BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY

The National Engineering University

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Civil Engineering Department

CES 402 - PROFESSIONAL COURSE 2: BRIDGE ENGINEERING

Group Number: 1
Group Members : Andaya, John Erick D. / 21-01904
Adora, Charlene Q./ 21-09241
Agtay, Janmar Christopher V. / 21-02980
Almojuela, John Erick / 21-01782
Badillo, Erwin C. / 21-01353
Section: CE-3210
Topic: Bridge Planning and Design
Types of Loadings

BRIDGE PLANNING AND DESIGN

TOPIC 1

TYPE OF LOADINGS
TOPIC 2

Main References:

1 Weiwei Lin, Teruhiko Yoda. Bridge Engineering Classifications, Design Loadings, and Analysis
Methods
2 Wai-Fah Chen and Lian Duan. 2014. Bridge Engineering Handbook: Fundamentals. 2nd ed. CRC
Press
3 Puckett, Jay A. et. al, 2013. Design of Highway Bridges: An LRFD Approach. 3rd ed. John Wiley
and Sons Inc.
4 DPWH Design Guidelines, BSDS 2019
Pre-test Exam (10 items)

1.) Caused by braking or accelerating of the vehicle on the bridge.

Answer: LONGITUDINAL FORCES

2.) Considered for substructures of large bridges submerged under deep

water bodies.
Answer: BUOYANCY EFFECT

3.) A survey that needs to be first conducted to predict the amount of traffic
at various stages during the service life of the bridge and thus demonstrate
the necessity and importance of the new bridge.
Answer: TRAFFIC SURVEY

4.) It is also referred to as the service load design or working stress design.
Answer: ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN (ASD)

5.) Survey that involves assessing soil consistency, structure, and

groundwater levels to provide recommendations for technical projects.
Answer: GEOTECHNICAL SURVEY

6.) Refers to papers and other materials prepared for providing reference
information for structural analysis, bridge construction, and maintenance
during the service stage.
Answer: DESIGN DRAWINGS

7.) A constant load in a structure that is due to the weight of the members,
the supported structure, and permanent attachments or accessories.
Answer: DEAD LOAD

8.) Who is the current head of the Department of Public Works and
Highways (DPWH)?
Answer: MANUEL M. BONOAN

9.) It is a design methodology in which applicable failure and serviceability

conditions can be evaluated considering the uncertainties associated with
loads by using load factors and material resistances by considering
resistance factors.
Answer: LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN (LRFD)
 10.) Load on bridges that is due to sudden loads which are caused when
the vehicle is moving on the bridge
Answer: IMPACT LOAD

Post-Test Exam (20 items)

1.)What percentage of live load does the IRC recommend to be considered

as a longitudinal force on bridges?
Answer: 20%

2.)What physical force must be considered when designing a bridge on

horizontal curves?
Answer: CENTRIFUGAL FORCE

3-4) The forces caused by water currents are ______at the top of the water
level and _____at the bottom
Answer: MAXIMUM, ZERO

5.)This type of loading is considered for the design of new bridges,

especially heavy-loading bridges like bridges on highways, in cities,
industrial areas, etc.
Answer: IRC CLASS AA LOADING

6.) This is a type of load due to sudden loads which are caused when the
vehicle is moving on the bridge.
Answer: IMPACT LOADS

7.)What does the “De Arhitectura” by Vitruvius emphasize as the goals for
structures?
Answer: STRUCTURES SHALL BE SAFE, FUNCTIONAL AND BEAUTIFUL

8.)Which type of survey is essential for predicting the traffic volume that
will use the bridge during its service life?
Answer: TRAFFIC SURVEY

9.)When considering the construction of a bridge crossing a river, what

kind of survey is pertinent to investigate cross-sectional river shapes?
Answer: HYDROTECHNICAL SURVEY

10.)It involves assessing soil consistency, structure, and groundwater

levels to provide recommendations for technical projects.
Answer: GEOTECHNICAL SURVEY

11.) In this part the bridge location and structural type should be decided
according to the route alignment, topography, geology, meteorology,
crossing object, and other external conditions.
Answer: BRIDGE PLANNING

12.)This type of loading is used to design temporary bridges like Timber

Bridge etc. It is considered as light loading.
Answer: IRC CLASS B LOADING

13.) These stresses occur due to changes in material properties either

internally or externally.
Answer: DEFORMATION

14.)During the design of bridge structures, engineers must consider various

vehicle-induced loads. Which of the types of loads occur due to acceleration or
deceleration of vehicles?
Answer: LONGITUDINAL FORCES

15.)Which type of stresses are induced by construction equipment during the

bridge construction?
Answer: ERECTION STRESSES

16.)This design for bridge structures includes graphic design, horizontal

design, vertical design, design of geometric cross sections, intersections,
and various design details
Answer: GEOMETRIC DESIGN

17.) It is also referred to as the service load design or working stress

design (WSD).
Answer: ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN

18.) The design of bridges in the Philippines shall comply with minimum
concepts specified in the __________.
ANSWER: DPWH D.O. No. 75 s.1992 / “DPWH Advisory for Seismic Design
of Bridges 1992”

19.) It is considered as standard live load of a bridge

Answer: IRC CLASS A LOADING
20.) It serves as a vital component in various transportation networks,
including highways, railways, and urban roads, impacting not only the
economy but also politics, culture, and national defense.
ANSWER: BRIDGE STRUCTURE
 BRIDGE PLANNING AND DESIGN

INTRODUCTION

Bridge structures serve as vital components in various transportation networks,

including highways, railways, and urban roads, impacting not only the economy but also
politics, culture, and national defense. Particularly for medium and large span bridges,
they are often considered critical infrastructure due to their role as lifelines within
transportation systems. As such, meticulous planning and design are imperative
prerequisites before commencing construction.

“A bridge’s lifespan extends decades into the future, requiring careful planning in every
aspect of its design and construction. A thorough understanding of construction
processes, long-term maintenance issues, and environmental impacts is vital to the
provision of value-added concept design.”- WSP

Two thousand years ago, in “De Arhitectura,” Marcus Vitruvius Pillo proclaimed:
“structures shall be safe, functional and beautiful” (Tang, 2006). Until today, we still
cannot escape from the three goals but only modify this slightly to: “A bridge must be
safe, functional, economical and beautiful!” Although there are several different
semantics and different ways to express concepts of the bridge design philosophy,
essentially the design philosophy for modern bridges are similar among different design
codes of different countries.

“In designing a bridge, the fitness to the purpose of use, safety of structures,
durability, securing of the construction quality, reliability and ease of maintenance,
environmental compatibility, and economy should be taken into consideration.”

-JRA, Specification for Highway Bridges

The fitness of a bridge for its intended use encompasses safety, durability,
constructability, reliability, ease of maintenance, environmental compatibility, and
economic efficiency. Safety entails adequate load capacity and structural integrity, while
durability ensures minimal degradation over time. Constructability requires feasible
design implementation, and reliability necessitates easy repair and maintenance.
Environmental impact must be considered, and economic efficiency aims to minimize
life cycle costs. Bridges must efficiently distribute loads and embody elegance through
proportion and material use. Designers must achieve architectural perfection while
considering functional, financial, and structural needs, often collaborating with architects
or artists to express the structural concept.
THREE DIMENSIONS OF PLANNING FOR BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION

This is considered as an initial step towards the planning of structures that would finally
bring up with a project that would be advantageous to the community in all aspects. The
three dimensions are: Scientific Dimension, Social Dimension and Technological
Dimension

Scientific Dimensions for Bridge Construction

There exist certain laws for nature, based on which every structure constructed
must perform. Scientists explain these natural forms and the existence of these laws
with the help of certain inter-relations between certain elements. In one or the other
form, the scientists or the engineers make use of pre-existing technologies in nature,
the only difference is the method they used to undergo. Various scientific developments
that are made by the engineers based on these; like bringing different alternative
materials by chemical analysis, physics - to observe and analyze the dynamic behavior
of the structure; Mathematics - used to analyze and determine the forces and the
stresses. Hence efficient structures are evolved with the help of the scientific dimension.

Social Dimension for Bridge Construction

Enhancement of quality of life of the people, are greatly facilitated by the bridge
construction. These structures improve the mobility of people as well as the material.
This dimension helps to realize the pros and cons of such construction and their related
precautions. Such a huge construction brings changes to the society and the people,
but also brings adverse changes to the environment. It is not only required for the
bridges to satisfy the need of mobility and the future demands but also must satisfy the
problems related to noise, pollution, during and after construction. As the structure is for
the welfare of the whole community, the people are also committed and responsible for
bringing their contribution to this welfare in the form of taxes, levies or in the forms of
tolls. This would help in looking at the construction as a cost-benefit work and as a
means of economic development. The above considerations come under the social
dimension. There are also chances for the incorporation of political dimension with the
social dimension. This arises in the situation of choice of location or the facility, or in
prioritizing the needs for the welfare of the economy. The social dimension has a direct
close connection with the scientific and the technological dimension.

Technological Dimensions for Bridge Construction

There have been many technological developments over decades in the field of
new structures, methods of construction and materials, as an alternative for rare ones
and in bringing new machinery that works over human workers. This technology has
helped in bringing and refining alternatives in the bridge construction. Now instead of
bricks, steel, cement etc., construction are carried out by glass fibers, carbon fibers etc.
BRIDGE SURVEY

The bridge survey mainly includes the topographic survey, traffic survey,
geological survey, hydrotechnical survey, seismic survey, and meteorological survey.
Bridge surveying is important because it can provide information for the whole bridge
design process. Though reconnaissance surveys are generally made at all possible
bridge sites and provide information for bridge location and bridge type selection, a
detailed survey is performed at the best suitable site to get information for the bridge
design and construction planning.

-Traffic survey needs to be first conducted for predicting the amount of traffic at various
stages during the service life of the bridge and thus demonstrates the necessity and
importance of the new bridge.

-Topographic survey and geological survey are then performed to determine a

topographic map and the geologic map, respectively, which can be used for determining
the bridge location, structural type, bridge length, as well as the span length ratio.

-Geotechnical survey, involves assessing soil consistency, structure, and groundwater

levels to provide recommendations for technical projects. This typically includes drilling
boreholes at the site and collecting soil samples for analysis in a laboratory. This should
be conducted to provide information for design and construction of the bridge
foundation.

-Hydrotechnical survey is an investigation on cross-sectional river shapes (in case of

building a bridge crossing a river), tide level (in case of building a bridge in a lake),
water level, and navigation ships, this should be conducted to provide information for
design and construction of the bridge foundation.

-Seismic survey forcing on seismographic record and earthquake disaster records

-Meteorological survey- investigating records of wind speed, air temperature, rainfall,

and snowfall.

DIFFERENT STAGES OF PLANNING IN BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION

According to The Constructor, the major steps that are involved in the planning for
bridge construction are:
1. Study on Need for Bridge
2. Traffic Assessment
3. Location study
4. Reconnaissance Study
a) Study of alternatives
 b) Feasible alternative study
5. Preliminary Engineering
a) Developing plans
b) Preliminary design and costing
c) Evaluation of alternatives, risk analysis, and final choice
6. Detailed Project Report
7. Implementation

BRIDGE PLANNING AND GEOMETRIC DESIGN

In bridge planning, a bridge location and structural type should be decided

according to the route alignment, topography, geology, meteorology, crossing object,
and other external conditions. Geometric design for bridge structures includes the
graphic design, horizontal design, vertical design, design of geometric cross sections,
intersections, and various design details. The goals of geometric design are to
maximize the serviceability, structural safety, economy of facilities, and structural
esthetics, while minimizing their environmental impacts.

Horizontal Layout

First, the bridge location should be decided. In general, the culvert and small
bridges should be following the route direction of the main road. By considering the
hydrology and curves on the main road, the bridges can be designed as curved or skew
bridges. For medium and large bridges, however, the bridge location should be
determined according to the main route direction if possible, and the overall
consideration of both road and bridge is necessary. A straight channel with stable water
flow and geological conditions will be selected. In addition, the horizontal curve radius,
super elevation and broaden, easement curve, and set-up of the speed-change lanes
should be designed according to the design specifications.

Longitudinal Elevation

The bridge horizontal (or longitudinal) design includes the total span length, the
number of spans, the bridge elevation and longitudinal slope, the burial depth of the
foundation, etc.

Total Length

In general, the total length of the bridge should be determined according to the
hydrological conditions. In the design life of a bridge, the design flood discharge shall be
ensured, and the drift ice, vessels, raft, and other drifting objects in the water should be
able to pass through the bridge. Adverse change of the waterway due to the over
compression of the riverbed should be avoided. In addition, under some circumstances,
it is possible to shorten the bridge length for deep buried foundation, but the river-bed
scouring or erosion that may affect the bridge foundations should be carefully checked
and avoided in the design.

Number of Spans

For a long bridge, the total length is generally divided into several spans. The
span numbers, however, will not only affect the esthetic appearance and constructional
difficulties but will also influence the total cost of the bridge to a great extent. For
example, the larger span length will result in a smaller number of span and then reduce
the cost of the foundations, but the cost of the superstructure will increase. On the
contrary, the larger span numbers and smaller span length will result in relatively low
cost of the bridge superstructure and high cost of the substructure. Therefore,
appropriate bridge span numbers should be determined on the basis of the most
economical design considering both bridge superstructure and substructure. All in all,
the determination of the span numbers for medium and large span bridges is a complex
problem and should be determined according to the serviceability, bridge location and
environment, geological conditions, hydrologic condition, and economic efficiency.

Transverse Cross Section

The bridge cross section is mainly determined according to the bridge width and
bridge structural type. Bridge width is designed on the basis of the traffic demand and
generally taken as the same as the road width that the bridge located at. The bridge
clearance limit (above the deck) is mainly determined by the importance of the bridge
and design speed of the highway.

BRIDGE DESIGN METHODS

Allowable Stress Design

Allowable Stress Design (ASD) is also referred to as the service load design or
working stress design (WSD). The basic conception (or design philosophy) of this
method is that the maximum stress in a structural member is always smaller than a
certain allowable stress in bridge working or service conditions. The allowable stress of
a material determined according to its nominal strength over the safety factor.
Therefore, the design equation of the ASD method can be expressed as:
where σi is a working stress due to the design load, which is determined by an elastic
structural analysis under the design loading conditions. σall is the allowable stress of
the construction material. The σn is the nominal stress of the material, and FS denotes
the safety factor specified in the design specification. Selection of allowable stress
depends on several factors, such as the design code, construction materials, stress
conditions, etc.

The ASD method is very simple in use, but it cannot give a true safety factor
against failure. All uncertainties in loads and material resistance are considered by
using the safety factor in ASD. Although there are some drawbacks to ASD, bridges
designed based on ASD have served very well with safety inherent in the system.

Load Factor Design

To overcome the drawbacks of the ASD design method, the ultimate load design
method was developed in reinforced concrete design, which was modified as the Load
Factor Method Design (LFD). In this method, different load multipliers was introduced,
and the LFD design equation generally can be expressed as:

where γi is a load factor and ϕ is the strength reduction factor, Qi and Rn are,
respectively, load effect and nominal resistance.

Load and Resistance Factor Design

In 1994, the first edition of the “AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications”
was published, placing earthquake loading under Extreme Event I limit state. Similar to
the 1992 edition, the LRFD edition accounts for column ductility using the response
modification R factors. In 2008, the “AASHTO LRFD Interim Bridge Specifications” was
published to incorporate more realistic site effects based on the 1989 Loma Prieta
earthquake in California. Moreover, the elastic force demand is calculated using the
1,000- year maps as opposed to the earlier 500-year return earthquake.

Currently, limit state design (LSD) is the most popular design concept for bridge
design and widely used for many countries in the world. In the United States, it is known
as load and resistance factor design (LRFD). Load and resistance factor design is a
design methodology in which applicable failure and serviceability conditions can be
evaluated considering the uncertainties associated with loads by using load factors and
material resistances by considering resistance factors. The LRFD was approved by
AASHTO in 1994 in the LRFD Highway Bridge Design Specifications.
Eq. (2.3) is the basis of LFRD methodology (AASHTO, 2007). In this equation, ηi is the
load modifier, γi is the load factor, ϕ is the resistance factor, Qi and Rn are load effect
and nominal resistance, respectively. Several limit states, including strength limit state,
service limit state, the fatigue and fracture limit state, and the extreme event limit state,
are included in this design method. The strength and stability are considered in the
strength limit state design. In service limit state design, the stress, deformation, and
drack width in service condition should be carefully checked. Stress ranges, stress
cycles, and toughness requirements are considered in the fatigue and fracture limit
state, and the survival of a bridge during a major earthquake or flood is considered in
extreme event limit state.

Source: DPWH BSDS Design Standard Guide Manual

GENERAL CONSIDERATION FOR SEISMIC DESIGN (DPWH BSDS Design
Standard Guide Manual)

Design Philosophy

• Bridges play a major role as evacuation and emergency routes during a major disaster
such as an earthquake. Therefore, it is necessary the bridges shall be designed to
ensure the seismic performance by the Operational Class (OC) and the required Level
of the design Earthquake Ground Motion (EGM) corresponding to an earthquake with
return period event of 1000 years (7% probability of exceedance in 75 years) for life
safety performance objective under the large earthquake.

• The design of bridges shall comply with minimum concepts specified in the DPWH
D.O. No. 75 “DPWH Advisory for Seismic Design of Bridges”, 1992 as follows:

1. Continuous bridges with monolithic multi-column bents have high degree of

redundancy are recommended. Expansion joints and hinges should be kept to
minimum.

2. Decks should be made continuous if bridge is multi-span simple span.

3. Restrainers or unseating device are required to all joints. Generous seat length
should be provided to piers and abutments to prevent from loss of span.

4. Transverse reinforcements in the zones of yielding are essential to confine the

longitudinal bars and the concrete within the core of column.

5. Plastic hinging should be forced to occur in the ductile column regions of the pier
rather than the foundation.

6. The stiffness of the bridge as a whole should be considered in the analysis including
the soil-structure interaction.

• The following shall be taken into account in the design of bridges:

1. Topographical, geological, geotechnical soil and other site conditions that may affect
the seismic performance of the bridge.

2. Selection of appropriate structural system with high seismic performance that is

capable of fully resisting the earthquake forces utilizing the strength and ductility of the
structural members.
• The following two levels of EGM shall be considered in the BSDS:

1. Level 1 EGM, considering seismic hazard from small to moderate earthquake with
high probability of occurrence during the bridge service life (100-year return period), for
seismic serviceability design objective to ensure normal bridge functions.

2. Level 2 EGM, considering a seismic hazard corresponding to an earthquake with

return period event of 1,000 years (7% probability of exceedance in 75 years) for life
safety performance objective under the large earthquake.
Source: DPWH BSDS Design Standard Guide Manual
Source: DPWH BSDS Design Standard Guide Manual

Source: DPWH BSDS Design Standard Guide Manual

STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND DESIGN DRAWINGS

STRUCTURAL DESIGN

The structural design for a modern bridge should be conducted according to the
existing local design codes, based on theoretically valid methods, experimentally
verified methods, or other appreciated knowledge.

In a bridge design, some factors need to be taken into consideration include:

· The probability of bridge structural members that may result in local or

entire collapse.

· Inspection facilities that are required to conduct in-service inspections,

or in the event of accidents.

· Possible maintenance method for bridge members.

For members that are likely to be replaced in the bridge service stage shall be
carefully planned in advance to ensure the reliability and ease of
maintenance.

DESIGN DRAWINGS

The design drawing refers to papers and other materials prepared for providing
reference information (such as the construction condition, and other matters that related
to manufacturing and construction) for structural analysis, bridge construction, and
maintenance during the service stage. For highway bridges, various temporary
members are often installed during the construction, thus lack of those information may
lead to inappropriate responses during inspection and maintenance work.

BRIDGE ESTHETIC DESIGN AND A CASE STUDY

ESTHETIC DESIGN

Visual design elements of bridges are line (one-dimensional), shape

(two-dimensional), form (three-dimensional), color, and texture. The appropriate
arrangement of the visual design elements leads to the order, proportion, rhythm,
harmony, balance, contrast, scale, illusion, unity, etc.

From the historical view point of esthetic bridge design, the requirements for an
esthetic bridge design are:

· Selection of the most artistic form in consideration of economy

· Expressiveness
 · Symmetry

· Simplicity and continuity

· Harmony and contrast

· Scale and proportion

· Order and balance

· Conformity with environment

· Proper combination of materials

Esthetic design objectives should be considered throughout the design process

in which designers should concentrate on developing the best design solution for the
aforementioned design requirements.

TYPES OF LOADS FOR DESIGN BRIDGE STRUCTURE

1. Dead Load - The dead load is nothing but a self-weight of the bridge elements.
The different elements of the bridge are deck slab, wearing coat, railings,
parapet, stiffeners and other utilities. It is the first design load to be calculated in
the design of bridges.
-a constant load in a structure (such as a bridge, building, or machine) that
is due to the weight of the members, the supported structure, and permanent
attachments or accessories.

2. Live Load - The live load on the bridge is the moving load on the bridge
throughout its length. The moving loads are vehicles, pedestrians etc., but it is
difficult to select one vehicle or a group of vehicles to design a safe bridge. So,
IRC recommended some imaginary vehicles as live loads which will give safe
results against any type of vehicle moving on the bridge. The vehicle loadings
are categorized in to three types and they are

● IRC class AA loading

● IRC class A loading
● IRC class B loading
IRC class AA loading - This type of loading is considered for the design of new bridge
especially heavy loading bridges like bridges on highways, in cities, industrial areas etc.
In class AA loading generally two types of vehicles considered, and they are

● Tracked type
● Wheeled type

IRC

class A loading - This type of loading is used

in the design of all permanent bridges. It is considered as standard live load of a bridge.
When we design a bridge using class AA type loading, then it must be checked for class
A loading also.

IRC class B loading - This type of loading is used to design temporary bridges like
Timber Bridge etc. It is considered as light loading. Both IRC class A and Class B are
shown in below figure.
 3. Impact Loads - The Impact load on bridges is due to sudden loads which are
caused when the vehicle is moving on the bridge. When the wheel is in
movement, the live load will change periodically from one wheel to another which
results in the impact load on the bridge. To consider impact loads on bridges, an
impact factor is used. Impact factor is a multiplying factor which depends upon
many factors such as weight of vehicle, span of bridge, velocity of vehicle etc.
The impact factors for different IRC loadings are given below.

For IRC Class AA Loading and 70R Loading

For IRC class A and class B loadings

Impact factor If = A/(B+L) Where L = span in meters A and B are constants

Apart from the super structure impact factor is also considered for substructures

● For bed blocks, If = 0.5

● For substructure up to the depth of 3 meters If = 0.5 to 0
 ● For substructure greater than 3 m depth If = 0

4. Wind Loads - Wind load also an important factor in the bridge design. For short span
bridges, wind load can be negligible. But for medium span bridges, wind load should be
considered for substructure design. For long span bridges, wind load is considered in
the design of super structure.

5. Longitudinal Forces

The longitudinal forces are

caused by the braking or
accelerating of the vehicle on
the bridge. When the vehicle
stops suddenly or accelerates
suddenly it induces longitudinal
forces on the bridge structure,
especially on the substructure.
So, IRC recommends that 20%
of the live load should be
considered as a longitudinal
force on the bridges.

Vehicle Loads: As vehicles traverse a bridge, they impose longitudinal forces on the
structure. These forces include the inertial forces associated with acceleration and
deceleration, as the dynamic forces caused by the vehicle's weight distribution and
movement. The magnitude and distribution of these forces depend on factors such as
vehicle speed, size, weight, and the bridge's geometry. Friction between surfaces can
generate longitudinal forces. When two surfaces rub against each other, the frictional
force resists relative motion between them. In the case of vehicles, the friction between
tires and the road surface provides traction, enabling acceleration, deceleration, and
control. However, excessive friction can also lead to wear and energy loss.

6. Centrifugal Forces

If the bridge is to be built on

horizontal curves, then the vehicle's
movement along curves will cause
centrifugal force onto the
superstructure. Hence, design should
be done for centrifugal forces also.
When a vehicle enters a curved
section of a bridge, it tends to
continue moving in a straight line due
to its inertia. However, the bridge's curvature forces the vehicle to change its direction of
motion. As a result, an outward centrifugal force is exerted on the vehicle, pushing it
away from the center of the curve.

7. Buoyancy Effect

The buoyancy effect is considered for

substructures of large bridges
submerged under deep water bodies.
If the depth of submergence is less it
can be negligible.

8. Forces by Water Current

When the bridge is to be constructed

across a river, some part of the
substructure is under submergence of
water. The water current induces
horizontal forces on the submerged
portion. The forces caused by water
currents are maximum at the top of the
water level and zero at the bottom
water level or at the bed level. Various factors of water currents, such as speed,
direction, and turbulence, exert different stresses on bridges. These stresses have a
direct impact on the bridge's stability, structural integrity, and overall performance

9. Thermal Stresses

Thermal stresses are caused due to temperature. These stresses are tensile in nature
so, concrete cannot withstand this and cracks are formed. To resist this, additional steel
reinforcement perpendicular to main reinforcement should be provided. Expansion joints
are also provided.

10. Seismic Loads

When the bridge is to be built in a seismic zone or earthquake zone, earthquake loads
must be considered. They induce both vertical and horizontal forces during
earthquakes. The amount of forces exerted mainly depends on the self-weight of the
structure. If the weight of the structure is more, larger forces will be exerted.
11. Deformation and Horizontal Effects

Deformation stresses occur due to change in material properties either internally or

externally. The change may be creep, shrinkage of concrete etc. similarly horizontal
forces will develop due to temperature changes, braking of vehicles, earthquakes etc.
Hence, these are also considered as design loads in bridge design.

12. Erection Stresses

Erection stresses are induced by the construction equipment during the bridge
construction. These can be resisted by providing suitable support for the members.

References

Lin, W., & Yoda, T. (2017). Bridge engineering: Classifications, design loading, and
analysis methods. Elsevier.

K, N. S. (2017). Planning for Bridge Construction including Sequence and Steps of

Planning. The Constructor.
https://theconstructor.org/structures/bridge-construction-planning/15656/

Anupoju, S. (2018, March 23). 12 Types of loads considered for design of bridge
structures. The Constructor.
https://theconstructor.org/structures/bridge-design-loads/21478/?fbclid=IwAR1TGkM2WI
07Y8xbPyulSVvL9mxDfO9YopcNNzg4hjSlbA-Uhuhqxji8gtc

https://www.wsp.com/en-gl/services/bridge-planning?fbclid=IwAR3GYAtcI07kAe85dGV
AN84RUmOoRTk1W2gGagtGs9johrcESDoqR8ZZ5QI