MODULE – 2

Modulation and demodulation, types of modulation, amplitude modulation, frequency

modulation, phase modulation

Modulation and demodulation

Modulation is a process where data is sent through a channel to vary the signal being sent through
the channel. The energy being modulated by the data is called the carrier. Modulation is a concept
that exists in other areas, such as data communications. For example, in a car, the driver’s foot
modulates the gas pedal to control the gas flow to the engine, while the carrier is the steady flow
of gas.
Modulation is also used in sending a signal through a beam of light, such as white light, which can
be filtered to show different colours. The modulated light beam then travels through the channel,
either air or vacuum. Modulation is necessary for several reasons, including allowing the desired
data and bandwidth to be sent at a desired frequency, converting data to a carrier variation type
that makes the best use of the channel and other characteristics, such as noise and distortion,
and controlling a more powerful signal.
Modulation is useful and necessary because it allows data to be put into a signal form that makes
the best use of both the channel and the energy sent down the channel. Mathematicians and
engineers have studied the modulation process and its outcomes, but understanding the theory
behind modulation is crucial to understand its effects, consequences, and advantages and
disadvantages.

Fourier Analysis
Signals are typically represented as voltages varying over time, with the horizontal axis
representing time and the vertical axis representing the signal level.
However, there is an alternative way to represent signals and their strength using the horizontal
axis to show frequencies present in the signal. This concept is not unfamiliar, as AM radio stations
are identified by their frequency, not by its value in time.

The description of a signal by its frequency components and their values is called the frequency
domain description. Fourier analysis, named after Jean Baptiste Fourier, is used to link the two
domains. It allows for the transformation of mathematical equations that describe the signal in
one domain into another that perfectly describes the signal in the other domain. The results of
Fourier analysis are useful in understanding various communications concepts.

The equation states that 𝑺(𝒇), which describes the frequency spectrum, is equal to the integral
of the time domain description 𝒇(𝒕) times the exponential factor, integrated from t = - ∞ to t =
+∞.

An instrument called a spectrum analyzer can produce the Fourier transform spectrum for any
𝒇(𝒕) . Spectrum analyzer circuits can be implemented using a large group of bandpass filters,
which span the entire bandwidth of the signal of interest. The figure below shows an block
diagram of such a spectrum analyzer. Each filter has an output amplitude directly proportional to
the amount of energy in the bandwidth range of that filter. The resulting filter outputs are
displayed on a scale of frequency versus amplitude, with the resolution being the filter
bandwidth, in this case, 50 Hz.
Finer resolution would use more filters and be more costly, but some applications require this
additional information. Alternative designs of spectrum analyzers can provide greater resolution
without many filters but with other design complications.

Fourier Analysis Examples

The simplest signal is the sinusoidal wave (sine wave) of a fixed frequency, which has a single
component at frequency f with an amplitude equal to the peak value of the sine wave. A
communications channel typically does not carry a single frequency, which is usually considered
the carrier. This information is carried in the modulation that is imposed on the carrier, which
causes the signal to occupy some bandwidth around the carrier. For example, standard FM radio
signals are assigned to the carrier frequencies such as 88.9, 90.1, 90.3 MHz, with the bandwidth
of 150 kHz.
A frequency domain analysis can show what bandwidth is needed to carry a desired signal. For
example, a typical voice signal in the time domain may look like below figure a, but the frequency
domain representation of the same person speaking shows that most of the energy is in the range
of frequencies up to about 3 kHz. Beyond that, the amount of energy and thus information is
much less. Past about 8 kHz, the energy is almost zero, meaning that a 3-kHz bandwidth can
convey most of the signal, and 8 kHz can do a superior job. Bandwidth beyond 8 kHz for a voice
is usually wasted.
A frequency domain analysis can also show the differences between signals that may seem to be
similar but are actually very different. For example, musical instruments all play the same basic
notes, or frequencies, but the difference is not in the fundamental frequency of middle C (440
Hz) but in the amount of energy in the many harmonics of the fundamental frequency. If the
bandwidth of a channel carrying a music signal is very limited, only the fundamental and one or
two harmonics will be passed, making the sound more like a dull, flat tone and making the various
instruments impossible to distinguish from each other.
The frequency spectrum of a digital (on-off) signal is useful in understanding how much
bandwidth is needed to convey the signal. For an idealized digital signal, the frequency spectrum
is from 0 Hz to infinity, as high frequencies contain the energy of the sharp corner. However, if the
bandwidth is too low for the digital signaling rate, the digital signal will be severely distorted and
begin to look like a sine wave.

Superposition
Fourier analysis is based on the superposition principle, which states that a signal’s representation
in the frequency domain is the sum of its individual representations in the time domain. This
principle allows analysis to be performed using known signals, such as a steady “de” component
in the time domain and a 100-Hz sine wave twice as large in the frequency domain. The principle
also explains the behavior of two signals added together in the time domain by the system’s
circuitry.
Fourier analysis principles apply to any wave, not just electromagnetic waves and energy.
Mechanical engineers use these principles to examine structures like machinery for unwanted
vibrations and resonances that could cause equipment to shake. The vibration of the machine is
studied in both the time and frequency domains, and the engineer adjusts the equipment to
eliminate these specific resonant frequencies. In some cases, the engineer “excites” the machine
with a sharp tap from a hammer to observe the results.

Types of modulations
Modulation is a process that imposes desired data information onto a carrier, acting as a vehicle
for the data. The type of modulation depends on factors such as noise, signal power, circuit
complexity, bandwidth, and distortion. Modulations are divided into three categories: amplitude
modulation, frequency modulation, and phase modulation. Each type varies a specific
characteristic of the carrier, with amplitude modulation causing the carrier’s amplitude to vary,
frequency modulation varying the carrier’s frequency but leaving the amplitude unchanged, and
phase modulation modulating the carrier’s phase.
Modulation directly affects the original carrier’s energy, causing it to require bandwidth to convey
data over the channel. The specific way the carrier is modified depends on the type of modulation
used. At the receiving end of the channel, a reverse process of demodulation must be performed
to recover the original data from the modulated carrier. The demodulation circuit must analyze
the changes in the carrier’s frequency contents and energy variations, ignoring the lesser effects
of modulation.

Amplitude modulation

Amplitude modulation (AM) is the oldest and simplest form of modulation, used in radio
transmission due to its simplicity in achieving modulation and demodulation. AM involves varying
the amplitude of a constant-frequency carrier by the amplitude of the information-bearing signal,
typically a voice signal from a radio channel. The modulated carrier, called the envelope, contains
the information.
In the frequency domain, the carrier appears as a single line at the carrier frequency, while the
modulating signal occupies a band of frequencies corresponding to its bandwidth. The result is a
new spectrum with the carrier unchanged in amplitude and frequency, and two new frequencies
called sidebands, which contain the actual information energy.

The AM process produces sidebands as follows: a lower sideband (carrier frequency-modulating

frequency) and an upper sideband (carrier frequency + modulating frequency). This allows a large
group of signals to move to different points in the frequency spectrum without interference. In
standard AM radio, music and voice signals from each radio station are amplitude-modulated to
carriers of different frequencies, with each station assigned unique carrier frequencies.
The process of amplitude modulation is sometimes called mixing, as two frequencies are mixed
to produce sidebands at the sum and difference frequencies. The modulating circuitry is often
called a mixer. It is important to remember that modulating the amplitude of the carrier results
in a change in the frequency band of the result.

Advantages and Disadvantages of AM

Amplitude modulation (AM) is a widely used method in data communications due to its ease of
implementation and demodulation, straightforward way of converting signals into different
frequency bands, and relatively simple mathematical analysis. However, AM has some drawbacks,
including the potential for corrupted signals due to electrical noise picked up by the channel,
which can lead to errors or problems with the received information.
AM also does not use power efficiently, as it requires a larger power supply and amplifier
components. After modulation, about 60% of the carrier power remains in the carrier, while each
sideband has about 20% of the original power. This results in only about 20% of the original carrier
power being used to transmit the actual information.
One solution to the poor power efficiency of AM is the use of single-sideband suppressed carrier
(SSB), which allows full amplifier power to be used on a single sideband without wasting on other
efficient sidebands and carriers. SSB is more efficient and frees up spectrum for another signal,
but its disadvantages include high costs and complexity of suppression circuitry at the
transmitting end and more complicated circuitry needed at the receiving end to demodulate in
the absence of the carrier.
Despite these drawbacks, many special purpose AM systems, such as worldwide communications
networks, use SSB, while lower-cost, lower-performance systems like standard consumer AM
radio do not.

Baseband Systems
Amplitude modulation is a simple method of varying voltages on a signal line without a carrier
wave. This method is widely used in various applications, such as telephone systems and
computer links. The baseband system, which uses a sine wave carrier frequency of 0 Hz, allows
the voltage to vary proportionally to the loudness of the speech. The carrier value is set to 0, and
sidebands occur at 0 minus the modulating frequency and 0 plus the modulating frequency.
Baseband systems require bandwidth to carry information and are easy to demodulate. However,
they can only handle one baseband signal at a time, making poor use of the channel’s potential
capacity. Baseband systems are used for simple phone systems, computer links, and data
transmission.
Frequency modulation
Frequency modulation (FM) was developed by Major Edward H. Armstrong in the 1930s and 1940
to overcome the drawbacks of AM. FM systems cause the carrier’s frequency to vary
proportionally to the modulating signal’s amplitude and frequency. However, FM signals are
complex in the frequency domain, requiring a wider bandwidth than the original modulating
signal. This is in contrast to AM, where the modulated signal uses only twice the original
bandwidth. FM signals typically require 5 to 10 times the bandwidth of the modulating signal for
fidelity in practical systems. Additionally, FM circuitry for modulating and demodulating is more
complicated than AM, requiring stable carrier and receiving circuitry. This limitation restricted
FM’s practical use for broadcast until advanced transistor circuits were developed. Demodulation
of FM signals can be achieved through limiting circuits or using “zero crossings” of the received
waveform, which correspond to frequencies and variations.
The Phase-Locked Loop

The phase-locked loop (PLL) is an alternative to limiting and zero crossing demodulation for FM,
known since the 1930s. It consists of three sections: a voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO), a
multiplier, and a low-pass filter, all arranged in a loop. The VCO output frequency can be varied
as needed by the controlling voltage, and the multiplier takes two input signals and provides an
output voltage equal to the product of the two inputs at any instant. The low-pass filter
suppresses the multiplier sum frequency output and allows only the difference output to reach
the VCO.
The operation of the VCO involves feeding the input signal to the multiplier and the VCO output
to the multiplier. The low-pass-filtered output represents the difference or error between the VCO
output and the actual input. The error signal is fed back to the VCO to correct the VCO output so
it more closely matches the input. The PLL tends to lock on and track the input signal, with a
momentary difference representing the original modulating signal.
PLL provides better performance than many other schemes because it separates the circuit
element that determines the system center frequency from the one that determines the
bandwidth. The VCO can be designed for any center frequency range, such as 88 to 108 MHz of
the standard FM broadcast band, and the low pass filter is designed for the bandwidth of the FM
modulation, which would be 240 kHz for a channel of the FM broadcast band.
The PLL design breaks the problem into two parts: a VCO capable of operating around 400 MHz
and a low-pass filter with a 10-Hz bandwidth. The output of the low-pass filter would be the
demodulated signal, and the overall PLL would automatically track and lock in. PLLs are capable
of capturing extremely weak signals, such as spacecraft transmissions, and have many
applications in regular data communications circuits.

Frequency modulation is often used in FM systems, especially where noise-atmospheric, circuitry,

or channel-related distortions may corrupt the desired signal. However, the immunity to noise in
an FM system is high, and channels such as air, vacuum, and wire do not have this problem.
Phase Modulation

Periodic signals, such as sine waves, have a phase, which is the difference in frequency and
amplitude between two identical signals. The phase difference is measured in degrees out of the
360° of a complete cycle, and it is important to note that the frequency and amplitude depend
only on the waveform itself. In phase modulation, the modulating signal causes the phase of the
carrier to vary, resulting in a frequency domain spectrum similar to an FM signal.
Demodulation for a PM signal involves establishing a reference waveform and comparing the
modulated waveform phase against the reference, which has the same frequency but no phase
changes. This process can be complex, but the second method is more common. Modern circuitry
can implement a complex scheme that reconstructs the exact frequency and phase of the
reference signal from the modulated one and then use this reference to demodulate the received
signal.
A Phase-Locking (PLL) is often used to extract the reference signal, which is the lowest-frequency
component of the received signal spectrum. The PLL VCO is centered around this frequency, and
the low-pass filter has bandwidth to accommodate jitter, drift, and variations of the reference
waveform. In a digital system, the phase-modulating and demodulating circuitry can be greatly
simplified.
Modulation and demodulation schemes must be chosen based on their performance for digital
signals compared to continuous analog signals.
Analog versus digital modulation
Modulation techniques have traditionally focused on the nature and shape of the modulating
signal. Analog signals, which can take on any value within their range of zero to maximum, were
developed for transmitting information. However, the explosive growth of computers has
changed the nature of modulating signals, allowing computers to use digital signals with only one
of several distinct values. This has led to the development of digital circuitry, which can process
digital data using thousands of transistors. The use of computers has encouraged the use of digital
modulation techniques, making them more suitable for computer data communications.
In a digital system, only specific values of the modulating signal can exist, such as AM, FM, or PM.
This type of modulation is related to binary logic and circuitry used in computer systems, which
allow only two values. A digital system is more general than a binary system and includes a binary
system.
Advantages of digital modulation

Digital modulation offers numerous advantages in practical systems. The main advantage is that
noise in the system or channel does not have the same detrimental effect on the received and
demodulated signal. In a digital system, only certain values are allowed, separated by more than
most noise values that the system will encounter. This makes the digital method resistant to noise
and can tolerate quite a bit of it before errors in decision occur.
The second advantage of digital techniques is that it is possible to encode messages in special
ways so that the receiving system can determine whether an error has occurred or not. This is a
further level of security, beyond the noise resistance that digital modulation provides. Digital
modulation provides a framework which allows the receiving system to implement error
detection by using special encoding schemes, if the designer of the system decides it is necessary.
By contrast, it is practically impossible to provide a method for error correction using analog
modulation.
Thirdly, digital modulation and demodulation circuitry may be easier to implement for certain
types of modulation and types of data. For example, it is very easy to implement digital phase
modulation because circuitry to flip the phase between two values is easy to build. Another
example is demodulating an AM signal with only a few possible values. A system could be
designed for that specific situation which would be much more compact than one which must
demodulate an AM signal which has analog modulation.
Finally, digital signals are easier to combine together so that they can then be modulated as a
group and sent on a single carrier. This combining process is called multiplexing, which allows a
single carrier and modulation method to be used for multiple signals traveling over the same
channel.
However, digital modulation and demodulation have some disadvantages. Some types of
information are inherently analog and must be converted to a digital format for digital modulation
to occur. The cost of the conversion process may be too high for the application, especially when
the required accuracy and freedom from errors are not high.
One disadvantage to digital modulation is that it requires more bandwidth than amplitude
modulation to carry a given amount of information at a desired rate. To have the digital signal
represent the same amount of information, it must send more digital signals in a given amount
of time than the analog signal. Practical digital systems often use 4, 8, or even 16 distinct levels
of a binary system as a compromise between the noise resistance of the two-level binary system
and the greater efficiency of the multiple-level system.

Combined modulation
To achieve binary digital modulation advantages while maintaining channel efficiency, some
systems combine multiple modulation schemes. For instance, AM and FM can be used on the
carrier, representing two values and two others. This results in four possible values for the
modulated signal at any given moment. The demodulation system requires two separate
demodulators working on the same signal. The AM demodulator is sensitive to the AM process
and focuses on the two distinct amplitude values, while the FM denominator separates and
identifies the two possible frequency values. This results in a four-level digital modulation
scheme, with two levels provided by AM and two by FM.
Synchronous and Asynchronous Modulation and Demodulation
In a digital communications system, the receiving system must demodulate the received signal to
separate the carrier from the modulating signal, which contains the data. The data consists of
discrete, specific values designed for the digital system. The receiving system must determine
when to look at the demodulated signal to determine the value sent. For example, in a binary
case, the modulating signal is a stream of 1s and 0s at a fixed rate of bits per second. The receiving
circuitry must determine when to look at the demodulated signal to decide whether the signal is
1 or 0. The clock generating the timing signals for the transmitter and receiver may differ by some
small amount, causing the receiving circuitry to look at the demodulated stream either too
frequently or too infrequently, incorrectly deciding whether 1s and 0s were sent.

Asynchronous systems

The issue of timing and synchronization can be resolved by using synchronization characters in
transmitted data streams to alert the receiving circuitry about a new group of data characters.
This system, known as asynchronous, is often used in data communications due to their low cost
and simplicity. However, there are two drawbacks to asynchronous systems. Firstly, the frequency
of sending sync characters can waste a significant percentage of the overall communications time,
preventing the channel from being used for data. Secondly, the clocks of the two ends are not
exactly at the same rate, leading to a practical limit of 20,000 to 50,000 bits/s. This rate is small
enough for accurate data retrieval, but too high can lead to error and insufficient accuracy.
Furthermore, any disturbances in the channel, such as noise, can cause momentary shifts in the
received signal called “jitter,” which prevents accurate data recovery due to the momentarily out
of synchronization between the receiver clock and the data.
Synchronous systems
Synchronous communication is an alternative to asynchronous communications, where the
receiving circuitry provides a clock that is either derived from or synchronized to the incoming
data. This minimizes timing difference or jitter between the two systems, allowing for accurate
data transmission at high rates and efficiency. However, synchronous systems are more expensive
to build and implement.

Modulation choice affects the ability to use synchronous communications. For AM, FM, and PM
modulation types, different ways to extract signal timing from the received signal are available.
System designers make this choice based on cost, complexity, channel characteristics, and
required performance.
The receiving circuitry for a synchronous system locks on to the received signal to extract the
clock and follow it within a reasonable range around the nominal value. The output of the lock-
on circuit is used as the timing clock for removing the received data from the demodulated signal.
Synchronous systems also offer advantages in channels with considerable noise or only a very
weak signal. For example, in a deep-space probe or satellite, the signal can be recovered from the
noise by using skillful design techniques and synchronous communications.