3D modeling using Blender

C iril B ohak
- 2022 -
Lecture 01
U ser interface

Overview
1. User interface
2. Scene navigation
3. 3D cursor
4. Objects in scene

User interface

The default user interface consists of (look the image above):

● Topbar (blue) contains basic commands and information, which are always awailable to
the user (working with files, rendering, UI control, help, UI selection, scene control,
rendering options, and basic information about the scene and objects.;
● 3D view (pink), shows curren scene and editing tools;

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 ● Tim eline (green), intended for animation, enables playing, editing, viewing, keyframe
overview etc.;
● Outliner (red), showing what is in the current scene and what is the hierarchical
relationship between objects in the scene, shows the basic properties of objects such as:
visibility, the ability to interact with the object and the ability to depict objects;
● P roperties (yellow ), which is intended to edit the properties of individual selected
objects, global properties of rendering, properties of materials, layers in the scene, properties
of the scene, the world, etc.

The user interface is extremely flexible and is divided into different parts using components such
as: screens, areas, regions, tabs and panels, and controls (buttons and menus). The interface can be
completely customized by the individual. You can divide it into several windows and show the
desired things in each. Basically, Blender offers a set of several interface adaptations that are
adapted to the specific application: default, full 3D view, animation, composition, scripting, video
editing… You can switch between them in the information editor.

Scene navigation
Blender offers several options for navigating the scene displayed in 3D. You can use both a mouse
and a keyboard (you can also use a so-called 3D mouse or other input device). Navigation is similar
in most other editors (eg when editing texture mapping, defining animation curves). In the
following, the keys will be marked with square brackets (e.g. [a], [enter], [space]). We will also label
mouse buttons and the wheel ([LMB], [MMB], [RMB] and [MW]) in a similar way.

View turning
We turn the view in the scene with the middle mouse button [MMB]. Hold the middle mouse
button over the scene and with mouse movements turn the view of the scene as if you were moving
in orbit above the center of the object.

Rotating the scene around the horizontal and vertical axes can be achieved with the keyboard,
where you can use the numeric keypad [num 2], [num 4], [num 6], [num 8]. You can also use the
numeric keypad to quickly switch between the default aligned views:

● Default camera view [num 0],

● aligns the active camera with the current view [ctrl] + [alt] + [num 0],
● front view [num 1] and back view [ctrl] + [num 1],
● right [num 3] and left [ctrl] + [num 3],
● Top [num 7] and bottom [ctrl] + [num 7] or [num 9].
View panning
The view in the scene can be moved up, down, left and right with the mouse or keyboard. When
using the mouse, use the combination [shift] + [MMB] to move with the keyboard: left [ctrl] +
[num 4], right [ctrl] + [num 6], up [ctrl] + [num 8] and down [ ctrl] + [num 2].

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Zoom in/out
You can zoom in or out using the keyboard or mouse. When using the mouse, use the mouse wheel
[MW] for continuous zooming in/out and the combination [ctrl] + [MMB]. When using the
keyboard, use [num +] to zoom in and [num -] to zoom out.

Zoom with window

You can use the [shift] + [b] key combination to zoom in on the selected part of the scene
determined by the selection window. This feature brings us closer to the selected part of the view
over the entire 3D view.

Fly and walk in through the scene

The blender allows us to move around our scene even by walking and flying functions. While in
scene mode we move as if we were piloting an airplane, while walking around the scene we move as
if we were walking around the world - we are limited by the ground and gravity acts on us.

Fly mode
Switch to flight mode with the key combination [shift] + [~] (left of key 1). In this mode, the
camera through which we watch the scene is rotated by moving the mouse. We move around the
world with the keys that are mostly used in computer games: forward [w], left [a], back [s], right
[d], down [q] and up [e]. The speed of moving around the scene can be changed using [MW]. We
can also use t. i. a teleport that moves us to the first surface we see in front of us. Use the [space]
key to activate the teleport. When we are satisfied with the shift of the view, we can confirm it
with the [enter] key or by pressing [LMB]. Use the [esc] or [RMB] key to reset the view to the
position before entering flight mode.

Walk mode
We switch to walking mode in the same way as to flying mode. When we are in flight mode, we
can turn on gravity with the [tab] key. We can then move around the scene in the same way as in
first-person games. The shortcuts are the same as in flight mode. In walking mode, you can also
jump, which you do using the [v] key. Other shortcuts and promotions are the same as in flight
mode.

Switching between the projections

We can look at the world with a parallel projection or with a perspective projection. Switch
between them with the [num 5] key.

Focus view
During 3D modeling, we often want to focus on making individual details. Other objects in the
scene can make this difficult for us. Blender allows us to display only the active object and hide the
rest with focused gaze. Switch between normal and focused view with the [num /] key.

Four simultaneous views

Many times we want to look at the scene from several angles at the same time. Mostly in three
aligned views and in perspective. Such a method is called “Quad view”. In the 3D viewport, switch
to this view with the combination [ctrl] + [alt] + [q]. We get out of it in the same way. In this
view, we can manage each part of the window independently and set the view that suits us best.

4 | Ciril Bohak @ FRI | 3D modeling using Blender

3D cursor
A 3D cursor is a point in 3D space that can be used for many
purposes. We will also learn about some such scenarios during the
workshop. In the following, we will present how to operate a 3D
cursor. The 3D cursor represents a red-white circle with a black
cross.

Locating
The easiest way to place a 3D cursor in space is to use the mouse.
In the view, click [LMB] on the selected position and the cursor will
move there. For more precise positioning in 3D space, it makes
sense to define the location of the cursor in two separate aligned
views (e.g. left and front view).

The position of the 3D cursor can also be determined in the right

3D view editing panel, which is activated with the [n] key, where
the “view” tab is selected, then numeric values along the individual
axis can be entered for the cursor position.

Reset the cursor position with the combination [shift] + [c].

Objects in the scene

The scene in Blender consists of one or more objects. These can be: lights to illuminate the scene,
2D or 3D shapes that define the models, skeletons for their animation and / or cameras to depict
the scene.

Each object in Blender consists of two parts: (1) object and (2) object data. The first stores
information about the position, orientation and size of the object in the scene, while the second
stores information about the type of object (e.g. grid geometry in the case of a 3D object, or
camera properties in the case of a camera object).

Object interaction types

Blender distinguishes several ways of interacting with objects from which you can choose at the
bottom of the 3D view bar. The ways of interaction are:

● Object m ode is the default mode of interaction that allows interaction with objects as a
whole (e.g., moving, rotating, enlarging objects);
● Edit m ode the mode is intended for all readable objects and allows changing the shape of
objects (e.g., in the case of mesh geometry changing the corners, edges, surfaces; in the case
of curves, changing the control points);
● Sculpt m ode is intended for mesh objects for the use of sculptural tools;
● V ertex paint m ode is intended for coloring corners in mesh geometry;
● W eight paint m ode is designed to determine the weight of the corners in the mesh
geometry;

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 ● Texture paint m ode is designed to draw texture directly on a 3D model of mesh
geometry;
● P article edit m ode is only available for mesh geometry and is intended for arranging
particle systems e.g. hair;
● P ose m ode is intended to regulate the distribution of bones within buildings and is
available for working with bones;
● Edit strokes m ode is intended only for drawing auxiliary sketches.

Object pivot
The pivot point determines where in the scene the object is
located. By transforming (moving, rotating or scaling) we can
determine where and how the object is located in space. If
necessary, the pivot point of the object can also be subsequently
moved in the menu accessible with [RMB].

Object types
Mesh geometry
Mesh geometry is an object composed of polygons, edges and / or vertices and can be edited with
the help of Blender's tools for editing mesh geometry, which will be discussed later in the
workshop. The blender offers us to create grid primitives (cube, sphere, cylinder, torus, etc.) from
which we can then further create the desired 3D model.

Curve
Curves are mathematically defined 1D objects that can be edited with control levers. Thus we can
regulate their curvature and length.

Surface
Surfaces are mathematically defined 2D objects that, like curves, can be edited via control points.
They are basically designed to create rounded shapes and organic landscapes.

Metaballs
Metaballs are mathematically defined 3D objects that define the 3D volume where an object exists.
We cannot change their shape through corners or checkpoints. Objects have the property that they
blend smoothly when they get close enough.

Text
The object creates a 2D representation of a string.

Bones or Armature
Armatures or bones are objects intended to be attached to other objects as a skeleton (rigging) for
the purposes of animation.

Lattice
Lattices are inexpressible mesh objects to achieve additional control over the shape of objects (most
often in animation).

6 | Ciril Bohak @ FRI | 3D modeling using Blender

Empty object
Empty objects are intended to store selected locations in 3D space to help achieve the desired
results (e.g., to control the position and movement of other objects).

Camera
A virtual camera that defines what will be rendered.

Light
The lights are designed to define the lighting of the scene. There are several types of lights
available with which we can achieve the desired illumination of the world.

Force fields
Force fields are useful in physical simulation. They add external forces to the simulation and thus
influence the movements of objects in 3D space.

Instance
When duplicating items, an instance of a group can point to an existing object or group of objects.
When we change the look of the original object, the duplicate will also be adjusted. This also
eliminates unnecessary duplication of all properties of duplicate objects.

Common properties
All objects have common features: type, radius / size, position, orientation and possible alignment
with the view.

Object selection
Selecting or marking of objects determines over which objects the
actions initiated by the user will be performed. Selection is available
in object mode and edit mode. The blender distinguishes three
states of the object (see figure): unmarked (bordered in black),
highlighted (bordered in orange) and active (bordered in yellow).

The easiest way to mark an individual object is [LMB], and to mark

/ unmark additional objects by holding down the [shift] key.

The most useful ways of marking are:

● select w ith w indow (key [b]), where the box selects which objects you want to mark;
● select w ith brush (key [c]), where we use a “brush” in the shape of a circle to “paint” the
individual we want to mark, and the size of the circle can be determined with [MW].
● lasso selection (combination [ctrl] + [LMB]), where we delete the objects we want to
mark;
● (de)selecting everything (key [a]) marks or mark all objects;
● select m ore / less (combination [ctrl] + [num +] or [num -]) expands / shortens the
designation to parents / descendants in the hierarchy.
There is an even wider range of labeling options but it goes beyond the scope of the lecure.

7 | Ciril Bohak @ FRI | 3D modeling using Blender

Editing objects
We can perform various actions on the marked objects. The most commonly used object editing
campaigns are:

● deleting marked objects ([x] or [delete] key), the deletion must be confirmed;
● hiding highlighted objects ([h] key), hide unmarked objects (combination [shift] + [h]),
show all hidden objects (combination [alt] + [h]);
● joining objects (combination [ctrl] + [j]) merges the selected objects into the last selected
object. Facilities must be of the same type.
Transforming objects
The basic transformations of objects are grab or move, rotate, and scale. All three transformations
are available to us both in object mode, where they work on the object as a whole, and in edit
mode, where they act on the selected subdivision of the object.

Translate
Start the scroll action with the [g] key. Use the mouse to take control of the object and move it to
the desired position in the scene. The new position of the building can be monitored in the lower
left part of the 3D view window. The action must end with [LMB] or [enter] or aborted with
[RMB] or [esc].

Rotate
Start the rotation action with the [r] key. Use the mouse to take control of the object and you can
rotate it around the axis through the screen. By pressing the [r] + [r] key twice in succession, we
switch to the “dolly” rotation mode, where the object can be rotated around the center in any
direction. The rotation change is displayed in the lower left part of the 3D view window. The
campaign must end with [LMB] or [enter] or aborted with [RMB] or [esc].

Scale
The scale action is started with the [s] key. Use the mouse to take control of the object and it can
be uniformly enlarged or reduced. The resize is displayed in the lower left of the 3D viewport. The
campaign must end with [LMB] or [enter] or aborted with [RMB] or [esc].

Limiting transformations
All transformations have in common that they can be limited to operating along a selected global
or local coordinate axis. This is achieved by pressing the [x], [y] or [z] keys after activating the
transformation to limit along the global coordinate axes or press the same keys twice to constrain
along the local coordinate axes. The operation of transformations can also be limited to selected
spatial planes. This is achieved by pressing [shift] + [x], [shift] + [y] or [shift] + [z].

Reseting the transformations

Transformations can be reset to default values by holding the [alt] key next to the individual
transformation key, ie: [alt] + [g] resets the position, [alt] + [r] resets the rotations and [alt] + [s]
resets the scaling.

8 | Ciril Bohak @ FRI | 3D modeling using Blender

Precise transformations
Each transformation can also be precisely quantified. This is done by entering the numeric value
for which you want to perform the transformation after activating the transformation.

E.g., press [g] then [x] and then enter the value of the displacement along the x axis and confirm
the transformation or e.g. press [r] enter the value for x, press [tab] and enter the value for y and
press [tab] again and enter the value for z and confirm the transformation.

Two tools can be used to precisely determine the transformations using the mouse: holding down
the [shift] key slows down the execution of the transformation, and holding down the [ctrl] key
performs the transformation in discrete steps. However, holding both keys down reduces the
discrete step.

Transformation manipulators
For approximate transformations of objects in the scene, we can also use t. i. transformation
manipulators shown in the figure below.

The first manipulator is designed to move objects, which is achieved by grabbing an individual
arrow / tile with [LMB] and moving the object along the selected axis. The second manipulator is
designed to rotate the object, which is achieved by grabbing an individual circle with the mouse
and rotating it. The third manipulator is designed to scale objects and works
the same as the first. The last manipulator combines all three modes
simultaneously. You can switch between manipulators with the buttons at
the bottom of the 3D view window. You can activate several modes at the same time by holding
down the [shift] key while clicking on individual buttons. Individual manipulators can also be
selected from the quick menu accessible by pressing [ctrl] + [space].

Transformations using UI
The first manipulator is designed to move objects, which is achieved by
grabbing an individual arrow / tile with [LMB] and moving the object along
the selected axis. The second manipulator is designed to rotate the object,
which is achieved by grabbing an individual circle with the mouse and
rotating it. The third manipulator is designed to scale objects and works the
same as the first. The last manipulator combines all three modes
simultaneously. You can switch between manipulators with the buttons at the
bottom of the 3D view window. You can activate several modes at the same
time by holding down the [shift] key while clicking on individual buttons.
Individual manipulators can also be selected from the quick menu accessible
by pressing [ctrl] + [space].

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Object aligned view
The view in the scene can be aligned with the active highlighted object by using the [shift] key
(e.g., front view [shift] + [num 1]) when switching to aligned views.

The view can be focused on the active object also in the orientation in which it is. This is achieved
with the [num,] key.

We can also lock the view of the active object when we move it around the scene. This is achieved
with the shortcut [shift] + [num,], the view is “unlocked” with the key combination [alt] + [num,].

10 | Ciril Bohak @ FRI | 3D modeling using Blender

Lecture 02
Introduction to 3D m odeling

Overview
1. What is 3D modeling?
2. What 3D modeling tecthniques are there?
3. How do we learn 3D modeling?
4. Basic shapes
5. Modeling with primitives

What is 3D modeling?
3D modeling is the process of making a 3D representation of an object in a virtual world. Such
objects can then be used in many ways: for 3D printing, for use in images, videos, games, as plans
for manufacturing in industry, and more.

The closest equivalent of 3D modeling in the real world is sculpture, which differs from 3D
modeling due to several factors: in 3D modeling it is not necessary to choose the material from the
beginning (if at all), in the virtual world we are not limited by real world limitations. where we
cannot make objects that do not satisfy physical laws or self-intersecting models, in the real world
we are limited by the set of tools we can use to create as well as the shapes we can achieve with
such tools.

It is believed that everything we can create with 3D modeling cannot be recreated in the real
world. It is also true that 3D models created in the virtual world can be easily animated, which is
especially important for video and interactive content.

What 3D modeling techniques are there?

There are many different 3D modeling techniques and many ways that define the workflow. During
the lecture, we will learn about two basic 3D modeling techniques that are suitable for beginners:

1. 3D modeling using curves.

2. 3D modeling using polygons.
In addition to the above, there are many other techniques that are also supported in Blender (e.g.,
virtual sculpture, meta-sphere modeling, surface modeling), as well as techniques that Blender does
not support and are intended for specific applications (e.g., full-scale modeling). geometry).
Different modeling techniques provide different tools. While in Blender we can prepare a model for

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3D printing, we cannot prepare models in the form expected by an industrial plant (e.g., in the
automotive industry), because the requirements are simply different.

However, we can often switch between different modeling techniques during the process itself and
thus use the most suitable one to achieve the desired results in a certain step.

The techniques we will learn about in the workshop are very useful for modeling general scenes, as
well as e.g. for modeling objects used in the computer game industry, in the production of video
content as well as for the idea of final representations.

How do we learn 3D modeling?

Practice, practice and practice again.

As with any other thing, it is also true for 3D modeling that it is not enough just to know the tools
and techniques, but in order to successfully achieve the desired shape, we also need to practice a
lot, i.e., a lot of 3D modeling. When we master a 3D modeling technique well enough, we can
achieve almost any results with it. However, by mastering several different techniques, we can
achieve the desired results faster and more efficiently.

Basic shapes
Pure bases include the creation of 3D models from the basic primitives at our disposal (e.g.,
surface, cube, circle, sphere, cylinder, cone, torus and various curves).

New objects can be added via the Add menu.

In the following, we briefly present the individual basic primitives:

• the plane represents a level limited part of a plane, which basically consists of four
vertices and one quadrilateral;

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 • the cube represents the mathematical shape of the cube, consisting of 8 vertices and 6
faces;
• a circle represents a primitive of a circle defined by a finite number of connected
straight lines;
• sphere (UV sphere and ICO sphere) represents a primitive sphere composed of
quadrilaterals in two different ways or with vertical / horizontal division in the case of a
UV sphere or in the form of an ICO primitive of the desired degree;
• the cylinder represents a grid representation of the shape of the cylinder, to which we
can determine the number of vertical divisions and what kind of cover (if any) it has;
• the cone represents a grid representation of the shape of the cone, to which we can
determine the number of vertical divisions, what are the radii above and below (the
upper is usually 0) and what lids are at the ends of the cone;
• the torus represents the grid geometry of the torus (donut with a hole), to which we
can determine the number of divisions along both dimensions and the main and
transverse radii;
• curves represent a multitude of different curves, which we will get to know in more
detail later;
• the m onkey represents a model of the monkey's head, which is the trademark of the
Blender program.
We can change the basic properties of primitives until we start editing them with transformations
or even changing grid geometry. To get to the basic settings, press the [f9] key after creating the
object when it is highlighted. A pop-up window opens where different basic parameters are
available for different primitives. In the image below we can see the set of parameters available to
us for the UV sphere.

Modeling with primitives

There is a lot that can be done with primitives. For the exercise, try making a snowman as shown
in the picture below.

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The primitives used to make the snowman are: (ICO sphere, cylinder, UV sphere and cone). A
little more work is needed to assemble a simple model of the castle from the primitives shown in
the figure below:

In this case, a different set of primitives is used (plane, square, cylinder and cone), but of course
there are significantly more of them than in the previous case.

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Lecture 03
M odeling using curves

Overview
1. What are curves?
2. Why curves?
3. Draving Bezier curves
4. Creating geometry using curves

What are curves?

Curves are mathematically defined uneven continuous lines in space. They are more precisely
defined by parametric functions, which define the position of an individual point on a line
depending on an input parameter (usually named t). There are several classes of curves that differ
from each other mainly in how we define them.

The curves were invented by French engineers de Casteljau and Bezier (the former at Citroen, the
latter at Renault) for the purpose of accurately defining the shape of a car body in the 1960s. Even
today, Berzier curves (more precisely cubic Bezier curves) are among the most used curves in
design. They have been encountered by virtually anyone who has ever opened a vector design
program (e.g., InkScape or Adobe Illustrator), as well as many others.

Why curves?
Curves allow us to define rounded smooth shapes, which are often used in the design of organic
shapes. Curves are also useful for defining smooth paths along which objects can be guided during
animation. Curves can also serve as a good basis for constructing geometries from pre-prepared
sketches.

In the following, we will look at how bezier curves can be used to model 3D shapes.

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Drawing Bezier curves
Drawing and editing curves in Blender is a bit more complicated than in
dedicated 2D design programs. This is partly due to an additional third
dimension, and partly due to a different philosophy of interaction.

In Blender, in addition to the possibility of creating the usual network

geometry, we also have the possibility of creating Bezir and NURBS
curves and circles. In the workshop, we will only learn about the use of
Bezier curves and circles.

Curves and circles

New curve or new circle is created by clicking the Add button in the upper screen area of the 3D
view and selecting the Bezier curve or circle. The same is achieved by pressing the [shift] + [a] key
combination above the 3D display to trigger the add command. This opens a pop-up menu where
you can also select curves from the submenu. The difference between a curve and a circle is that
the curve is not closed by default, but a circle is in fact a closed curve with appropriately spaced
control nodes.

When we create a curve, it appears at the location of the 3D cursor and has a default shape. We
can move such a curve around the world, we perform transformations over it as over all other
objects. For more detailed editing of curves, it is necessary to switch from object mode to edit
mode (combination [tab]).

In the curve editing mode, other tools are available to us and we have
access to the components of the curves - control nodes and levers that
allow us to edit the shape of the curves. The curve normals (arrows
along the curve) are also displayed by default, illustrating the
orientation of the curve.

When the display of normal and curve levers is superfluous, we can

turn it off in the overlays option under the Curve Edit Mode section,
where we find the Normals control.

Just as transformations can be performed in object mode,

transformations over individual components of curves can be performed

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in edit mode. Control nodes and levers can be labeled in the same way as objects, and shortcuts to
transformations that work the same way are the same.

Deforming curves
Deformations are available to us when editing curves in menus at the top of the 3D viewport. The
most commonly used tools are:

• subdivide, allows us to add additional control nodes among the existing nodes on the
curve and thus a more detailed definition of the shape of the curves; the command is
triggered with the [w] key and new nodes are added between the marked control nodes,
while maintaining the shape;
• sm ooth, allows us to smooth the shape of a curve by reducing the distance between the
control nodes without changing the positions of the control levers; the command is also
triggered by the [w] key and reduces the distance between the selected nodes, thus
smoothing the appearance of the curve;
• extrude, allows us to extend the curves from the final control nodes. This creates a
new or. new nodes at one or both ends of the curve; the command is triggered with the
[e] key and then with [LMB] we determine the position where we want the new node or
set of nodes;
• handle type changes the type of control levers for selected nodes; the command is
triggered with the [v] key and allows us to choose between the types: Automatic,
Vector, Aligned and Free; different types of levers allow us to control the course of the
curves in the control nodes differently (whether the curves will be smooth or broken);
• toggle cyclic, allows us to change an unclosed curve to a closed one and vice versa; the
command is also triggered by pressing [alt] + [c];
• m ake segm ent, allows us to connect two unrelated parts of the curve; the command is
triggered with the [f] key and a new part of the curve is created between the two finite
end nodes;
• separate, allows us to divide the selected curve into two objects, which is achieved by
marking the points of the curve that we want to separate into our own object and
trigger the command with the [p] key; this creates a new object that contains a curve
defined by the selected points;
• delete, allows us to delete individual control nodes or parts of the curve; trigger the
command with the [part] or [x] key, then select what you want to delete; in the case of
deleting carbon, the curve will remain connected but will change shape accordingly, and
in the case of deleting segments, we will delete part of the curve and thus break it on
the selected part.

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With the presented tools, the curves can be easily transformed into the desired shape. Of course,
we are not limited to two dimensions, but we can also create curves in three dimensions. Thus, we
can create a rather complex 3D object from a simple curve as shown in the figure below.

Creating geometry using

There are many ways to create geometry using curves. In the
workshop, we will learn just a few basic examples of creating
geometry.

Creating using extrude and bevel

From the curves, the t can be used. i. extrude extract a flat
surface from the curve. Such an example is shown in the figure
below, where a surface is extracted from a closed Bezier curve.
Of course, we can determine the amount of extraction as well
as how accurately the curve will be defined by individual parts.
All of this is available in the Property Editor within the Curve
Properties tab.

The amount of extraction is determined in the Geometry

section by changing the Extrude parameter, as shown in the
figure above. The result is shown in the figure below. If you
want to include the display of individual plots, you can also
achieve this in the Property Editor in the tab with the
properties of the object, where in the Display section include the property Wire.

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In addition to the extraction, we can also add a bevel to the model, to which we can determine
both the depth and the resolution. An example of the use of bevel and extraction is shown in the
figure below.

Instead of oblique planes, they can also be defined by a curve. In this way, we achieved the already
shown geometry of the curved connected pipe again shown below. In this case, we chose a circle for
the prototype oblique curve.

The surface extracted from the curve has a thickness of 0 and as such it is difficult to illustrate a
real object. From flat surfaces, volume geometry can be created using modifiers. Some of the
selected ones are presented below.

Using modifiers with surfaces and curves

Modifiers are used in Blender for many things: to modify a grid, to generate things, to deform
things, and to simulate. In the following, we will look at two modifiers designed to generate
geometry from curves and surfaces:

• screw , allows us to rotate the selected curve around an axis and thus create a spindle;
working with a bag tool is quite similar to real work with a lathe;
• solidify, allows us to thicken a selected surface into 3D geometry (e.g., square thicken
into a square); the modifier is particularly useful in the case where e.g., by screwing we
create an open geometry that is really just a surface.

19 | Ciril Bohak @ FRI | 3D modeling using Blender

Modeling using curves
With curves, geometry can be constructed in many ways by combining the approaches presented
above. Using the curves, try to create a cup as shown in the image below. All it takes is two Bezier
curves and two Bezier circles. Make this using a prototype curve to create a curve bevel (a circle is
a bevel from a curve).

Next, try making a candlestick as shown in the sketch below. Use one curve and a screw modifier
to design it.

20 | Ciril Bohak @ FRI | 3D modeling using Blender

Lecture 04
P olygon m odeling

Overview
1. Reference images
2. What are polygons?
3. Why polygons?
4. Creating polygon models
5. Editing polygon geometry
6. Examples

R eference im ages
When making 3D models, we often benefit by using so called reference images. They can be used
to: (1) facilitate the idea of the final product, (2) be an aid to the definition of details, or (3) as an
auxiliary sketch in the modeling itself. While for the first two scenarios we can use a variety of
photos and / or sketches that we have found / produced and open for help in the image viewer on
our system, for auxiliary sketches / images in modeling, they should generally be aligned with the
view as it is used in modeling.

In most cases, we benefit from sketches / pictures / photographs of standard views (e.g. front view,
side view, rear view, top view and / or bottom view). In addition to these, the views aligned with
the details on the buildings also benefit us in the production of details.

In Blender, images can only be placed in the background of the view in the orthographic camera
mode (parallel projected images), aligned with the selected axis or multiple axes simultaneously.
When you turn the camera out of alignment, the background image also disappears.
To add an image to the background, add the image Add -> Image -> Background. When we click
on the button, a selection window opens, where we find the appropriate image on our computer
and confirm its selection. The image is displayed in the current view. In addition to aligned views,
the background image can also be used in the view through the camera.

Similar to background images are reference images, with a difference that they are always visible,
easily selectable and modifiable as regular objects in the scene.

We can change several properties of the background images:

• align them with the selected axis;

• we can include them in the file with 3D model (File -> External Data -> Pack resources);;
• we can set their transparency;
• we can put them in fron or in the back of all the scene objects;
• we can move the arround;

21 | Ciril Bohak @ FRI | 3D modeling using Blender

 • we can mirror them across vertical or horizontal axis;
• we can rotate them around the center;
• we can scale them.

By adjusting the presented properties, we can customize the display of auxiliary images to aid
modeling. With more advanced use, videos can also be a source of background images.

W hat are polygons?

Polygons or polygons are figures with three or more
vertices. In fact, all polygons with more than three
vertices are transformed into triangles before drawing,
and only then are they drawn. The reason for this lies
mainly in the design of graphic pipelines and the need for
a uniform definition of objects.

Polygon geometry is still the predominant way of

presenting 3D objects and is most prevalent mainly due
to its use in 3D interactive computer graphics (e.g., in computer games). As a result, many
different tools and gadgets are available with the design of
such 3D geometry. In the following, we will look at how
such geometry can be formed at the lower level - by moving oglišča robovi

individual corners.

An individual triangle consists of basic building blocks: (1)

corners, (2) edges) and (3) surfaces or. cheeks, which is also
shown in the picture on the right. ploskev oz. lice

As we have already learned, Blender offers us a set of basic

primitives for starting from 3D modeling (cube, cylinder, cone, ...). Most of these building blocks
are defined by polygons. In modeling using polygons, we take as a starting point the closest
primitive in terms of shape, which is then formed into the final desired shape.

W hy polygons?

As mentioned in the previous chapter, the main reason for their use is their high prevalence and
consequent adaptation of both software and hardware. Last but not least, the graphic processing
units are highly optimized just for drawing 3D geometry presented with polygons.

A very positive feature is the compactness of the presentation. More complex 3D geometry can be
designed from polygons by using a larger number of polygons in places where we want more detail,
but where there is no such need, we can use a smaller number of polygons.

They are also very convenient due to the fact that it is very easy to "glue" textures to polygons -
images that represent a more detailed structure of objects and also determine their color and
appearance. Over the years, many techniques have also developed that allow us to add additional
virtual details to otherwise roughly defined 3D models (e.g., using bumps, offsets, normal

22 | Ciril Bohak @ FRI | 3D modeling using Blender

mapping). There are many more advantages, but we will get to know only a small selection of
them in the workshop.

C reating polygon m odels

To create polygonal geometry, we need to start with one of the primitives available to us. The
simplest is the primitive of the plane, represented by four vertices, 4 edges, and one surface. In
order to create new polygons, we need to change such initial geometry in the editing mode, which
is presented in the next chapter.

As a starting primitive, it makes the most sense to choose the primitive that best represents the
shape and properties of the desired finished product. To make a face, we can start with a cube or a
sphere (both are a good starting point), for elongated objects it is usually best to choose a cylinder
or an elongated square, etc.

Editing polygon geom etry

To edit the polygon geometry, select the 3D object and switch to edit mode (shortcut [tab]
+ [1,2,3]). In edit mode, we have the ability to edit corners, edges and / or faces. We can
edit only individual components or combine them by editing different
components. Control over individual components is switched on and off with
the buttons in the 3D view menu below. Editing several components at the
same time is achieved by using the [shift] key when clicking on the buttons.

Editing vertices
Vertices are the most basic components that represent 3D
geometry. If our basic geometry consists of enough vertices and they
are properly interconnected, we can create the desired final shape
just by moving the vertices from a primitive. In most cases, of
course, this is not the case, so modeling tools are used to help us
add new vertices or merge existing vertices in various ways. We will
look at some of these tools below. All editing tools are available in
the Vertices menu of the 3D view window in edit mode. The same
menu can also be called up with the shortcut [ctrl] + [v]. Some
basic tools are:

• M erge - merges marked nodes to the selected location (first

position, second position, center or cursor position). If we
mark all the corners of a face, that face will disappear.

23 | Ciril Bohak @ FRI | 3D modeling using Blender

 • R em ove D oubles - removes duplicates from selected corners. You can also set the
maximum distance for detecting duplicates.
• Extend V ertices - the tool allows us to add a new face to a specific face by pulling a new
node from the highlight vertices.
• C onnect V ertex (P ath) - is a tool designed to connect unconnected corners. Mark the

vertices you want to connect with the edges and use the shortcut [j].

• Slide - allows you to move the selected slide along the connected edges of the grid.
• B evel - allows you to add new corners from one corner along the connected edges to create
a bevel or just divide the geometry.

• Sm ooth V ertex - Reduces the angles that surround the node with the connected edges.

24 | Ciril Bohak @ FRI | 3D modeling using Blender

Editing edges
Similar to the basic set for working with corners, we will also present
the basic set of tools for working with edges. Only by using basic
transformations (displacement, rotation and scaling) can the existing
geometry be transformed into the desired final shape, if we have enough
and correctly connected edges. They can be accessed via the Edges
menu. with the shortcut [ctrl] + [e]. The basic tools that help us add
and / or subtract / combine edges are:
• C reate Edge - allows us to connect marked unconnected
edges to each other and create missing edges and faces.
• Subdivide - allows us to divide the selected edge evenly

into the desired number of shorter edges.

• B evel - divides the selected edges with a slash.

• Edge Slide - allows you to move the selected edge along the connected edges.

Editing faces
Just like editing edges, you can also use basic transformations (shift,
rotation and scaling) to edit faces. In addition to them, the following
tools are among the most useful via the Face menu or. with shortcut
[ctrl] + [f]:

• Insert Faces - adds new faces to marked slaves.

• B evel – splits the connected edges with a bevel.
• P oke Faces – shares marked faces with connections between all
corners.

25 | Ciril Bohak @ FRI | 3D modeling using Blender

 • Triangulate faces - turns all marked faces into triangles. This benefits us when we want
to represent the final geometry only with triangles.
• Tris to Quads - Tries to turn all marked triangular faces into quadrilaterals.

For all components, you can also use the extraction tool, which is triggered by the shortcut [e].

Sm oothing the polygon geom etry

Because the production of models is extremely demanding to the smallest detail, and we mostly
want the final representations not to show the "rough" of the mesh geometry, in modeling we use
model smoothing in most cases. For the purposes of modeling, we can use temporary smoothing
and thus already during the creation we see how our network will be smoothed, and it is easier to
add the desired details.

Switch between the different levels of smoothing with the shortcuts [ctrl] + [0]… [ctrl] + [9]. This
adds a modifier to our geometry, which can be set separately to which level the geometry will be
smoothed in the view and to which level when rendering.

26 | Ciril Bohak @ FRI | 3D modeling using Blender

Exam ples

C andlestick
Use the tools presented to try to create the candlestick below.

27 | Ciril Bohak @ FRI | 3D modeling using Blender

LEG O figure
Make a LEGO figure based on the pictures below.

28 | Ciril Bohak @ FRI | 3D modeling using Blender

Lecture 05
M aterials

Overview
6. What are materials in 3D modeling?
7. What are textures?
8. Node editor
9. Material types
10. UV mapping

What are materials in 3D modeling?

So far, we have learned how we can create different 3D objects with different modeling techniques.
In this chapter, we will look at how to add colors to such objects. The colors of objects are
determined by their materials. With materials, we mostly want to illustrate the appearance of
objects in reality as convincingly as possible, thus not determining the physical properties of
objects.

The materials used are only used to display objects during the rendering process, as too much
computing power is required to draw them correctly, and consequently this cannot be done
interactively on ordinary personal computers.

The materials represent the implementation of a mathematical model for calculating the
illumination of objects in the scene, which try to imitate as realistically as possible what is
happening in the real world, which is also called physically based representation. The types of
materials available to the user also depend on the imaging drive used, as different drives use
different sets of properties when calculating.

In the following sections, we will only look at the materials supported in the Cycles Renderer
rendering drive, which is already included with Blender by default and replaces the default Blender
Renderer drive, which is no longer in development. In the following - in the property editor ->
Render properties, select Cycles Renderer instead of Eevee in the Render Engine drop-down menu,
and we will learn more about the rendering below.

What are textures?

In the world of 3D computer graphics, textures are images that contain information about the
surface of objects (e.g., colors, offsets, surface orientation, gloss level, fusion coefficient, etc.). They
can be two-dimensional (which we will deal with the most) or three-dimensional. In order to use

29 | Ciril Bohak @ FRI | 3D modeling using Blender

the information stored in the texture in the rendering, we need to define which part of the surface
corresponds to which part of the texture, which is called UV imaging. UV mapping tells how a 2D
texture is mapped to the surface of a 3D object, which we will look at below.

Node editor
Most properties related to textures and materials are edited in the Shader Editor in Blender. You
can access it by selecting Shader Editor from the list of editors in the selected section of the
program. This editor graphically shows us the individual components of materials (or some other
properties of objects) and their interrelationships. Tools for adding new elements are equivalent to
a 3D view. So we add new elements with the shortcut [shift] + [a], where a large set of widgets is
available.

To add material to an object, first move to the materials tab in

the Property Editor (see right image) and click, add a new location
for the material (click on +) and select New. For the selected 3D
object, the basic material shown in the left image is shown in the
Node Editor. As a rule, we can
connect the outputs and inputs of
individual elements of the same
color (exceptionally also
differently). Below we will take a
look at some of the basic materials
we can create in Blender.

Material types
In general, Blender has an almost unlimited number of materials that can be created from basic
models for calculating lighting. Basic lighting models are also called shaders. The main groups of
sunshades are:

● Surface Shaders - designed for objects where we are interested in how light is reflected
from the surface. This includes most common materials;
● V olum e Shaders - intended for objects through which light passes (transparent and
translucent objects). These include materials where light penetrates the surface (smoke, fog,
water, etc.);

30 | Ciril Bohak @ FRI | 3D modeling using Blender

 ● D isplacem ent - are intended for cases where we want to deform the surface of objects
using additional data (e.g., textures).
Surfaces
The shading calculation on the surfaces of buildings is performed in Blender using the BSDF
(Bidirectional Scattering distribution function) function, which describes what happens to the rays
on the surface of the material:

● the rays can be completely reflected and so we get a mirror effect;

● the rays can be scattered, which in most cases gives the object color;
● the rays can be refracted through the object, which is the case with glass, for example;
● the rays can be reflected and scattered several times below the surface of the object, which
conjures up transparent and translucent objects (this includes, for example, human skin).
In the following, we will present some typical materials for everyday use in 3D modeling.

Metal materials
The main feature of metallic materials is their
luster. For such purposes we use Glossy shader,
which reflects most of the light, but we can
determine how rough it is on the surface and what
proportion of light is scattered outside the perfect
reflection. If we set the surface to be completely
smooth, we get a mirror. An example of the composition of the nodes of such material is shown on
the right, and in the illustration it is located in the middle of the figure at the end of the section.

Plastic materials
Plastic materials (even more precisely rubber)
scatter most of the light and so we do not see
reflections of neighboring objects on them. For such
purposes we use Diffuse shader. The surface of such
materials is illuminated very evenly no matter what
angle the light falls on it. An example of such a material is created each time we create a new
material and it is shown to the right, and in the final representation it is to the right of the metal
(4th object in 2nd row).

Glass
It is characteristic of glass that light travels
through the material and the path of light is
refracted. The fracture depends on the fracture
coefficient of the material. For glass we use Glass
shader, which allows us to adjust the refractive
index and is shown on the right. In the final
representation, it is shown to the left of the middle
object (2nd object in the 2nd row).

31 | Ciril Bohak @ FRI | 3D modeling using Blender

Transparent and translucent materials
Transparent (and translucent) materials transmit
light but do not necessarily refract it. In addition,
light in such buildings is also scattered inside.
Tranparent, Translucent and Refraction sunshades
are used to define such materials. An example of a translucent material that does not refract light
is shown on the right. In the final representation, the translucent material is used on the 5th object
in the 2nd row and the refraction on the 2nd object in the upper row.

Combined materials
For a material that combines the properties of different basic materials, individual materials can
also be combined using Shader mix. It accepts two sunshades at the output and merges them into
the final output according to the given weight. An example of the use of such a sunshade is shown
on the right, and in the final illustration, combinations of different sunshades are used on the 3rd
object above (combines Diffuse and Glossy), 1st object in the middle (combines Diffuse and
Refraction), 4th object in the bottom row (combines Galss and Glossy) and at the last facility
below (combining Diffuse and Ambient Occlusion). Materials can also be combined in several
levels, thus bringing the properties of any number of basic materials into the final material.

A number of other basic BSDF sunshades are available to users, but they are more specific. One
such is e.g., Toon shader used to achieve a cartoonish depiction.

Volumes
The calculation of shading in volumetric objects is
even more demanding than the calculation on the
surfaces of objects. Volumetric objects are, for
example, smoke, clouds and fog. What they have
in common is that light passes through such
objects and is reflected from small particles inside

32 | Ciril Bohak @ FRI | 3D modeling using Blender

the objects or is refracted on them. In order to depict correctly, it is necessary to simulate the
passage of a large number of rays through such objects so that we can correctly calculate their
color and transparency. A simple example of a balloon made from a slightly reworked sphere with
the material defined according to the right image is shown below.

Displacements
The use of displacements is intended to add additional details to existing building surfaces that we
do not want to add with modeling techniques, or we can even generate them automatically and
save time, while allowing the possibility to correct such details on the surface later. Details can be
added to the surface of the building in three ways:

● using the displacem ents technique on geom etry, where details can be added directly
to the geometry of objects, which, however, requires that the grid of the model is as dense
as we want the details to be accurately presented on it;
● using the displacem ents technique on surfaces, where the details can be added
directly to the surface of the material without the need to adjust or change only the
geometry of the object;
● using norm al m aps that contain information about the detailed orientation of the surface
of objects (Normal maps), and this information is used only in the rendering.
Using the displacement technique on geometry
For the displacement technique, it is necessary to further divide
the grid of the building as densely as we want the precise details
to be added. This is accomplished by using the Subdivision
Surface modifier found in the modifiers tab in the property
manager. For example, we will add bulges in the form of waves
to the plane, as shown in the example below.

33 | Ciril Bohak @ FRI | 3D modeling using Blender

We first added a division modifier to the plane, changed the type of division to Simple, which does
not smooth the grid. Then we added a Displace modifier. For use, we added a new texture of the
Clouds type, where we chose Perlin's noise as the base and played around with the settings a bit.
For the final effect, we also reduced the impact strength of the offset modifier.

In this way, you can also define what additional details on the surfaces of buildings should look like
with any texture.

Using the displacements technique on surfaces

With the technique of deviations above the surfaces, we achieve the
addition of small details to the surface of buildings where we do not
want to add additional network geometries. In this way, bulges and
irregularities can be introduced into the surfaces at the lowest level.
To add such details, it is necessary to adjust the material of the
object as shown in the figure to the right. The result of such
deviations added to the deviations above the geometry is shown in
the figure below.

Using normal maps

Normal textures are used in most cases to add details that are reflected in how light is reflected on
a particular part of the surface. In this way, in addition to deviations, we also change the shading
calculation of buildings and in this way we achieve fine details such as dents and scratches on the
surfaces of buildings or the detailed texture of the material.

As an example, we added details defined by the Voronoi procedural texture to the waves we
defined in the previous example. To do this, we had to adjust the material of the building as shown
in the figure below.

34 | Ciril Bohak @ FRI | 3D modeling using Blender

Two results of the use of normal
textures are shown in the figures below:
the right for the above example and the
left for the case where the Voroni
pattern is used for both normal texture
and offsets.

UV mapping
The basic purpose of UV imaging is to map the applied texture to the surface of the object. UV is
derived from the naming of coordinate axes in the texture space (it is two-dimensional). To be able
to do this it is first necessary to perform UV unwinding, which is a process in which the network of
the building is unwound from the building itself and mapped to a 2D surface.

Blender offers us quite a few pre-prepared methods for UV unwinding. All methods related to UV
unwinding are available via the shortcut [u] or. via UV -> Unwrap menus. Additional tools for
marking cuts above the grid are also available between tools above the edges [ctrl] + [e] or. via the
Edges menu. Among the edge tools, the Mark Seam and Clear Seam commands are particularly
suitable for unwinding purposes. These tools are available to us in edit mode.

For unwinding purposes, it makes sense to open the UV Editor, where you can see the texture that
will be stretched to the selected geometry as well as which part of the texture will be mapped to
which face of the grid.

Within this lecture, we will present two ways:

35 | Ciril Bohak @ FRI | 3D modeling using Blender

 1. U V unw rap - try to spread the mesh geometry along the given seams and project it on
the plane. If we did not add seams to the grid then all the cheeks spread over the entire
texture;
2. sm art U V projections - tries to unwrap the model grid automatically and project it onto
the plane.
The standard course is as follows:
1. we first open the UV Editor and create a new texture in it (preferably a UV Grid or some
texture of our own);
2. we adjust the texture to the material of the object;
3. switch to texture display mode;
4. switch to object editing mode;
5. we define the seams of the geometry;
6. use one of the unwarp methods presented above;
7. individual components of the developed geometry can also be moved in the UV Editor until
the desired layout is achieved.
More advanced UV unwarping is a rather complex process that requires a lot of manual work. It is
only when we have the geometry properly unwound that it makes sense to start preparing the
appropriate textures.

36 | Ciril Bohak @ FRI | 3D modeling using Blender

Lecture 06
Lights

Overview
1. What are lights and what types of lights are there?
2. How to place the lights in the scene?
3. Objects as light sources

What are lights and what types of lights are there?

The lights in Blender are objects that represent light sources as we know them in the real world.
The main types of lights we have available in Blender are:

• Point light source - represents a light

source at one point in space from where it
propagates evenly in all directions. We
can define its strength, color and how the
strength decreases with distance, as well
as a number of other parameters;
• Directed light (Sun Blender) - is a
ubiquitous light source that has no
defined source but has a defined direction.
In addition, we can also set the strength
and type of other parameters. It is mostly
used to simulate sunlight and
consequently we can also adjust the
properties of the atmosphere and the sky;
• Spot light - light originates at a certain
point and spreads into space in the form
of a cone. We can define what shape the
cone is and where it is directed, as well as
how sharp the transition between full
illumination and darkness is;
• Area light - represents a source of light emanating from a specific area. A good example of
such an origin is the computer screen. In the Blender, they can also be used as light sources
that penetrate the room through windows, doors and other openings.

37 | Ciril Bohak @ FRI | 3D modeling using Blender

While when using the default Blende Renderer for each
type of light, you can set most parameters in the
property manager, when using Cycles Renderer, this is
not the case, as we have to work with nodes that we
have learned when using materials to set the intensity
of each light. . The light settings can be accessed by
selecting the third tab from the left in the property
editor. The type of light can be selected during the
addition, but it can also be changed later in the
properties. Different lights can be accompanied by
different properties such as size, whether the light casts
shadows or not, what shape the light is, etc.

For a more detailed understanding of the operation of lighting models, I suggest you read the
article entitled Lighting models published in the journal Življenje in tehnika (5-2017).

How to place the lights in the scene?

For the most realistic lighting, it is necessary to place the light sources in those places where the
light would actually originate. We try to use as similar a source as possible, which is available in
Blender, for individual sources. Sunlight can be modeled with a directed type of light, bulbs with
point and reflector sources, larger lights (eg neon lights) with field light sources. Care must be
taken to adjust the light intensity accordingly.

If we are planning an animation, it is necessary to think properly about moving the source and
changing its intensity. By using nodes, we can also create quite complex light sources that throw
patterns into the room, different colors depending on the angle, etc.

Simple example setup

For cases when we want to present a 3D model well,
in practice the standard scene lighting, which includes back
three point light sources: j
light

● one source in front to the left of the object we

want to illuminate;

● the second source is in front to the right of the

object;

● move one of the light sources slightly above

the middle height of the object, the other fill key
slightly below the middle height of the object; light
light
camera
● with these sources we achieve good
illumination of the object from the front;

● for added effect we can experiment a bit with the intensities and colors of the lights;

38 | Ciril Bohak @ FRI | 3D modeling using Blender

 ● the third light source, which is typically much weaker, is placed behind the object, thus
emphasizing the outlines of the object.
How to additionally tune the lighting?

1. Change the size of the shadows - this is determined by the size of the light source: the
larger the source, the softer the shadows will be, the smaller the source, the sharper they
will be. Soft shadows bring serenity to the scene, while sharp shadows accentuate the
details on the objects. In the example below, the comparison between the light source size is
10.0 (left) and 0.1 (right);

2. Don't overdo it with the number of lights - using too many light sources eliminates
shadows, which play an important role in recognizing details. Without shadows, the
geometry looks perfectly flat. Below is a comparison between using one light (left) and
many lights arranged in front of an object (right);

3. Use colored lights - with colors you add an extra emotional impact to the scene, add
warmth or a feeling of coolness. Real light sources are defined by the heat of the source (in
Kelvins), which can be simulated using a black body when creating a shader. The example
below shows the difference between using an all-white light (left) and an orange light
(right);

4. Emphasize the object of interest - highlight the object you want to emphasize to attract the
viewer's focus. In the example below, use a point light source (left) or a reflector source

39 | Ciril Bohak @ FRI | 3D modeling using Blender

 (right);

5. Add textures to the lights - this breaks up the monotonous color of the lights and adds
extra liveliness to the scene. The example below shows the use of texture on a reflector light
source that further brightens the scene;

6. Animate lights - to find the most suitable lighting, you can animate both the positions and
other parameters of the lights and thus find the combination that best serves your purpose.

Objects as light sources

In addition to lights, the source of light can also be objects themselves. most often these are
phosphorescent objects. Radiation of objects is achieved by adapting the appropriate material to
them, where we choose emission shader. In this way we can create interesting effects as shown in
the image below.

40 | Ciril Bohak @ FRI | 3D modeling using Blender

Lecture 07
Rendering

Overview
5. What is rendering?
6. Environmental maps
7. Rendering parameters

What is rendering?
Rendering is the process of calculating the illumination and shading of a scene according to the
properties of objects and their materials. There are many methods for calculating the exposure, but
recently physically based methods have been used, which are also available in the Blender program.
Blender already comes with three different renderers:

1. Eevee - is a built-in renderer, which is quite updated from the previous version, but still has
quite a few shortcomings compared to Cycles Renderer;

2. Workbench - is mostly intended for use during modeling and scene construction;

3. Cycles Renderer - is quite powerful and allows very realistic rendering of scenes.
Blender also supports the use of external renderers such as Autodesk Arnold, VRay, Octane
Renderer and some others. The advantage of Cycles Renderer is that it is already included with the
Blender program itself and is available to users completely free of charge.

Environmental maps
When we want to place our objects in a real environment, in most cases it is necessary to model
such an environment (or to use copositing). The lighting of buildings also depends on the
environment, as there can be many light sources in the environment, which we did not necessarily
capture by placing lights in our scene.

In such cases, we can use environmental maps, which are presented as spherical photographs
captured by the high dynamic range technique. (High Dynamic Range - HDR). Such photographs
also contain information about the intensity of light coming from a particular part of the
environment, which can be used for the purpose of illuminating our scene. An example of a
spherical photograph for 3 different exposures is shown below.

41 | Ciril Bohak @ FRI | 3D modeling using Blender

Using environmental textures in Blender
On the World tab of the Property Editor, in the Material Properties section, click the Use Nodes
button. Some new input fields appear, where, among other things, we also find the Base Color
property. By clicking on the circle next to the color, you
can choose how you want to define the color. In our case,
we choose Environment Texture. A set of new properties
is displayed, where you can also select a file from disk
(Open). We can set different parameters of the selected
texture and methods of mapping to the environment. We
can also determine the power of the illumination thus
obtained. An example of a depiction using environmental
texture on highly reflective material is shown below.

Rendering parameters
When rendering, it is necessary to pay attention to quite a few parameters in order to
achieve the desired final appearance. In the following, we will highlight just a few of the
most important ones that need special attention. Rendering parameters are available in
the Render and Output Properties tab of the Property Manager, which is accessible via
the camera icon.

Renderer settings
As already mentioned, we will only get to know the Cycles illustrator in the workshop. It is a
version of the renderer that uses physically based methods to calculate exposure based on Path

42 | Ciril Bohak @ FRI | 3D modeling using Blender

Tracing. Since this is an approximation method, the final appearance depends on the accuracy of
the approximation, which, however, takes more time for better results.

The main parameters are:

● Device selection - the user chooses whether the final rendering should be calculated on the
central processing unit or on the graphics card. Depending on which piece of hardware is
more powerful, we choose the appropriate option (the easiest way to check this is to
perform a simple test rendering and see how long it takes on which unit);

● Resolution - tells us how many image elements the final image will have. We can choose
one of the predefined dimensions, but we can also determine them ourselves. The output
resolution, of course, depends on the purpose of the final rendering. If the final rendering is
to be displayed on an HD screen, select HD 1080, and the like for other purposes;

● File Format - here we choose in what format we want the final result of the rendering. By
default, this is the PNG image format, which is quite sufficient for most still images;

● Render - is a key group of parameters that determines the quality of the final rendering.
You can select or add a setting template (e.g., Final / Preview). At this point, only the
number of samples used to calculate the illumination of a single image element is most
important. The more accurate these samples are, the final approximation of the calculation
method will be and the better the final product will be. The number of samples must also
be adjusted to the materials used - more complex materials need a larger number of samples
for better quality. The time of calculating the final rendering also depends on the set
number of samples. It is recommended to use a lower number of samples for preview (16 -
64) and a larger number for the final rendering (up to 2048 samples per pixel).
Other rendering parameters are less important and you will get to know them as you get to know
Blender better.

Camera settings
Camera settings are available if you select the camera object in the scene and then switch to
the camera tab in the Property Editor. The main features of the camera are:

● Lens settings - where you can choose between an orthographic, perspective or

panoramic version. The most common is perspective, for which we can determine the
focal length (eg 35 mm);

● Camera settings - where we can determine the size of the sensor used in the calculation of
the image (eg 32 mm equivalent);

● Depth of Field - Determines how the camera's sharpness changes with distance from the
focus. In this way, we can blur objects that are out of focus, as is usually the case for

43 | Ciril Bohak @ FRI | 3D modeling using Blender

 human vision and classic cameras. An example of the use of depth of field is also shown in
the figure below (the blurred background is the most visible).

44 | Ciril Bohak @ FRI | 3D modeling using Blender

Lecture 08
Modifiers

Overview
1. What are modifiers?
2. Deformations
3. Generation
4. Simulations

What are modifiers?

Already with the learned techniques of 3D modeling we can create any
shapes and things. Many times, however, we want to make things easier
and more timely. Then we resort to modifiers wherever possible.
Modifiers are operations that the user can perform on 3D objects, with
the ability to later correct and adjust parameters. In the following, we
will learn about some modifiers intended for deformations, generation
and simulation. We have already learned some basic modifiers during
modeling (Subdivision surface, Screw, Solidify and Displace).

Deformations
Deformation modifiers deform the selected object by some predefined procedure. Some of the most
commonly used basic strain modifiers are presented below.

45 | Ciril Bohak @ FRI | 3D modeling using Blender

Simple deformations
Simple deform modifier offers users twist, bend, taper, and stretch. Each of the operations can be
performed along any selected axis, which is determined by the rotation of the selected auxiliary
object (usually an empty object).

The results of the individual operations are presented in the figure below, where the original is on
the far left, followed by bending by 360º, then bending by 180º, narrowing by a factor of -1.5 and
right stretching by the same factor.

In this way, we can quickly and easily achieve the shape we want. The direction of deformations
can be defined by selecting an object in the axis, origin field that determines their orientation. In
most cases, we choose an empty object that can be nested under the object that we want to deform
(parent) using the shortcut [ctrl] + [p].

By transforming the deformation control tool, we can achieve an altered deformation effect and
also animate the deformation.

Lattice
Lattice is a modifier that allows objects to be modified using a three-dimensional regular grid,
where each node of the grid affects the geometry in its surroundings. The user can determine how
many divisions such a network has and how it adapts to the object. The figure below shows an
envelope of varying degrees above the sphere object.

To create a lattice, it is necessary to create a new object of the lattice type, and then add a
modifier of the same name to the object, to which we assign a control object. This allows us to use
the same envelope to modify multiple objects at the same time, as well as that the modifications
themselves are independent of the object and can be changed, for example, during animation. An
example of different deformations by moving the control points of the same envelope over the same
object is shown in the figure below.

46 | Ciril Bohak @ FRI | 3D modeling using Blender

The lattice can be set to the degree of division of the regular grid along the individual coordinate
axis as well as the interpolation method by which the grid influences the change of geometry. It is
basically interpolation with B-splines, but it can also be replaced by linear interpolation, Catmull-
Rom interpolation or cardinal interpolation. Examples of different interpolations for the same
things are shown below, where BSpline interpolation is completely on the left, followed by linear,
then Catmull-Rom, and finally cardinal interpolation on the envelope.

Warp
Warp modifier allows us to bend a part of the grid geometry towards the desired location - e.g.,
points in space. In this way we can visualize bulges, depressions, bumps, etc. For each curvature, it
is necessary to determine the point of origin and the target point of curvature. Empty objects can
be used for these two points. The modifier can also be set for how the points should affect the
curvature of the surface. In addition to smooth curvature, we also have constant, spherical square,
linear and others. In the figure below, the indentation of the recess is created with the help of the
presented modifier, where we use empty objects for the start and end point and use a smooth type
of curvature.

47 | Ciril Bohak @ FRI | 3D modeling using Blender

Wave
Wave modifier is designed to bend the surface using waves on the surface of objects. We can choose
the axes along which the wave travels as well as the position of the wave source, which can be
defined by a location in space (e.g., an empty object). The speed, amplitude, width and dimension
of the waves can be determined. We can also set the damping of the waves, the time from the
beginning of the wave, whether the waves are repeated, etc. The figure below shows an example of
waves on a plane surface.

Generation
Generator modifiers are designed to create new objects or. geometry based on the given input and
parameters.

Array
The Array Modifier is designed to multiply objects with a specific transformation. We can set how
many times we want to multiply the selected object, determine the constant or relative deviation.
The transformation between objects can also be determined by selecting another object (e.g., an
empty object). In this way, we can multiply a multitude of objects from an individual object in our
scene as shown in the figure below.

48 | Ciril Bohak @ FRI | 3D modeling using Blender

Bevel
We already used bevel in modeling. But it is also available in the form of a generative modifier.
With it, bevels can be added to all edges of the selected object. Slopes can be added progressively
(multiple bevels), we can determine the deviation from the base edge and the profile of the bevels.
The example on the cube is shown in the figure below.

Boolean
The modifier for combining objects is intended for combining geometries into the desired final
whole. In doing so, we can choose different ways of combining: union, difference and intersection.
The figure below shows all the operations above the base cubes, which are completely to the left.

Mirror
The mirroring modifier allows us to mirror the selected geometry over the selected plane. After
mirroring, the mirrored object can be combined with the original. We can also mirror over the

49 | Ciril Bohak @ FRI | 3D modeling using Blender

selected object. An example of mirroring half of Suzanne’s head where the net is offset from the
starting point of the object is shown in the figure below.

Simulation
Simulation modifiers are designed to create geometry using physical simulation. We will present
just a few basic modifiers that are most commonly used when creating scenes.

Cloth
Cloth simulation allows us to recreate the physically correct behavior of clothing and other fabric
products.

Collision
The collision modifier is intended to simulate collisions between objects. Objects can move in
accordance with the laws of physics (they are rigid), they can be soft, they can only represent
obstacles that are taken into account when calculating collisions, etc. In this way, we can set up a
sort of polygon for falling / moving objects along which we want them to move, then start the
simulation and wait for the results to be calculated. Care must be taken not to perform physical
simulations on too complex models and not to include too many objects in the simulation, as in

50 | Ciril Bohak @ FRI | 3D modeling using Blender

such a case the simulation will take an extremely long time. The simulation is started by pressing
the Play button in the timeline and interrupted by the shortcut [esc]. The figure below shows a
simulation of two soft bodies in a collision with a flat surface.

Particle systems
Particle systems can be used for various purposes: for modeling
purposes, where they are used to multiply objects according to
certain conditions, or for the purposes of physical simulation,
which can simulate the most varied effects such as explosions,
precipitation and more. many other things.

Dynamic particle systems

Particle systems can be used to dynamically generate new
objects on the surface of selected objects in the scene. The
surface of any object can be used as the source of new particles.
In the example on the right, on the surface of the sphere, we
establish new specimens of the monkey head object. New heads
appear on the surface of the sphere (we can choose either in the
corners or on the cheeks or just inside the entire volume) and
start moving at an initial speed according to the laws of
physics, which in this case means that they follow gravity.

51 | Ciril Bohak @ FRI | 3D modeling using Blender

In a similar way, you could create particles from an object flying at high
speed and simulate an explosion in this way.

Use in modeling
As an example of the use of particle systems in modeling, they can be used
to arrange repetitive objects on the surface of other objects as shown in
the case of spines on the surface of a cactus in the figure below.

We used a system of hair-type particles, where we arranged the hair on

selected cactus nodes. These nodes were added to the same group of nodes,
which we then used to arrange the spines. For the spike, we modeled a
simple cone and used it in the particle system as an object representing
individual hair. We added random rotations relative to normal and
random sizes above the spines.

Smoke
The effect of smoke in Blender is basically determined by two objects: (1)
the object of origin, which determines the area from which the smoke will emanate, and (2) the
object of the smoke domain, which determines the area where the simulation will be calculated.

The source can be determined by volume, density and temperature difference. Smoke domains,
however, can determine the accuracy of the calculation, the density of the simulation. We can also
determine smoke parameters such as ignition rate, etc. The image below shows a simple example of
smoke and smoke with fire, where the origin is the head of a monkey and the smoke domain is a
cuboid.

52 | Ciril Bohak @ FRI | 3D modeling using Blender

Lecture 09
Animation

Overview
4. What is animation?
5. Animation basics
6. Animation curves
7. Animation pipeline

What is animation?
Animation is a technique of creating consecutive images or positions of objects in a scene with
which we achieve the illusion of continuous movement during the playback of the entire sequence.
Animation was basically developed as a sequence of 2D images that represent the temporal
sequence of the state of objects in an image. The same technique was later transferred to the 3D
environment.

In most cases, the animation does not imitate the real world, but emphasizes certain aspects and
thus further illustrates and emphasizes the actions that the characters are supposed to perform in
the world.

The 12 basic principles that a good animation must contain are most often highlighted:

1. Sqash and stretch - is the principle with which we additionally emphasize the deformation
of bodies in contact with solid surfaces;

2. Aniticipation - emphasizes the time when the object / individual is preparing to carry out
an action;

3. Staging - the individual performs actions so that viewers see them;

4. Straight ahead action and pose to pose are two different approaches to creating animation.
While in the first case we start from the initial state and develop it over time, in the second
case we determine the transition between the key states of objects / individuals;

5. Follow through and overlapping actions - are actions after the completed action and
overlapping actions that are performed simultaneously;

6. Slow in and slow out - all actions have a period of time when they go from sleep to motion
and then stop again. These time periods are further emphasized;

53 | Ciril Bohak @ FRI | 3D modeling using Blender

 7. Arc motion - most real-world movements are illustrated as curve motion, rarely do objects /
specimens move completely straight in a certain direction;

8. Secondary actions - are actions that add additional details to the primary animation and
enliven them;

9. Timing - timing of the beginnings, ends and overlaps of individual actions and thus their
animations;

10. Exaggeration - often emphasizes the purpose of an individual's action in a particular scene;

11. Solid drawing - it is important to keep in mind that the specimens are in the 3D space and
to adapt them accordingly. This principle is greatly facilitated when the animation itself is
actually made in the 3D world;

12. Appeal charisma - individuals / objects should have charisma and try to attract the
viewer's attention in this way.

Animation basics
It makes sense to take into account the principles presented in the introduction when starting to
create your own animation in the Blender tool. Many of the principles listed, of course, do not
make sense in cases where we want to recreate what is happening in the real world in a completely
realistic way, or perhaps even simulate it. Nevertheless, the listed principles also come into play in
such cases as, for example, to animate the view, move the camera and switch between the
displayed events.

Blender has a customized user interface for animation purposes that already contains the most
commonly used views. To switch to it, select Animation in the information bar instead of the
default view. This divides the window as shown in the figure below.

54 | Ciril Bohak @ FRI | 3D modeling using Blender

The individual sections are:

● Display of key animation frames (Dope Sheet), where all key animation frames for the
selected object (s) are displayed;
● Curves (Graph Editor), which shows how the animated values of the selected object or.
facilities change by jumping time;
● 3D view where we have a standard view of the scene;
● Preview through the camera;
● Timeline.
Blender animation is based on the use of key frames, which means that we have to determine
which value takes which value at selected times.

Animation curves
Animation curves determine how animated values change between key frames (be it position,
rotation, or something else). Basically, the B-Splines are based on Bezier curves. The transition
curves can be edited in the F-Curve view, where we can change the shape of the curve for an
individual value and shift its key nodes.

Between individual nodes, instead of B-splices, we can also use another method of interpolation:

1. constant interpolation - discretely switches between individual values of key frames;

2. linear interpolation - performs linear interpolation between values;
3. Bezier interpolation - defines the Bezier curve between values;
4. Sinusoidal, square, cubic, quartic, quintic, exponential or circular approximation of values;
5. back, bounce or elastic extrapolation of values over certain values.

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Animation pipeline
The basic approach to animation consists of the following steps:

1. determine the key positions of objects on the timeline;

2. add dependent levels of animations that upgrade the basic animation;
3. determine the ways of transitions between individual states and adjust the curves;
4. we coordinate individual animations over time.

How to learn animation?

With a lot of practice. If we have already emphasized this in 3D modeling, this is all the more true
for animation. In order to achieve the correct chronology of actions and coordinate them with each
other, a lot of practice and comparisons with reference shots are required. Even with a simple
bounce of the ball from the ground, we will need quite some time to meet all 12 principles (or at
least most that make sense for a given case), and even more so for more complex animations. Try
e.g., make a simple walk cycle animation.

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Lection 10
Render to video

Overview
1. Video rendering

Video rendering

The rendering of the videos is related to the fact that we have animation in the scene. It is
pointless to portray a stationary scene in a video. For video rendering, you need to set the start
and end frames in the rendering settings. As with image rendering, you need to select the
resolution, calculator, and other details. In addition, it is necessary to choose to use video format
for the format and not image format. At this point, it should be noted that it is possible to replace
the default gray background of the image with some other color or with

Most often, FFmpeg video is used to represent the video, for which we can additionally set the
encoding parameters in the Encoding section. By default, the Matroska container, H.264 medium
output quality and speed format with key frames every 18 frames is used.

For better output, we can further adjust these parameters and thus improve the quality of the
rendered video. By default, the video is rendered in a temporary folder, which it makes sense to
replace with the folder where we want to save the video.

57 | Ciril Bohak @ FRI | 3D modeling using Blender