Answers for activity 2.3.2

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Self-assessment 2.3
1) The kingdom protoctista contains groups which do not appear to show an evolutionary
relationship. On this basis, is the five kingdom classification a natural or artificial
classification?
2) What are the three methods that protists use to obtain food?
3) Identify three characteristics of protists
4) Do you think protists are unicellular or multicellular organisms?
5) The following is a list of organisms belonging to various kingdoms: housefly (Musca
domestica), maize (Zea mays), Frog (Rana spp), Bat and Eagle.
a) Classify these organisms into their kingdoms
b) Name any two organisms that are not closely related and give a reason.
c) What does the name mays represent?
d) Define the term species
6) How are fungi different from members of kingdom plantae?
7) Which kingdom includes only prokaryotes? Which includes only heterotrophs?

Answers for self-assessment 2.3

1) The five kingdom classification aims to be natural because it attempts to group organisms
according to natural relationships ie the grouping is based on many features, internal as well as
external, uses information from many branches of biology.
2) Protists have a wide range of feeding methods. They obtain food in the following ways:
- Autotrophic nutrition in a process of photosynthesis for example in algae
- Phagocytosis by engulfing food particles such as amoeba
- Endocytosis; in ciliates such as paramecium that use oral groove
- Others are parasitic like plasmodia that cause malaria.
3) Characteristics of protists are;

- Eukaryotic organisms.
- Mostly single-celled, or exist as groups of similar cells
- Some have animal-like cells (no cell wall) and are sometimes known as protozoa
- They feed by both autotrophic nutrition like algae and heterotrophic nutrition such as protozoa.
4) Protists are both unicellular such as protozoa and multicellular such as algae
5) The following are the answers:

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a) Classification of organisms into respective Kingdoms

b) Maize and frog because maize has chlorophyll and cell wall while in a frog they are absent.
c) Mays represent a species.
d) A species is the smallest group of classification where organisms resemble one another and they
are capable of interbreeding together to produce viable offspring.
6) Plants have cells with chloroplasts that contain chlorophyll thus are autotrophs while members of
fungi do not have chloroplasts and they feed heterotrophically ie are saprophytes.
7) Kingdom monera includes only prokaryotes while kingdom fungi and plantae include only
heterotrophs

Activity 2.4
“Bacteria are both useful and harmful to humans”. Discuss the validity of the statement.
Answers for learning activity 2.4
Bacteria are useful in the following ways: in biotechnology, genetic engineering, decomposition,
fiber retting, nitrogen fixation, digestion, biological control. However, some bacteria are harmful to
humans in the following ways:
- Saprotrophic bacteria attack and food spoilage.
- Some bacteria are causal agents of different diseases to animals and to human beings.
- Such bacteria include; Vibrion cholerae, Shigella bacterium, Salmonella typhus, Bacillus etc. They
cause diseases such as cholera, dysentery, tuberculosis, typhoid etc.

Answers for Self-assessment 2.4

1) The following are the answers:

a) Pathogenic bacteria damage the cells and tissues of the host organism directly by breaking down
the cells for food. Other pathogenic bacteria produce toxins (poison) that move throughout the body
killing body cells thus interfering with normal functioning of the body.
b) There are three main ways in which bacteria can spoil our food.
- They release enzymes into the food and absorb the nutrients released by breakdown of food
molecules. The food will eventually be reduced to a mush by the action of enzymes.
- Some bacteria produce a toxin called botulin for example Clostridium botulinum. If these bacteria
are growing on food, the toxin will strongly damage food and finally spoil it.
- The presence of pathogenic bacteria in food can cause infection, for example, salmonella bacteria
sometimes present in poultry products attack the lining of the stomach.

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c) Bacteria contribute to soil fertility in the flowing ways:
(i) Nitrogen fixation: some bacteria are used to fix nitrogen in form of nitrates into the soil for
example Rhizobium bacteria which lives in root nodules of leguminous plants.
(ii) Decomposition: bacteria are important in decomposition of dead organisms and animal wastes
such as faeces, cow dung and poultry droppings to form organic matter which is rich in various
mineral nutrients.
(iii) Genetic engineering; bacteria are used in genetic engineering through the manipulation of
genes, also called recombinant DNA technology. In this case, bacterial cells are transformed and
used in production of commercially important products for example, production of human insulin
used against diabetes

Activity 2.5
Suppose there is cholera outbreak in your village and the executive secretary invited you to
sensitize people about preventive measures against cholera. Prepare a brief presentation for this
purpose and include causes, mode of transmission and then preventive measures
Answers for learning activity 2.5
Cholera is caused by bacteria called Vibrion cholerae (comma shaped bacterium). Transmission is
mainly by eating food and drinking water contaminated by cholera germs in faeces by houseflies
- Prevention and control the following measures can be ensured in order to prevent cholera
outbreak;
- Sensitization of the public and sanitation and personal hygiene.
- Proper food preparation for example washing hands and fruits before eating them.
- Food and drinks should be covered properly to reduce contamination.
- Unclean water should be treated with chlorine to make it safe for drinking.
- Proper boiling of water for drinking.
- Vaccination to give active artificial immunity for at least one year.
- Killing vectors like house flies with insectides to break their life cycle.
- Isolate the cholera patients to reduce the transmission of the disease.
- Avoid urinating and defecating in water bodies.
- Treatment of sewage anaerobically using anaerobic bacteria and fungi.

Self-assessment 2.5
Mr. Green lives in one of the slums in a certain city. He prepares and sells chapattis on street. He
is usually very clean, but one morning, he is late for work so he does not bother to wash his
hands after visiting the toilet. That day he prepares 400 chapattis all of which are sold. Few hours
later, his customer Sandra suffered from a disease with the following signs and symptoms:
severe diarrhea, excessive loss of water leading to dehydration, and vomiting, after five days.
Later, all his customers were rushed and admitted in hospital due to the same problem.
1) Suggest the disease that Mr. Green’s customers were suffering from and what caused the
disease?
2) Name three other ways this disease might be spread around city.
3) After reading this scenario, what message do you have for people who are like Mr. Green?
4) Suppose you were the health officer for the area in town with such a problem. What steps
would you take to prevent the disease from spreading further?

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5) House flies are described as vectors. Describe, how houseflies transmit diseases to humans

Answers for Self-assessment 2.5

1) Cholera: It is caused by a bacterium called Vibrion cholera.
2) Cholera is transmitted through the following way: By drinking water contaminated by cholera
germs

By vectors such as houseflies

Contact with patients, without protective gadgets.
3) Wash hands with clean water and soap after visiting the toilet and before eating.

4) I can advise people of the affected area and the neighborhood to ensure the following measures:
- Educate the public to ensure personal hygiene for example washing hands after visiting the toilet.
- Wash hands and fruits before eating.
- Food and drinks should be covered properly to reduce contamination.
- Unclean water should be treated with chlorine to make it safe for drinking.
- Drink boiled or treated water

- Killing vectors like house flies with insectides to break their life cycle.
- Isolate the cholera patients to reduce the transmission of the disease.
- Avoid urinating and defecating in water bodies.
- Treatment of sewage anaerobically using anaerobic bacteria.
- Proper food preparation
5) Houseflies visit contaminated/ dirty places such as toilets or faeces, pick bacteria (germs) and
deposit them into food. When we eat such contaminated food, we can suffer from diseases .

Activity 2.7
Discuss the reasons why viruses are not classified in any of the five kingdoms of living
organisms.
Answers for learning activity 2.7.1

Self-assessment 2.7
1) What is meant by the term virus?
2) What are the parts of a virus?

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3) Describe the two ways of how viruses cause infection.
4) What are differences between a bacteriophage and a prophage?
5) What is a retrovirus?
6) Do you think viruses should be considered as a form of life? Describe the reasons for
your opinion.

Answers for self-assessment 2.7

1) Phylum arthropoda: because all organisms shown, have jointed appendages or legs and all possess
exoskeleton.
2) The presence or absence of wings
3) A spider has 4pairs of jointed legs while a mosquito has 3pairs of jointed legs.
4) A millipede has a cylindrical body while a centipede has a flattened body shape.

End of unit assessment 2

1) Which one of the following living organisms belong to domain bacteria?
a) Euglena
b) Vibrio cholera
c) Paramecium
d) molds
2) The group of classification where organisms resemble one another and are capable of
interbreeding together to produce viable offspring is known as:
a) Species
b) kingdom
c) Genus
d) Phylum
3) Which one of the following is not a kingdom of living organisms?
a) Monera
b) Animalia
c) Annelida
d) Protoctista
4) Which one of the following is a characteristic feature common to fish, reptiles and birds
but absent in mammals?
a) Possession of scales
b) Has no limbs
c) Possession of feathers
d) Undergo internal fertilization
5) Which one of the following statements about fish is not correct?
a) Fish live both in water and on land and undergo external fertilization.
b) Most fish have bones while others are cartilaginous
c) Most fish have streamlined body, lateral line and swim bladder.
d) Gills are organs for gaseous exchange in fish
6) Which one of the following is not a characteristic of all insects?

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a) They have three body parts namely head, thorax and abdomen.
b) They have three pairs of jointed legs attached on segment of the thorax.
c) They have four pairs of jointed legs
d) They have a pair of antennae attached on the head.
7) The following are characteristics of all mammals except;
a) They have mammary glands to secrete milk feed their young ones.
b) Their skin is covered with hair.
c) Undergo internal fertilization and internal development of the embryo.
d) They have a pair of wings made up feathers.
8) The point where the leaf joins the stem is called;
a) Apex
b) Margin
c) Leaf base
d) Lamina
a) Length of petiole.
9) Which of the following is less considered while identifying feature to construct a
dichotomous key of leaves?
b) Nature of margin
c) Nature of apex
d) Size and color of leaf
10) The following are characteristics of arachnids except;
a) Four pairs of jointed legs
b) Two body parts
c) Three body parts
d) Do not have wings
11) Match the structures with the organisms which possess them.

12) A group of S4 students drew a Venn diagram below to summarize the five kingdoms into
which organisms are classified. Study the diagram and answer the questions that follow:

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a) Which kingdoms are represented by the letters x and y?
b) State one characteristic that organisms of x may share with:
(i) Prokaryotes
(ii) Fungi
(iii) Plantae
Animalia
13) Complete the table to summarize the characteristics of each class of phylum Arthropoda.

14) What is the significance of classification of living organisms?

15) The scientific name of blue monkey is Cercopithecus mitis, complete Kingdom, Phylum,
class, order, genus and species of blue monkey.

2.8 Answers for end unit assessment

1) b
2) a
3) c
4) a
5) a
6) c
7) d

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8) c
9) c
10) c
11) The answers are given in the following table:

12) The following are the answers:

a) X Protoctista and Y Monera
b) The following are the answers:
(i) The answers are:
- Both protoctista and monera exhibit autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition.
- Both x and y are unicellular organisms except few members of x such as algae.
- Both have members with flagella.
(ii) Both x and fungi undergo parasitic mode of feeding.
(iii) Some members of protoctista such as algae and plantae both carry out photosynthesis.
(iv) Most members of x locomote like animals

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13) Answers are summarized in the following table:

14) Bacteria are both useful and harmful to humans. They are beneficial to humans in the following
ways:
- Biotechnology; Bacteria are used in biotechnology for example in the manufacturing industries.
They are used to manufacture products such as ethanol, acetone, organic acid, enzymes, and
perfumes;
- Genetic engineering; Bactria are used in genetic engineering through the manipulation of genes,
also called recombinant DNA technology for example, production of human insulin used against
diabetes.
- Decomposition: Bacteria are important in decomposition of dead organisms and animal wastes such
as feces to form organic matter. .
- Fiber retting; some bacteria including Clostridium butyricum are used to separate fibers in process
called retting. In this process, fibres are formed to make ropes and sacks.
- Nitrogen fixation; some other bacteria are used to fix nitrogen in form of nitrates into the soil. For
example, Rhizobium bacteria which live in root nodules of leguminous plants.
- Digestion; Some bacteria living in the gut of ruminant animals such as cattle, horses and other
herbivores secrete cellulase, an enzyme that helps in the digestion of the cellulose of plant cell walls.

- Biological control; some bacteria are used as biological agents in biological pest control such as
Bacillus thuringiensis (also called BT) instead of pesticides.
- However, some bacteria are harmful to humans in the following ways;

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- Saprotrophic bacteria attack and decompose organic matter. This results into food spoilage.

- Some bacteria are causal agents of different diseases to animals and to human beings. Such bacteria
include; Vibrion cholerae, Shigella bacterium, Salmonella typhus, Bacillus etc. They cause diseases
such as cholera, dysentery, tuberculosis, typhoid etc.
15) Significance of classification;
- To identify living organisms and place them into their correct groups basing on their observable
characteristics.
- To understand the evolutionary relationship between different organisms.
- To arrange information about living organisms in order, for easy study purposes.
- To enable biologists to identify characteristics of organisms.
- To put organisms into small manageable groups basing on their similarities for easy studypurpose.
16) Classification of a blue monkey.

2.9 Additional activities

2.9.1 Remedial activities
1) Arrange the following taxonomic groups in their ascending order of size (from smallest to the
largest); domain, class, genus, kingdom, species, family, phylum and order.
2) A scientist finds a new organism but is unsure to which kingdom it belongs. The organism is
unicellular, has cell wall, contains peptidoglycans, has a circular DNA molecule and ribosome but
lacks a nucleus. Basing on these characteristics, to which domain and kingdom does it belong?
3) State the five kingdoms and give two examples of organisms in each kingdom.
4) Bacteria that live on teeth produce an acid that cause tooth decay. Why do people who do not
brush their teeth regularly tend to have more cavities than those who do?
5) In which type of virus does human immunodeficiency virus belong?

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6) What precautions would be taken while collecting specimens for classification?
Answers for Remedial Activities
1) Species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom, domain.
2) Domain is bacteria and kingdom is monera (prokaryote)
3) Answers are summarized in the following table:

4) Because there rapid growth of bacteria that accumulate in food remains between teeth and its outer
surface, leading to production of more acid. The accumulation of the acid eats up the enamel of the
teeth thus tooth decay.
5) Retrovirus.
6) Before starting to collect specimens for practical purposes, the following precautions must be put
in considerations:
- Care must be taken while collecting and handling some organisms because some are poisonous,
have thorns and others are able to sting.
- Be aware that some animals are dangerous (harmful) to humans. Some can bite such as snakes,
sting such as bees, others have poisonous glands such as toad and other animals like fish have fins for
piercing.
- Avoid and try to minimize where possible, uprooting, cutting down or plucking and pruning of
plants as this may threaten the biodiversity as well as result into environmental degradation.
Consolidation activities
1) Copy and complete the table for classification of a housefly and its scientific name.

2) Answer the following questions:

a) How do fungi obtain their food nutrients?
b) How do cell walls of fungi and plants differ?

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3) Answer the following questions:
a) What is a notochord?
b) How do the fins of cartilaginous fish differ from those of the bony fish?
4) Suppose bacteria lost the ability to nitrogen. How would this affect other living organisms?
5) Identify two immunisable viral diseases in humans and one non immunisable viral disease.
6) What characteristic features would you consider while constructing a dichotomous key of leaves?
Answers for consolidation activities
1) Classification of a housefly:

2) Answers:
a) Saprophytically, by digesting their food extracellularly and absorbing digested products.
b) Cell walls in fungi contain chitin while in plants contain cellulose.
3) It is defined as a flexible rod running along the back.
4) Fins of cartilaginous fish are fleshy whereas fins of bony fish are supported by fin rays

5) Immunisable viral diseases include; measles and poliomyelitis while non immunisable disease is
HIV/ AIDS.
6) If you are classifying leaves, you must consider the following observable features; In case of
simple leaves, you can classify them basing on;
- Nature of apex: is the apex pointed or curved.

- Nature of margin: observe whether the margin is serrated, toothed, curved, smooth or entire.
- Nature of lamina: is the lamina smooth, rough, hairy or thorny.
- Nature of venation; either parallel or network venation and for network venation, consider their
types.
- Nature of petiole; it may either be short or long, hollow or not hollow, hairy.
In case of compound leaves, you can consider the type basing on the number and form of leaflets
present for example trifoliate with three leaflets, compound palmate, pinnate, bipinnate or the
arrangement of leaflets on a leaf.
Extension activities
1) The table provided below represents different phyla and characteristics of each phylum of
kingdom protoctista. Copy and complete by giving one example of each.

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2) Assuming you are a taxonomist, would you classify bacteria and archaeans into separate domains?
If yes, give a reason to support your answer.
3) Distinguish between bryophytes and Angiosperms (use a table).
4) Suggest various methods you can use at home to prevent food spoilage by bacteria. How can you
use each of the methods suggested?
5) How are skills of constructing a dichotomous key important to you as a biology student?

Answers for extension activities

1) The answers are summarized in the following table:

5) Yes, because the biochemistry of bacteria and archaea is different. Their biochemistry reveals that
the metabolism of archaeans is similar to that of bacteria, but the way in which transcription occurs
has much in common with eukaryotes. More to that, archaeans have cell wall, but does not contain
peptidoglycans. In conclusion, many exist in extreme environments such as volcanic hot springs and
too much salty water bodies.

6) Differences between bryophytes and Angiosperms are:

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7) In order to prevent food spoilage by bacteria at home, i can treat food in the following ways;
- Cooking- the heat denatures enzymes and other proteins. This kills bacteria.
- Pasteurising- this involves heating to 72 degrees celcius for 15seconds and then cooling.
- Drying, salting and coating in sugar – these methods dehydrate any bacteria as water leaves them by
osmosis.
- Smoking- the food develops a hardened, dry outer surface and smoke contains antibacterial
chemicals.
- Pickling – this uses an acid pH to kill bacteria by denaturing their enzymes other proteins.
- Cooling and freezing- these do not kill bacteria but retard enzyme activity so their metabolism,
growth and reproduction is very slow.

8) The skills can help me to observe and record characteristic features of a new discovered organism
and use them to clearly classify it, following the taxonomic hierarchy.

Activity 3.1
Some of the living things including protoctista and fungi have small size to be observed
by naked eyes. Discuss the ways used by biologists to observe and identify different
parts of these living organisms.

Answer for activity 3.1.

The ways used by biologists to observe and identify different parts of microorganisms is to use
microscope.

Activity 3.1.2
Using the light microscope.
a) To observe under low power and low magnification, proceed as follows:
- Objects (specimens) to be observed under the microscope are first placed on a glass slide
and covered with a cover slip.
- Place the specimen on the stage of your microscope, in other words, arrange it so that the
specimen is exactly at the center of the hole at the stage.
- Fix the slide in place with two clips.
- Rotate the nosepiece so that small objective lens is immediately above the specimen.
- Set the angle of the reflector mirror so that light is directed up through the microscope.

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- Look down the microscope through the eye piece. Adjust the iris diaphragm so that the field
of vision is bright and not dazzling.
- Turn the course adjustment knob until the tip of the objective lens is close to the slide.
- Now look down the microscope again. Slowly turn the course adjustment knob in the other
direction, so the tube gradually moves upwards. The specimen on the slide should eventually
come into view.
- Use the course and fine adjustment knobs to focus the object as sharply as possible.
- If necessary readjust, the iris diaphragm so the specimen is correctly illuminated. You will
get a much better image if you don’t have too much light coming through the microscope.
b) To observe under high power at a greater magnification, proceed as follows:
- Rotate the nosepiece so that the large objective lens (with higher magnifying power) is
immediately above the specimen. The nosepiece should click into position, as before.
- If the specimen is not in focus, focus it with fine adjustment knob. Be careful that the tip of
the objective lens does not touch the slide.
- Readjust the illumination if necessary.

Answer for activity 3.2

Using the light microscope, learners demonstrate how to use correctly the light microscope.

Self-assessment 3.1
1) Complete the table below:

2) What is the importance of a light microscope?

3) How can you apply microscope technique rules?

Answers for Self-assessment 3.1

1) Complete the table below:

2) The light microscope is important because they allow scientists to study microorganisms, cells,
(and their contents), genes, crystalline structures and molecular structures. Microscopes are one of
the most important diagnostic tools when doctors examine tissue samples.
3) Help and follow how the learner apply microscope technique rules.

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- Carry the microscope with both hands, one hand under the base, and the other on the arm. When
getting ready to put the microscope away, always return it to the low power or scanning power
setting.
- When setting the microscope on a table, always keep it away from the edge.
- It is generally best to clear your lab table of items that are not being used.
- The lenses of the microscope cost almost as much as all of the other parts together. Never clean
them with anything other than lens paper. Paper towels and other paper tissues will scratch the lens.
- Please inform the instructor or the biology lab technician of any microscope damage or irregularity
in its operation as soon as possible. Do not return a faulty microscope without first informing the
instructor or lab tech.
- You are responsible for the microscope while using it— treat it with care!

Activity 3.2
Work out the following measurements:
1) 1 millimetre (mm)=........... metre (m)
2) 1micrometre (μm)=.............. metre (m)
3) 1 nanometre (nm) =....................metre (m)
4) 1 metre (m) = .............mm=.......... μm =........nm,
5) 1 kilometre (km) = .............m

Answer for activity 3.2

1) Work out the following measurements:
2) 1 millimetre (mm) = 10-3 metre (m) = 1/1000
3) 1micrometre (μm) = 10-6 metre (m) = 1/1 000 000
4) 1 nanometre (nm) = 10-9 metre (m) = 1/1 000 000 000
5) 1 metre (m) = 103 mm= 106 μm = 109 nm, 1 kilometre (km) = 103m

Self-assessment 3.2.
1) Calculate the magnification of an image measuring 50mm, while the object measures
5μm.
2) If a nucleus measures 100mm on a diagram, with a magnification of X10 000, what is
the actual size of the nucleus?
Answers for self-assessment. 3.2.
1) Magnification= size of the image / size of object
The size of the image should be converted to μm: Size of image =50mm=50000μm
Therefore, magnification =50000 /5=10000
Conversely, if the magnification is 50000 times, and the size of the image is 5mm (5000 μm), the
actual size of the object is: size of image/magnification=5000/50000=0.1 μm
2) 100/10000=0.01 mm (observed size divided by magnification)
This can be converted to μm by multiplying by 1000
0.01mm=10 μm, or it can be calculated as 100mm x1000 μm
Actual size =100 000/10 000 μm=10 μm

Activity 3.3
Use the books from the school library and search further information from the internet. Discuss

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the difference between light microscope and electron microscope.
Answer for activity.3.3
- Learners may provide different answers like lightmicroscope uses light to illuminate specimens
and glass lenses to magnify images, an electronmicroscope uses a beam of electrons to illuminate
specimens and magnetic lenses to magnify images. The resolution (the level of image detailing) is
the main differencebetween these two microscopes.
Self-assessment 3.3
1. Make a comparison between light and electron microscope, highlighting the
advantages and disadvantages for each type of microscope.
2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages (limitations) of an electron microscope.
Answers for Self-assessment 3.3.
1) An electronmicroscope uses a beam of electrons to magnify an object. The lensing system
employs electric and magnetic fields and is specialized for applications requiring much higher
magnification while lightmicroscopes employ light and an array of glass lenses to magnify an
object.
2) Advantages of the electron microscope over light microscope:

Light microscope has a higher resolution and is therefore able of a higher magnification estimated at
up to 2 million times compared to the light microscope which can show a useful magnification only
up to 1000-2000 times. These differences are due to a physical limit imposed by the wavelengths of
the light. Electron microscopes therefore allow for the visualization of structures that would normally
be not visible by optical microscopy.
Depending on the type of electron microscope different observation can be processed. For example,
for a transmission electron microscopy (TEM) a beam of electrons is transmitted through a specimen
to form an image of the specimen which is most often an ultrathin section less than 100nm thick or a
suspension on a grid, while the scanning electron microscope (SEM) produces images of a sample by
scanning the surface with a focusedbean of electrons. The SEM has a resolution power of about 5
nm higher than that of a light microscope but lower than that of a TEM.
Activity 3.4
Use books from the school library and search further information from the internet. Discuss
the difference between transmission electron microscope (TEM) and scanning electron
microscope (SEM)
Answer for activity 3.4.

- Learners may provide different answers like lightmicroscope uses light to illuminate specimens
and glass lenses to magnify images, an electronmicroscope uses a beam of electrons to illuminate
specimens and magnetic lenses to magnify images. The resolution (the level of image detailing) is
the main differencebetween these two microscopes.

Self-assessment 3.4
1) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the types of electron microscopes in
medicine and biology research.
2) Many hospitals in Rwanda use light microscope instead of electron microscope.
Discuss the credibility of the results found by the end of the study.
3) Make a comparative study between light and electron microscope focussing on the
advantages of each type of microscope.

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Answers for Self-assessment 3.4
1) Electron microscopes are very important in medicine and biology research because they are used
to investigate the ultra-structures of a wide range of biological and inorganic specimens including
viruses, microorganisms, cells, large molecules, biopsy (examination of tissue removed from a living
body to discover the presence, cause, or extent disease) samples, metals, and crystals.

It is not possible to view any living material by using electron microscope due to vacuum inside
electron microscope and living specimens cannot be viewed because electron microscopes require a
vacuum in the tube - otherwise the electrons would be absorbed by air molecules
2) The energy of the electron beam is very high, the sample is therefore exposed to high radiation,
and therefore not able to live. It is large and heavy, so are not easier to move and set-up and it is very
expensive.
3) Comparative study between light and electron microscope focussing on the advantages of each
type of microscope.
- Both light and electron microscopes form larger (magnified) and more detailed (highly resolved)
images of small objects or small areas of larger objects
- Both light and electron microscopes are used in study and research in biology and medical sciences
particularly histology, material sciences such as metallurgy and other aspects of science.
- Specimens must be carefully prepared using techniques appropriate for both the equipment and the
sample including slicing, staining, and mounting.
End of unit assessment 3
Section A. Multiple choice questions
1) Which size ranges can be viewed using a light microscope?

a) 4 only
b) 1 and 2 only
c) 2 and 3 only
d) 3 and 4 only
2) The diagram bellow shows a mitochondrion drawn from an electron
micrograph. Observe the graph and the questions that follow.

If the length of the mitochondrion from X to Y is 3000 nm. What is the magnification of the
drawing of the mitochondrion?
a) ×100
b) ×1000
c) ×10 000
d) ×100 000
3) A light microscope is used to observe two membranes that are 200 nm apart.
How far apart are the membranes when the objective lens is changed from low power (×40)
to high power (×400)?
BIOLOGY QUESTIONS S4 2023-2024 PREPARED BY VEDASTE BIMENYIMANA Page 38
a) 2 μm
b) 20 μm
c) 200 nm
d) 2000 nm
4) The electron micrograph below is that of a chloroplast.

The length of the chloroplast along the line shown is 80 mm. The actual length of the
chloroplast is 10 μm. What is the magnification of the chloroplast?
a) ×8 × 102
b) ×8 × 103
c) ×8 × 104
d) ×8 × 106
5) The diagram below is drawn from an electron micrograph of an animal cell.

Which represents the same cell, seen under a light microscope at ×400 magnification?

Section B: Application questions.

6) What is microscope?
7) List at least six parts of light microscope in your choice and their
functions.
8) What is the difference between light and electron microscope?

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9) How would you set up a light microscope to view a slide under high
magnification?
10) Give two advantages of the electron microscope over a light
microscope.
11) What is the difference between magnification and resolution power?
12) Explain why for tissue examination under light microscope the
following are necessary:
a) Cutting a tissue into thin slices
b) Staining a tissue
13) Describe how you would make a temporary microscope mount of

3.8 End unit assessment

1) b
2) a
3) d
4) b
5) d
6) A microscope is an instrument used to see objects that are too small for the naked eye.
7) The following are the answers:
- Stage: is a platform used to hold the specimen in position during observation.
- Stage clips: are pliers used to fix and hold tightly the slide on stage.
- Arm: supports the body tube of microscope
- Body tube: maintains the proper distance between the objective and ocular lenses
- Arm: used for holding when carrying the microscope and it holds the body tube which bears the
lenses.
- Coarse focus adjustment: moves stage up and down a large amount for coarse focus
8) A light microscope uses light to illuminate specimens and glass lenses to magnify images. Light
microscope allows to observe organisms of small size including bacteria,
amoeba and paramecium and some other parts of macroscopic organisms such as cells and tissues of
plants and animals or some parts of these living organisms such as stems and roots can also be
observed under light microscope while an electron microscope uses a beam of electrons to
illuminate specimens and magnetic lenses to magnify images. Electron microscopes are used to
investigate the ultra-structures of a wide range of biological and inorganic specimens including
viruses, microorganisms, cells, large molecules, biopsy (examination of tissue removed from a living
body to discover the presence, cause, or extent disease) samples, metals, and crystals. The resolution
(the level of image detailing) is the main difference between these two microscopes.
9) The following are the answers:
a) To set up a light microscope to view a slide under high magnification follow the Procedures
bellow as for lower magnification only different is where you rotate the nosepiece so that the large
objective lens (with higher magnifying power) is immediately above the specimen
- Make sure you understand the manipulation and parts of a microscope before you use it.

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- Objects (specimens) to be observed under the microscope are first placed on a glass slide and
covered with a cover slip.
- Place the stage on the stage of your microscope, in other words, arrange it so that the specimen is
exactly at the centre of the hole at the stage.

- Fix the slide in place with two clips.

- Rotate the nosepiece so that small objective lens is immediately above the specimen.
- Clearly set the angle of the reflector mirror so that light is directed up through the microscope.
- Look down the microscope through the eye piece. Adjust the iris diaphragm so that the field of
vision is bright and not dazzling.
- Carefully turn the course adjustment knob until the tip of the objective lens is close to the slide.
- Now look down the microscope again. Slowly turn the course adjustment knob in the other
direction, so the tube gradually moves upwards. The specimen on the slide should eventually come
into view.
- Use the course and fine adjustment knobs to focus the object as sharply as possible.
- If necessary readjust, the iris diaphragm so the specimen is correctly illuminated. You will get a
much better image if you don’t have too much light coming through the microscope.

To observe under high power at a greater magnification, proceed as follows:

- Rotate the nosepiece so that the large objective lens (with higher magnifying power) is immediately
above the specimen. The nosepiece should click into position, as before.
- If the specimen is not in focus, focus it with fine adjustment knob. Be careful that the tip of the
objective lens does not touch the slide.
- Readjust the illumination if necessary.
b) Electron microscopes have certain advantages over optical microscopes:
- The biggest advantage is that they have a higher resolution and are therefore also able of a higher
magnification (up to 2 million times). Light microscopes can show a useful magnification only up to
1000-2000 times. This is a physical limit imposed by the wavelength of the light. Electron
microscopes therefore allow for the visualization of structures that would normally be not visible by
optical microscopy
- Depending on the type of electron microscope, it is possible to view the three dimensional external
shape of an object (Scanning Electron Microscope, SEM)

c) Magnification refers to the enlargement of the object being studied, while resolution power of a
microscope is the ability to distinguish between two points as separate.

10) The following are the answers:

a) Light microscope works because light goes through your specimen. So if the specimen is too thick,
then light won't shine through, and you won't see anything so cutting specimen must be done to make
it thinner.

b) Using biological stains such as methylene blue, it is possible to clearly observe and differentiate
the different parts of a cell. This is because the stain will color some parts of the cell and not others,
allowing them to be clearly observed.

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11) Materials
Onion root tips, Needles, Brush, Razor blades, Microscope slides, Coverslips, Microscope, Safety
glasses, Gloves, Paper towel, Fixative, 0.5% toluidine blue, Glycerin

3.9 Additional activities

3.9.1 Remedial Activities
1) What is microscopy?
2) What does microscope do?
3) Distinguish between two different types of electron microscope.
4) In Electron Microscope light source is replaced by a beam of very fast moving:
a) Electron,
b) Neutron,
c) Proton,
d) Photon
5) Electron microscope is much more powerful than:
a) Light microscope,
b) Compound microscope,
c) Simple microscope,
d) Stereo microscope
Answers
1) Microscopy is the technical field of using microscopes to view objects and areas of objects that
cannot be seen with the naked eye.
2) Microscope makes things bigger.
3) The TEM is a types of electron microscope which has a resolution power of about 1 nm and it is
used to study the ultra-structure of a cell while the SEM is used to produce a three-
dimensional (3-D) view of objects such as cells, tissues and small organisms.
4) a)
5) a)

3.9.2 Consolidation activities

1) How is the magnification varied in:
a) A light microscope?
b) An electron microscope?
2) Why is the resolving power of an electron microscope so much better than that of a light
microscope?
3) Write in your own words on staining.
4) What is the approximate size of the smallest structure that can be observed with a light
microscope?
5) One of disadvantages of electron microscope is to don’t observe colors. Explain
Answers
1) Expected answers
a) Magnification in a light microscope is varied by changing the power of the glass lenses.

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b) Magnification in electron microscope is varied by changing the strength of the electromagnets.
2) Electron microscopes use beams of electrons which have a shorter wavelength than light, giving
electron microscopes a higher resolution power than light microscope.
3) Staining is a technique used in microscopy to enhance contrast in the microscopic image. Stains
and dyes are frequently used in biology and medicine to highlight structures in biological tissues for
viewing, often with the aid of different microscopes.
4) 0.2 micrometers.
5) Electron microscope is not possible to observe colors because electrons do not possess a color.
The image is only black-white, even if sometimes the image is colored artificially to give a better
visual impression.
3.9.3 Extended activities
1) Why do sections of tissue need to be cut into thin slices for examination under a microscope?
2) Explain why ribosomes are not visible using a light microscope.
3) Write in your own words on electron microscope.
4) Write in your own words on the two types of electron microscope.
5) What happened on preparation of temporary slides and observation under light microscope?
Answers
1) Light cannot penetrate thick slices of tissue, so no detail would be seen.
2) It isbecause they're way to small. Biologists, faced with the problem that they would never see
anything smaller than 200 nm using a light microscope, realized that the only solution would be to
use radiation of a shorter wavelength than light. You can see them on SEM or TEM.
3) In this learners can explain by giving different ideas on electron microscope.
4) For this learners can explain by giving different ideas on two types of electron microscope.
5) The answer of this question based on how procedures of preparation is followed step by step:
- Add a drop of water at the center of the microscopic slide to flatten the membrane
- Pull of a thin membrane from the onion layer and lay it at the center of the microscopic slide
- Add a drop of iodine solution or methylene blue on the onion membrane
- Gently lay a microscopic cover slip on the membrane and press it down gently using a needle to
remove air bubbles.
- Touch a blotting paper on one side of the slide to drain excess iodine/water solution,
- Place the slide on the microscope stage under low power to observe.
- Adjust focus for clarity to observe.

UNIT 4: CELL STRUCTURE AND SPECIALISATION

Introductory Activity
Use the books from the library and search further information on the internet about eukaryotic
and prokaryotic cells. Use collected data and do the following exercise:
1) Differentiate between eukaryotic cells and prokaryotic cells.
2) Identify different organelles of eukaryotic cell and suggest the functions of each
Organelle
Suggested answers on the introductory activity:

By observing the diagrams on the chart, we see that the two cell are different basing on their
structures:

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Eukaryotic cell Prokaryotic cell
have a true nucleus Do not have a true nucleus
No tail Have the tail
No well wall Have the cell wall
Have many organelles Have few organelles
Have no capsule Have the capsule
Activities 4.1
1) Under a microscope, observe a slide of a plant leaf or a stem cross section, and then do
the same for a nerve cell, bacteria and paramecium.
2) Record a description of their features, such as shape and internal parts.
3) Compare the cells by listing the characteristics they have in common and those which
are particular for each cell type.
4) Use your observations, and write down the definition of “cell”.
5) Classify the observed cells into two or more groups. State the characteristics you based
on to put each cell in a particular group.

Answers for the activity 4.1:

Similarities between animal cell and plant cell
- Both animal and plant cells have a cell membrane, a cytoplasm and a nucleus.
- Both animal and plant cells have a true nucleus bounded by an envelope.
- Both animal and plant cells have mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, Reticulum endoplasmic, lysosome,
big ribosomes (80S), peroxisome, microtubules.
- The protoplasm is enveloped by a bounding cell membrane called plasmalemma.
- The protoplasm is composed of a dense round structure called nucleus which is surrounded by a
less dense jelly-like cytoplasm.
- The cytoplasm contains numerous organelles such as mitochondria, Golgi bodies, secretory
vacuoles, endoplasmic reticulum.
Difference between animal cell and plant cell

Criterion Animal Cell Plant Cell

Shape Ovoid or spherical Polygon
Plastids Absent Present
Centrioles Present Absent
Vacuole Small or absent Big with a tonoplast
Cell wall Absent Present
Microvilli Present Absent
Plasmodesmata Absent Present
Self-assessment 4.1
1) What structures do both animal and plant cells have in common?
2) State any five principles of the cell theory.
3) Answer by true or false:
a) All organelles of a cell are well seen through a compound light microscope.
b) Chloroplasts are found in both animal and plant cells.
c) Mitochondria are found only in animal cells.
4) With your pencil, draw and show the full ultrastructure of both animal and plant cells.

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Answers to Self-assessment: 4.1
1) The Structures that animal cells and plant cells have in common are:
- Nucleus with nucleolus and chromatin.
- Cytoplasm containing mitochondria, Golgi body and other small structures
- Cell surface membrane.

2) The three principles of the cell theory are:

- All known living organisms are made up of one or more cells
- All cells come from pre-existing cells by division
- Cells contain the hereditary information that is passed from cell to cell during cell division.
3) The following are the answers:
a) false
b) false
c) false
4) The answer should show well labeled diagrams of both animal and plant cells with all organelles
and interpretation of the diagrams (structure and function of each part).
Activities 4.2
By using iodine solution, methylene blue, a piece of onion leaf, a scalpel, forceps, light
microscope, slides and cover slips, clean cotton wool bud, and onion bulbs. Observe cells from
onion epidermis under light microscope.
a) Observation of a plant cell
- Put a drop of diluted iodine solution on the slide.
- Remove a transparent layer of onion epidermis from the inner side that you will mount
on the slide and add iodine solution.
- Cover your preparation with a cover-slip and mount it on the stage.
- Observe the preparation under the low magnification and thereafter under high
magnification.
- Why did you use iodine solution in this experiment?
- What main parts of a plant cell are easily observed from a light microscope?
b) Observe animal cells from mouth cheek epithelium
- By using a clean cotton wool bud, wipe over inside of your cheek.
- Smear cells over surface of a clean grass microscope slide containing a drop of
methylene blue stain
- Carefully put the cover-slip on the preparation and mount it on the stage to observe.
- Based on this experiment, what are the differences between a plant and an animal cells?
Answers for the activity 4.2
Similarities between animal cell and plant cell
- Both animal and plant cells have a cell membrane, a cytoplasm and a nucleus.
- Both animal and plant cells have a true nucleus bounded by an envelope.
- Both animal and plant cells have mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, Reticulum endoplasmic, lysosome,
big ribosomes (80S), peroxisome, microtubules.

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- The protoplasm is enveloped by a bounding cell membrane called plasmalemma.
- The protoplasm is composed of a dense round structure called nucleus which is surrounded by a
less dense jelly-like cytoplasm.
- The cytoplasm contains numerous organelles such as mitochondria, Golgi bodies, secretory
vacuoles, endoplasmic reticulum.
- Mitochondria appear as very small darkly staining, rod-like structures.
- Golgi bodies are semi-transparent irregular, and membrane bound structures.
- Vacuoles contain secretions, food- particles, or decomposing organic substances.
- Chemically, both plant and animal cells are made up of water (80-90%), proteins (7-13%), lipids (1-
2%), carbohydrates (1-1.5%) and inorganic salts.
- The cytoplasmic organelles are suspended in a semi-fluid jelly matrix called cytosol.
Difference between animal cell and plant cell:

Criterion Animal Cell Plant Cell

Shape Ovoid or Polygon
spherical
Plastids Absent Present
Centrioles Present Absent
Vacuole Small or absent Big with a
tonoplast
Cell wall Absent Present
Microvilli Present Absent
Plasmodesmata Absent Present
Lesson self-assessment 4.2
1) Explain why muscle cells contain a lot of mitochondria, whereas most fat storage cells
do not.
2) What kind of information is contained in chromosomes?
3) Describe the functions of the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, chloroplasts,
mitochondria, and nucleus in the cell.
4) You examine an unknown cell under the microscope and discover that the cell contains
chloroplasts. What type of organism could you decide that the cell came from?
5) The diagram below shows the structures which would be visible in a plant cell examined
under an electron microscope.

Identify the parts labelled in this plant cell and:

a) State one function for B, C, G, K, and N
b) What is the part J made of?
c) What are two functions of the cytoskeleton?

Answers of the self-assessment 4.2:

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1) As mitochondria are the site for energy production, muscle cells which are more active should
contain a lot of mitochondria and fat storage cells which are relatively less active contain few
mitochondria.
2) Chromosomes contain genetic information that is passed from one generation to the next.
3) Rough ER makes membranes and secretory proteins. Smooth ER makes lipids and detoxification.
The Golgi apparatus modifies, sorts and packages proteins and other materials from ER for storage or
secretion. Chloroplasts capture the energy from sunlight and convert into chemical energy.
Lysosomes break down lipids, carbohydrates, and proteins. They also break down organelles that
have outlived their usefulness in the cell. Mitochondria convert stored chemical energy into
compounds that the cell can use. The nucleus is the control center of the cell.
4) Students should infer that the organism would either be a plant or some other organism that carries
out photosynthesis.

5) The following are the answers:

a) A: mitochondrion, B: Golgi apparatus, C: nuclear envelope, D: nucleus, E: nucleolus, F: ribosome,
G: rough ER, H: plasma membrane, J: cell wall, K: chloroplast, L: cytoplasm, M: vacuole, N: Golgi
vesicles.
b) B: Golgi apparatus modifies, sorts and packages proteins and other materials from ER for storage
or secretion.
C: Nuclear envelope: it contains nuclear pores which allow materials to move into and out of the
nucleus.
G: Rough ER makes membranes and secretory proteins.
K: Chloroplasts capture the energy from sunlight and convert into chemical energy.
N: Golgi vesicles: they deliver proteins and lipids (that have been modified, sorted and packaged in
them by the Golgi apparatus) to their target destination such as lysosomes or the cell membrane.
c) Most of cell walls are made from fibers of carbohydrate and protein. Plant cell walls are composed
mostly of cellulose.
d) The cytoskeleton helps the cell to maintain its shape, and also is involved in cell movement.

6) The rough endoplasmic reticulum transport proteins made on attached ribosomes, while the
smooth ER does not have ribosomes, and it involves in making lipids that the cell needs.
7) The role of cytoskeleton is to help the cell to maintain its shape, and it is also involved in cell
movement.
8) The expected answers are:
a) This organelle is mitochondrion
b) The function of this organelle is that a mitochondrion is the site where Adenosine triphosphate
(ATP: a universal energy carrier) is produced during cell respiration.

Activity 4.3
Students discuss the structure of plasma membranes using micrographs and animations and
relate their components to their functions.
Answers to the activity 4.3:
The main features of the fluid mosaic model are:

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- A bilayer of phospholipid molecules forming the basic structure.
- Many protein molecules floating in the phospholipid bilayer. Some are free, others are bound to
other components or to structures within the cell.
- Some extrinsic proteins are partially embedded in the bilayer on the inside or the outside face while
other intrinsic proteins are completely spanning the bilayer.
Self-assessment 4.3
1) What is meant by the fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane?
2) State the properties of the cell membrane.
3) Discuss at least 4 types of the proteins in the cell membrane and their roles.
4) What does partially permeable membrane mean?
5) List four ways by which materials can move across the cell membrane.
6) What do the words hydrophilic and hydrophobic mean?
7) The diagram below shows the structure of a cell membrane. Observe carefully the
diagram and answer the questions that follows.

a) Name parts labelled A – D and give the function of the part B.

b) State four factors that can affect diffusion across the cell membrane.
c) Describe the fluid-mosaic structure of the cell membranes.
6) What types of molecule are likely to be involved in:
a) Cell signaling and recognition?
b) Allowing small charged molecules to pass through the cell membrane?
c) Driving metabolic reactions?
7) What is the difference between rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum?
8) Discuss the role of cytoskeleton?
9) The photograph in the figure below shows an organelle of the living cell.

a) Name this organelle.

b) What is the function of this organelle?
c) This organelle has been magnified by X12000. Calculate the actual width of this
organelle across the widest point.

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1) The expected answers are:
a) The fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane is the model of the cell membrane structure, where
lipid molecules give fluidity and proteins in the membrane give it mosaic (patchwork) appearance.
b) Properties of the cell membrane are:
- It is mainly made of lipids, proteins and carbohydrates
- It is semi-permeable or partially permeable i.e. it allows some substances to pass through but
prevents other to cross depending on their size, the charges and their polarity
- It is positively charged outside and negatively charged inside,
- It has a hydrophilic pole and a hydrophobic pole
- It is a bilayer
- It is sensitive
- It is flexible
- Its proteins and lipids may be mobile
- It contains enzymes
- It is perforated of pores

- It recognizes chemicals messengers (hormone, neurotransmitters)

c) The types of proteins in cell membrane are:
- Carrier proteins which fix or attach molecules and facilitate them to cross through the cell
membrane by active transport
- Channel proteins which pump substances and allow facilitated diffusion. They act as pores.
- Receptors of enzymes and neurotransmitters
- Glycoproteins act as receptor proteins which recognise the substance to pass through the
membrane
- Integrated proteinsdefine the shape of the cell
- Immune proteins (antigens) found in the membrane on the red blood cell, recognise the antibodies.
d) Partially permeable membrane mean that cell membranes are permeable to water and some
solutes.
e) The four ways by which materials can move across the cell membrane include: simple diffusion,
facilitated diffusion by channel proteins, facilitated diffusion by carrier proteins, by endocytosis and
exocytosis.
f) The word hydrophilic means “water loving” and hydrophobic means “water hating”.
2) The expected answers are:
- A: glycolipid, B: Channel protein, C: glycoprotein, D: phospholipid bilayer.
- The function of the part B (channel protein) is to help to move materials across the cell membrane.
- Four factors that can affect diffusion of material across the cell membrane are: the size of diffusing
materials, diffusion distance, temperature, and nature of diffusing materials.
3) The fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane describes the molecular arrangements in cell
membranes which contain a phospholipid bilayer forming the basic structure of cell membrane,
protein molecules floating in the phospholipid bilayer, some (extrinsic) proteins are partially
embedded inside or outside of the bilayer; other (intrinsic) proteins are completely included in the
phospholipid bilayer.

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4)The expected answers are:
a) Cell signaling and recognition is done by some hormone receptors which are glycoproteins
glycolipids.
b) Carrier proteins
c) Enzymes and coenzymes.
Activities 4.4
1) Use charts and diagrams to discuss the comparison between prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cells.
2) Under microscope, observe mounted slides of bacteria, animal and plant cells to confirm
results of your observation.
Answers for the activity 4.4
Criterion Prokaryote Eukaryotic Plant Eukaryotic Animal
cell cell
Cell membrane Present Present Present
Cell wall Present Present Absent
Nuclear envelope Absent Present Present
Chromosome Circular Threadlike Threadlike
Mitochondria Absent Present Present
Chloroplast Absent Present Absent
Endoplasmic Absent Present Present
reticulum
Golgi body Absent Present Present
Ribosomes Small (70S) Big (80S) Big (80S)
Vacuole Absent Big Absent
Lysosomes Absent Present Present
Centrioles Absent Absent Always present
Self-assessment 4.4
1) Define a prokaryote and eukaryote.
2) In a form of a table differentiate prokaryotic cells from eukaryotic cells.
Answers for the self-assessment 4.4
1) Prokaryotes are organisms having cells with no true nuclear envelope. Prokaryotic cells do not
contain a nucleus or any other membrane-bound organelle. Eukaryotes are organisms having cells
with true nucleus i.e. with a nucleus enclosed in a nuclear envelope.
2) Table for Comparison between prokaryote and eukaryote
Criterion Prokaryote Eukaryotic Plant Eukaryotic
cell Animal cell
Cell membrane Present Present Present
Cell wall Present Present Absent
Nuclear envelope Absent Present Present
Chromosome Circular Threadlike Threadlike
Mitochondria Absent Present Present
Chloroplast Absent Present Absent
Endoplasmic Absent Present Present
reticulum
Golgi body Absent Present Present
Ribosomes Small (70S) Big (80S) Big (80S)
Vacuole Absent Big Absent

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Lysosomes Absent Present Present
Centrioles Absent Absent Always present
Activity 4.5
By using the diagrams below, relate the structure of specialized cells to their functions.

Answers for the activity 4.5:

Specialised cell Function

Red blood cell To carry oxygen within blood from

lungs to different parts.
Neurone cell Transport nervous information
Sperm cell Fertilise the egg
Muscular cell Involve in movement
Self-assessment 4.5
1) Explain why differentiation to produce erythrocytes involves a change in shape.
2) Red blood cells cannot divide as they have no nucleus. State two other biological processes
that red blood cells cannot carry out.
3) Describe how the following are specialized for their roles:
a) Neutrophil
b) Sperm cell
c) Root hair cell
4) Explain why photosynthesis is carried out in palisade mesophyll more than in spongy
mesophyll.
5) In what kinds of organisms’ cell specialization is a pronounced characteristic?
6) Using what you know about the ways muscles move, predict which organelles would be
most common in muscle cells.
7) Discuss the advantages of cell specialization for living things
Answers of the Self-assessment 4.5:
1) Because their nucleus is lost, Erythrocytes are specialized by have a biconcave shape which
enable them to carry out their function (to transport Oxygen) sufficiently.
2) Cell division, protein synthesis, aerobic respiration.
3) Expected answers:
a) Neutrophils contain many lysosomes that have digestive enzymes to digest pathogens.
b) Sperm cells have the tail which helps them to move, they have many mitochondria which produce
APT that provides energy for movement, and they have also enzymes in their acrosome which digest
the walls of the egg during fertilization.
c) Root hair cells have thin wall, are numerous to provide large surface area for absorption of water
and minerals.
4) Photosynthesis is carried out in palisade mesophyll more than in spongy mesophyll because
palisade mesophyll contains many chloroplasts compared to spongy mesophyll.

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5) It is multicellular organisms where cell specialization is a characteristic?
6) Mitochondria would be most common in muscle cells.
End of unit assessment 4
Section A. Multiple choice questions
1) Which organelle converts the chemical energy in food into a form that cells can use?
a) Chromosome
b) Chloroplast
c) Nucleus
d) Mitochondrion
2) The cell membranes are constructed mainly of:
a) Carbohydrate gates
b) Protein pumps
c) Lipid bilayer
d) Free-moving proteins
2) In many cells, the structure that controls the cell’s activities is the:
a) Nucleus
b) Nucleolus
c) Cell membrane
d) Organelle
3) Despite differences in size and shape, all cells have cytoplasm and a
a) Cell wall
b) Cell membrane
c) Mitochondria
d) Nucleus
4) If a cell of an organism contains a nucleus, the organism is a (an)
a) Plant
b) Eukaryote
c) Animal
d) Prokaryote
5) Match each part of the cell to its correct statement:
Nucleus controls movement of substances in and out of the cell
Mitochondrion where photosynthesis takes place
Chloroplast where aerobic respiration takes place
Smooth ER controls the activity of the cell
Ribosomes where lipids including steroids are made
Section B: Questions with short answers
1) How does a cell membrane differ from a cell wall?
2) Name the structures that animal and plant cells have in common, those found in only
plant cells, and those found only in animal cells.
3) List:
a) Three organelles each lacking a boundary membrane
b) Three organelles each bounded by a single membrane
c) Three organelles each bounded by two membranes (an envelope)
4) Identify each cell structure or organelle from its description below.
a) Manufactures lysosomes and ribosomes
b) Site of protein synthesis

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c) Can bud off vesicles which form the Golgi body
d) Can transport newly synthesized protein round the cell
e) Manufactures ATP in animal and plant cells
f) Controls the activity of the cell, because it contains the DNA
g) Carries out photosynthesis
h) Can act as a starting point for the growth of spindle microtubules during cell
division
i) Contains chromatin
j) Partially permeable barrier only about 7 nm thick
k) Organelle about 25 nm in diameter
l) Which two organelles other than the nucleus contain their own DNA?
Section C: Essay questions
1) Describe the structure and function of the cell membrane and cell wall.
2) Describe the basic structure of the cell membrane.
3) Explain two common characteristics of chloroplasts and mitochondria. Consider both
function and membrane structure.
4) The diagram below shows the structure of a liver cell as seen using an electron
microscope.

a) Name the parts labelled A, B, C and D.

b) The magnification of the diagram above is 12 000. Calculate the actual length of
the mitochondrion labelled M, giving your answer in μm. Show your working.
c) Explain the advantage to have a division of labor between different cells in the
body.
4.8 Answers for the End unit assessment

I. Multiple choice questions

1) d
2) c
3) a
4) b
5) b

II. Match questions

Match each part of the cell to its correct statement:

Nucleus protein synthesis

Mitochondrion where photosynthesis takes place
Chloroplast where aerobic respiration takes place
Smooth ER controls the activity of the cell
Ribosome where lipids including steroids are made
III. Brief questions

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1) A cell membrane is directly in contact with the plasma (cytoplasm) and is found in all cell, with a
cell wall surrounds the cell membrane and is not found in animal cells.
2) The structures that animal and plant cells have in common are: nucleus, cytoplasm, cell
membrane, mitochondria and ribosomes. Those found only in plant cells are: cell wall, permanent
vacuole and chloroplasts, and those found only in animal cells are: lysosomes and centromere.
3) List:
a) Centrosomes, centrioles, nucleolus, ribosomes, cytoskeleton, and flagella.
b) Lysosomes, ER, Golgi bodies.
c) Chloroplast, mitochondrion and nucleus.
4) Identify an organelle from its description below.
a) Golgi apparatus manufactures lysosomes.
b) Nucleolus within nucleus manufactures ribosomes.
c) Ribosome
d) Endoplasmic reticulum.
e) Rough ER can transport newly synthesized protein round the cell.
f) Mitochondria
g) Nucleus
h) Chloroplast
i) Centriole
j) Nucleus.
k) Plasma membrane.
l) Ribosome.
5) Chloroplast and mitochondrion.
IV. Essay questions
6) The structure and function of the cell membrane consists of a phospholipid bilayer containing
proteins. Its functions include: controlling what enters and leaves the cell, protection of internal
structures. The cell wall is made of cellulose and proteins. It is porous (has pores) enough to allow
water, oxygen, carbon dioxide and other substances to pass through easily. Its functions are:
protection and support of the cell.
7) The basic structure of the cell membrane is made by a phospholipid bilayer, containing
intrinsic and extrinsic proteins. The basic structure of phospholipids has two parts: hydrophilic part
(water loving),whichconsists of the phosphate head, and hydrophobic part (water hating), which
consist of fatty acids. If phospholipid molecules are completely surrounded by water, a bilayer can
form. Phosphate heads on each side of the bilayer stick into water, while the hydrophobic fatty acids
tails point towards each other.
8) Chloroplasts use energy from sunlight to make energy-rich food molecule. The mitochondria
transfer the energy in food molecules to high-energy compounds that the cell can use. Both
chloroplast and mitochondria are bounded by double membranes separated by a fluid-filled space.
The inner membrane of chloroplast is continuous with thylakoids having the chlorophyll
pigment.The inner membrane of mitochondrion is highly folded to form cristae. The central part of
the mitochondrion is called the matrix.

9) The following are the answers:

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a) A: cell membrane, B: centriole, C: cytoplasm, and D: Rough ER.

b) To calculate the actual length of the mitochondrion, use the formula:

A=IM, where: M is magnification, I is image size of mitochondrion (measured on the diagram by

using a ruler) and A is actual size.

12) The advantage to have a division of labour between different cells in the body will allow the
organism to perform all biological processes to keep it healthy.

13) In Biology, Cell fractionation is the process used to separate cellular components while
preserving individual functions of each component. In This process: you take some cells, throw them
in a blender, and then centrifuge them to separate the organelles.

14) The freeze-fracture technique consists of physically breaking apart (fracturing) a frozen
biological sample; structural detail exposed by the fracture plane is then visualized by vacuum-
deposition of platinum-carbon to make a replica for examination in the transmission electron
microscope. This technique used to look at membranes that reveal the pattern of integral membrane
proteins.
4.9 Additional activities
4.9.1 Remedial Activities:
1) On your choice, list and give the functions of two organelles from animal cell and plant cell.
2) What is the adaptations of chloroplast for its function?
3) State the general function of the glycoproteins and glycolipids.
4) Which among prokaryote and eukaryote is more complex?
5) Explain how a sperm cell is adapted to fertilise the egg.

Answers to Remedial activities:

1) From animal cell: mitochondria: site for energy production; nucleus: it controls all cell activities.
From plant cell: chloroplasts: site for photosynthesis, Ribosomes: site for proteins synthesis.
2) Chloroplasts are adapted by: having thylakoids with chlorophyll where light-dependent reactions
occur, stroma where light-independent reactions occur.
3) Both glycoproteins and glycolipids are involved in the cell protection, the process by which cell
adhesions are brought about and also in the uptake and entry of selected substances.
4) Eukaryote is more complex than prokaryote. Eukaryote may be a multicellular organism with
many structures that are not found in prokaryote. Also, eukaryotic cells have most of all organelles,
but prokaryotic cells lack some organelles like a real nucleus.
5) A sperm cell is adapted by having: tail for movement, many mitochondria to produce energy for
movement, acrosome with enzymes for digesting the wall of the egg during fertilisation, half number
of chromosomes which, when fused with chromosomes from the egg form a diploid zygote.

4.9.2 Consolidation activities

1) Discuss two largest organelles of an animal cell and their functions.
2) A student was telling his colleagues that the lysosome is not important to the cell. Discuss to his
idea.

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3) Why must cell membrane be partially permeable?

4) Compare a prokaryotic cell to a eukaryotic plant cells considering the presence of the cell wall.
5) What are the adaptations of red blood cell for its function?
Answers to consolidation activities:
1) The nucleus: controls all activities of the cell, and ER: rough ER transports proteins made on
attached ribosomes, while smooth ER does not have ribosomes, and it involves in making lipids that
the cell needs.
2) His idea is wrong. Lysosomes are very important as they contain powerful digestive enzymes
which can break down materials, and destroy invalid microorganisms. In acrosome, lysosomes help
the sperm to penetrate the egg by breaking down the material surrounding the egg.
3) A cell membrane should be permeable in order to allow some materials to move through it.
4) Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic plant cell have the cell wall surrounding their plasma membranes.
5) Adaptations of red blood cell for its function are: having Haemoglobin to fixe oxygen,
lacking some organelles including the nucleus for providing big space for haemoglobin, having
biconcave shape to facilitate diffusion of gases, they are numerous.
4.9.3 Extended activities
1) Talk about Robert Hooke contribution on cell discovery.
2) How is a cell like a factory?
3) How the structure of the nuclear membrane enables it to carry out its function controlling what
enters and leaves the nucleus?
4) Observe the figure below and answer to questions:

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a) Does this figure represent eukaryotic or prokaryotic cell?
b) State two reasons to support your answer.
c) Compare the specialization and functions of cells in your body with the specialization and
functions of people in your school.
Answers to extended activities
1) From his experiment on observing slides of cork taken from the bark of an Oak tree under the
compound microscope, Robert Hooke decided that the slides were made up of a lot of many small
chambers that he called cells. He used the word “cell” in his book Micrographia, published in 1665.
2) Students may give various answers. One response may involve the comparison of ribosomes to
machines in the factory. They may also compare other organelles to different parts of the factory.
3) The nuclear membrane contains many pores which enable it to carry out its function controlling
what enters and leaves the nucleus?
4) The answers are:
a) The figure represents a prokaryotic cell.
b) The figure has a genetic material (circular DNA) that is not bounded in a nuclear membrane, it has
an external cell wall, and it lacks some organelles.
c) In our school are many people with different specialization and functions, but all work together for
the prosperity of the school. In such way, our body also has many cells with different structures and
functions. Despite their differences, all cells in their types work together for the survival of the body.
UNIT 5 DIVERSITY OF SPECIALIZED TISSUES
Introductory activity
Read the following passage and use it to answer the questions that follow:
In an anthill (mound), there are different members of termites such as a queen, workers and
soldiers. Each group has a specific task and roles to play in the colony. The structure of each
group is related to their tasks for example soldiers that protect the colony have mouth parts
shaped
like a pair of scissors building and a slightly larger abdomen for storing water. The queen is the
largest of all and has a task of laying eggs. For cutting predators and food. Workers have mouth
parts for cutting and chewing food or soil particles. Some members are in charge of caring for
the young while others find food, defend the colony or remove dead members. In all the above
described cases, they have structures to enable them perform a particular task. Their
specialization and division of labor bring about efficiency in the colony.
1) Specify the message addressed by the above paragraph.
2) Explain how the structure of termites related to their functions?
3) How does the message in text relate to tissues in the human body?
4) What is the significance of specialized tissues in multicellular organisms like plants

Expected answers to the questions:

1. Termites are specialized for particular task.
2. Soldiers that protect the colony have mouth parts shaped like a pair of scissors building and a
slightly larger abdomen for storing water. The queen is the largest of all and has a task of laying eggs
3 Workers have mouth parts for cutting and chewing food or soil particles.
4. In an anthill, different termites are specialized to perform a particular task as tissues in the body
are specialized to perform a particular function.
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5. Plants and animals have specialized tissues to increase the efficiency which the advantage of
division of labor labour in multicellular organisms.
Activity 5.1
- Remove an epidermis layer from the ventral side of an onion leaf.
- Mount it on the slide containing a drop of iodine solution
- Observe your preparation under a light microscope
- Draw and label and discuss your findings.
- From your discussion:
1) What is a plant tissue?
2) What is the role of epidermis in onion?
Answers for activity 5.1

- The structure observed is looking as a house wall made by small similar units having nucleus and
cytoplasm.
- Those units together form the structure above known as a tissue.
Activity 5.1.1
The figure 5.2 represents the flow chart of subdivisions of plant tissues. Draw and interpret
the flow chart, and use it to answer the following questions.

1) How do meristems differ from permanent tissues?

2) Plant tissues are classified into ground tissues and vascular tissues as shown in the
figure 5.2, above. What is meant by the term vascular tissues?

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3) How is the structure of the xylem and phloem vessels related to their function?
4) From the flow diagram above, identify three types of ground tissues.
5) Write down short notes on each of the following types of meristems.
a) Apical meristems.
b) Lateral meristems
c) Intercalary meristems
Answers for activity 5.1.1
a) Meristems are continuously diving by mitosis and located at growing regions of stem and root
while permanent tissues are not.
b) The vascular tissue is a bundle of two kinds of conducting tissues of phloem vessel and xylem
tissue
c) How xylem tissue is related to its function.
- The cells are long and arranged end to end to form a continuous column.
- The cell contents die when mature, which means that there is no cytoplasm or nucleus to prevent
water flow
- The end walls can break down, so that there is no barrier to water flow between adjacent cells
- How the phloem vessel is related to its function?
- Sieve tube elements are elongated and arranged end to end to form a continuous column
- The nucleus and many of the organelles are located in the companion cells, leaving the lumen of the
sieve tube elements more open so reducing resistance to the flow of flow of liquid
- Sieve plates are perforated with sieve pores, reducing resistance to liquid flow
- The sieve plates hold the walls of sieve tube elements together and prevent them from bursting.
d) Ground tissues are of three forms i.e.: parenchyma, sclerenchyma and collenchyma.
Teaching resources: Text books, markers, manila, flip charts.
Self-assessment 5.1
1) What do you understand by the following terms?
a) Differentiation
b) Cambium
c) Wood
d) Meristem
2) Differentiate between Collenchyma and sclerenchyma
3) Explain how the structure of Parenchyma Xylem tissues are suitable to their functions.
4) State the main structures (components) that make up a xylem and phloem tissues.
5) State where in a flowering plant you would find:
a) Lateral meristem
b) Intercalary meristem
c) Apical meristem
6) Give characteristics of meristematic cells.
7) The diagram below shows a longitudinal section of two cells of phloem tissue in a plant
stem.

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a) Name the cells labelled A and B in the diagram
b) State the function off phloem in a plant
Answers for self-assessment 5.1
1) Expected answers are:
- Differentiation is the process by which unspecialized structures (cell, tissue, organ, and system)
become modified and specialized for performance of specific functions.
- Cambium is a plat tissue consisting of actively dividing cells that is responsible for increasing the
girth of the plant.
- Wood is the hard structural and water-conducting tissue that is found in perennial plants and forms
the bulk of the trees and shrubs
2) Difference between Collenchyma and sclerenchyma
Collenchyma Sclerenchyma
Made of living cells Made of dead cells
Tapering ends do not overlap Tapering ends overlap and interlock
Ensure mechanical support and Ensure mechanical support only
flexibility
Cell wall is not lignified. Cell wall is lignified.

3) How the structure of Parenchyma Xylem tissues are suitable to their functions.
- Their cells lack cytoplasm
- Absence of nucleus

4) The main structures (components) that make up:

- A xylem consists of two types of conducting cells: tracheid and vessel elements and the wall has
pits
- A phloem consists of Sieve-tube and companion cells

5) The expected answers are:

a) Meristem tissue is a group of cells which retain the ability to divide by mitosis, and specialized to
carry out specific functions
b) Answers are:
(i) Lateral meristem: Is found in lateral parts of the plant.
(ii) Intercalary meristem: Is found in the region of permanent tissues like at nodes of
monocotyledonous plants
(iii) Apical meristem: Is found in the root and shoot apex (at the growing points of roots and stems)
6) Characteristics of meristematic cells.
- The cells are small, have a central large nucleus and dense cytoplasm, thin-walled, with no or small
vacuole, and no specialized features.

- The cells are rectangular and closely packed with no intercellular air spaces.
7) Expected answers are:
- A is sieve tube and B is companion cells

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- Phloem tube carries food substances like sugar and amino acids produced in leaves during
photosynthesis to every part of the plant.
Activity 5.2
Make a research from the library or the internet and find out the structures and the main
functions of the four groups of animal tissues including epithelial, connective, muscular and
nervous tissues.
Answers for the activity5.2
- You are required to orient students in library with clear references. The opportunity they get must
be exploited in your silence and monitoring to ensure the students competences.
- Invite randomly four representative students to presents their results, and try to promise them to get
clear result as the lesson will carry on.
Activity 5.2.1
1) Using different apparatuses materials and methylene stain, follow the protocol and
carry out experiment and answer the questions.
- Carefully, scrape the inside of your cheek with the back of a scalpel.
- Put the scraping on a slide, stain with methylene blue and examine under the high
power.
a) Explain your observation
b) Name the structure you observed
c) Suggest a function of the structure you observed
Answers for the activity5.2.1
- You are required to orient students in library with clear references. The opportunity they get must
be exploited in your silence and monitoring to ensure the students competences.
- Invite randomly four representative students to presents their results, and try to promise them to get
clear result as the lesson will carry on.

Activity 5.2.2
Blood group test
Materials:
Sterilized needles, cotton wool, tooth pick, glass slides, ethanol and blood group reagents anti-
A, anti-B, anti – AB and anti-D (Anti-Rhesus)
Procedure:
- Make groups of 6 students each and distribute the above material.
- Each cleans the end of one’s finger using oat imbibed of ethanol and bites the sterilized
needle to get drops of blood. Caution: the needle should not be shared or exchanged.
- Each presses a drop of blood on four different glass slides.
- Add on the first slide two drops of antibody-A, on the second anti-B, on the third anti-
AB and on the last anti-D.
- Stir separately the mixtures using separate tooth stick. Then wait for 1 minute to observe
the reaction. Caution: The sticks should not be interchanged.
a) Describe your observation on each slide
b) What is your blood group? Give explanation to your conclusion.
Answers for Self-assessment5.2.2
Experimental activity 5.2
Make sure that the necessary requirements for experimental activity to be done are available and
distributed in respective groups. Provide the written protocol (written on chalk board or printed
protocol paper if possible). The possible blood groups are A, B, AB and O

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Ask the students to describe their observation and note somewhere, if you find that they are not able
to give a clear conclusion from their observation, help them as follow:
- If Anti-A is added on the drop of blood and coagulates, the blood group is A
- If Anti-B is added on the drop of blood and coagulates, the blood group is B
- If Anti-AB is added on the drop of blood and coagulates, the blood group is AB
- If Anti-A is added on the drop of blood and does not coagulates, the blood group is B
- If Anti-B is added on the drop of blood and does not coagulates, the blood group is A
- If Anti-AB is added on the drop of blood and does not coagulates, the blood group is AB
- If Anti-D is added on the drop of blood and coagulates, the blood group is Rh+
- If Anti-D is added on the drop of blood and does not coagulates, the blood group is Rh-
Activity 5.3
Visit a classroom block, administration block or any building in school which is constructed
with bricks and use it to answer the following questions.
Precaution: Consider a building of which bricks are exposed (not plastered).
1) What is the smallest unit or component of the classroom block?
2) How are bricks arranged on/ in the block?
3) Do you think the brick has other smaller particles in it?
4) How many bricks does a classroom block have?
5) How are walls, classrooms, washrooms and other apartments of the block formed?
6) Arrange the following in their ascending order of size (from the smallest to the largest);
whole block, wall, a brick, a room, course (a line of bricks).
7) Relate the above arrangement of a building to levels of organization in multicellular
organisms, beginning with a cell and ending with an organism.
Answers of activity 5.3
Visit a classroom block, administration block or any building in school which is constructed with
bricks and use it to answer the following questions. Precaution: Consider a building of which
bricks are exposed (not plastered).
1) A brick.
2) One brick is joined with another one, and another to another to form a line of bricks, many lines of
bricks form a wall.
3) Yes, it is made up of smallest particles of soil (sand or clay) or stones.
4) Very many, not easy to count.
5) They are formed by joining smallest components of a building block called bricks.
6) Brick, course, wall, room, block (use arrows to represent a sequence)

Self-assessment 5.3
1) Answer by true or false
a) Organic chemicals are often very complex and always contain the element carbon
only.
b) A tissue is a group of cells with similar structure and function.
c) Integumentary organ system plays the role in protection of the human body from
injury and fluid loss.
d) An organ system is a group of organs that all contribute to a particular function.
2) Explain why the cell as level of organization of human body is said to be:
a) Basic unit of human body

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b) Structural unit of human body
c) Functional unit of human body
Answers for self-assessment5.3
1) Answer by true or false
a) False
b) True
c) True
d) True
2) The following are the answers:
a) Basic unit of human body because the whole human body originates from cell
b) Structural unit of human body because the cell makes up the structure of human body
c) Functional unit of human body because all human body's physiological activities take place within
the cells
Activity 5.4.
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of an organism being unicellular or Multicellular
Answers for activity 5.4
1) Advantages and disadvantages of unicellular organism:
(i) Advantages:
- Unicellular organisms need fewer nutrients and can survive in bad conditions.
- Some of the organisms can generate energy through photosynthesis.
- Sometimes different bacteria work together to work to their advantages.
- Unicellular organisms can multiply quicker and have less energy/resource demands.
(ii) Disadvantages:
- Unicellular organisms only have one cell that is used to function their entire being. This is a
disadvantage compared tomulticellular organisms, which have many cells and function more easily
and properly.
2) Organism being Multicellular
(i) Advantages:
- Multicellular organism usually has a wider range of functions because of the aggregation of
different types of cells.
- Multicellular organisms have many more necessities and can only survive in certain conditions.
- Multicellular organisms such as animals are unable to make their own food so they survive by
eating living things such as vegetables, fruits, and meat. They can also eat things that are produced
by other living things such as eggs, milk, and honey.
- Nutrients must be broken down for most multicellular organisms to be able to extract energy from
them.
(ii) Disadvantage:
Multicellular organisms such as animals are unable to make their own food and to get food is a tire
some work. Their survival in critical condition is rare.
Self-assessment 5.4

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1) Discuss how unicellular organisms perform their functions.
2) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of being Unicellular organisms.
3) What do you think is an advantage of multicellular over unicellular organisms?
Answers of self-assessment 5.4
1) How unicellular organisms perform their functions.
- Unicellular organisms get food substances by diffusion through their cell membrane
- Unicellular organisms live in colonies.
- Some of unicellular organisms have cilia, flagella that help them to move
- Some of unicellular organisms have green color(chlorophyll) and are able to perform
photosynthesis
2) (Consider answer of question (1) activity 5.4.)
3) There are three benefits of being multicellular: larger size, longer life, and specialization of cells.
Most multicellular organisms are bigger than one-celled organisms. In general, a larger organism,
such as an elephant, has few predators. A multicellular organism usually lives longer than a one-
celled organism. A one-celled organism is limited to the life span of its one cell. The life span of a
multicellular organism, however, is not limited to the life span of any of its one cells. In multicellular
organisms, each type of cell has a particular job. Each cell does not have to do everything the
organism needs. Specialization makes the organism more efficient.
End of unit assessment 5
1) Which type of tissue forms glands?
a) Epithelial
b) Connective
c) Nervous
d) Muscles
2) What are the four types of animal tissues?
a) Epithelial, Squamous, Muscular, Connective
b) Epithelial, connective, Muscular, Cardiac
c) Connective, Muscular, Epithelial, Nervous
d) Cuboidal, Ciliated, Glandular, Columnar
3) Which type of the tissues form glands
a) Epithelial
b) Connective
c) Nervous
d) Muscle
4) Discuss and present how epithelial tissues have adapted to their functions
5) Discuss the statement: “blood is not a true tissue”.
6) Describe the three main functions of the blood
7) Complete the following table:
Categories of Tissues according to their Examples of tissues
functions
Growth tissues
Protective tissues
Storage tissues
Support tissues
Conducting tissues
Secretory tissues

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2.8 End unit assessment 5
Answer for end unit assessment (Question 1 and 2 are multiple choice based questions,
question 3, 4, 5, 6 are long answer based questions)
1) Epithelial
2) Connective, Muscular, Epithelial, Nervous
3) The answer include:
- Epithelium lining the respiratory air passages secretes mucus. This helps them to traps inhaled dust
particles and microbes.
- Some epithelial tissues are made up of epithelium cells that have cilia. This helps them to propel the
mucus and trapped particles to the throat.
- Some epithelial tissues are folded and form glandular tissues. This helps them to secrete the
digestive enzymes, hormones, mucus, sweat and sebum.
- Some epithelial cells divide mitotically producing new cells. This helps them to replace damaged or
dead cells.
- Some epithelial cells such as taste buds and retina cells are specialized to form sensory receptors.
4) The blood is made up of different kinds of cells that are not similar, even perform different

functions. This disqualifies blood to be a true tissue but connective one

5) Three main functions of the blood
- Blood transports absorbed substances such as glucose, amino acids, mineral ions and vitamins from
the small intestine.
- Blood fix by hemoglobin and transports the respiratory gases (Oxygen and Carbon dioxide).
- Blood transports the excretory wastes such as urea, uric acid to excretory organs to be removed out
of the body.
- Blood transports hormones e.g. insulin from pancreas to the liver where it is stored.
- Leucocytes such as neutrophils and macrophages as white blood cells, engulf antigens e.g. bacteria
- B-lymphocytes as white blood cells produce antibodies to destroy pathogens or to neutralize toxins.
- T-lymphocytes as white blood cells destroy infected cells.
- Platelets, fibrinogen and prothrombin play an important role in blood clotting to reduce blood loss
and the entry of pathogens.
6) Complete the following table:
Categories of plant tissues according to Examples of tissues
their functions
Growth tissues Meristem, Cambium
Protective tissues Cuticle, cork
Storage tissues Parenchyma,
Support tissues Sclerenchyma, collenchyma
Conducting tissues Xylem, Phloem
Secretory tissues Nectary gland, Fragrance glands

2.9 Additional activities

2.9.1 Remedial Activities:

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1) Write any three functions of parenchyma tissues
Answer:
- In the leaves, they form the mesophyll and are sites for photosynthesis, gaseous exchange and
transpiration.
- They store food substances such as starch, proteins and lipids
- They can be modified to form specialized cells to carry out other function in epidermis, endodermis,
pericycle, aerenchyma, and secretory cells.
2) What do you think are types of neurons?
Answer:
Sensory neurons (afferent neurons), Interneurons, Motor neurons (efferent neurons)
3) What do you understand with the term organ?
Answer:
An organ is a group of tissues precisely arranged so as to accomplish specific functions.
4) Multicellular organisms are bigger than unicellular organisms. Whatdoes multicellular mean?
Answer:
Multicellular means many cells
2.9.2 Consolidation activities:
1) What are differences between apical meristematic tissue and intercalary meristematic tissue?
Answer
a) Apical meristematic tissue
- It is located in the root and shoot apex.
- It is responsible for primary growth.
- While,
b) Lateral Meristematic tissue
- It is located in lateral parts of the plant,
- It is responsible for secondary growth.
2) Use the diagrams to differentiate Simple cuboidal epithelium and Simple squamous epithelium
Answer:

Simple cuboidal epithelium

- This is a tissue with cells that are cubical in shape
- Cuboidal cells are specialized for secretion and they make up the epithelia of kidney tubules and
many glands including salivary glands, and thyroid gland.

While,

Simple squamous epithelium

- It is thin and leaky
- It functions in the exchange of material by diffusion.
- It lines blood vessels and the air sacs of lungs.
3) What do you think is relationship between organ systems in human body?

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Answer:
The food is digested in alimentary canal and nutrients enter the blood then assimilated by the body
and the waste products like carbon dioxide, urea...after metabolic activities, are released during
urination, sweating and breathing, all under the control of nervous system.
4) Multicellular organisms such as animals are unable to make their own food but plants are able to
make their own food. This helps us to thinks about two modes of nutrition in multicellular organisms.
Write down the names and define those modes of nutrition.
Answer:
- Autotrophic nutrition: mode of nutrition where green organisms like plants make their own food
using carbon dioxide, water in the presence of sun light.
Heterotrophic nutrition: Mode of nutrition where living organisms like animals, fungi, get energy
from the food made by plants or other organisms. The organisms using this mode of nutrition are not
able to make their own food due to lack of chlorophyll
2.9.3 Extended activities
1) Imagine what will happen to the flowering plants if the meristem tissue is removed.
Answer:
- Inhibition of primary growth
- increased lateral growth
- No growth in length
2) Heat production is one of the functions of human muscle tissue. How these tissues perform it?
Answer:
Most of the sugar molecules are stored in muscle tissue, these molecules are used during cell
respiration where oxygen combine with them to produce energy which can be in heat form (thermal
energy and in force form (mechanical energy)
Sugar+ oxygen to give Carbon dioxide+ water+ Energy
3) What do think is the origin of your entire body?
Answer:
The body originates from the cell, many similar cells form tissue, tissues make organ, organs make
system and finally systems make entire body organism
4) Bacteria are unicellular organisms which do not have sexual organs for reproduction, but their rate
of reproduction is extremely high. In your on word, explain if this statement is true.
Answer:
Answer of this question should base first on their advantages of being unicellular. These organisms
do not need much nutrients for further body activities. They simply divide excessively and regenerate
into new uncountable offspring. The mode of reproduction in known as Binary fission or Bipartition.

UNIT 6 TESTING FOR BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES

Introductory activity
You are given solutions containing different biological molecules including carbohydrates,
lipids, proteins and vitamins. How can you differentiate these solutions?

Answers for introductory activity

There is need to perform experiment otherwise it is not easy to confirm the type of substance given
without doing experiment or a test.
Activity 6.1
Requirements:

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Starch powder, Irish potatoes juice, prepared porridge, Iodine solution, beakers, droppers, source of
heat and test tubes
a) Test for starch
Procedure
- Mix 1g of starch powder with 100ml of water
- Boil the mixture while stirring; then cool the solution
- Put 2ml of starch solution in a test tube labeled 1, 2ml of Irish potato juice in a test tube
labeled 2 and 2ml of prepared porridge in a test tube labeled 3
- In each test tube put 2 drops of Iodine solution and shake
- Record your observation and draw a conclusion
b) Test for reducing sugar
Requirements
Glucose powder, beaker and test tube, Benedict solution, Bunsen burner, droppers
Procedures
- In the beaker mix 1cm3 of water and 1g of glucose powder.
- Obtain a test tube and pour the prepared solution of glucose
- Add 2ml of benedict’s solution and heat
- Record your observation.
Answers to the activity 6.1
Experiment 1: The tested substance is starch the presence of starch is indicated by the change of
iodine color into dark blue/blue black.
Experiment 2: The tested substance must be a reducing sugar (glucose solution), the presence of
reducing sugar is indicated by the change of blue color of benedict reagent to green/yellow, orange
and finally red

Self-assessment 6.1
A student prepared carbohydrate solution labeled C1, perform the following experiment to
confirm whether C1 is starch, reducing sugar, or non-reducing sugar.

Experiment Observation Conclusion

1) In a test tube 1:
- Pour 4 drops of the solution C1
- Add 2-3 drops of Iodine solution
- Note down your observation and conclusion in
the following columns
2) In another test tube 2:
- Pour 4 drops of the solution C1
- Add an equal volume of Benedict solution and
boil for 1 min
- Note down your observation and conclusion in
the following columns
3) Take another test tube 3
- Pour 3 drops of the solution C1
- Add 4-5 drops of dilute hydrochloric acid and
boil for 1min.
- Cool in water
- Add some drops of sodium hydroxide until the
solution can turn red litmus paper to blue color.
- Add 4 drops of Benedict solution and boil

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- Note down your observation and conclusion in
the following columns
a) Is this solution a carbohydrate?
b) Specify the role of Hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide used at stage 3 in the table above.
Answer for self-assessment 6.1
Expected observations and conclusions on the experiment are in the table below.

Experiment Observation Conclusion

(i) In a test tube of 4 drops Blue black/dark blue color Presence of Starch
of solution C1 add 2-3
drops of Iodine
In another test tube of 4 No change the blue color of Absence of reducing sugar
drops of C1 add an equal Benedict solution persist
volume of Benedict
‘solution and boil for 1 min
Take another test tube, put Green/yellow, orange Presence of reducing sugar
3 drops of solution C1, add finally red color.
4-5 drops of dilute
hydrochloric acid and boil
for 1min.
cool in water
Add some drops of sodium
hydroxide until the solution
can turn red litmus paper to
blue color.Add 4 drops of
Benedict ‘solution and boil

a) Yes, it contains starch

b) Hydrochloric acid to hydrolyze starch to reducing sugar
c) Sodium hydroxde is necessary to neutralize the hydrochloric acid
Activity 6.2
Requirements
Milk, eggs, soybeans, test tubes, beakers, mortar for crushing beans, 1% NaOH or 1% KOH
solution, 0.1M of CuSO4 solution and Millon’s reagent.
Procedure
- Extract the white fluid from an egg (albumen)
- Prepare an extra of soya bean and 10ml of fresh milk
- Put 2ml of albumen solution in a test tube labelled A1 and 2ml in A2
- Put 2ml of milk solution in a test tube labelled B1 and 2ml in B2
- Put 2ml of soya bean solution in a test tube labelled C1 and 2ml in C2
- Put 1ml of KOH or NaOH solution in each of the test tubes A1, B1, and C1. Shake the
mixture and add 1ml of CuSO4 solution in each (A1, B1, and C1) test tube
- Put 1ml of Millon’s reagent in each of test tubes (A2, B2, and C2). Shake the mixture
and thereafter boil the three test tubes (A2, B2, and C2).
- Record and interpret your observations.
Answers to the activity 6.2

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The observation of the learners, the color of Biuret reagent changes to pink. This confirms the
presence of proteins in the sample tested.
Self-assessment 6.2
1) You are provided with the sample of the substance M and A. Carry out the following
experiments and complete the table below.

Food substance Reagent procedure

Conclusion
M
Millon’s
- Take 2cm 3 of test solution M
- Add 2 cm3 of Millon’s reagent
- Boil for 1-2 minutes
- Complete the following column with your
observation
Biuret’s
- Take 2 cm3 of test solution M
- Add 2 cm3 of Biuret’s
- Shake and complete the following column
with your observation
2) Carry out the same experiment using the substance A and compare your findings with M.
3) Which of the substance A and M contain proteins?
Answers for Self-assessment 6.2
a) The answer is given in the following table:
Food substance Reagent procedure Observation and
Conclusion
milk *Millon’s Take 2cm 3of test The colour of
solution Add 2 Millon’s reagent
cm3of Millon’s change from
reagent colourless to pink,
Boil for 1-2 minutes Presence of proteins
*Biuret’s Take 2 cm3 The blue color of
of test solution Add 2 cm3of Biuret solution changes to
Biuret’s pink
Shake Presence of proteins

Activity 6.3
Laboratory experiments
Use olive oil to carry out the following experiments
To 2 cm3of olive oil in the test tube:
- Add 5 cm3of ethanol followed by 5 drops of water.
- Shake the mixture and record your observation.
To another test tube containing 2 cm3of olive oil:
- add 5 drops of Sudan III solution
- Shake thoroughly and examine the mixture in the test tube after few minute and record your
Observations

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Answers for activity 6.3
- The presence of lipids in cooking oils is indicated by milky colour.
- The test using Sudan III solution, lipid layer sitting on top of the water layer will have a red-orange.

Self-assessment 6.3
You are provided with a solution X. Use Sudan III indicator to test the presence of lipids in
the solution X.
Answers for self-assessment 6.3
- You can use Ethanol: Emulsion test
- The observation: Ethanol changes from colourless to milky
- You can use the Sudan III
- Formation of layer having a red-orange colour sitting on top of water will be observed.
- In the absence of those observation there is no presence of lipids in solid X.
Activity 6.4
Squeeze the orange fruits to extract the juice and carry out the following test.
Experiment Observation conclusion
- To 3cm3of DCPIP add drops of
juice extracted from orange fruit
- Note the observation and draw a
conclusion
- To 2cm3of water add 2cm3of DCPIP
- Note the observation and draw a
Conclusion
Which of the two solutions give a positive solution for DCPIP?
Answers for activity6.4
The expected observations and conclusions are given in the table below.
Experiment Observation Conclusion
To 3cm3of DCPIP add The solution decolorize of Presence of Vitamin C
drops of juice extracted DCPIP blue colour
from orange fruit
To 2cm3of water add No change Absence of vitamin C
2cm3of DCPIP
Vitamin C is tested by using DCPIP (Dichlophenol indophenol), vitamin C decolorize DCPIP if there is
not the presence of Vitamin C the blue color of DCPIP persist.
Self-assessment 6.4
You are provided with a tomato fruits; press it to get the juice. Use this juice to carry out the
test for vitamin C (plot a table for the procedure, observation and conclusion).
Answers for Self-assessment 6.4
Procedures Observation conclusion
Take a sample of The juice decolorize the blue In the tomato juice there is
juice(1cm3) color of DCPIP presence of Vitamin C
Add the juice in a test tube
containing DCPIP.
End of unit assessment 6
1) Biological molecules are divided into:

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a) Organic molecules and inorganic molecules
b) Carbohydrates and starch
c) Lipids, carbohydrates and water
d) Carbohydrates, food and potatoes
2) Name the reagents that are used to test for the following food substances
a) Lipids
b) Starch
c) Reducing sugar
3) You are provided with the following specimen:
Specimen A: Sorghum
Specimen B: Irish potatoes
Specimen C: Oranges
Specimen D: Sunflower seeds
a) Carry out chemical tests to determine the composition of the above seed to tell
whether they are composed of proteins, fats, starch or vitamin C
b) Plot the table of used reagent, procedure and observation in (a)
4) Some drops of fresh pineapple fruit juice are added drop by drop to DCPIP solution.
The deep blue color of the DCPIP quickly fades.
a) Explain why the blue colour disappeared?
b) What is the importance of this food substance to the human body?
5) The result of food tests on an unknown sample are shown below. Copy and complete
the table to show the conclusions which could be drawn from these tests

Food test Result Conclusion

Sample mixed with iodine in Blue-black color
potassium iodide

Sample boiled with Blue color

Benedict’s solution

Sample treated with dilute acid, Precipitate

neutralized and then tested with
Benedict s solution precipitate

Sample tested using Biuret Blue ring on the surface and

on shaking purple solution
6) This is a practical question to be conducted using provided materials and reagents to
determine the food nutrients in each solution: You are provided with the following
solutions, A (sucrose 0.5%), B (1%starch), C (dilute hydrochloric acid) and D (sodium
hydroxide) and 6 test tubes labeled 1 to 6. Use the reagents provided to determine the
chemical nature of the substance present in the solutions. Indicate your observations
and conclusions in the table below:

Step Tests Observation Deductions

(Conclusion)
1 To 1 cm3 of solution A in a test tube 1
add 2 drops of iodine solution.
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2 To about 1cm3 of solution A in test tube 2
add an equal volume of Benedict’s
reagent solution and boil.

3 To about 1cm3 of solution A in test tube 3

add 4-5drops of solution C and boil. Cool
under cold tap water and add equal
volume of solution D then 2 drops
Benedict’s reagent and boil
a) Why was it necessary to boil solutions A and B with solution C in test (3) and (6)?
b) Why was solution D added to test tubes 3 and 6?
Answers for end of unit assessment
1) Biological molecules are divided in organic molecules and inorganic molecules.
2) Reagents used are:
a) Ethanol with water, Sudan III indicator
b) Iodine solution
c) Benedict’s solution
3) The teacher has to guide the learners before these practical activities.

Teacher tells to the learners the specimen given (local crops)

a) Sorghum, maize or any other seed containing starch
b) Potatoes, sweet potatoes, cassava…
c) Orange fruit, lemon
d) Sunflower, groundnut

The expected result:

- Specimen A there is presence of starch
- Specimen B presence of starch
- Specimen C presence of vitamin C
- Specimen D presence of lipids (fats)
- if the students are allowed to use HCl and NaOH together with Benedict solution; in specimen A
and B there is a reducing sugar
Sample tested Procedure Observation conclusion
Specimen A Sample(2cm3) from The colour turn dark Presence of starch
specimen A in a test blue/blue black
tube add 2 to 4 drops
of iodine solution
Specimen B Sample(2cm3) from The colour turn dark Presence of starch
specimen A in a test blue/blue black
tube labeled 2 add 2
to 4 drops of iodine
solution
Specimen C To 3cm3 of DCPIP The blue colour of Presence of vitamin
add 3 drops of the DCPIP disappear C

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 solution extracted
from specimen C
Specimen D Sample (2cm3) from The colour changes Presence of
specimen D,add few from colourless to fats(Lipids)
drops of ethanol milky
followed by equal
amount of water and
shake.

4) The expected answers to the question

- The blue colourof DCPIP disappeared with the addition of pineapple juice because there is Vitamin
C in pineapple juice.
- Vitamin C is involved in oxidation in the body, reduction reaction, wound healing and production
of collagen fibres.
- Or simply it protects the body against diseases (scurvy)
5) Expected answers to the question

Food test result Conclusion

Sample mixed with iodine Blue-black colour Starch present
in potassium iodide
Sample boiled with Blue colour Reducing sugar absent
Benedict’s solution
Sample treated with dilute Yellow precipitate Reducing sugar present
acid, neutralized and then
tested with Benedict’s
solution
Sample tested using Biuret Blue ring on the surface and Proteins present
solution on shaking purple solution

6) The Unknowns for the question 6 in the student book

- Solution A-0.5% sucrose
- Solution B-1%starch solution
- Solution C-Dilute hydrochloric acid
- Solution D-Sodium hydroxide
Answers
EXPERMENTS OBSERVATION CONCLUSION
(i) Colour remains brown Starch absent
(ii) Colour remains blue Reducing sugar absent
(iii) Colour changes from blue Non-reducing sugar absent
green to yellow finally red
(iv) Colour turns dark blue Starch present
(v) Colour remains blue Reducing sugars absent
(vi) Colour remains blue Non-Reducing sugars
absent
- Solution C is dilute hydrochloric acid and Solution D is sodium hydroxide
- To hydrolyze them to reducing sugars

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- To neutralize the hydrochloric acid added.
- A is a non-reducing sugar which is present in sugar cane and milk. B is starch solution; starch is
present in cassava, maize.
Additional activity
Remedial Activities
1) What is the reagent which are used for?
a) Testing proteins?
b) Testing lipids
2) On your choice give the food in which we can found the following substances
a) Starch
b) Vitamin C
c) Lipids
3) Which among reducing sugar and starch is tested using Benedict reagents?

Answers for Remedial activities

1) Answers:
a) We use Biuret test or Million’s reagent
b) We use Emulsion test(Ethanol) and Sudan III
2) Answers:
a) Tubers such as potatoes, cassava
b) Seeds such as maize, rice and sorghum
c) Orange and lemon fruits
d) Oil, ground nuts, sunflower
3) Benedict reagent is used to test Reducing sugar
6.9.2 Consolidation activities
1) Explain the chemical test that you can carry to identify the presence of proteins in a food sample
2) There is no special reagent to test for the presence of non-Reducing sugar. Explain the methods
and procedure that you can use to identify non-reducing sugar in a food sample.
3) What can be the source of errors in testing starch?
Answers for consolidation activities
1) Answer:
- Proteins are tested using Biuret reagent. The reagent turns purple when it is mixed with a protein.
- A violet/purple colour is formed. The reaction takes place in alkaline solution.
- The copper (II) sulphate has Copper (II) ions that interact with the nitrogen atoms in the peptide
chain that makes protein resulting to a purple colour.

2) Answer:
- Reducing sugar and non-Reducing sugar together with starch are carbohydrates.
- The test for non-reducing sugar is the test for carbohydrates.
- First of all, we test for the presence of Starch using Iodine solution
- Second we hydrolyse the sample using dilute Hydrochloric acid, and Sodium hydroxide to
neutralize the acidity
- Third we test the presence of reducing sugar.
- If the sample is positive for reducing sugar test, this indicates that before hydrolysis with

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HCl it was a non-reducing sugar.
3) Source of errors:
- The blue –black /dark blue color disappearing on heating. No heating required
- Adding to little iodine, an excess does not cause any problem

- Forgetting to shake the solution after addition of iodine solution.

- Using unclean test tubes. With traces of starch this will give positive result even when the sample
does not contain starc h
Extended activities
1) You are provided with the following:
- 2 test tubes containing 2cm3each of suspensions of specimens’ E and F and the solution Y.
- 4clean test tubes, solution G-0.1%ascorbic acid solution.
- A dropper.
- 5cm3 measuring cylinder.
2) Without shaking the test tubes carry out the following tests. Record your results in the table below
and answer the questions that follow.

Test Number of drops

i) To 1cm3of solution Y in a test tube add drops of suspension

of E until the colour disappears

ii) To 1cm3of solution Y in a second test tube add drops

of F until the colour disappears

iii) To 1cm3of solution Y in a third test tube add drops

of solution G until the colour disappears.

iv) Boil 1cm3of solution G for three minutes and cool.

Add drops of this cooled solution to 1cm3of solution Y
in a test tube until the colour disappears

a) Use results in(i) and(ii) in the table aboveand calculate the percentage of ascorbic acid in
the suspensions of E. Show your working.
b) Comment on difference in percentage of ascorbic acid in the two suspensions as calculated
in the question 1.
c) Calculate the percentage of ascorbic acid in solution G before and after boiling
d) How can you explain the difference in percentage of ascorbic acid in the unboiled solution
and boiled solution?
Answers for extended activities
1)The specimen are:
- Specimen E: Tomato fruit
- Specimen F: Orange fruit
- Suspension of E and F: Fresh Juice from tomato and orange fruits respectively.

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- Solution Y: Dichlorophenol indophenol(DCPIP)
- Solution G:0.1% ascorbic acid solution
2) Answers:

Test Number of drops

i) To 1cm3of solution Y in a test tube add 20

drops of suspension of E until the colour
disappears

ii) To 1cm3of solution Y in a second test 10

tube add drops of F until the colour
disappears

iii) To 1cm3of solution Y in a third test 5

tube add drops of solution G until the
colour disappears.

iv) Boil 1cm3of solution G for three 7

minutes and cool, add drops of this cooled
solution to 1cm3of solution Y in a test tube
until the colour disappears

- Percentage of ascorbic acid in suspension equals the number of the used quantity (5cm 3)
over the number of drops of the solution (20cm3) times the concentration of ascorbic acid
solution. From here, E=5/20×0.1=0.025%
- Percentage of Ascorbic acid in suspension is calculated in the same way as the data
summarized in the above table, so that: F=5/10×0.1=0.05%
- Note:5 drops of 0.1% ascorbic acid (solution G) produces the same effect (Decolorized
solution Y) as drops of solution E (E%), so that 5×0.1=20×E. From this equation:
E=5×0.1=0.025%
7) Specimen F has a higher content of ascorbic acid than specimen E.
8) Before boiling the percentage is 0.1% while after boiling: 5/7×0.1=0.07%

UNIT .7 .CARBOHYDRATES AND LIPIDS

Introductory activity
1) In the previous unit (test for biological molecules), we tested carbohydrates, starch,
reducing sugar, lipids, proteins, and vitamins. Where do you classify
monosaccharide, disaccharides and polysaccharides in the above tested
biochemical compounds?
2) Sometimes people say that fatty persons do not feel cold. What could be the
reasons?
Expected answers to the introductory activity
- Lipids, Carbohydrates and Proteins.
- Monosaccharide, Disaccharide and polysaccharides are classified into carbohydrates

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- Because those person their have a lot of fat deposition in adipose tissue, fat(lipids) protect the body
against the loss of heat.
Activity 7.1
Use books from the library and search further information on the internet.
1) Discuss what is a monomer?
2) Where can we find a monomer?
3) What is the biological importance of monomers?
Learning activity 7.1
You need to do the following:
- Facilitate the formation of groups by emphasizing on individual differences
- Do facilitation role for helping students to come up with good results
- Invite students to make presentations
Help students to summarize the lesson and draw the conclusion
Self-assessment 7.1
1) What are some examples of polymers and monomers?
2) How are monomers, polymers and macromolecules related?
Answer for self-assessment7.1
1) Polymers: Proteins, carbohydrates, Nucleic acid
2) Monomers: Amino acids, Monosaccharide and Nucleotide
3) Monomers are small unit, and when joined together make up long chain of structures called
polymers.
Monosaccharide form carbohydrates
Nucleotides form nucleic acid
The macromolecules of life are lipids, Nucleic acids, Carbohydrates and proteins all of those are
polymers.
Activity7.2
1) Based on the knowledge acquired during the lesson of monomers and further information from
books and internet:
a) What are the examples of monosaccharide?
b) Give the molecular formula of each of the monosaccharide stated above
c) Use the books to illustrate the structural formula of each of the molecular in b
Answers to the activity 7.2
1) Answers:
a) Monosaccharide with 3 carbon atoms is a triose.
b) With 5 carbon atoms is a pentose
c) With 6 carbon atoms is an hexose
2) Ring monosaccharide are said to be alpha (α) if the OH group on carbon 1 is below the ring, and
beta (β) when the OH group is above the ring.
3) Glucose is a monosaccharide the properties of glucose are the same as those of monosaccharide
including:
- They are highly soluble in water
- They have sweet taste
- They have lower molecule mass
Activity 7.3
1) Monomers are joined to form polymers, use a point ( ) as a monomer to illustrate
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how a polymer can be formed
2) How do you call joining structures between atoms?
3) Use books in library or internet to show how monosaccharide form a disaccharide.
Answers to the activity 7.3
1) Use point and line to create a polymer of repeating unit.
2) Chemical bond.
3) Answers are:

Self-assessment 7.3
1) Write the molecular structure of sucrose
2) How is the glycosidic link is formed
3) Sucrose is formed when two monosaccharide are assembled together:
a) Name those two monosaccharides.
b) Using the ring form of these monosaccharide named above explain and show
sucrose formation?
Answers for self-assessment 7.3
1) C12H22O11
2) The glycosidic link is formed by condensation reaction/dehydration where a molecule of water lost.

Activity 7.4
1) Based on the meaning of monosaccharide, what is the meaning of polysaccharide?
2) Classify the following compound into polysaccharide, monosaccharide and disaccharide
a) Glucose, fructose and galactose
b) Lactose, sucrose, and maltose
c) Starch, cellulose and glycogen
3) Use glucose to form any polysaccharide of your choice
Answers for the activity7.4
1) Monosaccharide means single sugar; because monos: single sacchar: sugar
Polysaccharide it is a polymer of monosaccharide
2) Answers are:
a) Monosaccharide
b) Disaccharide
c) Polysaccharides
3) Figure of Starch, cellulose, or glycogen
Self-Assessment 7.4
1) What type of reaction is involved in the formation of glucose from starch?

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2) Use the type of reaction above to form glucose from sucrose molecule
3) What are the 2 main components of starch? Differentiate them.
Answers for self-assessment7.4
1) Hydrolysis reaction
2) Addition of water molecules to sucrose to obtain two unit of glucose

3) The major types of starch are: Amylose and amylopectin

Differences: Amylose is the simple structure of starch; it is unbranched chain of glucose while
amylopectin is a branched structure of starch
Activity 7.5
1) List the monomers that are present in lipids
2) Where can we find lipids?
3) Use the books from library and search for further information on the internet.
4) Discuss the reasons why animals like pig do not like hot weather.
Answers to the activity 7.5
1) Lipids are polymer of glycerol and fatty acids
2) Oils from plants and animals are rich source of lipids: Butter, dairy products, cooking oils.
3) The scientific research show that the reason why pig do not like hot environment; the pig do not
sweat. But the common myth in Rwanda it is because there is high concentration of lipids, means that
lipids produce heat or act as insulators of organisms
Self-assessment
1) Name the small units found in lipids
2) Differentiate between fats and oils
3) Find the structure of lipids once the fatty acid chain is:
a) CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2COOH
b) CH3(CH2)14COOH
c) HOC2CH2-CH=CH-CH2
Answer for self-assessment 7.5
1) Glycerol and fatty acids
2) Fats are lipids which are solid at room temperature, have saturated fatty acids
3) Answers are:
a) Glycerol+ CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2COOH
b) Glycerol+ CH3 (CH2)14COOH
c) Glycerol+ HOC2CH2-CH=CH-CH2

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End of unit assessment 7
1) Write the formula of a monosaccharide with 3 atoms of carbon
2) Compare the structure of fat(triglycerides)and the phospholipids
3) Give two examples of how carbohydrates are used in the body.
4) The formula for a hexose is C6H12O6 or (CH2O)6. What would be the formula of?
a) Triose
b) Pentose
5) The general formula of a monosaccharide is (CH2O) n where n is any number between
3 and 9. What would be the formula of a pentose sugar where n is 5?
6) What type of chemical reaction would be involved in the formation of glucose from
starch or glycogen?
7) Distinguish between:
a) Alpha glucose and beta glucose
b) Glycogen and cellulose
c) Amylopectin and amylase

7.8 Answers for end unit assessment7

1) C3H6O3

2) The answer is summarized in the following table:

Fat Phospholipids

- Glycerol plus fatty acids - Glycerol plus fatty acids

- The main function is to form a compact - Its main function is to forms a molecule
energy store, insoluble in water so that is part hydrophobic, part hydrophilic
doesn’t affect water potential. ideal for basis of cell surface membranes

3) They are used by the body to produce energy.

They are used in hormone production
4) a) Triose=C3H6O3

b) Pentose=C5H10O5
5) Hydrolysis reaction
6) Answers:
a) Alpha glucose is the β glucose. Ring monosaccharide are said to be alpha (α) if the -OH group
located on carbon 1 is below the ring and beta (β) when the -OH group is above the ring.
b) Glycogen and cellulose: glycogen is made up of α-glucose and exists as granules and is more
highly branched while the glucose in cellulose is β-glucose and it is the chief constituents of cell
walls in living organisms
c) Amylopectin and amylose: Amylopectin and amylose all are form of starch, means that they are
polymer of α glucose the only difference it is that Amylose is unbranched while Amylopectin is
highly branched.
Additional activities
Remedial Activities:

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1) A condensation reaction produces a new compound and releases a molecule of…..
2) 2………………is the reverse of a condensation reaction
3) How do we call a single sugar molecule?
a) Monomers
b) Monosaccharide
c) Carbohydrates
d) Proteins
4) How many numbers of hydroxyl groups in a glycerol molecule?
Answers for remedial activities
1) Release a molecules of water
2) Hydrolysis
3) (b) Monosaccharide.
4) There 3 OH group in Glycerol molecule
Consolidation activity
Suggested questions and answers for deep development of competences.
1) A phospholipid consists of:
a) Phosphates, fat and oil
b) Phosphoric acid, glycerol and fatty acids
c) Phosphoric acid, fats and oil
d) Phosphate, glycerol and fatty acids
2) The empirical formula of a compound is C51H98O6. Such compound is a:
a) Protein
b) Lipid
c) Vitamin
d) Carbohydrate
3) The number of carbon atoms which form the ring in a glucose molecule are:

a) 2
b) 3
c) 4
d) 5
4) Each of the questions 1,2,3 consists of an assertion (statement) on the left hand side and a reason
on the right hand side. Select:
a) If both assertion and reason are true statements and the reason is a correct explanation of the
assertion
b) If both assertion and reason are true statements but the reason is not a correct explanation of the
assertion
c) If the assertion is true but the reason is an incorrect statement
d) If the assertion is incorrect but the reason is a true statement
1 Enzymes are because They are made of
denatured by high protein

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 temperatures
2 Maltose and because It contains
sucrose are both glucose and
disaccharides but fructose
unlike maltose,
sucrose is not a
reducing sugar
3 Lipids are because They contain the
important elements C, H
constituents of and O with a high
the plasma proportion of O2
membrane than hydrogen
and carbon
Answers for consolidation activities:
1) b
2) b)
3) a
4) The following are the answers
1. A 2. B 3.C
7.9.3 Extended activities
1) Starch and glycogen are important storage carbohydrates.
a) State one structural similarity and one structural difference between them.
b) State any two organs in which starch is stored in plants.
c) Where is glycogen stored in animals?
4) Explain why it is an advantage of storing energy in large molecules?

Answers for extended activities:

1) The following are the answers:

a) Similarities
- Long chain of alpha glucose
- Branching chain
- Long chain linked by glycosidic links / bonds.
Differences
- Starch is less branching while glycogen is profusely branching
- Starch is less soluble while glycogen is more soluble
- Starch exists as grains while glycogen exists as tiny granules
a) In plants, starch is stored in tubers (potatoes, cassava…) and in stem
b) In animals’ glycogen is stored in liver and muscles
2) Large molecules of denser monomers take up a less space than an equivalent amount of the
monomer. Also, large molecules are usually insoluble in water and not easily broken down. Starch
and glycogen are therefore more efficient storage units than glucose.
UNIT 8 PROTEINS AND WATER

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Introductory activity
A. What are proteins?
B. Use books from library and research from the internet about the universal solvent in
living organism.
1) What do you understand by universal solvent in living organisms?
2) Write the chemical formulae of the solvent in B.1

Expected answers for introductory activity:

a) Proteins are polymer of amino acids
b) Water
c) H2O
Activity 8.1
1) From the books make a research on proteins and answer the following questions:
a) List four names of foods where we can find proteins
b) At physiological pH the amino acid exists as zwitterions. What is a zwitterion?
2) In senior one and senior two you learnt about the importance of the protein in the
organism as a building block, and almost all the part of the organism is made by protein
from nails to hairs, by observing the structure of amino acid can you construct a polymer
of amino acid? Can you deduce the property of amino acid which helps protein to be so
important in the body?
Answers to the activity 8 .1
1) Answers:
a) The source of proteins can be from milk, eggs, beans, meat
b) Zwitterion is a molecule with two different charges (positive and negative) at the same time.
2. A student can try to construct a polymer based on the skills acquired into the previous lessons, by
condensation process (the teacher select one type of amino acid to be used)
The properties of amino acid which help the protein to be important:
- It can react with basic substance.
Self-assessment 8.1
1) Explain what is meant the essential amino acids
2) Describe the formation of a peptide bond?
3) Alanine is an amino acid with -CH3 as a side chain. Writes its structural formulae.
4) Most of the plant lacks one or more of the essential amino acids needed by the body
explain how a vegetarian can obtain the essential amino acids.
Answers for self-assessment 8.1
1) Essential amino acids (Student book).
2) The peptide bond formation: A condensation reaction occurs between the amino group of one
amino acid and the carboxyl group of another, to form a dipeptide
3) Student book
4) In preparing food, we have to consider many plant food staff.
Activity 8.2
1) From the books make a research on proteins and answer to the following questions:
a) What are different structures of proteins?
b) Differentiate globular proteins and fibrous proteins.
2) Take a plastic cord, create the bulk on it and suppose that those are monomers of a long

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chain of polymer (the whole cord), heat it using a Bunsen burner or another source of
fire. Discuss the change that takes place.
Expected answer to the activity 8.2
a) Proteins structure are: Primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure
b) Protein polymer are formed by condensation process where a molecule of water lost and the
resulting bond is called ester link2. The idea behind this scenario it is about the denaturation of
protein.
Self-assessment 8.3
1) What are the structures of proteins?
2) How do we call the bond in a dipeptide?
3) By a condensation process show how a dipeptide is formed between Alanine and
Glycine.
4) Explain the disadvantages of the denaturation of proteins for the living cell?
Answers for self-assessment 8.3
1) Primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure.
2) A peptide bond
3) Check student’s book.
4) In the living cell denaturation of protein disturb the physiology and proper function of a cell, such
as inhibition of enzyme activities which can lead to the death of the cell.
Activity 8.3
1) What is the medium of reaction in the organisms?
2) If two people are boiling the same quantity of cooking oil and water, which one could
evaporate first? Explain your choice.
Answers for activity8.4
1) The medium of chemical reactions in organism is water.
2) The boiling point of water is greater than the boiling point of oils because of the existence of
hydrogen bonds in water molecules
Self-assessment 8.3
1) State the functions of water in animals
2) What do you understand by the heat capacity?
3) Relate the high heat capacity of water with its biology functions.
4) Explain why the ice float rather than sinking?
Answers for self-assessment 8.4
1) Check students book
2) Check students book
3) The high heat capacity provides a suitable medium of biochemical reactions that take place in
organism by maintaining the temperature whoever the fluctuations of temperature in the
environment. Take an example of an organism living in desert where the temperature can arrive to
45ºC, this temperature is not ideal to the organism; the life into this region is possible thanks to the
high heat capacity of water.
4) The ice floats over water because it is less dense than water, during the freezing of water the
hydrogen bond expands and open.
End of unit assessment 8
1) The drug can cleave the covalent bond between two sulfur atoms of non-adjacent amino
acids. Which level of protein can be affected the most if the drug is mixed with primary,

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secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure of proteins.
2) Complete the following statements by appropriate terms:
a) The formation of large molecules from small repeating units is accomplished by
a(n)………reaction.
b) A carbohydrate(polysaccharide)that is formed by the plant as a reserve food supply
and made up of only glucose molecules covalently bonded together is……...
3) State the property of water that allows each of the following to take place. In each case,
explain its importance:
a) The cooling of skin during sweating
b) The transport of glucose and ions in a mammal
c) Much smaller temperature fluctuations in lakes and oceans than in terrestrial (landbased)
habitats.
4) Construct the table that organize the following terms and label the columns and rows.
Phosphodiester linkages Monosaccharide polypeptides
Peptide bonds Nucleotides Triacylglycerol
Glycosidic linkages Amino acids Polynucleotides
Ester linkages fatty acids Polysaccharides
5) Explain what happen during protein denaturation?
Answers for end unit assessment.
1) Tertiary structure.
2. Answers:
(a) condensation reaction
(b) Starch
3. Answers:
a) latent heat of vaporization
b) Solvent property of water
c) High heat capacity
Notice: Explanation student book
Monomers Bond polymer
Nucleotides Phosphodiester linkages Triacylglycerol
Monosaccharide Glycosidic linkages Polysaccharide
fatty acids Ester linkages Triacylglycerol
Amino acids Peptide bonds polypeptides
Additional activities
Remedial Activities:
1) State the function of water.
2) Name the bond in secondary structure of proteins.
3) What happen to the protein if is denatured?

Answers for Remedial activities:

1) Student book.
2) Secondary structure bond: peptide bond, hydrogen bond.
3) When a protein is denatured the proteins change the shape.

Consolidation activities: Suggested questions and answers for deep development of competences.
1) Answer the following questions:

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a) What does the peptide bond have to do with the secondary structure of a protein?
b) Types of bonding maintain the tertiary structure of protein?
2) Label the following diagram using the terms H2O, monomer, Hydrolysis reaction, dehydration
reaction and polymer. Terms can be used more than once and a term need not to be used

3) Explain why water has a high heat of Vaporization?

Answers for consolidation activities:
1) Answers:
a) The peptide bond holds the amino acids together in the secondary structure
b) Hydrogen bond, Ionic bond, hydrophobic interaction and Vander Waals interactions, Disulfide
bridges
2) The following are the answers:
a) Monomer
b) Monomer
c) Dehydration reaction
d) H2O
e) Monomer
f) Monomer
g) Polymer.
3) High heat of vaporization this it is the energy (Heat) needed to transform water into vapor this
energy is greater because of the high heat capacity of water.
Extended activities
1) Explain why children in summer can cool off by playing in a sprinkler.
2) Suppose you eat a serving of green beans. What reactions must occur for amino acid monomers in
the protein of the beans to be converted?
3) How many molecules of water are needed to completely hydrolyze a polymer that is ten
monomers long?
Answers for extended activities

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1) In summer as there is high temperature in the environment, this do not mean that the water also is
hot as we know to rise water to 1ºC it requires more energy. That why when children play in
sprinkler during summer can cool off even though the environment is hot.
2) The reaction that must take place is hydrolysis reaction, after absorption in the intestine those
monomers are condensed by hydration to be used by the body as proteins.
3) A polymer of ten monomers can be hydrolyzed by ten molecules of water.
To be able to describe how protein structure is related to function. To be able to describe the role of
water as a special molecule with extraordinary properties that make life possible.

UNIT 9 VITAMINS AND MINERALS

Introductory activity
1) From the different food stuffs you are provided with, make a list of food stuffs that
are good sources of minerals and vitamins.
2) Using text books and internet, make a list of some vitamins and mineral deficiency
Diseases
Expected answers for introductory activity
Foods that are good sources of vitamin: green vegetables, beans, wheat, pumpkin, meat, fish, orange,
banana, sunflower seed and avocado. Some vitamins and minerals deficiency diseases are for
example night blindness, rickets, beriberi, cretinism, scurvy, anemia, and goiter.
Activity 9.1
Use textbooks and internet to list mineral nutrients found in human diet
Answer for activity 9.1
Calcium (K), potassium (K), phosphorus (P), Nitrogen (N), Sulfur (S), Sodium (Na), Iron (Fe),
Magnesium (Mg), Fluoride (F), zinc (Zn), Cobalt (Co), chromium, selenium and molybdenum (Mo),
Manganese (Mn), Iodine (I), Chloride (Cl) .
Self-assessment 9.1
1) State at least ten mineral nutrients required in human diet.
2) Answer by true or false and justify your answer: “Minerals are called essential
nutrients because they are more important than others”.
Answers for self-assessment 9.1
- Ten mineral nutrients required in humans: calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), Nitrogen (N), Sulfur (S),
Potassium (K), Sodium (Na), Iron (Fe), Magnesium (Mg), Iodine (I), Chloride (Cl),
- False. They are called essential not because they are more important but because they are necessary
and the human body cannot make them itself.
Activity 9.2
Iodized table salt is advised to prevent goiter. In 100g of table salt there is 99% of NaCl, but
only 1% of iodine. Refer to the notes below find the reason behind this ratio.
Answers for activity 9.2
Sodium and chloride are needed in relative large amounts while iodine is needed in a very small
amount.
Self-assessment 9.2
1) Categorize mineral nutrients by their abundance in human body.
2) Distinguish the two categories of mineral nutrients needed by the human body.
3) From the minerals listed here, identify the five major minerals in the human body:
Sulfur (S), Potassium (K), Sodium (Na), Iron (Fe), Magnesium (Mg), Iodine (I),

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Chloride (Cl), zinc (Zn), Cobalt (Co), chromium, Calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P),
Nitrogen (N).
Answers for self-assessment 9.2
a) Macronutrients and Micronutrients
b) Macronutrients are minerals needed by humans in relatively large amounts whereas
Micronutrients are minerals needed by humans in relatively small amounts.
c) Calcium (Ca), Potassium (K), Phosphorus (P), Sodium (Na) and Magnesium (Mg).
Activity 9.3
Use your textbook and answer the following questions:
Hereunder is a variety of food stuffs: Banana, cassava, wholegrain, oranges, pumpkin, potato,
beans, water melon, green leafy vegetables, poultry, eggs, liver, and milk. Choose the food
stuffs which are good sources of minerals
Answer for the activity 9.3
1) Banana, wholegrain, oranges, pumpkin, water melon, green leafy vegetables, milk, poultry, eggs,
liver.
2) Humans require minerals in daily diet because:
- The body cannot make them,
- They are essential to carry out daily functions and processes.
3) The best answers
(i) a
(ii) a

(iii) a and c
(iv) a and d
(v) b
(vi) b and d
(vii) d
(viii) c
(ix) c
(x) d
4) Goiter, rickets, scaly skin, anemia, impaired immunity
Self-assessment 9.3
1) Match the mineral nutrients with its function
a) Iodine 1) make bones hard
b) Fluorine 2) maintains the immune system stronger
c) Phosphorus 3) component of hemoglobin
d) Iron 4) prevents tooth decay
e) Copper 5) used in synthesis of thyroid hormone (thyroxin)
2) In a tabular form, identify the major dietary sources, the functions in human bodies and
the deficiency diseases of the following minerals: Ca, I, P, zinc, and Cu
3) Choose the best answer.
(i) They are the minerals we need a lot in every day diet. How are they called?
a) Macronutrents

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b) Micronutrients
c) Giant minerals
d) Monster minerals
(ii) This mineral helps to build up strong teeth and bones. How is it called?
a) Calcium
b) Iron
c) Zink
d) potassium
(iii) What are foods that are natural good source of iron?
a) Roast Beef
b) Macaroni and cheese
c) Baked beans
d) Water melon
(iv) Which foods are natural good sources of calcium? Pick 2:
a) Milk and cheese
b) Whole-wheat bread
c) Iceburg lettuce
d) Scanned salmon
(v) The mineral helps your body to move oxygen to your lungs.
a) calcium
b) iron
c) zinc
d) potassium
(vi) What foods are good sources of zinc?
a) Milk and cheese
b) Lamb and pork
c) Macaroni and cheese
d) Peanuts and lentils
(vii) Bananas are great source of this mineral, which helps your muscles and nervous
system maintain your right water levels. What is it called?
a) Calcium
b) Iron
c) Zinc
d) Potassium
(viii) When your body needs to fight off infection, which mineral is important to have?
a) Calcium
b) Iron
c) Zinc
d) Potassium
(ix) Which following mineral do you need large amounts of every day?
a) Zinc
b) Iron
c) Calcium
d) selenium
(x) Keeping your nervous system health is the work of which type of mineral?
a) Calcium

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b) Iron
c) Zinc
d) Potassium
4) From the diseases listed below, what are those caused by the deficiency of minerals?
Goiter, malaria, diabetes, rickets, beriberi, scaly skin, night blindness, anemia, impaired
immunity, diarrhea
Activity 9.4
Two students visit the medical Centre with different complains. Student A told to the doctor
that whenever he/she brush teeth there is bleeding. Student B doesn’t see well objects around
him/her, they look cloudy especially in the evening. The doctor said that they all have the same
problem, lack of vitamins. The student A will take the required vitamin supplement every day,
but the student B will take the supplement after each 2 days.
1) What vitamin is lacking for each of the two students?
2) Use your student textbook and brainstorm the reasons why student A can take his/her
supplement every day, while student B takes it each 2 days.
Answer for the activity 9.4
1) Student A lacks vitamin C while student B lacks vitamin A
2) Vitamin C is water soluble therefore it cannot be stored. Vitamin A is fat-soluble; it is stored in
body tissues that is why it is not necessary to take it every day.
Self-assessment 9.4
1) How many vitamins does the human body needs to function properly?
2) Describe the classification of vitamins.
Answers for self-assessment 9.4
1) 13 vitamins
2) They are classified based on their solubility as water-soluble and fat-soluble vitamins.

Activity 9.5

Figure 9.2 Food rich in vitamins

From the list of food stuffs that you are provided with: Banana, cassava, wholegrain, oranges,
pumpkin, potato, beans, water melon, green leafy vegetables, and milk. Can you give some foods
that are good sources of vitamins?
Answer for the activity 9.5
Banana, wholegrain, oranges, pumpkin, water melon, green leafy vegetables, milk.
End of unit assessment 9
1) This mineral is an electrolyte and is found in almost every food. It helps to lower blood
pressure. What is it called?
a) Zinc
b) Potassium
c) Calcium
d) Iron
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2) This mineral helps to make our blood vessels, tendons, and nerves strong. What is it
called?
a) Iron
b) Magnesium
c) Chromium
d) Copper
3) What group of vitamins are the minerals Niacin and Thiamin part of?
a) A Vitamins
b) B Vitamins
c) C Vitamins
d) D Vitamins
4) Vitamin C is required for the production and maintenance of:
a) Collagen
b) Hormone
c) Ascorbic Acid
d) Red Blood Cells
5) Vitamin C deficiency is called:
a) Scurvy
b) Cold
c) Cancer
d) Rickets
6) Which of the following is a function of Vitamin A in the body?
a) Vision, bone and body growth
b) Immune defenses, maintenance of body linings and skin
c) Normal cell development and reproduction
d) All of the above
7) Common food sources of Vitamin A are:
a) Milk, eggs, butter, cheese, cream, and liver
b) White sugar, honey, and sugar cane
c) Broccoli, apricots, cantaloupe, carrots, sweet potato, spinach
d) Both A and C
8) Which of the following is a function of Vitamin B-12?
a) Influences the cells that build bone tissue
b) Is essential to the formation of bone
c) Helps maintain acid-base balance
d) Maintains the sheaths that surround and protect nerve fibers
9) Vitamin B-12 deficiency caused by lack of intrinsic factor is called:
a) Pernicious anemia
b) Poor circulation of the red blood cells
c) Beriberi
d) None of the above
10) What groups of people need additional Vitamin K?
a) Premature newborns
b) People who do not have enough bile to absorb fat
c) Both A and B
d) None of the above answers

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11) A common function of Thiamin, Riboflavin and Niacin is that:
a) They all are used in synthesis of blood clotting proteins
b) They all work as a part of a coenzyme used in energy metabolism
c) They all help to strengthen blood vessel walls
d) They are used to stabilize cell membranes
12) The vitamin Folate works together with ______________ to produce new red blood
cells.
a) Vitamin D
b) Vitamin A
c) Vitamin B-12
d) None of the above
13) Which of the following is a function of Vitamin B-12?
a) Red blood cell formation
b) Myelin sheath that protects nerve biers
c) Vision
d) Both A and B
14) Vitamin C helps maintenance and repair of collagen which:
a) Forms the base for all connective tissue in the body
b) Aids in digestive processes
c) Promotes good eyesight
d) Prevents PMS symptoms
15) Which of the following is not a function of Vitamin D?
a) Acts like a hormone
b) Stimulates maturation of cells
c) Maintains calcium cells
d) Builds tissue
16) Some food sources of Vitamin D are:
a) Fruits and vegetables
b) Salmon and egg yolks
c) Butter and fortified milk
d) Both B and C.
17) Humans obtain vitamins from natural sources such as vegetables, fruits, meat, fish and dairy
products. What are the two vitamins that are not provided by fruits and vegetables?
18) What would you advise someone starting to have symptoms of?
a) Scurvy
b) Rickets
c) Teeth decay
d) Heart failure
e) Pernicious anemia

Answers for end unit assessment

1) b
2) d
3) b
4) a
5) a

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6) d
7) d
8) d
9) a
10) c
11) b
12) c
13) d
14) a
15) b
16) d
17) vitamin D and vitamin biotin (vitamin B7)
18) Advice to every one: Taking food-rich in the vitamin or mineral that he/she lacks. See tables 9.1
and 9.4, student’s textbook
Aditional activities
Remedial activities
1) What are fat-soluble vitamins?
Answer:
Vitamin K, A, D and E.
2) Predict what could happen if someone lacks Ca in the diet.
Answer:
In childhood it results into rickets, in adult in osteomalacia.
3) In a tabular form, identify the major dietary sources, the functions in human bodies and the
deficiency diseases of the following minerals: Ca, I, P, zn, and Cu.
Answer
See the table 9.1 in student’s textbook.
4) Two mothers have to care for their children’s nutrition. One mother frequently gives her child
vitamin A-rich food while the other gives to her child the food poor in vitamin A. Predict what will
happen to the child provided with vitamin A-poor food.
Answer

Will suffer from night blindness.

Consolidation activities
1) In human diet are required carbohydrates, proteins, fats, mineral salts and vitamins. Suggest the
reasons why humans need the mineral nutrients and vitamins in their daily diet.

Answer
The body cannot make them itself while they are very necessary in its functions and processes.
2) Record what you ate yesterday. Decide whether this menu represents a balanced diet. If not plan
how it should be changed to make it more nutritious
Answer
Variable depending on one’s habit diet.
3) What are differences between macronutrients and trace elements?
Answer

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- Macronutrient is a type of food such as fat, protein and carbohydrates required in large amounts in
the diet. It can also be a chemical element such as potassium, magnesium and calcium required in
large amounts of plant growth.
- Traces refer to a chemical element required only in minute amounts by living oranisms for normal
growth.

9.9.3 Extended activities

1) There are two kinds of vitamins, fat-soluble and water-soluble. Explain the advantage of fat-
soluble vitamins over water-soluble vitamins.
Answer
When they are not used, the excess is stored in body fatty tissues to be used later when they are
inadequate in the diet but water-soluble vitamins the non-used by the body, dissolves in water and are
excreted with urine.
2) People are advised do not take supplement vitamins and minerals but obtain them directly from
the diet. Explain the disadvantage of taking supplement fat-soluble vitamins.
Answer
Taking vitamin supplements in capsule, chewable or liquid form is a convenient way to supplement
your diet; but you should exceed what you took from the diet and get some distresses. The excess of
ascorbic acid (vitamin C) for example, causes gastrointestinal disorders such as nausea, indigestion,
stomach cramps, headaches, fatigue, diarrhea and vomiting. No one is allowed to take vitamins or
mineral supplement if are not prescribed by a health specialist (doctor, nurse).
3) Calcium is one of the five major minerals required by human body.Explain why pregnant and
lactating women require more (1200-1400 mg/day) Calcium than other life stage groups.
Answer
Pregnant woman requires more Ca for the development of the embryo skeleton. For a lactating
woman to help better growth of bones and teeth formation of the baby.
4) Suppose you have got the job position and you are in charge of nutritional adviser in your sector.
Give a brief account of what you will do to be effective in your job
Answer
Variable depending on the nutritional habit in the sector of each student.

UNIT 10 ENZYMES
Introductory activity
Discuss in pair the following questions and share with another pair your findings.
(1) What do you understand by the term enzyme?
(2) Two individuals want to reach the last floor of Kigali city tower. One climbs up using the
ladder but another one uses a lift. What advantage gives the lift over the ladder?
(3) Why digestion of hot food is easy than that of cold food?

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Fig. 10.1: A lift allows climbing tower faster and an enzyme makes biological reactions faster.
Guidance on the introductory activity
Remember that it is not the first time students hear about enzyme. Ask students to briefly brainstorm
individually or in pairs why the eaten food is not remaining in its eaten state. Ask them also what
causes such change. Why some people become hungry very quickly than other. From the reflected
ideas, introduce a whole unit.
Activity 10.1
You are provided with three groups of enzymes:
Group A Group B Group C
Enzymes Maltase and lactase Deshydrogenase and oxidase Pepsine and renine
Make a research from text book or internet to find out:
a) What is the specific role of each of the six enzymes mentioned above?
b) What criterion was followed to name enzymes of group A, B and C respectively?

Answers for activity 10.1

a) Maltase hydrolyses maltose into glucose – Lactase hydrolyses lactose into glucose and galactose –
Deshydrogenase catalyses the removal of hydrogen from a fuctional group – oxidase catalyes the
oxidation of molecules – Pepsin hydrolyse the proteins into polypeptides in the acidic medium in the
stomach – renine promotes the coagulation of liquid and soluble casein.
b) Enzymes are named based on substrate catalyse, type of reaction they catalyse of by using specific
name.
Self-assessment 10.1
1) What criteria are followed to name enzymes?
2) An enzyme is said to be a peptidase. What can be its function?
Answers for self- assessment 10.1
1) Put the suffix – ase to the name of the substrate or type of reaction. Some enzyme have specific
names e.g. pepsin
2) Peptidase is the enzyme that catalyses the hydrolysis of peptide into single amino acids.
Activity 10.2
Requirement: Three test tubes, match box, about 1g of liver, 1g of sands, 1% H2O2 and MnO2
powder.
Procedure:
- Label three test tubes A, B and C respectively.
- Put about 0.1 g of MnO2 powder in test tube A and 1g of liver in tube B and 0.1g of
sand in tube C.
- Pour 5 ml of H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide) in each tube. What do you observe?
- Place a glowing splint in the mouth of each test tube. What do you observe?

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Questions
1) Explain your observations.
2) White down the chemical equation of the reaction taking place in tube A and B
3) Carry out your further research to find out the characteristics of enzymes
Learning activity 10.2
Let learners work in small groups. Make sure that they follow the procedure and come out with the
following conclusions;
1) Both MnO2 and the liver speed up the rate of reactions by which hydrogen peroxide decomposes
into oxygen and water
2) H2O2(l)𝑀𝑛𝑂2 → H2O(l) + O2(g)
3) Properties of enzymes

- Enzymes speed up the rate of metabolic reactions.

- Enzymes are protein in nature
- Enzymes lower the activation energy (Ea) required for reactions to take place.
Self-Assessment 10.2
1) State any four properties of enzymes.
2) Enzymes have generally high turnover. Account for the significance of the high
turnover of enzymes?
Answers for self-assessment 10.2
1) Properties of enzymes are the following:
- Enzymes speed up the rate of metabolic reactions.
- Enzymes are globular proteins.
- Enzymes lower the activation energy (Ea) required for reactions to take place.
- Enzymes are highly specific in action. Enzyme possesses active sites and will only catalyze a
reaction when the substrate and active site have complementary shapes.
- Enzymes do not change after the reaction. They remain unaltered.
- Chemical reactions catalyzed by enzymes are usually reversible e.g. enzyme carbonic anhydrase
catalyses both synthesis and breakdown of carbonic acid.
2) The turnover of an enzyme is the number or reactions an enzyme molecule can catalyse in one
second. Enzymes have a high turnover number because they are not altered at the end of the reaction
but are capable of attaching to new molecules of substrate.
Activity 10.3
There are two main hypotheses that explain the more of action of an enzyme on its substrate:
the lock and key hypothesis and the induced-fit hypothesis. Carry out a research to find the
relevance of each.
Learning activity 10.3
For helping students to come up with understanding as well as skills related to mode of action of an
enzyme, you need to:
- Use a simulation on the mode of action of enzymes which has to be observed by students once
projected
- Project it and let students watch the video.
- From the video, you ask questions.

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- If there is no simulation, provide two different keys in which one opens a class lock while another
could not or use at least 2 padlocks with their respective keys and show how they cannot interchange
their key.
- Let them practice and ask them why one key opens the lock while another could not. Ask other
questions so that students come up with ideas related to mode of action of enzymes.
- Ask students to produce or draping a model on paper or Manila paper and use that chart in
explaining the mode of action of enzymes.
Self-Assessment 10.3
The key and lock hypothesis is a model that explain the mode of action of an enzyme on the
substrate. In the same context, analyse the diagram below and then answer question that
follow

1) What does the lock represent?

2) What does the key represent?
3) Where is the active site?
4) Suggest another diagram that can better represent the induced fit hypothesis. Write
short notes to explain its functioning.
Answers for Self- assessment 10.3
1) The lock represents the enzymes
2) The key represents the substrate
3) The active site is on the cylinder of the lock
4) Another diagram that can better represent the induced fit hypothesis.

The shape of the substrate is not complementary to that of the active site of the enzyme. But the
active site modifies its shape in order to form the complex enzyme-substrate.
Activity 10.4
You will need
Eight test tubes containing 2 cm3 starch solution, amylase solution, and cold water (ice) water
bath, iodine solution, HCl solution, and droppers
Procedure:

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1) Label your test tubes A-D as follows:

2) Add 1 cm3 of starch solution to each test tube

3) Keep tube A and B in cold (ice) and tube C and D in the water bath at 35C for 5
minutes.
4) Add 1 cm3 of 1M HCl on test tubes B and D, then shake the mixture to stir.
5) Add 1 cm3 of amylase solution on each test tube. Shake and therefore keep A and B in
cold and C and D in water bath for 10 minutes.
6) Take a sample from each tube and mix it with one drop of iodine. Use a different tile
for each test tube. Record and interpret your observation and then draw a conclusion.

Learning activity10.4
To help students to come up with learning outcomes, you are advised to do the following:
- Make different groups and provide the printed handout of the procedure of the experiment.
- Provide the same amount of solution to be used to each group and emphasize on the following the
procedure.

Each group of learners conducts the experiments and record the following observation:
- The solution in tube C has light blue colour because amylase has hydrolysed starch into maltose.
- Solution in tube B and D are deep blue because of the presence of HCl that denatures the enzyme
amylase.
- Tube A looks blue because the enzyme amylase was not active under the cold condition.

At the end of the experiment, allow students to read the note on factors affecting the rate of enzyme
controlled reactions.
You give them a table having row of temperature and the one of temperatures in degrees, so that they
can do analysis and then come up with an explanation and conclusion on Q10. From their conclusion,
extend it to questions or explanation about denaturation and end product inhibitor or allosteric
inhibitor or allostery.
The teacher helps learners interpret the solution of worked example questions from their textbook.
Self-Assessment 10.4
1) What is meant by Q10 of an enzyme controlled reaction?
2) You are provided with the table below of the rate of an enzyme controlled reaction.
Temperature / oC 0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0
Rate / mgs-1 0.01 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.8 0.4 0.2 0.02
Calculate the value of Q10 at:
a) 0C

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b) 10C
c) 50C
3) Explain why thermophile bacteria and algae are useful in some industrial processes
4) The diagram below represents a metabolic pathway controlled by enzymes.

V is a substrate
W, X and Y are intermediate compounds
Z is a product
e1, e2, e3, and e4 are enzymes
a) Name the type of control mechanism which regulates production of compound Z
b) Explain precisely how an excess of compound Z will inhibit its further production.
Answers of self-assessment 10.4
1) Q10 is the fact that the rate of the enzyme controlled reaction doubles when the temperature is
raised by 10 C
2) (a) Q10 at 0 C= Rate of reaction at (x+10) ͦCRate of reaction at x ̊C = Rate at (0+10) CRate at 0 ̊C = 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑡
10𝐶𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑡 0𝐶 = 0.10.01 = x 10

(b) Q10 at 10 C= Rate of reaction at (x+10) ͦCRate of reaction at x ̊C = Rate at (10+10) CRate at 10 ̊C = 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑡
20𝐶𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑡 10𝐶 = 0.20.1 = x 2
(c) Q10 at 50 C= Rate of reaction at (x+10) ͦCRate of reaction at x ̊C = Rate at (50+10) CRate at 50 ̊C = 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑡
60𝐶𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑡 50𝐶 = 0.20.4 = x 0.5
3) Enzymes more likely to be thermostable/ resistant to Denaturation at high temperatures; processes
using these enzymes can be run at high temperature / over a wide range of temperatures.
4) (a) It is the end product inhibition / allosteric inhibition
5) (b) the compound Z acts as allosteric / non-competitive inhibitor
Activity10.5
Read the scenario below and then answer the question that follows:
Four Presidents are gathered in the Convention Centre of Kigali. They were requested to
mention in advance their preferences in term of meal menu, air conditioners, entertainment,
sport, etc. The manager realised that they have different preferences. The manager of the
convention Centre said it is normal to find them having differences in preference because event
the body of a single individual there are thousands of enzymes to serve our metabolism.
Therefore, the manager decided to allocate 5 servants per presidents.
With reference to the above scenario, explain why there are thousands of enzymes in living
organisms.
Answers of the activity 10.5
There are thousands upon thousands of chemical reactions that happen in the body that require
enzymes to speed up their rate of reaction, or will never happen. Enzymes are very specific, so nearly
each of these chemical reactions has its own enzyme to increase its rate of reaction
Self-Assessment 10.5
1) Fill the blank with appropriate terms:
Enzymes are biological ____________________ produced by
___________________________ cells. Enzymes reduce the amount of
____________________ energy required tor reactions to occur. They consist of
globular ____________________ with _______________________ structure.

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2) Answer the following questions:
a) What is the main role of enzymes?
b) What would happen if there are no enzymes in the cell?
c) One way of increasing the rate of many chemical reactions is to increase the
energy of the reactants by heating them.
d) Why is heat not used by cells to increase rates of reactions?
Answers for self-assessment 10.5
(1) Missing terms: catalysts – living – Activation – proteins – tertiary.
(2) (a) The main role of enzymes is to speed up the rate of reactions in living organisms

(b) If there are no enzymes in the cell, the metabolic reactions would stop and therefore the cell
would die
(c) Heat increases the motions of molecules and leads to collisions between reactant molecules.
Activity 10.6
Enzymes are needed in everyday life. At school you can use salivary amylase to hydrolyse
starch. There is industrial technique used to get large amounts of enzyme amylase without
collect saliva from people.
Read through the notes below and answer the questions below:
a) Describe how enzyme technology is conducted
b) What is the role of thermophilic bacteria in this process?
c) How is improved the stability of enzyme?
Learning activities 10.
Towards learning objective, guide students how the activity 10.6 should be done as described in
students’ textbook.
After reading and answering to the questions of activity, ask them to present their findings.
From what they have presented, help students to summarize the lesson through questions. Extend the
conclusion of the lesson and attract learners’ attention by a concept of being a job creator (financial
education) through enzymes technology.
Self-Assessment 10.6
1) What is the role of alcohol or ammonium sulphate during the extraction of
enzymes?
2) Why is the thermostability of enzymes so important for many industrial
processes?
Answers for self-assessment 10.6
a) Alcohol and ammonium sulphate are used to precipitate the enzyme from a solution
b) High temperatures occur during many industrial processes.
End of unit assessment 10
1) Enzymes are biocatalysts.
a) What is the meaning of the following terms elated to enzyme activity?
(i) Catalyst
(ii) Activation energy
(iii) Lock and key
(iv) Q10
b) Why are there hundreds of different enzymes in a cell?
c) How do enzymes reduce the activation energy of a reaction?
2) Enzyme activity is related to a number of factors.

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a) Explain why enzymes work faster at high temperatures
b) Describe what happens to the enzyme structure if the temperature is raised well above the
optimum temperature.
c) How are enzymes affected by pH?
d) Why do different enzymes have a different optimum pH?
e) What is the difference between a reversible and irreversible enzyme inhibitor?
3) Some bacteria and algae can survive in the boiling waters of hot springs. Enzymes from these
organisms are used in industrial processes. Why are these enzymes useful?
4) The following set data show the effect of temperature on the completion time of an enzyme
reaction.
Temperature / C 0.0 15 25 35 45 55 65
Rate of reaction / min-1 0.00 0.07 0.12 0.25 0.50 0.28 0.00
a) Plot the data on a graph
b) What is the optimum temperature of this reaction?
c) Describe the shape of the graph between 10 and 40C
d) Calculate the rate of increase between 20 and 30C.
5) The table below shows the rate of an enzyme reaction at a range of temperature:

Temperature / °C Mass lost by reactants Rate of reaction = mass los temperature

/mg

10 5
20 10
30 40
40 80
50 20
a) Fill that table with the values of the rate of reaction and plot a graph of rate at different
temperatures (use x-axis for temperature).
b) Calculate Q10 at 30°C.
c) Explain what happen between 20 and 30°C, and between 40 and 50°C.
6) The graph below shows the activity of a commercial enzyme alcalase at different pH value.
Alcalase is a protease enzyme.

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a) What compounds are digested by this enzyme?
b) Describe the change in enzyme activity with pH.
c) How does this curve compare to the pH curve of a human digestive enzyme such as pepsin?
7) Outline how a specific enzyme can be produced from bacteria.

Answers to end unit assessment

1) The following are the answers:

a) The following are the explanations:
(i) A catalyst is a substance that increases the rate at which reactions take place but does not get
involved in the reaction and is reused many times. Catalysts are used in industrial processes and are
found in living organisms.
(ii) The lock and key means that the active site of the enzyme has a specific shape as that of a lock
and the shape of the substrate can fit in as a specific key in its lock.
(iii)Activation energy is the energy required by molecules to start a reaction.
(iv) Q10means the rate of a reactions doubles for every 10ᵒC increase in temperature, up to the
optimum temperature.
b) There are hundreds of different enzymes in our cells because of hundreds of different reactions
taking place in cell, each enzyme only catalyses one reaction.
c) Enzymes hold the substrate in such a way as to allow them to react more easily at lower
temperature than usual.
4) The following are the answers:
a) Enzyme work faster at high temperature because the heat energy provides molecules with energy;
the more heat the faster the molecules move around; more likely that a substrate will bump into an
enzyme; increasing temperatures, increase the rate of reactions up to a maximum point called the
optimum temperature.
b) High temperatures provide so much energy that the atoms making up the enzyme vibrate; the
bonds to break down; the enzyme loses its globular shape (its tertiary structure) and becomes

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denatured. However, a few bacterial enzymes found in hot springs and the industrial are temperature-
resistant.
c) The number of H+ or OH- ions in a solution affects the distribution of charges over the surface of
the enzyme. The pH affects the ionisation of side chain in amino acid residues and affects the
hydrogen bonds and di-sulphur bridges which hold the enzyme in 3D shape. Extremes of pH
denature the enzyme.
d) Enzymes catalyze different reactions and are found in different cellular environments; for
example, extra-cellular digestive enzymes have to be able to work in acidic or alkaline conditions in
the stomach or intestine respectively. In addition, each enzyme has a different combination of amino
acid side chains.
e) Differences between reversible and irreversible enzyme inhibitors:
Reversible enzyme inhibitor Irreversible enzyme inhibitor
Binds loosely to the enzyme and reduces Binds permanently to enzyme
its activity
Can be removed without permanent Once removed from the enzyme, it causes
damage permanent damage.
Inhibition can be reduced when the Inhibition cannot be reduced by the
concentration of correct substrate is increase of concentration of correct
increased. substrate.
e.g. malonate inhibits the enzyme succinate e.g. Arsenic and cyanide permanently
dehydrogenase (in Krebs’ cycle) damage respiratory enzymes.
5) They have optimum temperatures of up to 90ᵒC. They can be used in reactions where high
temperatures are involved. They are stable at high temperatures so can be re-used many times.
6) The following are the answers:
a) I plot the curve

b) The optimum temperature is 45ᵒC

c) The rate of the reaction is increasing with temperature / linear increase; rate doubles with every
10ᵒC increase in temperature; reference to Q10.
d) Rate at 20ᵒC is 0.1, rate at 30ᵒC is 0.2; Rate of increase is 0.1/10ᵒC or 0.01 per ᵒC
7) Answers are summarized in the following table:

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a) I complete the table and the plot the curve
Temperature / °C Mass lost by reactants Rate of reaction =
/mg mass lost :
temperature
10 5 0.5
20 10 0.5
30 40 1.3
40 80 2.0
50 20 0.4

b) Q10 at 30ᵒC = 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑡(30+10)𝐶𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑡 30 𝐶 = 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑡 40 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑡 30 𝐶 = 2.01.333 = 1.5 x

c) Between 20 and 30C the rate of the reaction increases exponentially because the increasing
temperature is giving energy to enzyme molecules but between 40 and 50C the rate of the reaction is
decreasing as the excessive heat is denaturing the enzyme which loses its globular shape/its tertiary
structure.
8) The answers are:
a) Proteins
b) Linear increase in activity between pH=4-7. Calculation of the percentage increase in activity with
each pH unit; reaches optimum / Peak at pH = 7.8-8.0; activity remains high until pH=9; then activity
decreases; decrease in activity not as steep as the increase in the activity.
c) Increase in activity is less steep; enzyme activity over greater range of pH values; maximum
activity over 4 pH units, which is much larger than obtained for human digestive enzymes.
9) The steps are the followings:
- A specific gene is introduced in the DNA of a given bacteria
- Bacteria are cultivated is a specific medium
- Enzyme is precipitated by alcohol or ammonium sulphate
- Enzyme is extracted by chromatography or electrophoresis.

Additional activities
Remedial activities

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1) What do you understand by enzyme peptidase?
Answer:
Peptidase is the enzyme that hydrolyses the breakdown of peptide into amino acids.
2) What characteristic among the following does not describe enzymes?

a) Enzymes speed up the rate of reaction

b) Enzymes lower down the activation energy

c) Enzymes provide a reaction surface for a reaction to take place

d) Enzymes are hydrophilic in nature.

Answer: A
3) Which of the following statements is not true regarding the active site of an enzyme?

a) An active site is normally a hollow or cleft on the surface of an enzyme.

b) An active site is normally hydrophilic in nature

c) Substrates fit into active sites and bind to functional groups within the active site.

d) An active site contains amino acids which are important to the binding process and the catalytic
mechanism.

Answer: B
4) What will happen to the rate of the enzyme controlled reaction if the temperature passes from
15C to 25C?

Answers
The rate of the reaction will double because the temperature increases by 10C from 15C to 25C
5) What is meant by the end-product inhibition?

Answers
The end product inhibition is when the end product comes to fit in the active site of the enzyme and
therefore prevents the enzyme from binding to another substrate.
6) Answer by True or False:
a) A single enzyme catalyse only a specific reaction or a closely related group of reactions
b) A single enzyme can catalyse the breakdown of several molecules of different natures
c) An enzyme can speed up or slowdown the rate of reaction
d) There are thousands of enzymes because each reaction requires its optimum conditions and its
specific enzyme
e) Digestive enzymes are found in the saliva, gastric juice, pancreatic juice and the bile
Answers:
A. True B. False C. False D. True E. False
7) Why does an enzyme catalyse only a specific reaction or a closely related group of reactions?

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Answer
Enzyme can only catalyse reactions in which the substrate shape fits that of its active site.
8) Differentiate between intracellular and extracellular enzymes

Answer
An intracellular enzyme is produced inside a microorganism while an extracellular enzyme is
excreted by an organism.
Consolidated activities
1) Use the Excel program to draw the curve of the rate of enzyme controlled reaction from the data
bellow.
Temp 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
eratur
e/
C
Rate 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.8 1.6 0.8 0.2 0.05
of the
reacti
on
Answer:

2) What do you understand by the turnover of an enzyme controlled reaction?

Answer
The turnover number of an enzyme is the number or reactions an enzyme molecule can catalyse in
one second.
3) What is the difference between key –and-lock theory and fit induced theory?
Answer
In key –and-lock theory the shape of active site is complementary to that of the substrate whilst in the
fit induced theory, the shape of the active site is not complementary to that of the substrate but is
modified.

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4) Only enzyme amylase and simple materials such as the sauce pans, empty 1.5L plastic bottles are
required to carry out this activity on effect of amylase. The source of starch can maize or cassava
flour, or boiled Irish potatoes.
- Boil 100g of starch in 5L of mineral water in clean a saucepan.
- Cover the saucepan and then let the mixture cool down
- Put 1L of the starch solution in each of the 4 empty and clean bottles labeled A – D.
- Put 0g – 0.1g – 0.5g and 1g of amylase powder on bottles A – D respectively.
- Shake the mixture in each bottle and then divide each into two bottles A1 and A2, B1 and B2, C1
and C2, and D1 and D2.
- Keep bottles A1 – D1 in cold conditions but A2 – D2 in warm conditions.
- After 24 hours, pipette 2 ml from each bottle which you mix with 1ml of Benedict’s solution.
- Boil the samples from A1 and A2 at the same time for 1minute, then B1 and B2, C1 and C2 and
finally D1 and D2.
- Record your observation and draw a conclusion.

Answer
- There is no reducing sugar in the bottles A1 and A2 but much reducing sugar in bottle D2. Mixtures
in bottles A1 and A2 served as control.
- Bottles B1, C1 and D1 have lesser reducing sugars than the bottles B2, C2 and D2.
- The enzyme amylase hydrolyzed the starch into maltose, a reducing sugar. The rate of the reaction
was expressed in term of the concentration of reducing sugar in the solution.

The rate of reaction depended on the concentration of the enzyme and the temperature.
5) Ptyaline is the specific name of the salivary amylase. What is the role of ptyalin?

Answer
Ptyalin hydrolyses the large molecules of starch into small molecules of maltose
6) Make research on the applications of enzymes is industrial processes.

Answer

Application Enzymes Uses

Biological detergents Lipase , Protease, Amylase Use in washing powders and
dishwashers to digit and
break down fats, proteins and
starch
Thermostable enzymes isolated from thermophilic bacteria have been isolated and produced
by genetic engineering to function over a wide range of temperature
Cellulase To digest the loose damaged cellulose
microfibrils, soften and brighten coloured
cotton fabrics
Dairy products Renin (from stomachs of To coagulate milk proteins in
calves) the manufacture of cheese
Chymosin enzymes Production of lactose-free
(generally engineered from milk

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 E. coli)
Immobilized enzyme lactase

Extended activities
1) Make research on the enzyme called Alcohol dehydrogenases (ADH) and get ready to present
your finding.
Answer: Alcohol dehydrogenases (ADH) are a group of dehydrogenase enzymes that occur in many
organisms and facilitate the interconversion between alcohols and aldehydes or ketones with the
reduction of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+ to NADH). In humans and many other
animals, they serve to break down alcohols that otherwise are toxic, and they also participate in
generation of useful aldehyde, ketone, or alcohol groups during biosynthesis of various metabolites.
In yeast, plants, and many bacteria, some alcohol dehydrogenases catalyze the opposite reaction as
part of fermentation to ensure a constant supply of NAD+
2) Suggest how you would set an experiment to show that enzyme speed the rate of reaction

Answer: Set a control solution and a treated solution with en enzyme. Allow time for the experiment
to take place. Compare both solutions at the same interval of time. Draw your conclusion.
3) Use the modelling/ natural clay or plasticine to design models of key –and-lock theory and fit
induced theory

Answer: (Provide the modeling clay and allow learners to improvise their models which shall have
the Enzyme – the active site – the substrate)

4) Plan to take students for a field trip to nearest industry that use enzyme to make their products
(e.g. Bralirwa, Inyange etc.

5) It was found that both pepsin and Trypsin play the same role of breaking down protein into
polypeptides. What is the relevance of having both pepsin and Trypsin?

Answer: Pepsin and Trypsin amylases are useful because:

- Pepsin works in acid medium (pH = 2) while Trypsin requires a basic medium (pH = 8.2)

- There are large amounts of proteins in our diets. Pepsin alone would not enough to carry out such
an activity

- If pepsin suffers end product inhibition, Trypsin will come up.

6) You can plan for a field trip to a nearest industry making dairy product and ask students to record
and present their observations using the following guiding questions:

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a) What enzyme is used?
b) What is the maximum temperature?
c) How standard is the process?
UNIT 11 PRINCIPLES OF GAS EXCHANGE SYSTEMS

Introductory activity
Kalisa and his sister Uwase wanted to rear tilapia at their home. They bought a nice transparent
plastic box. They felt it with 1.5L clean mineral water, put in some pieces of meat and plant
leaves. They finally introduced a living tilapia in the box and covered. After two days they were
happy to see their fish swimming but on the third day they become sad of finding it dead and
yet the food was still in water.
What could cause the death of Kalisa and Uwesa’s fish?

Guidance on the introductory activity

The unit is introduced with the case study of Kalisa and Uwase’s fish which is in introductory
activity 11. Brain storm what do you think to be the cause of death of that fish on the third day? Did
you also think what could happen to people who do smoke? Extend the case and then ask them to
predict what will happen to people who do smoke. Value what has been brainstormed and introduce
all unit.

Activity 11.1
1) Use Manila paper, scissors, and graduate ruler to create three cubes: 3cm x 3cm, 2cm
x 2cm, 1cm x 1cm
a) Calculate the surface area, the volume, and the surface area to volume ratio of
each cube. What do you conclude from these ratios?
b) Compare the surface area to the volume of a spherical alveolus having a radius of
0.001m and that of another animal with a radius of 0.000001m.
2) What do you understand by surface area to volume ratio?
Answers for activity 11.1
1) The following are the answers:

a) Remember that for a cube, Area A=6S2 and its volume V= S3 (You better use the excel software to
calculate)
Side /mm Area (A) Volume A to V
(V) ratio
3 54 27 2
2 24 8 3
1 6 1 6

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Conclusion as the size increase the volume also increases but the surface area to volume ratio
decreases.
b) The surface area of a sphere is calculated by A= 4π4 and its Volume by: V = 4π33
Radius/mm Area (A) Volume (V) A to V ratio
3 113.04 113.04 1
1 12.56 4.2 3

2) The surface area to volume ratio is the relationship between the volume of an organ and it volume.
Self-Assessment 11.1
1) Write a short note about the surface area to volume ratio of an object
2) Determine the surface area to volume of a sphere having a diameter of 4 mm.

Answers for self- assessment 11.1

1) The surface area to the volume ratio gets smaller as the cell or animal gets larger. Thus, if the cell
grows beyond a certain limit, not enough material will be able to cross the membrane fast enough to
accommodate the increased cellular volume. The volume of the cell will be so large that the
diffusion rate will be too low to distribute necessary substances throughout the cell within a
reasonable time. This brings about the need of having a mechanism of ventilation that speeds up the
rate of gaseous exchange.
2) If the diameter of sphere is 4 mm, then the radius will be 4mm/2 = 2mm. Therefore, the surface
area will be A = 200.96 mm2 and its volume V = 133.9733mm3 and the surface area to volume ration
is 1.5
Activity 11.2
Each of the following organisms has specific respiratory surface area: fish, guinea pig (rat or
rabbit), insect, and the plant leaf. Use appropriate laboratory equipment to dissect each of the
above organisms and observe the modifications on gaseous exchange surfaces that speed up
diffusion.

Learning activity 11.2

You are requested to do the following so that students will develop competences related to this
lesson. Facilitate the dissection of fish and mammals. Provide the hand-outs of diagrams of
respiratory systems of insects, fish and Mammal. If the school has microscope and prepared slide,
students would rather complete Activity11.3
You will need: Lungs of a sheep or pig, newspaper, plastic sheets, dissecting board, sharp
scalpel, dissecting needles, scissors, dissecting tray, latex gloves, CPR mouth piece, soap to
wash hands and surfaces.

Figure11.5. Sheep lungs on a dissecting board

Procedure
- Place the dissecting board on the newspaper and lay the lungs on the board.
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- Use a scalpel to cut the lungs in half in longitudinal section.
- Identify the trachea, right lung, left lung, cartilage rings, bronchus, larynx, alveoli, and
bronchiole. You can use a magnifying hand lens to observe structures in the lungs.
- Inflate the lungs by blowing through the CPR (cardio-Pulmonary Resuscitation)
mouth piece to see how the lungs expand.
- Feel the slippery inside of trachea, press the lung with your finger and look at
cartilaginous rings.
- Remember to wash your hand s with soap as you finish your experiment.
1) Explain what it feels like as you press the lungs with your fingers.
2) Look at cartilaginous rings. What function do they serve?
3) (a) List four features of respiratory surfaces.
(b) Examine the lung and explain how the lungs are suited for efficient gaseous exchange.

Expected answers:
1) The lungs are soft and flexible as one presses with fingers
2) The cartilaginous rings have the function of maintaining the trachea open
3) The lungs have the following features surfaces: large surface – moist – blood capillary -
Self-Assessment 11.2
1) Describe the adaptations of the gills for gaseous exchange
2) List the structures through which air passes on its way from the nose to the alveoli.
3) Give two reasons why mammals need lungs, rather exchanging gases through the skin.

Answers for self-assessment 11.2

1) Adaptations of gills:
- The gills provide a large surface area to volume ratio
- The gills are very thin
- There is a high concentration gradient between blood in the gills and water passing over them
2) Nasal cavity – pharynx – trachea – bronchi – bronchioles – alveoli
3) The skin would not provide a sufficient large surface area for gas exchange, and gaseous exchange
through the skin would also result in excessive water loss.
Activity 11.3
Insects use the spiracles, fish use their gills, young amphibians use gills, and adult amphibians
use skin and lungs. Reptiles, birds and mammals use their lungs. Plants use stomata, cuticles
and lenticels. Carry a research to identify the characteristics of respiratory surface areas above
mentioned.
Learning activity 11.3

- Tell students to work in groups and orient them on the source of information.

- You can provide textbook or bring students in the smart computer laboratory to carry out the
research. Invite them to make a report of what they have read and acquired from the reading
resource.
Self-Assessment 11.3
1) Revise the above characteristic features of respiratory surface areas and thereafter
identify those which are common to all living organisms (unicellular and multicellular,

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plants and animals)
2) Explain why the following features of a respiratory surface helps gaseous exchange:
a) A good blood supply
b) Protection
c) A thin surface
Answers for self- assessment 11.3
1) Characteristic features of respiratory surface areas common to all living organisms (unicellular and
multicellular, plants and animals) are the following:
- Large surface area
- Thin surface or thin wall
- Moist surfaces area
- High diffusion deficit / concentration gradient
2) The following features of a respiratory surface helps gaseous exchange because:
a) A good blood supply makes gases diffuse into the blood and is carried to and from the body cells.
b) Protection in order to avoid injuries or damage of delicate organs such as the gills or the lungs
involved in gaseous exchange.
c) A thin surface to enable quick diffusions of gases.
Activity 11.4
Make group research to find out main health risks related to smoking. Thereafteranalyse the
photographs below and answer questions that follow.

Figure11.6: Healthy and sick lungs

a) Between the lungs of individuals, A and B which one is most likely that of the cigarette
smoker?
b) Read the notes below to identify at least three risks related to smoking cigarette.

Learning activity for lesson 11.4

Sensitize students to find diagram or picture of lungs attached by tuberculosis. If there is no if there is
no network, use the suggested diagrams of individuals A and B in activity 11.4.

Ask questions about the person who suffer from tuberculosis and why? Don’t argue with them who
might argue that both individuals seem to be sick but emphasize to the one who looks more affected?
The answer to that question should be the individual B because of the granules appearing in the
lungs.

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To the second question, allow some time to students read the short term and long term effects of
smoking. This requires a discussion in order to focus on the change of attitude and values. You
expect them to shown their concern about smoking.

Self-Assessment 11.4
Analyze the photograph below and share with your group members your concern.

1) Between the baby and the parent who will suffer more effects of tobacco? Give reasons
2) Discuss any one negative side of smoking tobacco cigarette.
3) Design a sign post to advocate against smoking tobacco.

Answers of self- assessment for lesson

1) Both the parent and the baby suffer from tobacco smoke. The parent is consuming the tar, the
nicotine and CO. the baby does not consume all these components in the cigarette by the immune
system of the baby is still weak to protect it against the adversities of the smoke.

- The list of consequences will be generated from the notes in the students’ book. They include the
short term and long term consequences such as:

- Tar paralyses the cilia which remove dirt and bacteria; the accumulation of extra material in the air
passage can restrict air flow.

- Smoke acts as an irritant; this causes secretion of excess mucus from goblet cells and excess fluid
into the airways, making it more difficult for the air to pass through them.

- Mucus accumulating in the alveoli limits the air that they can contain and lengthens the diffusion
pathway.

- Coughing of many smokers, way of trying to remove the build-up of mucus from the lungs, can
cause damage to the airways and alveoli; scar tissue builds up which again reduces air movement and
rates of diffusion

- Infections arise because the cilia no longer remove mucus and pathogens

- Bronchitis: Bronchitis is inflammation of the lining of the air passages and may be acute or chronic.

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 - Emphysema: One in every five smokers will develop the crippling lung disease called emphysema
i.e. condition of gradual breakdown of the thin wall of the alveoli leading to sensation of
breathlessness as the gaseous exchange reduces

- Lung cancer: Lung cancer usually starts in the epithelium of the bronchioles and then spreads
throughout the lungs as dividing cells cease to respond to the normal signals around them and form
unspecialized masses of cells called tumours. The tar is the smoke is carcinogen i.e. contains
chemicals which cause cancer. The irritation causes thickening of the epithelium by extra cell
division and this may trigger the cancer. Almost all people who die from lung cancer are smokers

2) Students will design several sign posters and the teacher will appreciate and encourage them.

End of unit assessment11

Match the terms in Column A with the correct definition in Column B.
Column A Column B
(1) Gaseous exchange A. A slimy substance to keep surfaces moist.
(2) Stoma B. Taking air into the lungs.
(3) Inhalation C. The process where food is made in the plant.
(4) Photosynthesis D. The exchange of gases in living organisms.
(5) Mucus E. Opening found in leaves.
Describe how the human lungs serve as good gaseous exchange organs.
Emphysema is a disease of the lungs. People who smoke cigarettes are more likely to suffer from
emphysema. The diagrams show lung tissue from a healthy person and lung tissue from a person
with
emphysema. The diagrams are drawn to the same scale

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What happen on the lung tissues of an individual with Emphysema?
Explain how emphysema reduces the amount of oxygen which diffuses into the blood.
What features make the gill of fish an efficient respiratory organ?
Compare respiratory system in fish and that in mammals.
Why people who smoke are most likely victim of lung cancer?
Design a simple model that shows the structure and functioning of gas exchange system in
mammals.

11.8Answers to end unit assessment

1) (1) – (D) (2) – (E) (3) – (B) (4) – (C) (5) – (A)

2) Adaptations for gaseous exchange in the lungs.

- The alveoli provide a large surface area for gaseous exchange

- The surfaces of the alveoli are moist for gases to dissolve before diffusion can occur

- Surfactant cells (septal cells) secrete surfactant (a phospholipid). This allows the surface tension of
the fluid lining the inner surface of alveolus and speeds up gaseous exchange

- The alveoli have thin walls (on cell thick) which minimize the distance for gas diffusion

- The walls are permeable to diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide

- The alveoli are surrounded by numerous blood capillaries, which bring carbon dioxide for diffusion
into the alveoli and carry away oxygen to the circulatory system

- A good ventilation system provides a constant supply of oxygen to the alveoli and removes carbon
dioxide

- Stretch receptors in the lungs help to initiate the breathing relax

- Elastic fibers in the lungs permit optimum extension during inspiration.

3) The following are the answers:

a) When an individual suffers from Emphysema there is a gradual breakdown of the thin walls of the
alveoli, decreasing the total surface area for gaseous exchange.

b) In people with emphysema, the air sacs in the lungs (alveoli) are damaged. Over time, the inner
walls of the air sacs weaken and rupture — creating larger air spaces instead of many small ones.
This reduces the surface area of the lungs and, in turn, the amount of oxygen that reaches the
bloodstream.

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- Gills are efficient respiratory surface areas because:

- They provide a large surface area to volume ratio

- They are very thin to allow diffusion

- They maintain a high concentration gradient between the blood in the gills and the water passing
over them

- (a) Similarities between respiratory surface area in the fish and in the mammals
- Both have a large surface area
- Both have blood capillary network
- Both have thin wall
c) Differences between respiratory surface area in the fish and in the mammals
Fish Mammals
Use gills Use lungs
Adapted for gas exchange in water Adapted for gas exchange in air
Unit structures for gas exchanges are gill Unit structures for gas exchange are alveoli
filamments
High affinity to oxygen Lower affinity to oxygen

- Tobacco smoke contains a number of carcinogens i.e. substances that cause cancer. These cause
mutations that lead to uncontrolled mitosis and formation of tumours.
The tar is the smoke is also carcinogen. The irritation causes thickening of the epithelium by extra
cell division and this may trigger the cancer. Almost all people who die from lung cancer are
smokers.
- The diagram they will design will look like the following:

11.9Additional activities
11.9.1 Remedial activity
1) Between an elephant and a rat which animal is expected to have a big surface area to volume?
Why?
Answer:
It is the rat because the small the volume the bigger the surface area to volume ratio.
2) The diagram below shows the respiratory system in a human. Label the structures A – G.

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Answer:
A – trachea; B – rib; C – heart; D – Diaphragm; E – Alveolus; F – Bronchus; G – bronchiole.
3) List the adaptations of alveoli that make them suitable for gaseous exchange.

Answer:
Well ventilated and highly perfused with blood to maintain a high concentration gradient; numerous,
small, and highly folded to provide a very large surface area; thin (one cell thick) to minimize
diffusion distance between the blood in the capillaries and the air in the lungs.
4) Name the gas in cigarette smoke that prevents oxygen from binding to haemoglobin

Answer:
Carbon monoxide
11.9.2 Consolidated activity
1) What is the consequence of having a small surface area to volume ratio?

Answer:
Animal with a too small surface area to volume ratio cannot meet the demand of transport of
substances by diffusion.
2) Arthropods do not have the haemoglobin to transport oxygen. Explain the relevance of the
tracheole system in insect to overcome the shortage of oxygen supply.

Answer:
Air is directly brought to the active tissues where the gas exchange is directly done by diffusion.
3) If the air contains 0.04% of CO2, calculate p (CO2). Assume that the total pressure of the air is
101.3KPa.

An P (CO2) = 0.04% x 101.3KPa = 0.04KPa.

4) Explain why cigarette smoking increases the risk of osteoporosis

Answer:
Cigarette smoking lowers oestrogen levels and reduces bone mineralization
11.9.3 Extended activity
1) Answer the following questions:
a) Use excel software to find out the surface area to volume ration of the following cubes:
Side/mm Area (A) Volume A to V
(V) ratio
1

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2
3
4
5
6
(b) Plot a curve of Surface area to volume ration against the size of each cube
Answer:
1) (a)
Side/mm Area (A) Volume A to V
(V) ratio
1 6 1 6
2 24 8 3
3 54 27 2
4 96 64 1.5
5 150 125 1.2
6 216 216 1

2) (b)

3) Why the fish cannot survive longer out of water at yet the atmosphere has plenty oxygen than
water?
Answer
Because the gills are adapted to fix little amount of oxygen dissolved in water. The flow of water in
parallel current or countercurrent direction allows the efficient gas exchange. But the open air does
not match with such an adaptation in fish.
4) Suggest why each cubic centimeter volume of a frog lung has a total gaseous exchange surface of
20 Cm2, whereas a cubic centimeter volume of a mouse lung has a gaseous exchange surface of
about 800 cm2.

Answer
The shape of the respiratory surface areas of both frog and mouse are not the same.
5) How does tar in cigarette smoke contribute to the development of emphysema?

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Answer: Tars irritate and damage lung tissue both mechanically and chemically.

UNIT 12 GAS EXCHANGE IN PLANTS.

Introductory activity
In unit 11 you discussed that all aerobic organisms need efficient respiratory surface area. In
humans the organs involved in respiration are more visible. Have you ever thought of how
plants do their gaseous exchange? If so, what structures are involved?

Guidance on the introductory activity

Introduce the unit by interacting with students through the statement and questions below:
As you know, all living organisms are characterised by gaseous exchange or simply by respiration. In
a human being, the organs that are involved in respiration are more visible. Did you think about how
do plants exchange gas? If so, how do they do? What are the structures that are involved?
Use their ideas to introduce a whole unit.
Activity 12.1
Requirement
Light microscope, glass slide, cover slip, Commelina zebrine /tradescantia leaves, razor blade,
forceps, Pasteur dropper and iodine solution.

Figure12.1: Commelina zebrine (left) and Commelina clavata (right)

Procedure
- Identify Commelina zebrina or tradescantia plant nearby the school. You can also use any other
monocotyledonous plant with succulent leaves.
- Remove a leaf from a plant. Then peel off gently the lower epidermis. It must be transparent
- Smear the epidermis on a slide containing one drop of dilute iodine solution.
- Put on a cover slip and then observe under the lower and medium magnification.
- Repeat the observation in morning hours and in the afternoon hours.
Questions
1) Why the sample to use in the preparation must be transparent?
2) Draw and label structures as observed under light microscope.

Answers for activity 12.1

1) To enable clear observation of the internal structures including stomata and neighbouring cells.
2) A labelled diagram of stoma

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Self – assessment 12.1
Analyse the diagram below and then answer the questions that follow.

1) What title fits better to this diagram:

a) Diagram of the stomata
b) Diagram of the stoma
c) Diagram of a guard cell and neighbouring cells
d) Diagram of a stoma and neighbouring cells
2) The part labelled C from the diagram is:
a) Vacuole
b) Thick inner cell wall
c) Chloroplast
d) Thin outer cell wall
3) The part which better represent the neighbouring cell is
a) Part A
b) Part B
c) Part C
d) Part D
4) If the guard cells become more turgid, what is more likely to happen?
a) The cells A will swell
b) The aperture will increase its diameter
c) The number of structures C will decrease
d) The structure B will stretch in ward
5) Which of the following statements is false about that diagram?
a) The stoma is closed
b) The inner cell wall of guard is thicker than the outer cell wall
c) There are many chloroplasts in neighbouring cells
d) The guard cells have many chloroplasts.
Answers for self-assessment 12.1.

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1) D
2) B
3) A
4) C
5) A
Activity10.2
The diagram below shows a closed and an open stoma.

Figure 12.3: Mechanism of opening and closing of stomata

Carefully analyse the diagrams above and brainstorm your observation.
Illustrate how stomata open and close.
Answers for activity 12.2
Entry of water and potassium in the guard cells
Theory of Photosynthesis in Guard Cells and Active Potassium Pump Theory

Self-assessment 12.2
1) According to the ionic theory of opening and closing stoma, what is the role of potassium ions
in the guard cell?
2) What would happen to guard cells if the concentration of malate doubled?
3) What is meant by compensation point?
Answers for self-assessment 12.2
- Potassium increases the permeability of carbon dioxide into the guard cells.
- Osmotic pressure will increase and guard cells will open wider.
- The rate of photosynthesis is equal to the one of cell respiration or the volume of the carbon dioxide
released by respiration is equal to the volume of oxygen released by photosynthesis.
Activity 12.3
Observe the adaptations of these plants for gas exchange.

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Figure 12: (a) Mangrove (b) Breathing roots by Krene(c) Pneumatophores
1) How each of these plants is adapted for gas exchange?
2) Read through the notes that follow and describe any two adaptations for gas exchange

Learning activity 12.3

Ask students to make observations on the plants pictures given in the activity 12.3 and answer to the
questions given in activity.
- How each of these plants is adapted for gas exchange?
- Read through the notes that follow and describe any two adaptations for gas exchange

Ask them to report their observation through diagramme

Ask them to present their work and you may challenge them through other questions so that they may
deepen their understanding.
a) Mangroves have long aerial roots on the surface of water used for water absorption as well as gas
exchange. Breathing roots by krene exhibit long aerial roots on the surface area of the soil for gas
exchange. Pneumatophores crack or break compact soil surface and develop upward to get more
oxygen for gas exchange.
b) Adaptations of plants for gas exchange include: stomata, breathing roots, lenticels and cuticles
Self-assessment 12.3
1) What structures are involved in gas exchange in plants?
2) What is meant by hydrophytes?

Answers for self-assessment 14.3

1) The structures involved in gas exchange are: stomata, breathing roots, lenticels and cuticles.
2) Hydrophytes are water plants which grow submerged or partially submerged in water. E.g. water
lilies grow in ponds where their leaves generally float directly on the surface of the water. They are
adapted to floating by spongy internal cells and their stomata are developed on large upper surface.

End of unit assessment 12

Section A: Objective questions
1) You are provided with the diagram below. Analyze it and then chose the correct answer.
Transpiration in the leaf depends on the transport of potassium ions into:
a) Into O
b) Into P
c) From M to L
d) From M to Q
e) From P to L.

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2) The theory that says than during the light time, potassium pumps open and this brings
about diffusion of CO2 from the atmosphere to the guard cells for photosynthesis is
called:
a) Theory of photosynthesis in guard cells
b) Theory of starch sugar inter-conversion
c) Theory of glycolate metabolism
d) Theory of active Potassium Pump.
3) What is the main difference between the guard cells and the other epidermal cells?
a) Guard cells have chloroplast while the remaining epidermal cells have no
chloroplast
b) Guard cells have oval shape while other cells have cubic shape
c) Guard cells are beneath the spongy mesophyll
d) The guard cells are covered by a transparent cuticle
4) Water lily is:
a) Xerophytes
b) Halophyte
c) Hydrophyte
d) Heleophyte
5) Mangroves are plants adapted to estuaries or marine region with high salinity. What
statement does not describe the adaptations of mangroves?
A. The presence of lenticels that help in gas exchange and evaporation
B. Presence of large number of stomata on the upper side of the leaves
C. The presence of pneumatophores which are breathing roots
D. Presence of succulent tissues that have high concentration of salt
Section B
6) Explain how gaseous exchange occurs in the leaf.
7) How does gaseous exchange occur in woody stems?
8) Describe how roots get oxygen.
9) (a) Draw a labelled diagram of a stoma
(b) Draw arrows on the diagram to show how gaseous exchange occurs.
10) Answer the following questions:
a) The drawing shows a 24-hour cycle for the opening and closing of stomata from
the same plant.

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a) Explain how this cycle of opening and closing of stomata is advantageous to the plant
b) The diagram shows the potassium (K+) concentrations in the cells around open
and closed stomata in commelina. The concentrations are in arbitrary units.

i. Explain how the movement of K+ ions accounts for the opening of stomata.
ii. Explain how K+ ions are moved against a concentration gradient.

12.8Answers of end of unit assessment

Section A: Objective questions
1. B. 2. D. 3. A. 4. C. 5. B.
Section B
- During the day, K + pumps of guard cells open and K + ions flow in guard cells by active transport.
This makes guard cells permeable to carbon dioxide which is used in the chloroplast of guard cells to
make glucose by photosynthesis. High amount of sugar (malate) increases the osmotic pressure in the
guard cells. Water moves from the neighbouring cells into the guards cells which become turgid. The
guard cells stretch backwards and the aperture of stoma opens wider. Water vapour and Oxygen are
released.
- Stems of woody plants have narrow openings or slits at intervals called lenticels. They are
surrounded by loosely arranged cells where the bark is broken. They have many large air intercellular
spaces through which gaseous exchange occurs. Oxygen enters the cells by diffusion while CO 2
leaves. Unlike the rest of the bark, lenticels are permeable to gas and water.

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- Gaseous exchange occurs in the root hair of young terrestrial plants. Oxygen in the air spaces in the
soil dissolves in the film of moisture surrounding soil particles and diffuses into the root hair along a
concentration gradient. It diffuses from root hair cells into the cortex where it is used for respiration.
CO2 diffuses in the opposite direction. In older roots of woody plants, gaseous exchange takes place
through the lenticels.
- Roots of aquatic plants e.g. water lily are permeable to water and gases. Oxygen from the water
diffuses into roots along a concentration gradient. CO2 diffuses out of the roots and into the water.
The roots have many small lateral branches to increase the surface area for gaseous exchange. They
have air spaces that help the plants to float.
- The mangrove plants grow in permanently waterlogged soils, muddy beaches and estuaries. They
have roots that project above the ground level. These are known as pneumatophores.
1. (a) Refer to the student book (Figure 12.2)
(b) Refer to the student book (Figure 12.3)
2. (a) Stomata open during daylight hours to allow CO2 in for photosynthesis. Stomata close at night,
when no light, which reduces transpiration.

(b) (i) During day K+ ions move into the guard cells lowering the water potential and drawing in
water by osmosis. Guard cells with swollen vacuoles pull apart and stomata open.
(ii) K+ ions pass from low to high concentration by active transport. An input of energy is required
provided by ATP. Protein carriers are involved in active transport across a membrane
Additional activities
Remedial activities
1) Define each of the following terms: (a) Stoma – (b) pneumatophores – (c) Lenticels
2) Name the structures involved in gaseous exchange in plants
3) State the adaptations for gaseous exchange in mangroves.
Answers:
1) (a) Stoma is the aperture between two guard cells that opens and closes to control water
transpiration and gaseous exchange in plant leaves and stems (b) Pneumatophores are breathing roots
of plants (c) Lenticels are any of pores in the stems of woody plants that allow gas exchange between
the atmosphere and the internal tissues.
2) Structures involves in gaseous exchange in plants are stomata, cuticles, lenticels and
pneumatophores.
3) Adaptation of gas exchange in mangroves:
- Presence of stomata on leaves
- Presence of lenticels
- Presence of pneumatophores
Consolidated activities

1) Why do plants living at high altitudes need xeromorphic adaptations?

2) Why do halophytes have very little lignified tissues?
3) Glassworts are edible, salty tasting plants. Why do they accumulate salt in their tissues?
Answers:
1) Plants at high altitudes have xeromorphic adaptations to reduce transpiration losses when soil is
frozen and free water is unavailable
2) Hydrophytes are supported by water

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3) Salt is actively absorbed in tissues of glassworts to create a concentration gradient for the uptake
of water by osmosis.

Extended activities
Have a Commelina leaf. Remove its upper epidermis and its lower epidermis. Use 2mm x 2mm
portion from each epidermis. Mount each portion on a drop of dilute iodine solution. Observe each
preparation under the lower magnification. Count the number of stomata from each side. Repeat the
same procedure using the leaf of mango leaf.
a) Fill the table below:

Plant leaf Number of stomata on Number of stomata at

lower epidermis upper epidermis.
Commelina
Mango
UNIT 13 GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS.

Introductory activity
We all ever seen living organisms both plants and animals around us. They have differences
in body heights, widths and formation of new organs. What do you think to be the causal agent
about these changes in living organisms?
Expected answers for introductory activity
Cells divide; new cells absorb nutrients and water. They get bigger thus the organism increases in
height and width: this is growth
Activity 13.1
- Put dry bean seeds and maize grains in boiling water for 10 minutes.
- Use nails to make a longitudinal section of the bean and maize.
- Compare the two sections.
- From your point of view, do you think that all plants’ organs are always active?
Justify your point of view.
- Produce a picture showing how plant organ (seed and bud) behaves in relation to
oxygen, temperature and water..
Answer for activity 13.1
- Carry out the experiment
- Diagram in the student’s book figure 13.1
- No. some organs are dormant (not active) due to changes in growth factors (internal as well as
external factors), organs like seeds, bud and fruit depending on the period; can stop temporary
growing or developing. However, if conditions become favorable, the dormancy breaks and the
growth restarts.
Self-assessment 13.1
1) Describe what is dormancy?
2) Explain how dormancy is maintained and broken?
3) Suggest the advantage of dormancy in plants?
4) What are conditions needed for seed germination?
5) Explain the role of enzymes during the process of seed germination.
6) Draw and label endospermic and non-endospermic seeds
Answers for self-assessment 13.1
1) Dormancy is the period of low metabolic rate with little or no growth in plant organs.

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2) The plant organ remains dormant until environmental conditions become favorable to allow the
organ to grow again.
3) Helps them to survive harsh conditions
4) Water, Oxygen and temperature (warmth).
5) Softening the seed-coat and activating the enzymes in the seed.
6) Diagram in the student’s book figure 13.1
Learning activity 13.2
Conduct the experiment below to compare the two types of germination.
Requirements
Two bean seeds or soybean seeds, two sorghum or maize grains, water and two plastic
devices/containers
Procedure
- Fill each container with soil
- Put 2 grains of maize in the container labeled A and 2 seeds of bean in the container labeled B
- Pour some water in each container simply to moisture the soil.
- Put both containers A and B in a secured place.
- Record your observations from day 5 to day 21 with emphasis to developmental changes.
Answers for activity 13.2
Obtained results depend on the environmental conditions in which each group/ class worked
Self-assessment
1) Use diagrams to demonstrate and distinguish the types of seed germination.
Answers for self-assessment 13.2
1) Imbibition, radicle sprouting and plumule sprouting
2) Diagrams in student’s textbook figure 13.3 and Figure 13.4
2) Explain the three stages of seed germination.

Learning activity 13.3

Move around the school garden or anywhere in your surroundings, then collect two plant
species in which one is a monocotyledon another one is a dicotyledon.
1) By examining their physical characteristics, describe similarities and differences
between collected plants.
2) Predict the reason why all plants grow in length.
3) From your observation, suggest/ predict the reasons justifying why monocotyledons do
not grow in width while dicotyledons do.

Answer for the activity 13.3

1) They are similar in vegetative structure (all have leaves, stem and roots) and they all grow in
length. Differences in growth are given in the following table:
Monocots Dicots
Grow shorter Grow taller
Remain thinner Grow bigger
Develop less or no lateral shoot Develop lateral shoot
Are weak as they have herbaceous stem Are hard as they have woody stem
When mature they dry out (are annual or Exhibit unlimited growth (are perennial)
biannual)

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2) They all have apical meristems
3) Dicots have lateral meristems, vascular cambium and cork cambium which allow them to increase
in width while monocot do not.
Self-assessment 13.3
1) In the table list the differences between primary growth and secondary growth.
2) Explain briefly what the wood is and its major function.
3) What is the name given to a substance that makes the cork to resist plant dehydration?
4) Identify the importance of apical and lateral meristems in plant growth.

Answers for self-assessment 13.3

1) Answers are summarized in the following table:

Primary growth Secondary growth

is the increase in length the increase in width
Occurs in all plants Occurs in perennial plants only
it takes place on root and stem tips in root and stem
Is controlled by apical meristems Is controlled by lateral meristems

2) The wood consists of secondary xylem cells that are strengthened by lignin and cellulose. Its role
is to ensure mechanical support to the plant.
3) The increase in length would slow.
4) Suberin
Activity 13.4
In the learning activity 13.1 you have grown two types of seeds (bean and maize). Based on
that experiment do the following to investigate the primary growth in a seedling.
- Use a centimeter ruler, measure the height of each plant once each five days.
- Use a thread and a centimeter ruler to measure the width.
- Record your measurement in a tabular form as shown below.
Plant type Plant height
Day 5 Day 10 Day 15 Day 20

Bean
Maize
1) On the basis of the period of time indicated in the above table, count the number of leaves.
What do you notice?
2) Among the two given plants, predict the one with an increased volume of protoplasm and dry
mass.
Answer for the activity 13.4
Recording from each group
Self-assessment
1) A sign is hammered into a tree 2 m from the tree's base. If the tree is 10 m tall and elongates
1m each year, how high will the sign be after 10 years?
2) What features would enable you to conclude that this organism has grown?
3) Would you expect a tropical tree to have distinct growth rings? Why or why not?
4) If a complete ring of bark is removed around a tree trunk (a process called girdling), the
tree usually dies. Explain why.
Answers for self-assessment 13.4

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1) 12m
2) The increase in the dry mass, length, thickness and the ability to reproduce.
3) Girdling removes an entire ring of secondary phloem (part of the bark), completely preventing
transport of sugars and starches from the shoots to the roots. Girdling also removes the cork, this
phenomenon leads to severe water loss and the plant dies with dehydration.
Activity 13.5
At home the immature avocado fruits often fall down without being mature as well as
sunflower plant which grows faster when young and then flourish in the opposite direction to
the sun. Have you ever think and wonder about this? From your point of view, brainstorm the
cause of the situations described above. Use internet and textbooks, to outline roles played by
cytokinines, Gibberellin and ethylene plant hormones.
Answer for the activity 13.5
- Increase of abscissic acid in avocado plants cause the fruit to drop before maturity
- The auxins that promote the growth in length move away from light so that as the plant grows
longer the auxins concentrate in the lower part of the plants. This causes decrease in growth rate.
- Auxins stimulate flowering process by promoting cell division so that the flower turns away from
light source to maintain necessary auxins concentration.
Self-assessment 13.5
1) What are the plants hormones?
2) Describe the role played by each plant hormone.
3) Explain why some plants develop lateral shoots when the apex is cutoff.
Answers for self-assessment 13.5
1) There are five groups of plant hormones: Auxins or Indol Acetic Acid (IAA), Gibberellin or
gibberellic acid (GA), Cytokinins, Abscissic acid (ABA) and Ethene or ethylene (C2H4).
2) The answer is given in the following table:
Plant hormone Functions
Auxins
- Promote cell growth by cell
elongation stimulation
- Promote root formation on stem and
leaf cuttings
- Increase number of fruit
- Prevent abscission
- Prevent germination of stored
potatoes and onions

Gibberellins (GA)
- Promote growth of shoots and
leaves
- Stimulate seed germination, and
seedling growth
- Increase size of fruit

- Stimulates parthenocarpy

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Cytokinins
- Promote growth through cell
division stimulation
- Promote lateral bud growth in dicots
- Slow down senescence

Abscisic acid (ABA)

- stimulates stomatal closure during
water stress
- stimulates seed dormancy
- Inhibits growth promoters so that it
blocks growth

Ethylene
- stimulate ripening of fruit
- Promotes flowering in mangoes and
pineapples
- Promotes abscission (detachment of
leaves).
- Stimulate seed dormancy

3) The growth in height slows down and the lateral shoot grows dramatically.
Activity 13.6
Most of plants grow toward the sunlight direction. The few which have been observed respond
to external stimuli like touching and temperature.
1) From your daily experience, brainstorm what will happen to the plant when:
- it is exposed to the direction of the sunlight
- its growing part is exposed to a physical material like a stone
- a living organism touches on it (Memosapudica)
2) Use internet and textbooks and describe why some plants flourish during long daylight while
others do not?
3) What names can be given to the above processes.
Answer for the activity 13.6
1) The shoot grows toward the light but the root grows away from the light.It grows away from that
physical material. The fold when touched.
2) Because plants respond to the relative length of light and dark period in 24-hours cycle.
3) Photoperiodism
Self –assessment13.6
1) What role does phytochrome play in photoperiodism?
2) What is the difference between a short-day plant and a long-day plant?
3) What could happen if a short-day plant is grown in the long days of summer?
Answers for self-assessment 13.6
1) Phytochrome are photoreceptors (light-sensing) present in very low concentration in many plant
organs whose role is to detect the amount of light to induce flowering.

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2) Short-day plants (SDP) will only flower when the dark period is longer than a critical length while
long-day plants (LDP) are those which only flower when the dark period is shorter than a critical
length.
3) They will not flower.
Activity 13.6.1
In the learning activity 13.2, you have investigated seed germination. You take the container
with the bean seedling in the classroom nearby the window. Observe the changes within one
week.
Learning Activity 13.6.1
Ask students to carry out a research project as indicated in student’s textbook at least a week before
teaching plant movements.
Self-assessment 13. 6.1
1. A bean seedling has been placed on horizontal position as shown by the diagram below.

a) Illustrate the expected shape of the shoot and that of the root after a week.
b) Suggest names for the expectations in the above experiment.
c) Based on the above experiment, draw a diagram illustrating the shape and size of cells of both
upward and downward side of the root.
d) Suggest a technique that can be used to minimize the effect of the stimulus in this experiment.
2. (a) What is the difference between ‘antagonistic’ and ‘synergistic’ when referring to plant growth
substances?
(b) What are the two plant growth substances that act antagonistically and which act synergistically?
3. Copy and complete the following table

Plant growth substance Site of synthesis Effect in plant

Auxin
Gibberellin
Cytokinin
Abscisic acid
Ethene

Answers for self-assessment 13.6.1

1) The following is the answer:

(a)

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(b) Geotropism and photoperiodism
(c) The downward cells grow shorter than the upward cells.
(d) The use of clinostat
2) If two or more growth hormones interact to give greater effect, those substances are synergists.
For example, auxins and cytokinins work together for efficient growth. If a substance reduces the
effect of the other, they work antagonically. For example, Abcissic acid maintains dormancy in seeds
but gibberellins break it.

Activity 13.7
From a pond or swamp, collect frog eggs (remain them with water). Keep some eggs in warm
conditions at room temperature between 2 to 30 days.
1) Regularly visit them and note the observation.
2) Use the diagram below and relate your observation in (1) above to the one given in the
diagram.

3) Deduce your observation

Answer for the activity 13.7
1) In warmer climates, eggs may hatch within 1 or 2 days, while in colder environments they may
take 30 to 40 days to hatch into tadpoles.
2) They are similar
3) Both amphibians and butterfly exhibit complete metamorphosis. Their eggs hatch into larvas that
are morphologically, physiologically and behaviorally different from the adult.
Self-assessment 13.7

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1) What is metamorphosis?
2) Describe the changes that occur during metamorphosis in frog.
3) Discus reasons why complete metamorphosis may have greater adaptive value for an
insect than incomplete metamorphosis.
4) Compare metamorphosis of a butterfly and that of a grasshopper.
Answers for self-assessment 13.7
1) Metamorphosis is a complete or marked change in the form of an animal as it develops into an
adult, e.g. the change from tadpole to frog or from caterpillar to butterfly.

2) The adult frog lay eggs.

- Each egg hatches into a tailed larva breathing through gills called tadpole.

- As the tadpole grows, it develops legs that replace the tail

- Lungs replace gills

- it also develops long, sticky, projectile tongue for catching insects

- when mature it is adapted to terrestrial life and then move from water to land as a mature frog
3) The is given in the following table:
Differences
Metamorphosis of a butterfly Metamorphosis of a grasshopper
Is complete Is incomplete
Larvae are wormlike No larval stage the egg hatches into
a miniature grasshopper
Similarities
They both molt for metamorphosis

End of unit assessment 13

1) What do you understand by:
a) Dormancy
b) Gravitropism
c) Chemonasty
d) Phytochrome
e) Short-day plants
2) (a) What factors can allow to measure the growth of a plant?
(b) State any four external factors that can affect the growth of a plant.
3) (a) State any three characteristics of the phytohormones.
(b) What phytohormone(s) is (are) responsible for the following:
i.The falling of some plant organs during the stress
ii.The fruit ripening.
iii. Development of the lateral buds
iv.Stem growth and parthenocarpy
(c) What is meant by parthenocarpic fruit? Give one example.
4) A seedling has been grown in an opaque box receiving the light from a single direction as
shown

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by the diagram below.

a) What will happen on the coleoptile (seedling) as it grows?

b) Show the structures of cells in both side A and B of that seedling and it grows
c) Suggest a name to the phenomenon investigated in this experiment.
5) What would happen if auxin were produced only in the roots of plants?

Answers for end unit assessment

1) Definitions in student’s textbook

2) Answers:

(a) The increase in the dry mass, the increase in the volume of protoplasm, the increase in the length,
the increase in the thickness

(b) Temperature, light, moisture and carbon dioxide (CO2).

UNIT 14 SUPPORT AND LOCOMOTION

Activity 14.1
From your daily experience as well as research from books and the internet:
1) Give details about the concept of locomotion
2) Make a list of how do animals move
3) Discuss all reasons justifying why living organisms particularly animals need to
move from one place to another?

Answers for activity 14.1

1) Locomotion is the movement from one place to another. It is different from the movement which
is the displacement of part of an organism. Although, all organisms are characterized by the
movement not the location.
2) There are different ways an animal use to move from one place to another. Those are: hopping in
kangaroo, rabbit, and grasshopper for example, flying for birds and insects in general, swimming for
aquatic dwellers such as fish, dolphin. There are also running, climbing, crawling, jumping, and
gliding, gripping and floating.
3) Locomotion is necessary for: escaping danger fire or predator; look for food, water and shelter;
reproduce or find mates; avoid competition with other animals of the same or different species; avoid
unfavorable condition example migration.

Self-assessment 14.1

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1) What is locomotion for animals?
2) What are the requirements for animal locomotion?
3) Given the following animals: Frog, dragonfly, squid, spider, antelope, kangaroo, fish,
grasshopper, bee, duck, worm, zebra, snake, and cow. From your daily experience, identify
those which fly, crawl, hop, and or run/walk.
4) Discuss why locomotion is very needed in animals?

Answers on self-assessment 14.1.

1) Locomotion for animal is the displacement from one place to another.
2) The requirements for locomotion are the skeleton and muscles.
3) Based on their habitat, zebra, antelope and cow run; frog, grasshopper and kangaroo hop;
dragonfly and bee fly; squid, fish, frog and duck swim; snake, worm and spider craw.
4) Locomotion is necessary because it enables animals to escape danger fire or predator; look for
food, water and shelter; reproduce or find mates; avoid competition with other animals of the same or
different species; avoid unfavorable condition example migration.

Learning activity 14.2

From a culture of paramecium:
1) Use a microscope to observe the locomotion in Amoeba and Paramecium
2) From what you observed, relate them to the pictures below and illustrate using diagrams how
Amoeba, Paramecium, Euglena and in Trypanosomamoves.

3) Discuss how non-muscular movement in amoeba or paramecium is or amoeboid and ciliated

locomotion. What about the flagellated and or euglonoid locomotion?

Answers for activity 14.2

A cartoon having pictures like those below is expected to be produced.

- Amoeba moves by amoeboid locomotion

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- Paramecium moves by cilia or by ciliary mode
- Euglena and Trypanosoma move by flagellum or flagella

Self-assessment 14.2
1) Describe the type of locomotion found in:
a) Amoeba
b) Paramecium caudatum
c) Trypanosomagambiense
d) Trypanomavaginalis
e) Giardia intestinalis
2) How do cilia differ from flagellum?
3) Produce picture showing the locomotion of amoeba

Answers for self-assessment 14.2

1) Answers:
a) Amoeba moves by means of pseudopodia. Those pseudopodia are extended if it wants to move
toward the food for example of when escaping a predator or when the habitat is not conducing.
b) Having cilia on their cell membrane, Paramecium caudatum is capable to move by beating their
cilia in water.
c) (C&d) Trypanosoma gambiense, Trypanoma vaginalis, and Giardia intestinalis move by beating
flagellum or flagella.
2) Cilia are many structures or extension of the cell membrane whereas as flagella are in most of
cases one or two sometimes three in Giardia intestinalis for example. Both are functionally the same.
3) A diagramme showing locomotion in amoeba

Activity 14.3
Use a chart below or the real specimen of fish and do the following:
1) Observe the freshly collected fish or the one given in figure below on left, make a diagram
of it, show by labelling its external features particularly fins and lateral line.

Figure 14.3: Fish diagrams

2) Dissect a fresh collected fish or observe a diagram of it given above on right, indicate by
an arrow its swim bladder and the arrangement of muscles (myotomes) by making
drawings.
3) If you have a live fish, put it in water and observe its locomotion.
4) From what you have observed on fish locomotion, make and label a diagram of external
Answers for activity 14.3
1) Well labelled drawn of fish with its external features particularly fins
2) Dissected fish diagramme showing swim bladder
3) Diagramme showing skeleton system with muscles arrangement

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Self-assessment 14.3
1) How does swim bladder help the fish in its locomotion?
2) Illustrate how the arrangements of fish myotomes that contribute to fish locomotion in
water are?
3) What does it make a fish to move in undulatory propulsion?
4) What are the anatomical structures that give rise the direction of a fish and preventing
diving and rolling?
Answers for self-assessment 14.3
1) Swim bladder helps the fish in its locomotion by changing its buoyancy thus the fish can float at
any depth.
2) Illustrate how the arrangements of fish myotomes that contribute to fish locomotion in water are?

From the above fish, student shows V, W and parallel myotomes using like the above fish
diagramme.
1) Segmental body of fish muscles gives the ability to move in undulatory swimming;

2) The anatomical structures that give rise the direction of a fish and preventing diving and rolling
are pelvic fins.

Activity 14.4
Through internet and textbooks, observe a dog, chicken, frog and earthworm and think
about how the locomotion is brought about and do the following:
1) Make a diagram showing how support and movement of different animals such as a dog,
chicken, frog and worm is brought about on land.
2) Show by diagrams the relationship between muscles, joints and musculo-skeletal attachment in
mammals, birds, frog and earthworm.

Answers for activity 4.4

1) During their locomotion, a limb to move from one place to another, by the action of muscles and
skeleton.
- For a dog, chicken, and frog; flexor bends a limb by its contraction and extensor straightens a limb
being a forelimb or hind limb.
- A dog can run as a result of losing its quadrupedal movement whereby the forelimbs move together,
followed by the hind limbs due to the action of flexor and extensor.
- For a worm; the locomotion is possible by the contraction of its muscles (circular and longitudinal).
Contraction of the circular muscles makes the worm thinner whereas the contraction of the
longitudinal fibres shortens the worm.

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2. Diagrammes showing flexor and extensor muscles. And also muscular-skeleton at the level of
bone-muscle junction.

Self-assessment 14.4
1. What are the main muscles that contribute to locomotion in mammals, amphibians and birds?
2. Draw an earthworm and illustrate the muscles that contribute to its locomotion.
3. What type of skeleton
4. n system found in mammals, birds, amphibians and annelids?
5. Illustrate how flexor and extensor muscles contribute to lifting up a leg in human being.

Answers for self-assessment 14.4

1) The main muscles that contribute to locomotion in mammals, amphibians and birds are flexor and
extensor
2) A diagramme showing circular and longitudinal muscles
3) Endoskeleton is found in mammals, birds, amphibians. In earthworm, there is hydro-skeleton type
of skeleton
4) A diagramme showing how flexor muscles contract and bone and then extensor straightens a bone
so that a limb is lifted.
Learning activity 14.5
Make a research on internet as well as books and do the following:
1) Observe pictures below (Figure 14.6) related to birds and make a description of skeletal
modification in birds. Illustrate the skeletal modification in birds
2) Draw a bird and show by using arrow the structures that enable a bird to fly
3) How will the external features of birds will behave when flying in high or low atmospheric
pressure
4) Make a table illustrating how does flight of birds and insects differ and similar
5) Observe and compare the flight of birds and insects

Answers for activity 14.5

a) Forelimbs are modified into wings show different structures such are keel of sternum, pectoralis
major and minor, coracoid, scapula, humerus, radius and ulna, and metacarpals. Fused vertebrae of
the trunk. Bird bones are hollow which reduce weight and also there are air sacs attached to the lungs
for providing necessary oxygen for respiration. Addition to the action of flexor and extensor, the
contraction of pectoralis major and relaxation of pectoralis minor move up and down the wings.
b) A diagramme of showing the above structures.
c) Wings are spread or not being closer each other or on the body when atmospheric pressure reduces
and are very closer or not spread when atmospheric pressure increases.
d) A comparing table of the flight in birds and insects

Self-assessment 14.5
1) What are the muscles that enable the flight in birds?
2) Describe how bird skeleton contributes to its flight?
3) Describe how birds are adapted to flying.

Answers for self-assessment 14.5

1) Muscles that enable the flight in birds are pectoralis major and minor which are muscles attached
on the sternum.

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2) Skeleton contribute to flight by
- Change in its shape which gives a streamline body shape
- Forelimbs which are changed into wings. Each forelimb has pectoralis major and minor on which
flight muscles are attached.
- Bones with empty interiorly
3) Birds are describing to flying by:
- Modification of limbs particularly forelimbs,
- Increased number of flight feathers provide a large surface area of wings without increasing the
weight;
- Large and powerful pectoral muscles
- Bones of vertebrae are fused
- Enlarged sternum to provide a large surface area for attachment of the flight muscles: pectoral
muscles
- Hollowed bones make birds light
- Streamlined body covered with light feathers.
- Backward arrangement of features for reducing air resistance

Activity 14.6
Use a collecting net to catch a grasshopper and toad from school compound. Put them down on
cemented ground for observing them very carefully when they make a jump and then answer to
the following:
1) Identify and describe anatomic structures that enable grasshoppers to jump
2) Illustrate how legs’ muscles behave when they are resting and or jumping.

Answers for activity 14.6

1) Exoskeleton under which muscles for hopping are located
The rear or back legs of a grasshopper which are long and muscular
Extensor tibiae muscle which contracts to extend the leg, and the flexor tibiae muscle which
contracts to flex the leg.
Jumping or hopping muscles pull on tendons which are attached to the tibia on either side of the joint
pivot.
2) Illustration should focus on the flexor and extensor muscles whereby some contracts while others
relaxes and thus the shape of a leg maybe in Z shape or not as tibia extends resulting
from contraction of extensor muscles and tibia flexes as a result of relaxation of extensor muscle. At
rest or sitting position, the extensor muscle contracts which enables then the legs jerk or move very
quickly backwards propelling the grasshopper. Similarly, to toads and frogs like in grasshopper:
- A frog is at rest; the hind legs are folded up in the shape of a letter Z.
- When it hops, the legs are quickly straightened out, lifting the animal of the ground. But toads
do not travel as high as far as a frog does at each hop.
- The fore-limbs are used as shock absorbers on landing and they also support the front end of the
body when the animal is at rest.
Self-assessment 14.6
1) What are the muscles that contribute to high jumping in a grasshopper?
2) How do muscles (flexor and extensor) behave when toads and grasshopper are resting?

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3) Draw a leg of grasshopper and the one of toad when are jumping
Answers for self-assessment
1) Muscles that contribute to high jumping in a grasshopper are those (extensor and flexor) of hind
legs since they are the ones for jumping.
2) When toads and grasshopper relax flexor muscles contract whereas extensor relax. When jumping,
flexor relaxes whereas extensor contracts.
3) A hind leg showing a Z shape which is different from the one formed when it is on jump.
End of unit assessment 14
1) Describe ways of locomotion in Amoeba, Paramecium, Euglena and in
Trypanosom
2) Produce a cartoon showing different adaptive features of fish for aquatic
locomotion
3) Describe how different fish fins contribute to locomotion and balance
4) Describe how the movements and support of fish in water do they occur? are
brought in water
5) Show by diagrams the relationship between muscles, joints and musculo-skeletal
attachment in mammals, birds, frog and earthworm.
6) Describe how flexor and extensor muscles work to enable the locomotion on land,
water and in air
7) What are the features that enable aerial locomotion in animals?

ANSWERS FOR END UNIT ASSESSMENT

1) Amoeba moves by means of pseudopodia/ cytoplasmic projections formed by its cell membrane.
Differently from amoeba, paramecium moves by cilia which are structures on its cell membrane.
Euglena and trypanosoma move by their flagellum or flagella depending to number of flagella they
possess.
2) A drawing /cartoon showing different fins, scales, and shape of fish as they enable fish to move
from one place to another. Also the one showing swim-bladder and muscles arrangement is
necessary.
3) Fins contribute to locomotion and balance in the following ways:
- Tail fin increases the amount of water to be displaced as it enlarges area as well as provides much
of the push during swimming.
- Pair of pectoral and pelvic fins bring about downward and upward movement.
- Pectoral fins control of direction of a fish in water
- Pelvic fins bring about the balance, preventing diving and rolling.
- A single dorsal and anal fins stabilizes the fish and thus preventing it from rolling or yawing.
4) The movements and support of fish in water occur by: its external features such as fins; scales,
shape; muscles/myotomes arrangement into parallel, V, and W shapes.
5) Diagrammes showing relationship between muscles, joints and musculo-skeletal attachment in
mammals, birds, frog and earthworm.
a) A diagramme showing muscles structures in joints when an animal is at rest or is moving part of
the body. In a human, a diagramme to indicate how muscles/ muscle fibres look like at the level of
kneel when someone. Also show femur as well as tibia muscles.
b) In bird, show how sternum muscles (pectorals) look like.

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c) In frog, show muscles of hind legs.
d) In earthworm, show muscles when earthworm is moving forward or backword.
6) Flexor and extensor muscles work antagonistically to enable the locomotion on land, water and in
air. One contracts (flexor) contracts and then bends a limb whereas extensor contracts for extending
or straightening.
7) The structures that enable flight in air by bird are: wings, sternum muscles, and shape.
8) Description of how grasshopper and frogs are adapted to jumping:
- A toad is good at jumping that a grasshopper.

- Flexor and extensor are attached to the exoskeleton in insects and endoskeleton in frogs.
- There are also extensor tibiae muscle which contracts to extends the rear/backleg, and the flexor
tibiae muscle which contracts to flex the leg
- Those muscles pull on tendons which are attached to the tibia on either side of the joint pivot.
- Frogs like grasshoppers hope by means of their hind limbs which are capable to be shortened and
straightened as a result of its jumping muscles. They are different by having skeleton. And ability
one possess over another like moving in water for frogs and flying in air for grasshoppers.
- The fore-limbs are used as shock absorbers on landing and they also prop up (to give support) the
front end of the body when the animal is at rest.
9) Advantages of locomotion are:
- Escape danger fire or predator;
- Look for food, water and shelter;
- Reproduce or find mates;
- Avoid competition with other animals of the same or different species;
- Avoid overcrowding which enables offspring to move to another place;
- Avoid unfavorable condition example migration.

ADDITIONAL ACTIVITIES
REMEDIAL ACTIVITIES
1) Differentiate locomotion from movement

Answer:
Movement is the displacement of part of an organism
Locomotion is the displacement of the whole organism from one place to another.
Movement is common to all kind of living
Locomotion is specific to animals
2) What is the function of cilia, flagella and cytoplasmic invaginations, wings, hind limbs, feathers?

Answer:
They enable the animals that exhibit them to move
3) How do the following animals move about? Cow, kangaroo, dog, grasshopper, toad, butterfly,
Trypanosoma sp., snails, snake, o paramecium moves?

Answer:

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Cow and dog walk by limbs; kangaroo, grasshopper, and toad hope or jump by hind legs; Butterfly
and grasshopper are adapted to flying by wings; snail and snake crawl, trypanosoma and paramecium
move by flagella and cilia respectively.
4) What are different fins that help a fish to swim?
Answer:
Tail, ventral, pectoral and dorsal fins
5) With examples of organism that exhibit particular type of skeleton, distinguish the three types of
skeleton that supports animals.

Answer:
Hydrostatic skeleton is found in most invertebrates and in annelids. It consists of fluid filled body
cavity surrounded by antagonistic sets of muscles.
Exoskeleton is particular to arthropods insects for example, is a hard cuticle made of chitin which
lies outside the muscles which move parts of it.
Endoskeleton is characteristic to bony animals. It is on which muscles are attached.
14.9.2 Consolidated activities
1) Based on different body structures, what does it cause the movement which may result in
locomotion in animals with:
a) Endoskeleton:
b) Exoskeleton
c) Hydrostatic skeleton

Answer:
a) Contraction of muscles bring about movement of their attached bones and finally to the
locomotion.
b) Muscles attached to exoskeleton in part of legs enable the locomotion
c) For animals with hydro skeleton, the movement is brought as result from compressive contraction
action.
2) Based on the table below, put the animals provided here into its respective way of locomotion:
spider, rabbit, mosquito, snake, seahorse, bat, whale, penguin, worm, goose, and dragonfly.
Swim Hop Fly crawl

Answer: Hop Fly Crawl

Swim
Seahorse Rabbit Bat Snake
Whale Goose Mosquito Worm
Crocodile Penguin dragonfly Spider
Goose
Penguin

EXTENDED ACTIVITIES
1) Draw and label a fish diagramme
Answer: a well labelled diagramme showing fins, scales, shape
2) Describe how major muscles of locomotion contribute to locomotion on land

Answer:

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- Description of flexor and extensor as well as circular and longitudinal muscles in earthworm.
- Flexor and extensor muscles work antagonistically to enable the locomotion on land, water and in
air. One contracts (flexor) contracts and then bends a limb whereas extensor contracts for extending
or straightening.
- There are also extensor tibiae muscle which contracts to extend the rear/back leg, and the flexor
tibiae muscle which contracts to flex the leg.
- Frogs like grasshoppers hope by means of their hind limbs which are capable to be shortened and
straightened as a result of its jumping muscles.
3) Draw and illustrate how muscles are arranged in a fish

Answer:
A diagramme showing muscles arranged in parallel, V, W shape

UNIT 15 CLASSIFICATION AND PATTERNS OF DISEASE

Introductory activity
One of students in a visited school was found eating without washing hands and he claimed to
see no risk in that.
a) Suggest measures to be taken for addressing issues related to eating without
washing hands.
b) Brain storm on different communicable diseases got from eating without washing
hands.
The expected answers
Issues caused by eating without washing hands include diseases such as cholera, typhoid, amoebic
dysentery, etc. They can be prevented by washing hands before eating, using toilets, not eating food
which is not cleaned.
Activity 15.1
Discuss in groups the following questions
1) What do you think are the causes of death using some examples you experienced in
the village you come from?
2) Give the view why it is difficult to eradicate malaria in Rwanda

Answers for activity 15.1

1) The cause of death are:
- Accidents from car crashes and house burning
- Disasters such as floods,
- Diseases caused by microorganisms.
- Drug abuse such as tobacco, alcoholism.
2) Expected answers:
It is difficult to eradicate malaria because:
- There is no effective vaccine against malaria
- The pathogens are transmitted by mosquitoes which are not eradicated.
- The plasmodium have become resistant to different anti-malarial drugs
- Ignorance of some people toward the disease and how it is spread.

Self-assessment 15.1

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1) What do you think are Koch’s Postulates used today?
2) How was the theory of spontaneous generation used to explain why food that was left out would
eventually be covered in microbes, maggots, flies, and rodents?
Answers for self-assessment 15.1
1) Koch’s Postulates
- Postulate 1: A specific organism must always be observed in association with the disease.
- Postulate 2: The organism must be isolated from an infected host and grown in pure culture in the
laboratory.
- Postulate 3: When the organism from the pure culture is inoculated into a susceptible host organism,
it must cause the disease.
- Postulate 4: The infectious organism must be re-isolated from the diseased organism and grown in
pure culture.
2) Expected answers:
- The theory of spontaneous generation was not used to explain how living organisms’ canaries from
non-living matter.
- When food became covered in microbes, maggots, flies, and rodents: these organisms were created
by and arose from the food itself
- When the food became covered in microbes, maggots, flies, and rodents: these organisms were
caused by tiny microorganisms invading a host organism.
- The theory of spontaneous generation was not used to explain why heat and refrigeration are best
for preserving food
Activity 15.2
Use the Knowledge you have from senior two and name:
1) Two infectious diseases and propose the following:
a) Their causal agents’ name
b) causal agents’ type
c) Their symptoms
d) Their prevention methods
e) Treatment
2) Do you think that health is not just absence of the disease? Explain

Answers for activity 15.2

1) There are many different diseases. Students will choose any two by their choice. As a teacher you
would consider any two diseases from students’ answer.

Example:

Disease causal agents causal agents symptoms prevention Treatment

name type methods
Cholera Vibrio cholera Bacterium Abdominal Use clean tetracyclinechl
pain drinking water, oramphenicol
vomiting Proper
Rapid treatment of
dehydration sewage and
diarrhea sanitation
Vaccination

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Malaria Plasmodium Protozoa fever, anaemia, use quinine and
falciparum, P. nausea, insecticides, chloroquine,
vivax, P. clean bushes, doxycycline
avoid
ovale, P. malariae headaches, muscle pain, stagnant water, sleep under net,
shivering, sweating, enlarged
spleen
Tuberculosis Mycobacterium Bacterium racking cough, Vaccination Streptomycin,
tuberculosis coughing rifampicin,
blood, chest isoniazid
pain, shortness antibiotics
of breath,
fever,
sweating,
weight loss
Typhoid Salmonella Bacterium Headache, Proper Take
typhus Muscular treatment of Chloramphenic
pains, Fever, sewage and ol, Ampicillin,
rash, diarrhea disinfection of Ciprofloxin
mental water supplies.
confusion -personal
hygiene of
food.
Control of flies
Vaccination

2) Health includes mental, spiritual, and physical well-being as well as freedom from disease.

Lesson self-assessment 15.2

1) Answer by true or false
a) Epidemic disease is a disease that is always present in population.
b) The diseases that transmitted among people by pathogens are called transmissible
diseases
c) The study of patterns of disease and of the various factors that affect the spread of disease
is called epidemiology.
d) Cholera is infectious disease with immediate host
e) Malaria is non-infectious disease whose vector is mosquito.
2) Distinguish between morbidity and mortality

Answers for self-assessment 15.2

1) Expected answers are
a. a) False b) True c) False d) False e) False
2) Morbidity refers to incidence of disease whereas mortality refers to deaths associated with the
disease.

Activity 15.3
Chose in the following list the infectious diseases and suggest the reason why they are infectious:

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Cholera, typhoid, Alcoholism, tetanus, tuberculosis, AIDS, Haemophilia, polio, measles, Ebola,
malaria, Anorexia, obesity, sleeping sickness, trichomoniasis, sickle-cell anaemia, candidiasis,
athlete’s foot, ring worms, elephantiasis, bilharzias, syphilis, gonorrhea, cystic fibrosis, Arthritis,
Anorexia, schizophrenia.
Answers for activity 15.3
1) The infectious diseases are: Cholera, typhoid, tetanus, tuberculosis, AIDS, polio, measles, Ebola,
malaria, sleeping sickness, trichomoniasis, candidiasis, athlete’s foot, ring worms, elephantiasis,
bilharzias, syphilis, gonorrhea.
The above diseases are infectious ones because:
- They are caused by germs
- They are transmitted from one person to another

Self-assessment 15.3
1) Which of the following diseases is transmitted by an insect vector?
a) Cholera
b) HIV/AIDS
c) Malaria
d) TB
2) What do you think are the ways in which cholera is transmitted from person to person?
3) Explain why there is such a high risk of cholera following natural disasters such as
earthquakes, hurricanes, typhoons and floods.
4) Explain why there is a high death rate from TB in countries with a high proportion of the
population who are HIV-positive.
5) TB is an opportunistic infection. Why?
6) Describe how malaria is transmitted.

Answer for self-assessment 15.3

1) Answer is C
2) Bacteria pass out in faeces of infected person; carried in, water / food, consumed by uninfected
person.
3) Cholera is a serious disease; death can occur very quickly after infection; spreads quickly in
population (especially after a disaster); deaths are avoidable.
4) There is a high death rate from TB in countries with a high proportion of the population who are
HIV-positive because:
- TB linked with HIV infection
- HIV weakens immune system
- TB is an opportunistic disease
5) TB is an opportunistic infection because it strikes many people with a depressed immunity.
6) A female Anopheles (mosquito) takes a blood meal from an infected person; transfers parasite /
pathogen / Plasmodium, in saliva when takes a blood meal from an uninfected person.

Activity 15.4
Housing quality is associated with morbidity from different factors. State any three factors

Answers for activity 15.4

1) Different factors of housing quality associated with morbidity
- Infectious diseases

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- Chronic illnesses
- Injuries
- Poor nutrition
- Mental disorder

Lesson self-assessment 15.4

What measures are taken by Rwanda government to ensure high quality of housing conditions?

Answer for self-assessment 15.4

Measures are taken by Rwanda government to ensure high quality of housing conditions. To answer
this question student might give different ideas. As a teacher, you can help by giving the following
answers:
- Rwanda government has initiated a good project named “Bye Bye Nyakatsi” where all Rwandans
could participate and get rid of grass thatched houses in our country.
- Rwanda government is aiming at constructing the model villages for the disadvantaged and poor
families in different districts countrywide.
- Construction and rehabilitation of houses are controlled to ensure the high quality of housing
conditions.
- Shifting people from danger zones not planned for habitation.
- Prohibition of sleeping with animals especially goats and cows in the same house
- Provision of electricity and water in villages

Activity 15.5
1) Suppose that you are one of Rwandans who have food industry in our country, and you expect
your production to be inspected. Outline the main requirements for good production to be
inspected?
2) Clean water is good for health. Discuss the ways you would use to obtain clean water at home.
Answer for activity 15.5
1) The main requirements for good production to be inspected:
- Quantity
- Packing
- Labeling
- Dimension
- Weight and visual aspects.
2) The ways you can clean water at home are:
- Use of Sûr–eau
- Heating water.
- Using water purification etc. The steps of water purification are: storage reservoir, aeration,
filtration, disinfection, reduction of chlorine concentration, covered service reservoir, distribution.
Lesson self-assessment 15.5
1) In which ways a personal cleanliness may be achieved.
2) How to promote a hygienic food preparation?
3) Talk about good personal Hygiene.

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Answer for self-assessment 15.5
1) Ways by which a personal cleanliness may be achieved.
- Hands should always be washed thoroughly with soap before preparing food, eating and after a visit
to a toilet.
- Hands frequently touch many things which may carry pathogens.
- Fingernails and toenails should always be kept short and clean so that they do not provide breeding
places for germs.
- It is essential to bathe frequently. This helps to prevent skin infections. Sweet and oil secretions on
the skin enable bacteria and fungi to breed easily. Bath towels and sponges should not be shared with
other people.
- Hair should be washed frequently to avoid lice and mites. These can spread typhus fever. Combs
and hairbrushes should not be shared.
- The spaces between teeth where food particles are trapped provide excellent breeding grounds for
bacteria. Teeth should therefore be cleaned at least twice a day, preferably after each meal.
- Cloths must be clean and changed frequently.
- Shoes should be worn to prevent cuts and infection by hookworms
2) How to promote hygienic food preparation
- Washing hands while preparing food
- Proper cleaning of food preparation areas
- After touching uncooked food and while preparing meals, wash the hands.
- Refrigeration of foods.
- Proper disposal of food and packaging
3) Good personal Hygiene
- Daily washing of the body and hair by using soaps
- Wash more frequently the hands or face
- Cleaning of clothes and living places
- Cover the mouth with hand while sneezing or coughing.

End of unit assessment 15

1) Answer the following questions:
(a) What does the germ theory of disease mean?
(b) State any four causes of diseases in our life.
2) State any TWO diseases caused by:
a) Bacteria
b) Protozoa
c) Microscopic fungi
3) Match the following scientists with their scientific contributions:

Scientists Scientific contributions

1. Alexander Fleming A. Shows that living organisms only grow from
other Living organisms. They do not arise
spontaneously
2. Robert Koch B. Discovers penicillin, the first antibiotic

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3. Louis Pasteur C. Isolated a bacillus and showed that it caused
anthrax
D. Discovers how to weaken chicken cholera so
that it could be used as a vaccine without
causing infection
E. Discovers the cholera bacillus

4) List the reasons why smallpox is easier to eradicate than AIDS.

5) Suggest reason why Malaria is endemic disease in tropics.
6) Describe the biological factors that make malaria a difficult disease to control.
7) Describe the precautions that people can take to avoid catching malaria.
8) Explain what is meant by ring vaccination.

End of unit assessment

1) Expected answers are:

a) Germ theory of disease is a theory which states that “many diseases are caused by the presence
and actions of specific micro-organisms within the body.”
b) Any four causes of diseases in our life.
- Genetic fault that may be passed from parents to children
- A gradual decline in function often associated with ageing.
- Drug dependence, often induced by social pressure and social behaviour.
- Disorder in mind which may or may not have a physical or chemical cause.
- Under eating or overeating
- Poor diet lacking one or more essential nutrients.
- Pathogen like bacteria, viruses, protozoa, fungi, worms.
- Drug abuse
2) Any two diseases caused by:
a) Bacteria
- Cholera, typhoid, tetanus, tuberculosis, etc.
b) Protozoa
- Malaria, sleeping sickness, trichomoniasis, etc.
c) Microscopic fungi
- Candidiasis, athlete’s foot, ring worms, etc.
3) Matching the scientists with their Scientific contributions
1 B
2 C
3 A, D and E

4) a) The vector of malaria is “female Anopheles mosquito”

b) Is D which takes place in red blood cell and C takes place in the hepatic cell (liver?)

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c) Any two symptoms of malaria displayed in individual in stage E
-Fever, anaemia, nausea, headaches, shivering, etc

5) Malaria is endemic disease in tropics because

- Tropical climate provides the best breeding and living conditions for the Anopheles mosquito which
transmits malaria
- The Anopheles cycle requires areas of stagnant water and these are common within tropics
- In the tropical areas there is presence of bushes or abundant vegetation which makes suitable habitat
for mosquitoes
- Plasmodium needs temperature in excess of 20ᵒC for it to complete its cycle within the mosquito.
6) The biological factors that make malaria a difficult disease to control.
- There is no effective vaccine against malaria
- The pathogens are transmitted by mosquitoes which are not eradicated.
- The plasmodium have become resistant to different anti-malarial drugs
- Ignorance of some people toward the disease and how it is spread.
7) The precautions that people can take to avoid catching malaria.
- Drainage of stagnant water: The larval stages of the mosquito live in stagnant water, so drainage
removes breeding sites. This has had some success.
- Destruction of the breeding sites of the mosquito: The larvae and pupae of mosquitoes obtain their
oxygen by means of small tubes which are pushed through the water surface film. Thus any method
of blocking these tubes will result in the death of the intermediate life stages of the mosquito (petrol,
oil….)
- Destruction of the adult mosquitoes: This is aimed at killing the mosquitoes that enter houses. Thus,
the indoor surfaces are sprayed with a persistent insecticide.
- Clean bushes nearest their homes where mosquitoes lay eggs
- Avoid stagnant water where mosquitoes lay eggs
- Sleep under net to avoid the bite of mosquitoes during the night
- Control birth that leads to population growth and this contributes to disease spread.
8) Ring vaccination is a vaccination of everyone within a certain place of the outbreak of the disease.

Additional activities
Remedial Activities:
1) Among scientists you know, who has developed the germ theory of disease
2) Diseases are broadly divided into two categories. What are they?
3) What do you think is a causal agent of cholera?
4) What do understand with Housing?
5) What steps do you use to purify water at home?

Expected answers:
1) Louis Pasteur
2) two categories of diseases are

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- Infectious diseases
- Non-infectious diseases
3) Vibrio cholerae.
4) Housing refers to houses or buildings, accommodation of people.
5) Storage reservoir, aeration, filtration, disinfection, reduction of chlorine concentration, covered
service reservoir, distribution.

Consolidation activities:
1) Tell about the work of microbiologist Robert Koch on Cholera
2) Differentiate Antibody from Antigen.
3) Comment on inherited diseases
4) Suggest the importance of living in good house
5) In your own words explain how exercise is highly important in the promotion of good health.
Expected answers:
1) Robert Koch isolated the bacterium Vibrio cholerae which cause a Cholera disease
2) Difference between Antibody and Antigen is:

Antibody: is a protein produced by the body’s immune system when it detects harmful substances
called antigen while Antigen is any substance that causes your immune system to produce antibodies
against it.
3) Comment on inherited diseases:
Inherited diseases are caused by a genetic fault that may be passed from parents to offspring.
4) Importance of living in good house is
- Prevention of infectious disease
- Prevention of jiggers attack
- Prevention of injuries from small animal bites
- It gives confidence in community
- It gives the value in community…
5) Importance of exercise in the promotion of good health:
- Exercise makes the muscles strong so that they can support the body better.
- Exercise helps to get rid of excretory materials and to improve digestion.
- Exercise quickens blood circulation and improves the action of the glands and nerves.

Extended activities
1) What are contributions of Louis Pasteur in microbiology and medicine?
2) Explain how to calculate the incidence rate and mortality rate.
3) Work on the following question
Observe the figure and answer to the question below.

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a) What is this figure presenting?
b) Give the effect of living organism in figure to human body life?
4) Observe the figure 15.7 in student book of Grass thatched houses of house quality and link it to
health problems and personal community consideration
5) Give at least four ways by which the Personal cleanliness may be achieved in Rwanda
Expected answers:
1) Contributions of Louis Pasteur in microbiology and medicine are:
- The fight against spontaneous generation theory
- The technique of sterile culturing of microorganisms
- The technique of fermentation and conservation of drinks. That technique is known as
Pasteurization; by treating drinks (wine and milk) at a brief period on moderate heating.
- The technique of antiseptic surgery to prevent contamination of wounds during the surgical
operations in hospitals.
2) How to calculate the incidence rate and mortality rate?
- Incidence / morbidity rate = 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐚𝐬𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐚 𝐠𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐧 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐞𝐚𝐬𝐞𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐢𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐯𝐢𝐝𝐮𝐚𝐥𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐩𝐨𝐩𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 x
100
- Mortality rate = 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐝𝐞𝐚𝐭𝐡 𝐝𝐮𝐞 𝐭𝐨 𝐚 𝐠𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐧 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐞𝐚𝐬𝐞𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐢𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐯𝐢𝐝𝐮𝐚𝐥𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐩𝐨𝐩𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 x 100
Alternatively, it may be calculated using only those people who have disease.
Mortality rate = 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫𝐨𝐟𝐝𝐞𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐬𝐝𝐮𝐞𝐭𝐨𝐚𝐠𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐞𝐚𝐬𝐞𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫𝐨𝐟𝐩𝐨𝐩𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐰𝐢𝐭𝐡𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐬𝐚𝐦𝐞𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐞𝐚𝐬𝐞 x 100
3) Expected answer are:
a) The figure is presenting Salmonella typhus
The effect of Salmonella typhus to human body life is that it causes the disease Typhoid
4) Expected answers:
For health problems, this kind of house may cause the following:
- Accidents from house damaging and easy burning
- Infectious diseases like Tuberculosis and Malaria

- Injuries due to different animals’ bites

- Mental disorders
- Jiggers attack…
For community consideration
- Luck of confidence for those people who live in this kind of house
- Community does not give value to those people who live in this kind of house
- Luck of personal and environmental hygiene

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- Community considers people living in this kind of house as a burden to the society...
5) Ways by which the Personal cleanliness may be achieved are:
- Hands frequently touch many things which may carry pathogens. They must be always washed
using a soap before preparing food, eating and after a visit to a toilet.
- It is essential to bathe frequently because sweat and oil secretions on the skin enable bacteria and
fungi to breed easily. This helps to prevent skin infections.
- Bath towels and sponges should not be shared with other people
- Combs and hairbrushes should not be shared.
- Hair should be washed frequently to avoid lice and mites. These can spread typhus fever.
- Teeth should therefore be cleaned at least twice a day, preferably after each meal because the spaces
between teeth where food particles are trapped provide excellent breeding grounds for bacteria.
- Clothes would be clean and changed frequently.
- Shoes should be worn to prevent cuts and infection by hookworms.
- Finger nails and toe nails must be always kept short and clean so that they do not provide breeding
places for germs.

UNIT 16 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

Activity 16.1
Using textbook or internet, tabulate the differences between sexual and asexual reproduction.
Answers to the activity 16.1
Expected answers are under the unit 16 (lesson one) in student book.

Self-assessment 16.1
1) Write on the two types of reproduction.
2) Distinguish between sexual and asexual reproduction.
Answer for self-assessment 16.1
1) Asexual reproduction is a type of reproduction done by a single organism without production of
gametes while sexual reproduction is a type of reproduction in which two parents are involved, each
capable of producing gametes.
2) Expected answers are under the unit 16 (lesson one) in student book.
Activity 16.2.1
Brainstorm on asexual reproduction in lower organisms and write reports as an out-of-class
activity.
Answers to the activity 16.2.1
Expected answers are under the unit 16 (lesson two) in student book.
Activity16. 2.2
Demonstration of asexual reproduction by fragmentation in algae
Requirements:
Glass beakers of 500ml, Scalpel, Forceps, Pins, Spatula, Weighing balance, Labels,
Artificial, fertilizers, Clear river water and Spirogyra (algae).
Procedure
1) Label five beakers of the same size as A, B, C, D and E. Pour water in each beaker. Weigh
several measures of artificial fertilizers of 1 g each.

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2) Transfer 1g of fertilizer to beaker A, then 2g to beaker B, 3g to beaker C, 4g to beaker D
Then lastly put 5g of fertilizers to beaker E. Note the concentration of fertilizers is
increasing from A- E.
3) Using forceps pick spirogyra and put it on a tile. Add several drops of water to avoid
drying. Tease off a piece of spirogyra using a pin. Cut that piece into 5 fragments of the
same length and transfer each piece into the beaker.
4) Stand the beakers in a place where they can receive adequate sunlight for the seven days.
On the next day start to examine the fragments in each beaker every day and record any
observable changes such the increase in size of the spirogyra.
Draw a table as this shown here and record your observation.
Table16.2: Rate of growth
Beaker Rate of growth Reason
A
B
C
D
E

Answers to the activity 16.2.2

Observation and Interpretation of results

Figure 16.1: Asexual reproduction by fragmentation in Spirogyra

It will be noticed that there is an increase in size of algae. However, the increase is not uniform. The
spirogyra in beaker A and E show the least increase in size. Fastest growth reflected in size of algae
is in beaker B, C and D. One of the factors that control the rate of growth is the amount of fertilizers
in each beaker.
Self-assessment 16.2
1) Write on the types of asexual reproduction.
2) Explain the term fragmentation and give one example of plant which reproduces by using this type of

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asexual reproduction.
Answer for self-assessment 16.2
1) Expected answers are under the unit 16 (lesson two) in student book.
2) Fragmentation is a form of asexual reproduction where a new organism grows from a fragment of
the parent. Each fragment develops into a mature, fully grown individual. Fragmentation is seen in
many organisms such as fungi, photosynthetic algae and plants.
Activity 16.3
Make discussion on asexual reproduction in lower organisms and higher plants, outlining
advantages and disadvantages.
Answers for activity 16.3
Expected answers are under the unit 16 (lesson three) in student book.
Self-assessment 16.3
Explain the advantages and disadvantages of asexual reproduction.
Answers for self-assessment 16.3
Expected answers are under the unit 16 (lesson three) in student book.
Activity 16.4
Demonstration of asexual reproduction in plants by cuttings
Requirements
Growth medium or moist soil, sweet potatoes vines, elephant grass, sugarcane or cassava stems,
secateurs/sharp knife and rooting hormone.
Procedure
1) Collect clean and healthy stems from cassava, sugarcane or potato plants.
2) Using a secateurs/sharp knife, cut the stem of either cassava, sugarcane or sweet potato
stems into suitable sizes.
3) Place them in either suitable medium of growth or apply rooting hormone if available or
plant them in moist soil in the school garden.
4) Leave the set up for about 13 days, and then observe the development of roots and leaves at
nodes.
Draw and record what you will observe after 13 days on the development of roots and leaves at
nodes.
Answers for activity 16.4
Observation and Interpretation of results
Through using of cassava stems, sugarcane, sweet potatoes planted in moist soil. After about 13 days,
we observe the development of roots and leaves at nodes.

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Figure16.2. Asexual reproduction by cuttings in sugar cane
Self-assessment 16.4
1) Write on the methods of artificial vegetative propagation.
2) Cassava produces flowers, fruits and seeds. Why people prefer to grow cassava by cutting rather
than germination of seed?
3) Describe the characteristics of vegetative reproductive parts in a flowering plant
Answers for Self-assessment 16.4
1) Expected answers are under the unit 16 (lesson four) in student book.
2) The people prefer to grow cassava by cutting rather than germination of seed because of:
- Many new plants can be produced in a limited space from a few stock plants.
- It is simple and can be easily applied without having to learn the special techniques.
- It is rapid because there is no need to produce rootstocks.
3) Expected answers are under the unit 16 (lesson four) in student book.
Activity 16.5
Using addition resources to your textbook available in your school such as the books from the
school library and search further information from the internet. Discuss on application of
artificial
propagation in growing improved varieties of plants.

Answers for activity 16.5

Expected answers are under the unit 16 (lesson five) in student book.
Self-assessment 16.5
Explain the application of artificial propagation in growing improved varieties of plants.
Answers for self-assessment 16.5
Expected answers are under the unit 16 (lesson five) in student book.
End of unit assessment
A) Multiple choice questions: choose the best answers.

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1) In cutting method of vegetative propagation, cuttings are mainly taken from
a) Leaves of parent plant
b) Roots or stems of parent plant
c) Shoots of parent plant
d) Buds of parent plant
2) Artificial methods of vegetative propagation includes
a) Cloning
b) Grafting
c) Cuttings
d) Both b and c
3) Example of plant in which vegetative propagation is occurred by leaves is called
a) Cannabis
b) Chrysanthemum
c) Bryophyllum
d) Brassica
4) Which of the following is NOT an advantage of asexual reproduction?
a) Rapid reproduction.
b) High genetic diversity.
c) No need for a mate.
d) Low resource investment in offspring.
B) Questions with short and long answers
1) Name the plants which are grown by grafting method.
2) What do you understand by grafting?
3) How will you show that vegetative propagation takes place in potatoes?
4) Explain the method by which the sugarcane and rose are grown.
5) Give the names the different methods of artificial vegetative reproduction.
6) Explain the term vegetative reproduction and give one example of plant which reproduces by
using this type of asexual reproduction.
Answers for end of unit assessment
1) Answer is C
2) Answer is D
3) Answer is B
4) Answer is B
5) Some plants that are grown by grafting method are the following: mango, apple, banana, pear,
grape, pineapple and peach.
6) Grafting is a horticultural technique whereby tissues of plants are joined so as to continue their
growth together.
7) The potato tubers have nodes or eyes from which the new growth begins. The new stems growing
from each eye are called sprouts which gives rise to the new plant.
8) Cutting method.
9) The names of the different methods of artificial vegetative propagation are the following: Cutting,
Layering and Grafting
10) Vegetative reproduction is a type of asexual reproduction found in plants where new individuals
are formed without the production of seeds or spores by meiosis. Examples of vegetative
reproduction include in strawberry.

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Additional activities
Remedial Activities
1) What is fertilization?

2) List five common modes of asexual reproduction.

3) Define vegetative reproduction.
4) Mention any two disadvantages of vegetative reproduction.
Answers for remedial activities
1) Fertilization is the moment when a sperm and egg join together, and the genes from the mother
and father combine to form a new life. The prize is the egg, which is released from the ovary and
then travels along the fallopian tube to meet the sperm.

2) There are five common modes of asexual reproduction: fission, budding, vegetative reproduction,
spore formation and fragmentation.

3) Vegetative reproduction is the formation of a new individual from any vegetative part of the plant
body.

4) Disadvantages of vegetative reproduction.

(i) Year after year same variety is produced. New varieties cannot be produced by this method.

(ii) Since all the plants are genetically alike, they are susceptible to same diseases.
(iii) The plants when grown repeatedly may lose vigor.
(iv) Undesirable characters get transmitted from one generation to another.

Consolidation activities

1) State at least three differences between asexual and sexual reproduction.

2) Write on the spore formation.
3) Discuss the popular use of grafting.
4) Rose is propagated both by cutting and budding. What are the advantages of these methods?

Answers for consolidation activities

1) Answer:
Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction
No gametes are produced Gametes are produced. These are haploid and
nuclei of two gametes fuse (fertilization) to
form a diploid zygote.
Depends on mitosis Depends on meiosis being present at some
stage in life cycle to prevent chromosome
doubling in every generation.
Offspring identical to parent Offspring are not identical to parents. They
show genetic variation as a result of genetic
recombination

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2) This may look similar to seed formation in flowering plants, but spore production only occurs in
non-flowing plants and in other microscopic organisms. Examples of such organisms include fungi,
green algae, protozoa, and ferns.
3) A popular use of grafting is to produce fruit trees, sometimes with more than one variety of the
same fruit species growing from the same stem. Rootstocks for fruit trees are either seedlings or
propagated by layering.
4) Both cutting and budding are artificial methods of vegetative propagation.
Advantages of cutting
(i) It is a very simple method.
(ii) It takes less time and is less expensive.

Advantages of budding
(i) New varieties with desired characters like color or disease-resistance can be obtained by taking
recourse to sexual process.
(ii) It can be easily practiced.

16.9.3 Extended activities

1) Explain isogamy.
2) Distinguish between Stocks from scion.
3) The diagram below shows one of the methods used in vegetative propagation of plants. Identify it
and write short notes on how it is done.

4) Differentiate between cutting and grafting.

Answers for extended activities
1) The isogamy is union of structurally similar physiologically different gametes.
2) The stock is the plant of which the root system is taken on while the scion or graft is the plant of
which the shoot is selected
3) Method is layering; Layering is a method of propagating a plant in which a shoot is fastened down
to form roots while still attached to the parent plant. Layering has evolved as a

common means of vegetative propagation of numerous species in natural environments. Layering is

also utilized by horticulturists to propagate desirable plants. Natural layering typically occurs when a
branch touches the ground, whereupon it produces adventitious roots.

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4) Difference between cutting and grafting
Cutting Grafting
-A single individual is involved. Two different individuals are involved.
Short pieces of stem or root are taken, cut The root portion (stock) of one plant attached with
obliquely at the lower end and placed in soil. the stem portion (scion) of the other plant; the
ends of stock and scion are cut obliquely, placed
face to face and tied.
-It does not bring about any improvement in the It is practiced to improve the varieties or produce
subsequent plant. disease-resistant plants.
Examples: Coleus rose. Examples: Mango, citrus, apple.

UNIT 17 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

Introductory activity
1) Observe the following pictures and suggest what is going on.
2) How are the pictures below related to reproduction in flowering plants?

The expected answers for introductory activity

1) Students should give answers related to pollination by insects and birds.
2) The pictures are related to reproduction, as they represent flowers and pollination which are
involved in reproduction in flowering plants.
Activity 17.1
By using different resources (books, charts, internet and micrographs) from library.
Compare the lifecycles of mosses and ferns.
Answers for activity 17.1
Expected answer is found in the students’ text books, unity 17, and lesson 17.1.
Self-Assessment 17.1
1) Explain the meaning of the term alternation of generation
2) How is water essential in the life cycle of a bryophyte?
3) What is the archegonium and antheridium?
4) How are these structures important in the life cycle of a moss plant?
5) What is the dominant stage of the fern life cycle?
6) Explain the relationship of the fern gametophyte and sporophyte.
7) Compare the gametophyte and sporophyte stages of the plant cycle. Which is haploid? Which
is diploid?
8) How do bryophytes reproduce asexually?
Answers for self-assessment 17.1
1) Alternation of generation is a phenomenon in the plant life cycle in which a diploid stage a
sporophyte alternates with a haploid stage of gametophyte.
2) For fertilization to occur, the sperm of bryophyte must swim to an egg. Without water, this
movement is impossible.

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3) The archegonium is special reproductive organs in which eggs are produced, while antheridium is
special reproductive organs in which sperms are produced. These organs are very important in the
life cycle of mosses as they produce gametes which are involved is sexual cycle of bryophytes.
4) In ferns it is the sporophyte that dominates over the gametophyte
5) Sporophyte is a dominant generation over the sporophyte generation.
6) Gametophyte (haploid) produces eggs and sperms by mitosis, formed from spores, while
sporophyte (diploid) produces spores by meiosis, formed during fertilization with fusion of egg and
sperm.
7) Bryophytes like Liverworts reproduce asexually by producing gemmae, small multicellular
reproductive structures. Gemmae can divide by mitosis to produce a new individual.
Activities 17.2
Collect different forms of flowers from the school compound or around the school, such as
hibiscus, morning glory, sweet potato, or maize flower (use any type of flower in your
community
not necessarily the ones mentioned here)
1) Observe and describe the structures of collected flowers.
2) How do collected flowers differ externally?
3) Cut one of the flowers into two halves, draw and label one half of flower.
Answers for activity 17.2
- A typical hermaphrodite or bisexual flower contains the following parts:
- Pedicel: it is the stalk which attaches the flower on the main floral axis.
- Receptacle: it is the swollen part at the end of the stalk where other parts of the flower are attached.
- The calyx: it is the set of sepals, generally having green colour. They protect the internal parts of
the flower. In some plants, the sepals are coloured and are called petaloids.

The corolla: it is the set of petals, with different colours and nectar glands that produce sugary
substances which participate in attraction of pollinating agents. In some plants, the petals are green
and are called sepaloids. Both calyx and corolla are collectively called perianth. They are called
floral envelope or accessory organs as they do not participate directly in reproduction, or in
formation of fruits and seeds, they all insure the protection of internal parts of the flower.

- Androecium: is the male reproductive organ of the flower. It consists of many stamens. A stamen
consists of: the filament which supports anther, and anther which contains the pollen grains or male
gametes.

- Gynoecium/pistil: is the female reproductive organ. It consists of many carpels, and each carpel is
made of: stigma (plural: stigmata), style and ovary with ovules.

i) The stigmata: receive pollen grains from anther during pollination.

ii) Style: supports the stigma in a good position to receive pollen grains.

iii) Ovary: a sac where ovules are produced. Ovules become seeds after fertilisation.
2) A flower is a reproductive organ of a plant, which produces fruits and seeds
3) Expected answer is under the unit 17 (lesson two) in student book.
Self-assessment 17.2
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1) What are the male and female structures of a flower?
2) How might be an advantage for a plant to have many flowers together in a single structure?
3) Where does the female gametophyte develop?
4) Describe the flower and how it is involved in reproduction.
Answers for self-assessment 17.2
1) The male structures are the stamen (filament and anther), the female structures are the carpels
(ovary, style and stigma).
2) Many flowers together in a single structure might attract more insects, which might improve
chances of pollination.
3) The female gametophyte develops in the ovules, which are contained in the ovary of the flower.
4) Flowers are reproductive organs that are composed of four kinds of specialized leaves: sepals,
petals, stamens, and carpels. Stamens produce male gametophytes, and the carpels produce male
gametophytes.
Activity 17.3
Use library resources to identify different pollinating agents and describe the process of double
fertilization in flowering plants.
Answers for activity 17.3
1) The main pollinating agents include: insects (entomophily), wind (anemophily), water
(hydrophily), humans (anthropophily), and birds (ornithophily).
2) The process of double fertilization in flowering plants begins when a pollen grain adheres to the
stigma of the carpel, the female reproductive structure of a flower. The pollen grain then takes in
moisture and begins to germinate, forming a pollen tube that extends down toward the ovary through
the style. The growth of the pollen tube is controlled by the pollen tube nucleus. In the pollen tube,
the generative nucleus divides mitotically into two haploid nuclei which are the male gamete nuclei.
These follow behind the tube nucleus as the pollen tube grows down the style towards the ovule. The
tip of the pollen tube then enters the ovary and penetrates through the micropyle opening, releasing
the two sperms in the megagametophyte or ovule.
The tube nucleus degenerates, leaving a clear passage for the entry of male nuclei. One nucleus
fertilizes the egg cell to form a diploid zygote (2N), which will grow into a new plant embryo; the
other fuses with polar nuclei to form a triploid nucleus (3N), which will grow into a food-rich
tissue known as endosperm, which nourishes the seedling as it grows. This process is described as
double fertilisation and is typical of angiosperms.
Self-assessment 17.3
1) Are angiosperms typically wind or animal pollinated? How does this process occur?
2) What is meant by the term endosperm?
3) How are brightly coloured petals advantageous to the plant?
4) What do you understand by the term double fertilization?
5) What happens to the antipodal cells and synergids cells after fertilization?
Answers for self-assessment 17.3
1) Angiosperms are typically pollinated by animals such as insects, birds and bats carry pollen from
one flower to another as they gather nectar.
2) It is a food rich tissue that nourishes the embryo during germination. It is inside the embryo sac.
3) Brightly coloured petals attract insects and other animals such as birds to the reproductive
structures of the flower and increase chances of pollination.
4) Double fertilization is means two fertilizations that takes place between the male and female
gametophytes. It may be one of the reasons that explain why angiosperms have been so successful.
5) Both disintegrate and disappear after fertilization since they do not have any important role to play .

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Activity 17.4
Observe slides containing micrographs of different fruits and seeds. According to their
characteristics:
a) Differentiate fruits.
b) Draw and show a structure of seed as seen on microscope
Answers for activity 17.4
a) The fruit can have a dry pericarp or fleshy pericarp. The fruits with fleshy pericarp include: berry
and drupe. Drupe is a fleshy fruit with only one seed, E. g. avocado.
Berry is a fleshy fruit having many seeds inside of it. E.g. tomatoes, orange, and
pawpaw. The fruits with dry pericarp include indehiscent fruit or dehiscent fruit.
Indehiscent fruits do not open. Seeds remain inside of the fruits. E.g. fruits of coconuts.
Dehiscent fruits open and release seeds.
Self-Assessment 17.4
1) Describe the structure of a drupe
2) Differentiate between a drupe and a berry
3) What would happen to the fruit if ovules in the flower did not develop?
4) Compare the typical structure of seeds that are dispersed by animals to those
dispersed by wind and water.
Self-assessment 17.4
1) Drupe is a fleshy fruit with only one seed, E. g. avocado.
2) Drupe is a fleshy fruit with only one seed, E. g. avocado, while Berry is a fleshy fruit having
many seeds inside of it. E.g. tomatoes, orange, and pawpaw.
3) If ovules in the flower do not develop, the seeds will not develop in the fruit.
4) Seeds dispersed by animals typically have a tough coat and are contained in fleshy fruits. Seeds
dispersed by wind and water typically are lightweight and may be encased in wing-like structure.
Activity 17.5
Use library resources like books, internet and search to find answers for the following
questions:
1) Suggest ways of fruits and seeds dispersal.
2) Explain adaptation of fruits dispersed by animals.
Answer for activity 17.5
a) The main agents of fruits and seed dispersal are wind, water, and animals. Seeds dispersed by
wind or water are typically lightweight, allowing them to be carried in air or to float on the surface
of water. The wind carries also small seeds that have wing-like structure. Seeds dispersed by
animals are typically contained in sweet, nutritious flesh fruits. They can be carried externally on
their feet, fur, feathers, or beaks. Those seeds with hooks or sticky substances rely on the chance that
they will attach themselves to a passing animal. Other seeds are eaten by animals and passed out in
the faeces.
b) Seeds dispersed by animals are typically contained in sweet, nutritious flesh fruits. They can be
carried externally on their feet, fur, feathers, or beaks. Those seeds with hooks or sticky substances
rely on the chance that they will attach themselves to a passing animal. Other seeds are eaten by
animals and passed out in the faeces.
Self-assessment 17.5
1) Why is it adaptive for some seeds to remain dormant before they germinate?
2) The seeds of a bishop pine germinate only after they have undergone a forest fire. Evaluate the
significance of this structural adaptation.
3) Evaluate the importance of seed dispersal.

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Answers for self-assessment 17.5
1) It allows for long-distance dispersal and for germination under ideal conditions.
2) It enables the species to recover after a fire and ensures that seedlings grow in favorable
environment.
3) The dispersal of seeds is important for the survival of the plant species because:
- It minimises overcrowding of plants growing around the parent plant that could then result in too
much competition for nutrients and light;
- It allows the plant species to colonise new habitats which can offer suitable conditions.

END OF UNIT ASSESSMENT 17

1) Answer by true or false
a) Mosses have life cycles that depend on water for reproduction.
b) In ferns the gametophyte depends on sporophyte.
c) In mosses the sporophyte dominates over the gametophyte.
d) Seeds that are dispersed by animals are not contained in a flesh-sweet tissue.
e) During pollination, pollen grains move from stigma to anther.
2) Chose the letter that best answers the question or complete the statement.
a) Which of the following is not part of a flower?
(i) Stamens
(ii) Petals
(iii)Carpels
(iv) Stem
(v) Sepals.
b) Which flower structure that includes all the others listed below?
(i) Stigma
(ii) Carpel
(iii)Ovary
(iv) Style
(v) Ovule
c) The thickened ovary wall of a plant may join with other parts of the flower stem to become the
(i) Cotyledon
(ii) Fruit
(iii) Endosperm
(iv) Seed
d) In angiosperms the structures that produce the male gametophyte are called the
(i) Pollen tubes
(ii) Stigma
(iii)Anthers
(iv) Sepals
e) The small, multicellular structures by which liverworts reproduce asexually are
(i) Archegonia
(ii) Gemmae
(iii) Protonema
(iv) Rhizoids
f) In angiosperms, the mature seed is surrounded by a
(i) Flower
(ii) Fruit
(iii)Cotyledon
(iv) Cone

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g) The leaves of ferns are called
(i) Spores
(ii) Fronds
(iii) Sori
(iv) Rhizomes
h) The most recognizable stage of a moss is the
(i) Gametophyte
(ii) Archegonium
(iii) Protonema
(iv) Sporophyte
3) Which are more likely to be dispersed by animals- the seeds of angiosperms or the spores of a
fern? Explain your reasoning.
4) Pollination is a process that occurs only in seed plants. What process in seedless plants is
analogous to pollination?
5) What is the dominant stage of the ferns life cycle? Explain the relationship of the fern
gametophyte and sporophyte.
6) How is water essential in the life cycle of a bryophyte?
7) What characteristic of bryophytes is responsible for their small size? Explain.
8) Briefly explain why a seed may remain dormant even when the environmental conditions are
favorable for germination.
9) Describe the relationship between the gametophyte and sporophyte in mosses.
10) During the lifecycle of a moss, what environmental conditions are necessary for fertilization
to occur?
11) Describe the dominant stage in the lifecycle of a fern.
12) Propose a hypothesis to explain why angiosperms have become the dominant type of plant on
the earth.
13) Moss plants are small. Ferns can grow as tall as small tree. Explain why this is so. How does
your answer illustrate a major characteristic of the plant kingdom?
14) Study the structure of the seed bellow

a) Name the parts labelled by: A, B and C

b) What is the importance of the part C for a growing seedling?
15) Many flowers have bright patterns of coloration that directly surround the reproductive structures.
Evaluate the importance of those bright-coloured patterns to plants.
16) What is the function of endosperm?
17) Some plants form flowers that produce stamens but no carpels. Could fruit form on one of these
flowers?
Explain your answer.
18) Distinguish between pollination and fertilization.
19) Give names of letters from A to J, and explain the function of the parts represented by: B, G, and E.

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20) Explain why the relationship between bees and flowers is described as mutually beneficial.
21) What is the main advantage of cross-pollination?
22) Why are the stamens of wind-pollinated plants and insect-pollinated plants different?
23) Differentiate wind-pollinated flowers from insect-pollinated flowers.
24) Give one example of a plant that uses each of the following dispersal mechanism:
a) An explosive device which works by being inflated with water.
b) A winged seed lifted by air currents
c) A buoyant seed carried by sea currents
d) A gluey substance which sticks the seed to an animal.

END OF UNIT ASSESSMENT

1) Answer are:
a) True
b) True
c) False
d) False
e) False
2) Answers are:
a) iv (Stem)
b) ii (carpel)
c) ii (fruit)
d) ii (anthers)
e) ii (gemmae)
f) ii (fruit)

g) ii (fronds)
h) i (gametophyte)
3) The seeds of angiosperms, because the seeds are enclosed in fruits, which are eaten by animals.
4) In seedless plants, the swimming of the male gametes is analogous to pollination in seed plants.
5) The diploid sporophyte; the gametophyte grows independently of sporophyte. The young
sporophyte grows from the gametophyte.
6) Bryophytes produce sperms that must swim through water to reach the eggs of others.

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7) Bryophytes are limited in size because they lack vascular tissues and therefore can draw only a
few centimeters of water up from the ground by osmosis.
8) Favorable conditions may be short-lived (e.g. in autumn) and dormancy may increase the chances
of germination occurring when there is prolonged period on favorable conditions (e.g. in spring).
Dormancy increases the time during which seeds may be removed away from parents.
9) The gametophyte is dominant, recognizable stage and is the form that carries out most of plant’s
photosynthesis. The sporophyte depends on gametophyte for water and nutrients.
10) Bryophytes depend upon the presence of water to complete their life cycle, because the only way
the sperm can reach the egg is to swim through standing water or dew.
11) The dominant stage in the lifecycle of ferns is the diploid sporophyte, which, when mature
consists of roots, underground stems called rhizomes, and fronds, which are large leaves. On the
underground of fronds grow sporangia, which grow in clusters called sori that release spores.
12) Students’ answers should reflect the concept that angiosperms have protected seeds and many
ways in which the seeds can be dispersed, which increase the chances of survival.
13) Vascular tissue support a tall plant and curries water and nutrients from the soil to its upper
region. Thus, ferns, which have vascular tissues grow tall, whereas moss plants cannot grow tall
because they lack vascular tissues. Plants require a method to transport water and nutrients
throughout the plant body in order to survive.
14) Answers are:
a) A= seed coast (testa), B= hypocotyl, C= endosperm (cotyledon).
b) Endosperm or cotyledon is the source of nutrients for a growing seedling.
15) The bright-coloured parts of the flower might attract insects and other animals for pollination.
16) Endosperm is the stored food supply in angiosperm seeds that nourish the embryo plant.
17) Fruit could not form on flowers that lack carpels, because fruits develop from the ovary, which is
the part of the carpel.
18) Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from anther to the stigma, whereas fertilization is the
fusion of a male gamete with a female gamete.
19) Answers are: A= sepals, B= petals, C= stamen, D= carpel or pistil, E= anther, F= filament, G=
stigma, H= style, I= ovary, J= ovule. B (petals) as brightly coloured structures they attract insects and
birds which can promote pollination. E (anther): it is where pollen grains are produced. G (stigma):
receives pollen grain during pollination.
20) They all benefit. Bees obtain a food source, and flowers have a mean of pollination.
21) The main advantage of cross-pollination is to increase variation of offspring.
22) Stamens of wind-pollinated flowers have to be exposed to the air, whereas those of insect-
pollinated flowers have to be enclosed so that insects have to brush past them.
23) Comparison between wind-pollinated and insect-pollinated flowers
Typical wind-pollinated flower Typical insect-pollinated flower
Flower structure relatively simple Complex structural modifications
Small petal not brightly coloured Large coloured petal
Not scented Scented
Nectarines absent Nectarines present
Large branched and feathery stigma hanging Small stigma, sticky to hold pollen and
outside flower to trap pollen enclosed within flower
Stamens hanging outside flower to release Stamens enclosed within flower
pollen

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Anthers attached only at midpoints at tip of Anthers fixed at their bases or fused along
filament so that they swing freely in air their backs to the filaments so that they are
current immovable
Large quantities of pollen owing to high Less pollen produced
wastage
Pollen grains relatively light, small and Pollen grains relatively heavy, large and
smooth sticky.
24) Answers are: a) Mediterranean squirting cucumber; b) Sycamore or European maple;
c) Coconut; d) Mistletoe.
Additional activities
Remedial Activities:
1) Copy and complete the following sentence, by using the words: asexually, gametophyte,
sporophyte, and sexually: In all land plants the ………….. Generation is haploid and
produces…………. Whereas the …………….. Generation is diploid and reproduces …….………
2) How do the leaves of bryophytes differ from the true leaves of ferns?
3) Which part of the life cycle of ferns is most dependent on water?
4) Differentiate dioecious plants from monoecious plants.
Answers for Remedial activities:
1) In all land plants the gametophyte generation is haploid and reproduces asexually, whereas the
sporophyte generation is diploid and reproduces sexually.
2) Bryophyte leaves are haploid whereas true leaves of ferns are diploid.
3) Gametophyte.
4) Dioecious plants are plants that have male flowers and female flowers on separate plants (e.g.
papaya) whilst monoecious plants are plants that have both male and female flowers on the same
plant (e.g. maize).

Consolidation activities
1) Why do many angiosperms produce less pollen than conifers?
2) Name all parts labeled on the diagram below:

3) What is parthenocarpy?
4) Study the diagram below and answer to the question

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a) Between A and B; which part is the gametophyte?
b) What name can you give to the remaining part A or B?
Answers for consolidated activities
1) Many angiosperms are insect-pollinated whereas most conifers are wind-pollinated.

2) The answers are: A= nucellus; B= three antipodals, C= polar nuclei/ primary endosperm cell; D=
two synergids; E= funicle; F= placenta; G= micropyle, H= egg cell/ ovum; I= integuments; J=
embryo sac.
3) Parthenocarpy. It is when fruits mature without fertilization?
4) Answers are: a) A, b) sporophyte.
Extended activities
1) The diagram below represents a pollen grain.

a) Names the parts labelled X, Y, A and B.

b) State any one function of the nucleus A and any one function of the nucleus B.
2) A flowering plant can avoid the self- fertilization by Protogyny or Protandry. Differentiate
between Protogyny and Protandry.
3) With a diagram describe alternation of generations in a moss.
4) With a diagram describe alternation of generations in a fern.
Answers for extended activities
1) Answers are:
a) X= Intine; Y= exine; A= generative nucleus; B= pollen tube nucleus.
b) The generative nucleus divides to produce male gametes which fertilise the egg cell and polar
nuclei, while the tube nucleus controls growth of pollen tube.

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2) The answer is: Protogyny: it is when female reproductive organs mature before male reproductive
organs, while Protandry is when male reproductive organs mature before female reproductive
organs.
3) Expected answer is under the unit 17 (lesson one) in student book.
4) Expected answer is under the unit 17 (lesson one) in student book.

UNIT 18 MICROBIOLOGY
Introductory activity
Answer the following questions: A student left fresh milk in a cup but which was exposed.
After 6 hours, a student found that milk changed its state from fresh milk to stale milk. Why
do you think this happened? In another scenario, Mukamukiza prepared food at home in
the morning which she intended to serve at dinner. Some food was immediately put in the
food flask tightly covered. While the remaining food was left in the saucepan covered with
banana leaves. In the evening food in the flask was warm and ok while food in the saucepan
had gone bad. What caused food in the saucepan to go bad? Why was food in the flask
affected at the time of serving?
The expected answer for introductory activity
Because fresh milk was contaminated by microorganisms such as bacteria and some fungi.
Food in a saucepan was exposed to harmful microorganisms that made to go bad.
Food in the flask was preserved and prevented from contamination by microbes thus unaffected.
Activity 18.1.1
Using textbooks brainstorm the meaning of microbiology and groups of microorganisms.
Expected answers for activity 18.1.1
Microbiology is the study of microorganisms.
Activity 18.1.2
Discuss the characteristics and examples of both archaebacteria and Eubacteria.
Self-assessment 18.1
1) Describe the characteristics of the two domains of prokaryotes.
2) What factors can be used to identify prokaryotes?
3) How do bacteria maintain equilibrium in the environment?
4) Identify the parts of a prokaryote.
5) Describe briefly how some prokaryotes obtain their energy.
Expected answers for self-assessment 18.1
1) Archaebacteria lack peptidoglycan and their membrane lipids are quite different. Also, the DNA
of key Archaebacterial genes is like those of eukaryotes.

2) They are identified by their shapes, the chemical nature of their cell walls, the ways they move and
the ways they obtain energy.
3) Bacteria are essential to maintaining the living world. Some are producers, others are
decomposers, and others are useful to humans.
4) Cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, DNA, ribosomes, pili and flagella.
5) Some consume organic molecules synthesised by other living organisms while others make their
own food from simple inorganic molecules.

Activity 18.2.1
Using text books, videos or computer aided materials, describe the life of E. coli.

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Expected answers for activity 18.2.1
Life cycle of E. coli occurs both asexually and sexually. Asexual reproduction occurs by binary
fission and sexually by conjugation.
The most prevalent reproduction for E. coli is asexual reproductions which take place when the E.
coli is undergoing binary fission. This type of reproduction begins with the replication of one DNA
molecule.
Secondly, the copies of the genetic material attach themselves to the cell membrane.
Thirdly, when the bacterium’s size has doubled from its original size, the cell membrane starts
pinching inward.
Fourthly, between the two DNA molecules, a cell wall is produced. Lastly, the cell wall divides the
cell into two daughter cells.
E. coli can also go through a second process of reproduction known as conjugation. Conjugation is a
reproduction process which involves the transferring of genetic material by the sex pili between two
bacteria. Basically, one has to take in consideration that this is not a sexual reproduction because
there is no combination of the gametes.
Activity 18.2.2
Using textbooks brainstorm the process of food poisoning, evolution of harmful strain of
E. coli and food preservation
Expected answers for activity 18.2.2
Evolution of harmful strain: new strain of E. coli evolved into a much more dangerous organism.
The strain acquired a gene that enabled it to produce a powerful toxin which damages the intestinal
wall, causing severe diarrhoea and internal bleeding.
This may lead to internal serious dehydration and in young children and elderly people may result
into death. In majority of the cases, infections of pathogenic strain of E. coli are not fatal and the
disease clears without treatment.
How does E. coli cause food poisoning? E .coli is everywhere in the environment, but the deadly
strain is rare. Nevertheless, it takes only ten or so of the pathogenic E. coli to infect a person. An
outbreak of E. coli food poisoning was traced to drinking fresh apple juice.
Therefore, touching a source of contamination and not washing hands before handling food may be
enough to cause the infection.
Meat is not the only source of infection. Contaminated person can pass the bacteria on to vegetables,
and other foods. It is therefore, important to practice good hygiene even if not handling raw meat.
Self-assessment 18.2
1) Suggest the process by which E. coli reproduces.
2) What is the probable source of the gene that transforms harmless E. coli into pathogenic E. coli?
3) At what temperature is E. coli in meat killed?
4) How is food poisoned?
5) How can you minimise food and drink poisoning?
Expected answers for self-assessment 18.2
1) Asexually by binary fission and sexually by conjugation.
2) Bacteriophage gene.
3) Higher than 720c.
4) If food is contaminated by harmful E. coli when handling food unwashed hands.
5) Food can be preserved by: Food storage, packaging, pasteurisation and sterilisation.

Activity18.3.1
Using textbooks, chart, videos or you tube, describe the structure, life cycle and

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effects of viruses.
Expected answers for activity 18.3.1
Structurally, viruses consist of either ribonucleic acid (RNA) or deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)-
never both plus a protective coat called capsomere made of protein or of protein combined with lipid
or carbohydrate components.
Vibrio, is an entire virus particle, consisting of an outer protein shell called a caspid and an inner
core of nucleic acid (either ribonucleic or deoxyribonucleic acid-RNA or DNA). The core confers
infectivity, and the caspid provides specificity to the virus.
Viruses replicate by using either the lytic cycle or the lysogenic cycle.
Viruses affect humans and plants by causing various diseases including HIV/AIDS, polio, small pox,
measles etc.
Activity 18.3.2
Describe the sequence of events that occur during a lytic infection
Expected answers for activity 18.3.2
The lytic cycle consists of five phases:
- The Bacteriophage first attaches to susceptible bacterium by attaching its tail fibers to a receptor
site.
- Next the Bacteriophage releases an enzyme that weakens a spot in the cell wall of the host.
- Then the phage presses its sheath against the cell and injects its DNA into the host cell through the
weak spot in the cell wall.
- The Bacteriophage leaves its capsid outside.
- The virus then takes control of the host’s protein synthesizing mechanisms, transcribing mRNA
from the viral DNA.
- The resulting Bacteriophage DNA is translated by ribosomes and enzymes that form Bacteriophage
capsid. So the viral DNA is also replicated during this phase.
- The replicated viral genes are enclosed in the newly created virus capsid.
- During the last phase of the lytic cycle, one of the enzymes that are produced by the Bacteriophage
genome causes the host cell to disintegrate, releasing new Bacteriophage. The cell disintegration is
called lysis.
The enveloped viruses, the newly formed viruses move to the cell surface and force their way
through the cell membrane
. Activity 18.3.3
Using textbooks describe what happens to the host cell of a lysogenic virus.
Expected answers for activity 18.3.3
Viruses that stay in their host cell for an extended period of time: days, months or years are in a
lysogenic cycle. A virus that replicates through lysogenic cycle and doesn’t kill the host cell
immediately is called a temperate virus. Lysogenic cycle occurs as follows:

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Activity 18.3.4
“Viruses are said to be on the border line of living organisms and non-living things”. Debate on
this statement.
Expected answers for activity 18.3.4
Some biologists say that they should be considered as living organisms because they possess the
following features:
- They have the genetic material composed of either DNA or DNA not but both at ago.
- They cause diseases to other living things: All viruses are infectious.
- They evolve as a result of mutation and natural selection.
- They reproduce /multiply only in other living things: they are obligate intracellular parasites.

However, some biologists insist that they should be regarded as non-living things due to the fact
that:
- They cannot metabolize.
- They crystallize when in isolation.
- They cannot reproduce outside of host.
- They are not made of cells. This means that they have a relatively simple non-cellular organisation.
- They cannot respond to stimuli
- They have one type of nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA. But living cells contain both DNA and
RNA.
Self-assessment 18.3
1) What are the parts of a virus?
2) Describe the two ways by which viruses cause infection.
3) Distinguish between Bacteriophage and a prophage.
4) What is meant by retrovirus?
5) What are the strengths and weaknesses of the tobacco mosaic virus hypothesis?
6) Which characteristic feature is common to all viruses?
7) How is a capsid protein important to the functioning of a virus?
8) What is the best way to protect humans against most viral diseases?
Expected answer for self-assessment 18.3
1) A bacteriophage is a virus that infects bacteria while a prophage is the lysogenic viral DNA that is
embedded in the host’s DNA.
2) A retrovirus is a virus that contains RNA.

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3) The strength of the hypothesis is that it explains the observations. One of the weaknesses is that
the viruses could not be seen, so the no direct evidence that they exist.
4) One characteristic feature common to all viruses is that they enter living cells and, once inside,
they use the machinery of the infected cell to multiply.
5) It is essential because it binds to the surface of the cell and tricks the cell into allowing it inside.
Once inside, the viral genes take over.
6) The best way is prevention. Because once a viral disease has been contracted, it might be too late,
to control the disease.
Activity 18.4
Using text books or computer aided materials describe the life cycle of bread mould.
Expected answer for activity 18.4
Life cycle of a bread mould
Asexual reproduction takes place, when cells or hyphae break off from a fungus and begin to grow
on their own and sexual reproduction occurs by conjugation as described in the student book in the
activity 18.4. The sexual reproduction involves conjugation. It occurs as follows:
Two hyphae from different mating types come together, making gametangia. Haploid gametes
produced in the gametangia fuse with gametes of opposite mating type to form diploid nuclei. A
thick wall develops around the nuclei producing zygospores that may remain dormant for months.
When conditions become favorable, the zygospore germinate, undergo meiosis and develops into a
new individual.
Self-assessment18.4
1) How are the cell walls of fungi similar to exoskeleton of insects?
2) Distinguish between hyphae and mycelium.
3) What are conditions necessary for fungal spores to germinate?
4) Explain the basis of classification of fungi.
5) Why do many biologists think that Penicillium evolved from an ascomycete?
6) Briefly describe sexual and asexual reproduction in fungi.
7) The antibiotic penicillin is a natural secretion of a certain kind of fungus-green mould
called Penicillium, penicillin kills bacteria. Why might a mould species have evolved
way of killing bacteria?
Expected answer for self-assessment 18.4
1) The cells of fungi are similar to the exoskeletons of insects in which both contain chitin.
2) Hyphae are tiny filaments that are only one cell thick while the mycelium is a thick mass
composed of many hyphae tangled together.
3) Spores must land in favorable conditions. There must be a proper combination of temperature,
moisture and food.
4) Fungi are classified according to their structure and method of reproduction.
5) Like ascomycete Penicillium reproduces asexually via conidia.
6) Asexual reproduction takes place, when cells or hyphae break off from a fungus and begin to grow
on their own. Some fungi also produce asexually by spores. Sexual reproduction in fungi usually
involves two different mating types which mate to form zygote nuclei.
7) Answers may vary. A typical answer might suggest that bacteria and fungi compete for the same
source and fungi evolved a mechanism for killing bacteria.

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Activity 18.5
Make a research from the internet or textbooks to find out:
1) The structure of Penicillium, and yeast cell.
2) How Saccharomyces reproduce.
3) Explain what is meant by budding.
Expected answers for activity 18.5
1) Structure of Penicillium and yeast cell

2) Saccharomyces cerevisiaecan reproduce either asexually or sexually.

- In asexual reproduction, the single cell divides by budding and separate into two cells. Some buds
group together to form colonies; other separate to grow individually into a new yeast.

- In sexual reproduction, two cells fuse to form a diploid cell which then forms haploid spores by
meiosis
3) Budding is a type of asexual reproduction by which the new organism develops from an outgrowth
known as bud through cell division at one particular part.
Self-assessment 18.5
1) Which features does all yeast have in common?
2) How do hyphae of Penicillium differ from those of Mucor.
3) Describe the evidences for penicillin’s effectiveness.
Expected answer for self-assessment 18.5
1) Features that all yeast cells have in common are:

- Are all unicellular fungi

- They can reproduce asexually by budding

- They can reproduce sexually by fusion of two cells

- They contain a single nucleus and are usually egg shaped.

2) The hyphae of Penicillium have cross-walls called septa but the ones of Mucor do not have septa.

3) Evidences for penicillin’s effectiveness according to work of Fleming are:

- Staphylococcus during experiment has been destroyed by moulds.

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- After studying Staphylococcus closely, Fleming concluded that the Penicillium mould was
producing a substance that killed the Staphylococcus.

- Penicillin has treated wounded soldiers in Second World War.

Activity 18.6
Observe prepared slides of Entamoeba hystolitica, Plasmodium and Trypanosoma to compare
their structures.
Expected answer for activity 18.6
To answer the activity 18.6 students will be using microscope to observe the structure of
Plasmodium, Entamoeba hystolitica, Trypanosoma structures on prepared slides. Then, ask them to
draw the viewed structure and compare them. Answers from students will not be similar. Guide them
to summarize their observations and come up with the common consensus.
Self-assessment 18.6
1) For malaria, name:
a) The causative agent.
b) The vector.
2) The diagram below shows the life cycle of plasmodium. Analyse it and then answer the questions
that follow.

a) What is the vector of malaria?

b) Between stages C and D, which one takes place in the red blood cells and which one
takes place in the hepatic cell (liver)?
c) State any two symptoms of malaria displayed in individual in stage E.
Expected answers for self assessment18.6
1) Name causal agent and vector of malaria:
a) Plasmodium spp(P.falciparum, the species that causes falciparum malaria, the most dangerous
type of malaria; P. malariae, the species that causes quartan malaria; P. ovale, a species found
primarily in east and central Africa that causes ovale malaria;
and P. vivax, the species that causes vivax malaria, which tends to be milder than falciparum
malaria.)
b) Female mosquitoes (the vector) belonging to the genus Anopheles.
2) Answers:
a) The vector of malaria is “female Anopheles mosquito”
b) Is D which takes place in red blood cell and C takes place in the hepatic cell (liver?)
c) Any two symptoms of malaria displayed in individual in stage E
d) Fever, anaemia, nausea, headaches, shivering, etc.
End of unit assessment
1) State any TWO diseases caused by:
a) Bacteria

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b) Protozoa
c) Microscopic fungi
2) What is the main feature of moulds?
3) Why viruses are not generally considered to be living things?
4) The figure below shows the structure of a bacterial cell seen using an electron microscope

a) Name the parts labelled A, B, C and D

b) Describe the roles of parts labelled B, C and E
5) The diagram below represents the structure of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV/AIDS).

a) Name A, B, C, and D.
b) HIV/AIDS is under retroviruses. What is meant by retroviruses?
c) What type of leucocytes (white blood cells) are destroyed by HIV/AIDS?
6) Discuss the methods of reducing the risk of food poisoning by pathogenic bacteria.

7) Why the hyphae of Mucor is called coenocytic?

8) The figure below shows the life cycle of one of microorganisms.

a) This diagram represents the life cycle of which microorganism?

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b) Name the parts labelled A, B, C, D, E and F
9) Identify the following groups of bacteria

Answers for end of unit assessment

1) Diseases caused by:
a) Bacteria: Tuberculosis, typhoid, cholera, tetanus, etc
b) Protozoa: Malaria, trichomoniasis, sleeping sickness, etc
c) Microscopic fungi: Ring worms, Candidiasis, athlete’s foot, etc
2) The main feature of moulds is:

Moulds contain cells arranged in long thread-like filaments known as the hyphae, that form a mass
called Mycelium
3) Viruses are not generally considered to be living things because:
- They cannot metabolize
- They crystallize when in isolation.
- They cannot reproduce outside of host.
- They are not made of cells. This means that they have a relatively simple non-cellular organisation.
- They cannot respond to stimuli
- They have one type of nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA. But living cells contain both DNA and
RNA.

4) Answers:
a) Names of:

A: Cytoplasm
B: Mesosomes
C: Nucleoid region (DNA)
D: Flagellum
b) Importances of parts B, C and E

Parts Importances
B Respiration

C Carries genetic
information

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 inherited from
past generations
E Protects the inner
parts of bacteria

5) Answers

a) Names of the parts HIV virus

A RNA
B Reverse transcriptase enzyme
C Protein coats
D Glycoprotein
b) Retrovirus is RNA viruses that contain an enzyme called reverse transcriptase in addition to
RNA. Reverse transcriptase uses RNA as a template to make DNA. The DNA then makes an RNA
transcript of itself. This RNA is then translated into proteins that become part of new viruses.
Reverse transcriptase is so given this name because it reverses the normal process of transcription, in
which DNA serves as a template for producing RNA

c) White blood cells mainly destroyed by HIV/AIDS are called Helper T cells.

6) The methods of reducing the risk of food poisoning by pathogenic bacteria are:
- Storage and packaging
- Pasteurization and sterilization
7) The hyphae of Mucor is called coenocytic because the fungal tissue is not separated by cell walls.
8) Answer
a) Trypanosoma brucei
b) Name of the parts:

A: Metacyclic trypomastigote
B: Long slender form
C: Short stumpy form
D: Procyclic trypomastigote
E: Long epimastigote
F: Attached epimastigote
9) Groups of bacteria
a. Bacillus
b. Coccus
c. Spirillum
d. Spirochete

e. Vibrios
f. Streptococcus
g. Staphylococcus
h. Diplococci
i. Chain of bacilli

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Additional activities
Remedial Activities:
1) What do understand with prokaryote?
2) Most Eubacteria have one of the three basic shapes. What are those three shapes of Eubacteria?
3) Answer the following by true or false

The following is feature that makes viruses non-living things:

a) Viruses crystallize when in isolation.
b) They cause diseases to other living things
c) They are not made of cells.
d) They cannot respond to stimuli
e) They evolve as a result of mutation and natural selection.

4) What do you think are two main types of moulds?

5) Who has discovered the antibody Penicillin?
6) Observe the following figure and answer the questions

Expected answers
1) Prokaryote is a unicellular organism that lacks a membrane –bound nucleus, mitochondria and
other membrane-bound organelle.
2) Shapes of Eubacteria are:
a) Bacilli: rod-shaped
b) Cocci (sing. Coccus). Sphere-shaped
c) Spirilla: (sing. Spirillum). Spiral-shaped

3) Answers
a) True b) False c) True d) True e) False
4) The two main types of moulds are fungal moulds and non-fungal moulds
5) Penicillin has been discovered by a scientist Sir Alexander Fleming
6) Answers:
a) Structure of Trypanosoma cell
b) Tsetse fly

18.9.2 Consolidation activities:

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1) Suggest any three characteristics of prokaryotes
2) Suggest where Archaebacteria are found in environment.
3) Complete the following table of some common viral diseases
Name of disease Cause Signs and
symptoms
Influenza
Measles
Poliomyelitis (Polio)
Yellow fever
AIDS
Hepatitis B

4) Suggest any two uses of moulds

5) Explain how scientist Sir Alexander Fleming discovered antibiotics Penicillin.
6) What symptoms can help you to know that a person is suffering from Entamoeba histolytica?
Expected answers:
1) Characteristics of prokaryotes are:
- The absence of a membrane around the nuclear materials
- The absence of clearly defined membrane-limited organelles like mitochondria, Golgi complex and
lysosomes.
- The genetic material is located on a single chromosome which consists of circular double strand of
DNA
- The absence of nucleolus and mitotic apparatus
- Etc..
2) Archaebacteria were first discovered in extreme environments such as swamps, salt lakes, hot
springs
3) Some common viral diseases
Name of disease Cause Signs and symptoms
Influenza Myxovirus (DNA virus) Sudden fever with headache,
sore throat and muscular
aches.
Measles A paramyxovirus (RNA Occurs mainly in children.
virus) Sore throat, runny nose,
watery eyes, cough and fever.
Poliomyelitis (Polio) Poliovirus (a picornavirus) Fever, headache and feeling
(RNA virus) of stiffness in neck and other
muscles.
Nerve cells to muscles are
destroyed causing paralysis
and muscle wasting. Most
cases of paralysis occur in
children aged 4 – 12 years,
but adults may be also
affected.
Yellow fever An arbovirus, that is Fever, headache, backache,

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 arthropod-borne virus (RNA nausea, tenderness in pit of
virus) stomach. Affects lining of
blood vessels and liver.
AIDS HIV virus; a retrovirus (RNA Loss of appetite, loss of
virus) weight, fevers, persistent dry
cough, …
Hepatitis B DNA virus Infects liver, flu-like
symptoms, jaundice, nausea
and severe loss of appetite.

1) Uses of moulds
Even if species of Rhizopus and Mucor are responsible for the spoilage of food, they are also useful
as follow:
- They are used to make the human foods. For example, Mucor is used with soya beans to make a
cheese called sufu, in eastern Asia.
- In Indonesia, R. oligosporus and R. oryzae are used to produce a food called tempeh from boiled
skinless soya beans.
- The fungal moulds belonging to the Zygomycota are used to make anaesthetics, birth control pills,
meat tenderisers, and the yellow colouring agents used in margarines and butter substitutes.

2) Discovery of penicillium

Penicillin, the first antibiotic has been discovered in 1928 by a scientist Sir Alexander Fleming
when he was culturing some Staphylococcus bacteria during his medical research. He left some Petri
dishes for many days, and after he found a mouldy growth of Penicillium notatum contaminating a
corner of one of dishes. Then Fleming realised that Staphylococcus next to the mould has been
destroyed.

After studying Staphylococcus closely, Fleming concluded that the Penicillium mould was producing
a substance that killed the Staphylococcus. He carried on with finding out if the broth of Penicillium
mould contained penicillin which could destroy pathogenic bacteria.
3) The symptoms of Entamoeba histolytica are:

- Gas (flatulence) intermittent

- constipation loose stools
- stomach ache
- Stomach cramping.

18.9.2. Extended activities

1) Compare between Phototrophs and Chemotrophs

2) Distinguish between Gram-positive and Gram-negative
3) By using the diagram discuss the life cycle of Escherichia coli
4) Using the table, compare between a virus and a living cell.
5) Draw and label the structure of typical yeast cell.
6) Describe the mode of Trypanosoma transmission.

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Expected answers
1) Phototrophs are organisms that obtain energy from light but chemotrophs those organisms that
obtain energy from chemicals.
2) During the Gram staining technique, some bacteria having no a lipid layer along with their
peptidoglycan cell wall take the gram stain and appear violet (purple) and are therefore called gram
positive, while some others having a lipid layer along with their peptidoglycans cell wall do not take
up the gram stain and are therefore called gram negative

3) Life cycle of Escherichia coli

4) Comparison between viruses and cells

Characteristics of life Virus Cell
Growth No Yes
Homeostasis No Yes
Metabolism No Yes
Mutation Yes Yes
Nucleic acid DNA or RNA DNA
Reproduction Only within host cell Independently by cell division
Structure Nucleic acid, protein covering Cytoplasm, cell membrane,
and in some species an cytoskeleton and in eukaryotic
envelope cells, organelles.

5) The structure of yeast

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6) Mode of transmission of Trypanosoma

- The vectors for Trypanosoma cruzi include members of the order Hemiptera, such as assassin flies,
which ingest the amastigote or trymastigote and carry them to animals or humans.
- The parasites enter the human host through mucus membranes in the nose, eye, or mouth upon
release from the insect vectors. Left untreated, Chagas' disease may cause dementia, megacolon, and
megaesophagus, and damage to the heart muscle, and may result in death.

UNIT 19 CULTURING MICROORGANISMS

Introductory activity.
In your own opinion, do you think it is necessary to culture microorganisms? Why are cultures
not incubated at 370C in a school lab?

Answers for introductory activity

It is essential to culture microorganisms because they are used for various purposes for example in
pharmaceutical industries to make antibiotics, vaccines and other drugs. Also are used in food and
beer processing industries and for study purpose among others.
It would be dangerous to incubate cultures at temperatures close to body temperature - 37°C because
doing so might allow the growth of pathogens harmful to health

Activity 19.1
Using textbooks, YouTube and charts brainstorm the requirements for growth of
Answers for learning activity 19.1
Requirements for growth of microorganisms’ essential nutrients such as:
- Source of carbon, nitrogen, growth factors, mineral salts, source of energy and water.
- Environmental variables such as: temperature, pH, oxygen concentration and ionic and osmotic
balance.
microorganisms.

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Self-assessment 19.1
1) What is meant by the term culturing bacteria?
2) What do bacteria need to grow?
3) Why do we culture microorganisms in the lab?
4) Explain why cultures are not incubated at 37℃ in a school laboratory.

Answers for self-assessment 19.1

1) Culturing bacteria is a process of growing bacteria in very large numbers.
2) The conditions necessary for the growth of bacteria include:
- Optimum temperature (30-40ᵒC) for enzymes to work better.
- Source of energy such as glucose, maltose, juice.
- Source or other nutrients (minerals such are as potassium, sodium, iron, magnesium and calcium,
vitamins, proteins)
- Air for aerobic microbes or complete absence of air for anaerobic microorganisms
3) Culturing is important in manufacture of antibiotics, disinfectants, and can be investigated using
cultures of microorganisms their populations that have been grown for a purpose. It is important that
the cultures are uncontaminated by other microorganisms, so sterile conditions are needed:
4) It would be dangerous to incubate cultures at temperatures close to body temperature - 37°C
because doing so might allow the growth of pathogens harmful to health. So the maximum
temperature used in school and college labs is 25°C. However, higher temperatures can be used
industrially, and these produce faster growth.
Activity: 19.2
Describe forms of media used in culturing microorganisms.

Answers for activity 19.2

Solid medium: solid media are particularly suitable for bacteria and fungi and are prepared by
mixing the liquid nutrient solution with a getting agent, usually agar, at a concentration of about 1-
2%, thus, producing nutrient agar.
Liquid media: liquid media are often useful for measuring population growth. They may be placed
in a test tube, stopped by a plug of cotton wool or a metal cap, or in a glass, screw-crapped bottle
such as a universal bottle which holds about 25cm2 enough for one agar plate.
Enrichment media: an enrichment medium is a medium in which substances are added to meet the
requirements of which substances are added to meet the requirements of certain microorganism s in
preference to others.
A selective medium: it is one in which one or more substances are added which inhibit the growth of
all but one or few organizing.
Self-assessment 19.2
1) How would you set about trying to isolate from the soil an organism which could use
atmospheric nitrogen as its only source of nitrogen (a nitrogen-fixing bacteria)?
2) What is meant by nutrient agar?
3) Distinguish between liquid media and enrichment media.

Answers for Self-assessment 19.2

1) Prepare a medium is free from any nitrogen-containing compounds but which contains all other
nutrients needed for growth. Inoculate the soil, place in contact with nitrogen and incubate under
sterile conditions. The only organisms which will be able to grow and multiply will be nitrogen
fixers.

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2) Nutrient agar is a nutrient jelly like substance on which many microorganisms are cultured.
3) Liquid Media is a sterilized media useful for measuring population growth while enrichment
media is a medium in which substances are added to meet the requirements of certain
microorganisms in preference to others.
Activity 19.3 1
Carry out a procedure of culturing, fungi on a nutrient agar using sterile techniques.

Answers for activity 19.3

Procedures for culturing fungi
- Aseptically, with a pair of forceps, place a sheet of sterile filter paper in a Petri dish.
- Place a sterile U-shaped glass rod on the filter paper. (Rod can be sterilized by flaming, if held by
forceps.)
- Pour enough sterile water (about 4 ml) on filter paper to completely moisten it.
- With forceps, place a sterile slide on the U-shaped rod
- Gently flame a scalpel to sterilize, and cut a 5 mm square block of the medium from the plate of
Sabouraud’s agar or Emmons’ medium.
- Pick up the block of agar by inserting the scalpel and carefully transfer this block aseptically to the
centre of the slide.
- Inoculate four sides of the agar square with spores or mycelia fragments of the fungus to be
examined. Be sure to flame and cool the loop prior to picking up spores.
- Aseptically, place a sterile cover glass on the upper surface of the agar cube.
- Place the cover on the Petri dish and incubate at room temperature for 48 hours.
- After 48 hours, examine the slide under low power. If growth has occurred there will be growth of
hyphae and production of spores. If growth is inadequate and spores are not evident, allow the mold
to grow for another 24- 48 hours before making the stained slides.
- Place a drop of lactophenol cotton blue stain on a clean microscope slide.
- Remove the cover glass from the slide culture and discard the block of agar.
- Add a drop of 95% ethanol to the hyphae on the cover glass. As soon as most of the alcohol has
evaporated place the cover glass, mold side down, on the drop of lactophenol cotton blue stain on the
slide. Examine the slide under microscope
Activity19.3.2 (d)
- Boil a mixture of 50 ml of water and 20g of agar-agar powder for 15 minutes as you are stirring
- Pour the jelly mixture into four pre-sterilized glass Petri-dishes. Then allow the broth to
coagulate at room temperature
- Number the dishes 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively on the bases.
- Place a nail scarping from between the teeth onto the jelly in dish 1 and 2, wave the dish 3 on
latrine for 1minute and do not put anything on dish 4.
- Heat the dishes 2 and 4 on the top of water vapour stream for 15 minutes and then cool them (do
not open them any more)
- Then fix the lids tightly to the bases of the four Petri-dishes with clear adhesive tape and place
them upside down in an oven/incubator at 37 ˚C for 3 days.
- Record and interpret your results.

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Figure 19.4 incubation on Petri -dishes. (at 37℃)

Answers for activity 19.3.2

- Yeast releases digestive enzymes which allow the transformation of glucose into ethanol as result of
anaerobic fermentation.
- Alcoholic fermentation depends on a process known as malting.
- You soak barley grains in water and keep them. As germination begins, enzymes break down the
starch in the barley grains into a sugary solution.
- You then extract a solution produced by malting and use it as an energy source for the yeast.
- The yeast and sugar solution mixture is then fermented to produce alcohol.
- Hops are added at this stage to give flavour.
- The beer is given time to clear and develops its flavour fully before it is put in bottles to be sold.
Activity 19.3.3
Describe how yeast would be used in alcoholic fermentation.

Self-assessment 19.3
From questions 1-5, circle the letter corresponding with the most correct answer
1) The method of culturing microorganisms in which all of the individuals in a culture have descended
from a single individual is called:
A Pure culture technique
B Spread plate technique
C Aseptic technique
D Liquid media method
2) In inoculating liquid medium, various instruments are used. Which one of the following is used to
transfer the sample to the medium?
A Sterile wire loop
B Inoculating needle.
C Petri-dishes
D None of these.
3) Large amounts of alcohol are dangerous to yeast during alcoholic fermentation. Which of the
following explains the reason how?
A It kills all the yeast and stops fermentation.
B Motivate yeasts
C It kills some few bacteria.
D Temperature affects fermentation.
4) The technique of using sterilized equipment and solutions and preventing their contamination while
in use is referred to as:
A Pure culture technique
B Spread plate technique

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C Aseptic technique
D Petri-dish technique.
5) Petri dishes are specially designed shallow circular dish made of glass or plastic with a lid. Which
one of the following best explains the function of the lid?
A Prevent contamination, but gas molecules can diffuse.
B Spread the bacteria on the plate.
C Allows contamination.
D None of the above.

Answers for self-assessment 19.3

1) A
2) A
3) A
4) C
5) A
Activity: 19.4.1
Using text books, charts, draw and interpret the graphs of population growth of bacteria.

Answers for activity 19.4.1

The graph showing population growth of bacteria.

- The lag phase (a): period of adaptation of microorganisms to the new habitat thus slow growth.
- The log or exponential phase (b): period of high rate of reproduction thus rapid growth.
- The linear phase(c): the rate of reproduction slows down because of limiting factors. The limiting
factors of the growth of a population include the temperature, the light, the pressure, the space, the
amount of nutrients and metabolic waste products.
- The stationary phase (d): Stationary phase of plateau-growth slows down. The population remains
constant because the rate of dividing is equal to the rate of death within the population.
Activity 19.4.2

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Investigating the bacterial content of fresh and stale milk.
Materials required: Four sterile nutrient agar plates, inoculating loop, Bunsen burner, indelible
marker or wax pencil, Fresh pasteurized milk, Stale milk (milk left at room temperature for
24hours) and Incubator set at 350C
Procedure:
- Place the inoculating loop in the Bunsen burner flame until the loop is red hot.
- Allow the loop to cool and then dip into a sample of fresh, well shaken milk.
- Lift the lid of the sterile agar plate slightly with the other hand and lightly spread the contents of
the inoculating loop over the surface the agar.
- Close the lid of the plate and return the loop to the Bunsen burner flame until red hot.
- Label the base of the plate with an indelible marker or pencil.
- Repeat with the second plate and another sample of fresh milk.
- Flame the loop again and after cooling, place it in a sample of stale milk.
- Spread the contents of the loop over the surface of a third plate and then close the lid.
- Label the base of the plate with an indelible marker or pencil.
- Repeat with the fourth plate and second sample of stale milk.
- Put the four plates in an incubator at 35℃ for about 3 days. They should be placed upside down
to prevent condensation falling onto the cultures. After incubation, the two halves of each plate
should tape together for safety.
- Record the appearance of the colonies
Give the general comment basing on your observations.
Answers for activity 19.4.2
- The fourth and second plates contain many colonies of bacteria due to rapid growth of bacteria in
stale milk. The conditions are suitable since the culture was incubated at optimum temperature for
bacterial growth. The growth was slower in third and first plate than in the plates with stale milk.
- Comment: milk become stale due contamination by bacteria which continue to grow faster provided
suitable conditions.
Self-assessment 19.4
1) A culture of yeast, Saccharomyces cervicea, had been carried out in the banana juice for
7 days at 30°C.The table below shows the change in number of yeasts within that time:
Time/days 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
No. of yeast 2 2 6 16 20 20 8
a) Draw a curve showing the growth of the yeast population
b) What is the use of banana juice in that experiment?
c) State any two conditions that should be maintained constant during that experiment.
d) Describe the trend of the graph you have drawn in (a, above.
2) Design an experiment to test the hypothesis that contact of an agar plate with a finger results in
more bacterial growth than expose of the plate to classroom air.
Answers for Self-assessment 2.4
1) The answers:
a) The following is the graph:

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b) Banana juice contains glucose which provides necessary energy required in the process.
c) Temperature and complete absence of oxygen since respires anaerobically.
d) Between 2 and 6, there is slow growth rate due to few yeasts reproducing. Between 6 and 16, there
is exponential growth rate due to high reproduction and no limiting factors while between 16 and 20
there is stationary growth due to limiting setting in and at 20, growth is constant then from 20 to 8,
there is decline in number of yeasts due to death.
2) The experiment is labeled as follows: Two agar plates are required, touch one agar plate with a
finger. Display the plates and leave them uncovered for 20 minutes. Then cover the plates, keep them
in a safe place in the classroom. Use a hand lens to count the number of colonies after 24 and after 48
hours.
Activity19. 5
“Staining bacteria for practical purpose is important”. Discuss the validity of the statement.
Answers for learning activity 19.5
Observation of Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria through a light microscope.

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Self-assessment 19.5
1) Match column A with column B in each case.
Gram-positive bacteria Stain red or pink
Gram-negative bacteria Stain blue or purple
Cell culture conditions growing cells under controlled
Spore staining Malachite Green and Safrinin
Differential staining multiple staining reactions are used.
2) Explain why it is more difficult to culturing viruses than culturing bacteria
3) How are viruses specific to the cells they infect? Page493 no.25.
4) Distinguish between vaccines and antibiotics.

Answers for Self-assessment 19.5

1) Match column A with column B in each case.

Gram-positive bacteria Stain red or pink

Gram-negative bacteria Stain blue or purple
Cell culture growing cells under controlled conditions
Spore staining Malachite Green and Safrinin
Differential staining multiple staining reactions are used.
2) The culture of viruses is made more difficult than the culture of bacteria or fungi because viruses
can only grow and multiply inside living cells.
3) Viruses are specific to the cells they infect because they must bind precisely to proteins on the cell
surface in order to penetrate the cytoplasm.
4) A vaccine is a preparation of weakened or killed pathogens while antibiotics are chemical
compounds that are administered to prevent the reproduction and growth of bacteria.
End of unit assessment 19
1) What are different types of media used in the laboratories for culturing
microorganisms?
2) Define a pure culture.
3) How do biologists differentiate between Gram –positive and Gram –negative bacteria?
4) Describe the three methods of preventing bacterial growth in food.
5) How does temperature affect the growth of bacteria in culture media?
6) Assuming that you have a bacterial infection, would you ask for vaccination against
the bacteria? Why or why not?
7) How do bacteria maintain the balance in the environment?
8) Explain why an infection by Gram–negative bacteria are more difficult to treat than
Gram- positive bacteria.
9) How would you investigate that temperature affect the bacterial growth?
10)Write short notes on each of the following related to culturing microorganisms.
a) Aseptic techniques.
b) Staining bacteria
c) Growing viruses
11) Explain why microorganisms are particularly suitable for industrial use.
End of unit assessment
1) The main types of media are:

- Cultural media

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- Minimal media

- Selective media

- Differential media

- Transport media

- Indicator media

- Enriched media

2) Pure culture is a culture containing a growth of a single kind of microorganism free from other
organisms’ e.g. a single species of bacteria.

3) Gram-positive bacteria have a single cell wall layer absorb only the violet primary stain while
Gram-positive bacteria have a thin layer of peptidoglycans which the red stain that the bacteria
appear red.

4) Methods of preventing bacterial growth in food are: sterilization, use of disinfectants, food storage
and food processing.

5) Optimum temperature promotes bacterial growth, raising the temperature higher may reduce the
growth of bacteria and very low temperatures inhibit bacterial growth.

6) It would not be a good idea because vaccinations prevent infections rather than attacking and
destroying bacteria. The best way would be treating the infection with strong antibiotics.

7) Bacteria are essential to maintaining life on earth. Some are important producers, decomposers,
nitrogen fixers and others are useful to humans in various ways.

8) Gram –positive bacteria have only one cell membrane, while Gram-negative bacteria have second
outer layer of lipids and carbohydrates. Therefore, Gram-negative bacteria might more difficult to
kill.

9) An experiment to investigate how temperature affects reproduction and growth of bacteria. The
experiment is conducted as follows:

Materials required
- Glass-marking pencil
- 3 sterile agar plates
- Sterile cotton swabs

- Bacterial culture.

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- Transparent tape.
- Hand lens.
Procedure:
- Put on your plastic gloves, use glass- making pencil to label the edges of the agar plates,
“3℃”,”20℃” and “37℃”.
- Dip a sterile cotton swab in the bacterial culture and wipe it back and forth in zig zag pattern over
the entire surface of the agar on one plate.
- Cover the plate and seal it with transparent tape. Caution: do not open the plates once they have
been exposed to air.
- Repeat step 3 with each plate, using a new sterile swab for each plate.
- Place the plate labeled 3℃” in a refrigerator. Leave the plate labeled 20℃ in a place designated by
the teacher; place the plate labeled 37℃ in an incubator. Store each plate upside down.
- Draw a data table to represent the information as follows:
- Data table of results
Temperature No. of colonies after No. of colonies after
24hrs 48hrs
3℃
20℃
37℃

- After 24hours, examine each plate with a hand lens. Bacterial colonies look like small white or
white dots on agar surface, on the table above, record the number of bacterial colonies on each agar
plate. Then return each plate in its former location.
- After a second period of 24hrs, record in your data table in (a column of 48hrs) the number of
bacterial colonies on each agar plate.
- Return the agar plates to teacher for safe disposal.
10) Answers for:
a) Aseptic technique is using sterilized equipment and solutions and preventing their contamination
while in use. Sterilization is the removal or destruction of all living organisms, including spores
(inactive structures that enable some bacteria, algae, fungi and plants to survive through unfavorable
periods). Bacterial and fungal spores are abundant in most environments including laboratories.
b) In simple staining, all the bacteria and structures in general stain the same colour. In positive
staining, cells structures take in the stain e.g. methylene blue while in negative staining the cells
repel the stain and it is taken by the background e.g. Indian ink.
- Differential staining on the other hand, multiple staining reactions are used that take advantage of
the fact that particular types of microorganisms or specified structures of

microorganism display varied staining reactions that are readily distinguishable by different colours.
The purpose of staining bacteria is to see, for example, how thick of a layer of peptidoglycans
possessed by their cell wall.
- Growing viruses: The culture of viruses is made more difficult than the culture of bacteria or fungi
because viruses can only grow and multiply inside living cells. This can be done by infecting whole
organisms such as plants or animals but, where possible, cell, tissue cultures are now used. Viruses
cannot be grown in standard microbiological broths or on agar plates; instead they have to be
cultured inside suitable host cells.

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11) Microorganisms are particularly suitable for industrial processes for the following reasons
(students should do this question as a research activity and present their findings after)
- They have simple nutritional requirements.
- Their growth conditions can be controlled very precisely in fermenters (large vessels in which
microorganisms are grown).
- They have fast growth rate.
- Their reactions can take place at lower temperatures than conventional industrial procedures hence
lower energy costs.
- They produce higher yields and have higher specificity than conventional processes
- With microorganisms, a wide range of chemicals can be used and produced
- Some complex chemicals such as hormones and antibiotics can be manufactured which are difficult
to produce by other methods and specific isomers can be produced.
- The genetics of microorganisms are relatively simple and techniques for genetic manipulation are
continually advancing.
Additional activities
Remedial activities
1) What are four main types of microorganisms?
2) Why do we culture microorganisms in the lab?
3) Why are bacteria used in yoghurt making?
4) Identify four macro and micronutrients.
Answers for Remedial Activities
a) Microorganisms include the following types: bacteria, viruses, protists such as protozoa and some
fungi like yeasts.
b) For study purpose.
c) They multiply so fast and change milk to yoghurt.

d) Macronutrients include; these are required by microorganisms in relatively large amounts. Carbon,
oxygen, hydrogen nitrogen, sulfurs and phosphorous are components of carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins and nucleic acids.
19.9.2 Consolidation activities
1) Most fungi have evolved the ability to produce spores through both sexual and asexual
reproduction. How is this advantageous?
2) Why are microorganisms a serious problem, to agriculture in tropical regions of the world than
they are in temperate regions?

Consolidation answers
1) With both methods of reproduction, fungi increase their chance of reproducing in different
environmental conditions. Asexual reproduction is adaptive to more constant, favorable conditions,
whereas sexual reproduction is adaptive to those that are harsh and unstable.
2) Tropical regions are warmer, and have more moisture which is one of the favorable conditions for
growth of microorganisms.
Extension activities
1) The passage below describes how a student grows a culture of microorganisms on an agar plate.
Petri-dishes and culture medium containing agar, carbohydrate, protein and mineral ions are heated
to 120℃ for 15 minutes. The culture medium is poured into the Petri dishes and left to set. An

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inoculating wire loop is passed through a flame until red hot, allowed to cool and then dipped into a
container of microorganisms. The loop is then streaked across the medium in the Petri dish. The Petri
dish is sealed with adhesive tape and incubated at a temperature not exceeding 25℃. Use the passage
to answer the questions that follow:

In each case, give one reason why the following procedures were carried out.
a) Carbohydrate was used in the culture medium.
b) The culture medium and Petri dishes were heated to 120℃ for 15minutes
c) The inoculating wire loop was cooled before being used to transfer microorganisms.
d) The Petri dish was sealed with adhesive tape.
e) The temperature at which the microorganisms are grown was not allowed to exceed25℃.
2) Suggest measures you can use to prevent food spoilage by microorganism.
3) An experiment was conducted to determine the effectiveness of different antibiotics against a
certain strain of bacteria. Four disks each soaked in different antibiotic were placed in Petri dish
where the bacteria were growing. The results are summarized below.
Effects of antibiotics

Antibiotic Observation after one week

A Growth retarded for 6mm
diameter
B Growth not retarded
C Growth not retarded
D Growth retarded for 2mm
diameter
Which antibiotics were the least effective at retarding the growth of the bacteria? Explain your
answer using data from the experiment.
4) From the experiment above which antibiotics might be most effective treatments for an infection
caused by this strain of bacteria? Explain your answer using data from the experiment.

Answers for extension activities

1) Answers

c) To provide the necessary energy.

d) To sterilize the medium
e) To prevent the destruction of bacteria
f) To prevent microorganisms in air from contaminating the culture
g) This greatly reduces chances of pathogens growing which might be harmful to humans.
2) In order to prevent food spoilage by bacteria at home, we can treat food in the following ways;
- Cooking- the heat denatures enzymes and other proteins. This kills bacteria.
- Pasteurising- this involves heating to 72 degrees celcius for 15seconds and then cooling.
- Drying, salting and coating in sugar – these methods dehydrate any bacteria as water leaves them by
osmosis.
- Smoking- the food develops a hardened, dry outer surface and smoke contains antibacterial
chemicals.
- Pickling – this uses an acid pH to kill bacteria by denaturing their enzymes other proteins.

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- Cooling and freezing- these do not kill bacteria but retard enzyme activity so their metabolism,
growth and reproduction are very slow.
3) Antibiotic B and C were least effective. The growth of the bacteria was not retarded at all.
4) Antibiotic A and D would be good treatments because both retarded the growth of the bacteria .

UNIT 20 BIOTECHNOLOGY AND ITS APPLICATION

Activity 20.1
Using addition resources to your textbook available in your school such as the books from the
school library and search further information from the internet. Discuss the role of bacteria in
biotechnology and genetic engineering.

Answers to the activity 20.1

Expected answers are under the unit 20 (lesson one) in student book.

Self-assessment 20.1
1) What is biotechnology?
2) What do you understand with genetic engineering?
3) Discuss on the role of bacteria in Biotechnology and genetic engineering.

Answer for self-assessment 20.1

1) The biotechnology is the use of biological processes, organisms, or systems to manufacture
products intended to improve the quality of human life.
2) Genetic engineering is the use of genetic knowledge to artificially manipulate genes. It is one of
the fields of biotechnology.
3) Expected answers are under the unit 20 (lesson one) in student book.
Activity 20.2
Carry out research on the action of enzymes with reference to pectinase in fruit juice production
and lactase to produce lactose-free milk.
Enzymes catalyze biological reactions in our body, but they can also be used to catalyze
industrial
reactions outside the body. These enzymes are often bound to a support (‘immobilized’) and can
be used for a wide range of purposes.

Answers to the activity 20.2

Expected answers are under the unit 20 (lesson two) in student book.

Self-assessment 20.2
1) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of immobilized enzymes.
2) Write on the use of pectinase in fruit juice production.
3) Explain the role of lactase inmaking lactose-free milk.
4) How are immobilized enzymes used in biosensors?

Answers for self-assessment 20.2

1) Advantages/Disadvantages of Immobilizing Enzymes
Advantages Getting Started Disadvantages
Enzymes are not present with products so Immobilization requires additional time,

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purifications/ downstream processing costs equipment and materials so is more expensive
are low. to set up.
Enzymes are immediately available for reuse. Immobilized enzymes may be less active as
Allows for continuous processes they cannot mix freely with the substrate.
Immobilized enzymes are more stable because Any contamination is costly to deal with
immobilizing matrix protects enzyme because the whole system would need to be
molecules. stopped.

2) Use of pectinase in fruit juice production:

- The pectin content of the fruit is increased, making the nutritional value of the juice higher.

- The pectin content of the fruit is reduced, making the energy content of the juice lower.
- The pectin content of the fruit is reduced, making the juice easier to extract.
- The pectin content of the fruit is increased, giving the juice a thicker texture.
3) The role of lactase in making lactose-free milk:
- The enzyme lactase breaks down the sugar lactose, which is found in milk, into the sugars glucose
and galactose.
- Immobilized lactase can be used to produce lactose-free milk: normal milk is poured down a
column containing the immobilized lactase enzymes, which break down the lactose .
4) Expected answers are under the unit 20 (lesson two) in student book.
Activity 20.3
Visit a nearby bakery and verify how bread is prepared. Write a short report on the raw
materials and procedures used in making bread up to the final product.

Answers for activity 20.3

Summarized report on materials and procedures on bread making

Ingredients
- 450g (3 cups) plain bread flour
- 1 tablespoon (12g/2 sachets) dried yeast
- 2 teaspoons caster sugar
- 1/2 teaspoon salt
- 250ml (1 cup) warm milk
- 2 tablespoons melted butter
- Water
- Timer

Procedures
Procedures are summarized in the following four stages:
Step 1: Combine flour, yeast and sugar in a large bowl. Stir in salt. Make a well in the centre. Add
milk and butter.
Step 2: Use a wooden spoon to stir the mixture until well combined, then use your hands to bring the
dough together in the bowl. Turn onto a lightly floured surface and knead for 10 minutes or until the
dough is smooth and elastic.

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Step 3: Brush a large bowl with olive oil to grease. Place the dough in the bowl and cover with a
damp tea towel. Set aside in a warm, draught-free place to prove for 45 minutes-1 hour or until the
dough has almost doubled in size.
Step 4: Punch down the centre of the dough with your fist. Turn into a lightly floured surface. Knead
for 2 minutes or until the dough is elastic and has returned to its original size. Continue following
your recipe.

Self- assessment 20.3

1) Explain the application of enzymes in brewing.
2) Explain the application of enzymes in cheese and yoghurt.
3) Discuss the steps involved in bread making.

Answers for self-assessment 20.3

1) Expected answers are under the unit 20 (lesson three) in student book.
2) Expected answers are under the unit 20 (lesson three) in student book.
3) Expected answers are under the unit 20 (lesson three) in student book.
Activity 20.4
Use charts, internet, text books and illustrations to explain how fermentation is involved
in production of penicillin.

Answers to the activity 20.4

Penicillin is produced commercially by growing the fungus Penicillium chrysogenum in large stirred
fermenters. A solution of essential salts and a nitrogen source are put into the fermenter together with
an inoculum of the fungus. All procedures are performed aseptically. The PH of the medium is
regulated with ammonium salts at 6.5 to 7.0. Lactose (a slowly hydrolysed disaccharide) is added to
promote cell growth and reproduction and minimize penicillin production. On completion of
fermentation (usually 6-7 days) the broth is separated from the fungal mycelium and penicillin
extracted. This penicillin can then be modified by chemical procedures to yield a variety of
semisynthetic penicillins.

Self-assessment 20.4
1) What is fermenter?
2) Write on upstream processing and downstream processing.
3) Write on your own word penicillin.
4) Contrast commercial-scale production from laboratory-scale production of penicillin.
5) Explain why the continuous culture is described as open system.
6) Explain why the batch culture is described as closed system.
7) Discuss advantages and disadvantages of batch culture?
8) Explain why continuous culture is very expensive.
9) What are Advantages and disadvantages of continuous culture?

1) A fermenter also known as a bioreactor is an apparatus that maintains optimal conditions for
culture and growth of microorganisms to be used in large-scale fermentation and in the commercial
production of antibiotics.
2) Downstream processing is a type of industrial production of penicillin that refers as the
extraction and purification of a biotechnological product from fermentation or at the end of culture
process. Usually the contents of fermenter are first separated into liquid component and a solid

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component which contain the cells. This is usually done by filtration or centrifugation, while
upstream processing is a type of industrial production of penicillin that encompasses any
technology that leads to the synthesis of a product and includes the exploration, development and
production.
3) Penicillin is an antibiotic produced commercially by growing the fungus Penicillium
chrysogenum that fight against infections and pathogens.
4) In laboratory, it is relatively easy to grow microbes on a small scale in petri dishes, test tubes and
flasks, given a suitable nutrient medium, and good environmental conditions, while, producing
chemicals like penicillin antibiotic from microbes on an industrial scale becomes more complicated
as a big number of organisms have to be grown for the venture to be commercially viable.
5) The continuous culture is described as an open system, because nutrients are added and cells
harvested at a constant rate, so that the volume of suspension is also kept constant. This means that
fermenters does not have to be emptied, cleaned and refilled very often. The production is almost
continuous.
6) Batch culture or batch fermentation is described as closed system, because cells are grown in a
fixes volume of liquid medium in closed vessels. The conditions are set up and not changed from
outside once fermentation starts; for example: no microorganisms, nutrients, or fluid are added or
removed from the culture during the incubation period. That is why the process is described as a
closed system.
7) Expected answer is in students’ text books, unit 20, in lesson 4.
8) Continuous cultures are very expensive because they need very high equipment to maintain
constant conditions, and highly skilled staff to operate the equipment.
9) Expected answer is in students’ text books, unit 20, in lesson 4.
Activity 20.5
Using addition resources to your textbook available in your school such as the books from the
school library and search further information from the internet: Brainstorm on the antibiotic
resistance and implications of antibiotic use.

Answers for activity 20.5

Expected answer for activity 20.5 is in the students’ text book, unit 20, lesson 5.

Self-assessment 20.5
1) What do you understand by antibiotic resistance?
2) Explain how bacteria become resistant.
3) Discuss on how bacteria lose their antibiotic resistance.
4) Write on implications of antibiotic use.
5) Talk on how antibiotic resistance spreads.

Answers for the self-assessment 20.5

1) Antibiotic resistance occurs when an antibiotic has lost its ability to effectively control or kill
bacterial growth; in other words, the bacteria are "resistant" and continue to multiply in the presence
of therapeutic levels of an antibiotic.
2) Bacteria may become resistant into two ways: by genetic mutation or by acquiring resistance from
another bacterium.

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3) Antibiotic resistance traits can be lost, but this reverse process occurs more slowly. If the selective
pressure that is applied by the presence of an antibiotic is removed, the bacterial population can
potentially revert to a population of bacteria that responds to antibiotics
4) Excessive use of antibiotic continues to generate unwanted side effects; the overuse of antibiotics
continues to have severe health consequences around the world.
5) Genetically, antibiotic resistance spreads through bacteria populations both "vertically," when new
generations inherit antibiotic resistance genes, and "horizontally," when bacteria share or exchange
sections of genetic material with other bacteria. People can pass the resistant bacteria to others; for
example, by coughing or contact with unwashed hands.
Activity 20.6
Use diagrams or illustrations and visiting a biogas plants in your region, describe the stages of
biogas production and its significance in your area (a simple biogas generator can also be made
in schools).
Answer for the activity 20.6
Expected answer for activity 20.6 is in the students’ text book, unit 20, lesson 6.

Self-assessment 20.6
1) What part do acetogenic reactions play in the production of biogas?
2) The archaebacteria generate methane either by reducing the carbon dioxide, or
by converting acetate: write chemical equations for the two processes.

Answers to the self-assessment 20.6

1) Acetogenic reactions produce acetate, and Hydrogen and carbon dioxide.
2) The archaebacteria generate methane either:
- By reducing the carbon dioxide: CO2 + 4H2 CH4 + H2O, or
- By converting acetate: CH3COOH CH4 + CO2
End of unit assessment 20
Multiple choice questions
1) During penicillin production, temperature is maintained at
a) room temperature
b) 26 °C
c) 36 °C
d) 46 °C
2) In penicillin production, pH of culture medium is maintained between
a) 5 and 6
b) 4 and 6
c) 6 and 7
d) 4 and 5
3) To produce penicillin, main fermentable source in culture is
a) glucose
b) lactose
c) sulphate
d) sugars
4) Penicillin production is optimum in
a) batch operation systems
b) continuous operation systems
c) discontinuous operation system

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d) unique operation system
5) What is fermentation?
6) The senior four Biology teacher said: “the biogas can contribute to the economic development
of Rwanda” defend his idea.
7) Explain how are immobilized enzymes made?
8) Explain the medical applications of enzymes.
9) Explain the importance of using yeast in bread making.
10) What Are the Main Ingredients of Bread?
11) Summarize the advantages of using immobilized enzymes rather than enzyme solutions.
12) Describe the composition of biogas.
13) Describe three stages that are involved in production of biogas.

Answers of end of unit20 assessment

1) Answer is B
2) Answer is A
3) Answer is B
4) Answer is A
5) Fermentation is an anaerobic breakdown of organic compounds by living cells (microorganisms)
that produces ethanol and carbon dioxide or lactate (lactic acid).
6) The biogas can contribute to the economic development of Rwanda as:
- It can be used as a fuel; it can be used for any heating purpose, such as cooking. In the UK, for
example, biogas is estimated to have the potential to replace around 17% of vehicle fuel.
- It can also be used in a gas engine to convert the energy in the gas into electricity and heat.
- Biogas can be compressed, the same way the natural gas is compressed to compressed natural gas
(CNG), and used to power motor vehicles.
7) There are five different techniques of immobilizing enzymes: (i) adsorption, (ii) covalent bonding,
(iii) entrapment, (iv) copolymerization or cross-linking, and (v) encapsulation. (More explanations
can be seen in the student’s book, unit 20, lesson 2, in senior 4).
8) Even if antibiotics play a major role in actual medicine, the excessive use of antibiotics continues
to generate unwanted side effects, and continues to have severe health consequences around the
world.
9) Breads made with yeast is normally allowed to rest for an hour so that it can rise and double in
size.
10) The main ingredients include: bread-flour, dry yeast (‘rapid rise’), levain (sourdough), salt,
water, sugar, and eggs.
11) The advantages of using immobilized enzymes are: (i) reuse (ii) continuous use (iii) less labor
intensive (iv) saving in capital cost (v) minimum reaction time (vi) less chance of contamination in
products, (vii) more stability (viii) improved process control and (ix) high enzyme: substrate ratio.
12) The composition of biogas varies depending upon the origin of the anaerobic digestion process.
Landfill gas typically has methane concentrations around 50%.
Formula %

Methane CH4 50-75

Carbone dioxide CO2 25-50
Nitrogen N2 0-10

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Hydrogen H2 0-1
Hydrogen sulphide H2S 0-3
Oxygen O2 0-0.5

13) The production of biogas involves three stages and three communities of microorganisms namely
a) Anaerobic fermentation by eubacteria including lactobacillus, which converts the organic waste
into a mixture of organic acids and alcohol, with some Hydrogen, Carbon dioxide, and acetate.
b) Acetogenic (acetate-producing) reaction by bacteria such as acetobacterium which, in addition
to acetate, produce hydrogen and Carbon dioxide from the organic acid and alcohol.
c) Methanogenic (methane-producing) reactions by archaebacteria, including Methanobacterium,
Metanococcus, and Methanospirillum. The archaebacteria generate methane either:
- By reducing the carbon dioxide: CO2 + 4H2 CH4 + H2O, or
- By converting acetate: CH3COOH CH4 + CO2.
Additional activity
Remedial Activities
1) What do you understand with biotechnology?
2) Why are enzymes added to washing powder?
3) Describe the role of the fungus Penicillium in the production of the antibiotic penicillin.
4) Explain why the biological washing-powder should not be used in boiling water.
Answers for remedial activities
1) Biotechnology is a controlled and deliberate manipulation of biological systems (whether living
cells or cell components) for the efficient manufacture or processing of useful products.
2) The biological washing powders contain enzymes like protease and lipase to remove protein stains
and fat/grease from clothes. The enzymes break down proteins or fats on the fabric, forming water-
soluble substances that can be washed away.
3) Penicillin is produced commercially by growing the fungus Penicillium chrysogenum in large
stirred fermenters.
4) Enzymes are denatured at high temperature, and will not wash properly.

Consolidation activities

1) State the advantages of using immobilized enzymes.

2) Silk is a material made from protein. Explain why the biological washing powder should not be
used to wash silk clothes.
3) Justify why specialized biologists should minimize the build-up of end-products during scaling-up.
4) Explain why antibiotics affect bacteria and not viruses.
Answers of consolidated activities
1) The advantages of using immobilized enzymes are: (i) reuse (ii) continuous use (iii) less labor
intensive (iv) saving in capital cost (v) minimum reaction time (vi) less chance of contamination in
products, (vii) more stability (viii) improved process control and (ix) high enzyme: substrate ratio.
2) There is protease in the biological washing powder. This would digest the protein in the silk so the
clothes would get spoiled.
3) Specialized biologists should minimize the build-up of end-products during scaling-up production,
because the build-up of end products acts as inhibitors which may reduce production.
4) Penicillin as an antibiotic affects bacterium which are biotic and not viruses which are abiotic.
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 Extended activities
1) Defend the role played by antibiotics in treatment of bacterial diseases.
2) Compare leavened and unleavened bread.
3) Draw a well labeled diagram of a fermenter.
4) Identify three communities of microorganisms that are involved in each stage of biogas
production.

Describe the differences in the concentration of penicillin in the culture when the pH is controlled
and when the pH is not controlled.

Answers for extended activities

1) Expected answers are under the unit 20 (lesson three) in student book.
2) Expected answers are under the unit 20 (lesson three) in student book.
3) Expected answer is in students’ text books, unit 20, lesson 4
4) The three communities of microorganisms that are involved in each stage of biogas production
include:
- Eubacteria including lactobacillus, which converts the organic waste into a mixture of organic acids
and alcohol, with some Hydrogen, Carbon dioxide, and acetate.
- Bacteria such as acetobacterium which, in addition to acetate, produce hydrogen and Carbon
dioxide from the organic acid and alcohol.
- Archaebacteria including Methanobacterium, Metanococcus, and Methanospirillum.

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