PubAd Rumki Basu

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
An Introduction to Concepts and Theories
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Public Administration
An Introduction to Concept and Theories
RUMki BASU
(S
***^/Ar' G-
£%
STERLING PUBLISHERS PRIVATE LTD

NEW DELHI-110016 BANGALORE-560001
" I
To
my parents
for
their continuing support and guidance
PREFACE
The present reformulation of undergraduate course in Public

Administration by the University of Delhi has inspired me to write
this book. The syllabi of Public Administration in most Indian
universities stress the formal institutions of government, and struc¬
ture of administration, making the subject too legalistic and
descriptive. Administrative and institutional behaviour and pro¬
cesses have been either completely ignored or under-emphasized in
the teaching of the subject. It is small wonder, therefore, that
teachers often find it difficult to create or sustain the interest of
students in this paper, which compared to other papers in Political
Science appears rather dry and boring. Besides, the syllabi in most
universities failed to incorporate the latest worldwide developments
in the theory and practice of the growing discipline of public
administration. The entire study of public administration was res¬
tricted to the teaching of the administrative institutions of India
and the Western world mainly the UK and the USA.
Therefore, a revision of existing courses to bring them in tune
with continuing developments in the discipline and also to shift the
old perspective of teaching Public Administration seemed impera¬
tive. Delhi University’s effort at pioneering this course reformula¬
tion in the existing circumstances was a bold attempt and is to be
welcomed, as a step in the right direction. The new course in the
University incorporates all the new developments in the discipline
and supplements the study of Western administrative systems with
that of others. The Indian administrative system has now to be
studied from a Third World perspective. Study of the administra¬
tive systems of the Soviet Union and China have also been
included with special attention to their specificcharactcristics which
distinguish them from Western models of administration. The new
course is a blend of the old and the new, study of the structure ol
administration as well as its processes and behavioural aspects.
The book has been written to cater to the academic require¬
ments of undergraduate students, to give them not merely a
preliminary understanding of the subject, but to enable them to
cultivate a deeper interest in the vast and growing literature on
Public Administration. I would consider my efifort worthwhile and
rewarding if I can make my student-readers, for whom the book is
primarily intended, realize that Public Administration is not just
Vlll PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
a storehouse of dry facts but is an all prevasive affair, a continuous

ongoing process of action and interaction between each one of us
and the environment in which we live. Public Administration
not only ensures the daily life of the individual and the commu¬
nity to run smoothly, it is much more, in developing societies, like
ours ; it is an essential instrument of social change, economic
progress and human welfare. I have given ample examples from
the Indian situation in every chapter of the book to enhance the
students’ comprehension and understanding.
While my debts, both general and specific, are many in a ven¬
ture of this sort, I accept the sole responsibility for any errors of
fact or interpretation that might have inadvertently, crept into the
first edition of this book. I would welcome suggestions from every
quarter, specially from students and colleagues for improving the
book in subsequent editions.
Finally, I would like to thank Dr. (Mrs.) Sita Srivastava,
Principal. Maiireyi College, for giving every possible help to enable
me to prepare extensive leaching material for my students. I have
gained immensely from continuous discussions with my colleague,
Mrs. Vimla Dutta, who collaborated with me at every stage in the
initial teaching of this course in the College. It was while pre¬
paring teaching material for this new course that the idea of writing
this book was born.
My thanks are also due to Prof. R.B. Jain, Prof. Manoranjan
Mohanty and Dr. (Mrs.) Noorjahan Bava of the Department of
Political Science (University of Delhi), for their lectures on
selected aspects of the new course to those who were teaching the
indebted to Prof. M P. Singh and Prof,
fu- f Kaushik of the Political Science Department,
Delhi University, for their lieip and active encouragement which
was a great source of inspiration for getting this book published.
I have benefited a lot from discussions with colleagues teaching
this paper at Janki Devi College and also teachers of Public
Adminis ration elsewhere. It would be impossible to record my
>ndividually. I would also like to express ray
Pnh?-'^ Managing Director, Sterling
nnh primarily responsible for getting this book
published m the shortest possible time.
nrnnInT?l?''''^n cooperatioD in
eratefuUo^tb’^^V h"^ typing of the entire manuscript. I am alSo
AHmiW Indian Institute of Public
Administration for thor help and assistance.
u express my deepest gratitude to mv
husband Dr. Sankar Basu, for with his constant support, endurance
and encouragement the book was finally written.
RUMKI BASU
CONTENTS
Preface
^-/PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
A discipline and profession; Meaning and scope ; Evolution and
growth ; Approaches —past and present ; Challenges in colonial
societies ; Challenges in industrial Societies ; Socio*economic
challenges in the Third World ; Features of development adminis¬
tration.
■Ôrganisation and development

Alternative theories ; Public and private administration ; A private
business firm (joint stock company) ; Scientihe management ;
Classical theory ; Comparison between classical theory and human
relations theory ; Bureaucratic theory ; Weberian model of bureau¬
cracy and development administration.
3. ADMINISTRATION. POLITY AND SOCIETY

Interaction with historical and political legacies ; The Indian
situation ; Interaction with traditional structures and culture ;
Impact of political system ; Situation in developing countries ;
Relationship of ministers and civil servants: Interaction between
administrative and economic systems ; An integrated perspective ;
The Riggsian model ; an ecological approach.
4. STRUCTURE OF ADMINISTRATION
Line staff and auxiliary agencies ; Departments ; Boards and com¬
missions ; Public enterprises ; Public corporations in India ; Public
corporations in UK : Public corporations in USA ; Public enter¬
prises in the Soviet Union ; Public enterprises in China ; Staff
agencies In Inda, UK. USA, USSR, and China.
.^^PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN INDIA. SOVIET

UNION AND CHINA
India ; The Soviet model of administration ; China.
6. PUBLIC POLICY
Significance ; Factors determining policy formirl.aiions Conceptua
approaches to policy making ; The official policy makers : Policy
formulations in India ; Need for policy evaluation
X PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
7. PUBLIC MANAGEMENT 194

The concept of career civil service ; Recruitment of civil service
personnel ; Recruitfnent system in India ^JJIcaioiDg ; Training for
development administrators in the ThLpa World ; ^rpffiotion, x
Performance appraisal in India ; Bud^t; CoordinauCn ; Del^^
gation ; Decentralisation ; Issues in field headquarters relationship.
8. ADMINISTRATION AND PEOPLE 252

Criteria of successful administration ; Attaining democratic and
socialistic goals ; People’s participation in India ; Public accounta¬
bility ; Judicial remedies for law suits against government and
officials ; Corruption.
Select Bibliography 288

Index 291
I
A DISCIPLINE AND A PROFESSION
Meaning and Scope

Public administration is the management of affairs of the
government at all levels national, state and local. It is a branch
of the wider field of administration. The term administration has
w ” defined by dilTerenl writers. In the words of
Marx* “Administration is determined action taken in pursuit of
a conscious purpose. It is the systematic ordering of affairs and
the calculated use of resources aimed at making those things
which one wants to happens. According to J.M Pfijfner.
Administration is the organization and direction of human and
material resources to achieve desired ends”.^ Therefore the two
essentials of administration are : (i) cooperative effort, and (ii)
pursuit of common objectives.
Public administration is any kind of administration in the
public interest which, in other words, has simply come to mean
governmental administration. Administration of private enterprises
IS known as private administration.
There arc many views regarding the scope and range of
activities to be included in public administration. Some thinkers
take a broader view and include all governmental activities having
tor their purpose, the fulfilment of public policy, while others
take a narrow view and consider only those activities concerned
with^ the executive branch of the government as part of public
administration.
The definitions given by important ihinkcrs reveal the
emphasis they lay on ditferenl aspects of public administration.
I- F.M. Marx (ed.), Elemems of Public Adimnisiraiion, Prcniice-Ha!l of

India, New Delhi, 1964, p. 4.
2. Pfiflfocr and Presthus, Public Administration , The Ronald Press Co., New
York, I960, p. 3.
2
There are some who equate the sphere of activity of public
administration with the implementation of law and public policy.
L.D. White observes;^ “Public administration consists of all those
operations having for their purpose the fulfilment or enforcement
of public policy”. Similarly, according to NVoodrow Wilson,
public administration is detailed and systematic application of
law. In the words of Dimock, “Public Administration is the
fulfilment or enforcement of public policy as declared by the
competent authorities. . . . Public administration is law in action.
It is the executive side of government”.^ There are writers like
Simon who define the scope of public administration in such a
way as to make it coincide with the activities of the executive or
administrative branch only. Thinkers like Pfiffner lay more
emphasis on the coordinating role of administration. In his
opinion administration consists of “getting the work of government
done by coordinating the efforts of the people so that they can
work together to accomplish their set tasks”.^ F.A. Nigro’s
definition is a more comprehensive one, which also includes
besides the above mentioned aspects, the relationship between
public administration and the political and social systems as well.
Nigro has defined public administration in the following words
Public administration
(a) is cooperative group effort in a public setting;
(b) covers all three branches—executive, legislative and
judicial—and their interrelationships;
(c) has an important role in the formulation of public policy
and is thus a part of the political process;
(d) is more important than, and also different in significant
ways from private administration;
(e) as a field of study and practice has been much influenced
in recent years by the human relations approach;
(f) is closely associated with numerous private groups and
individuals in providing services to the community.
Public administration is the non-political bureaucratic
machinery of the government for implementing its laws and
policies in action, e.g., the collection of revenues, maintenance of
law and order, running the railways and postal services, maintain¬
ing an army, running schools and hospitals. These are all acts of
3. L.D. White, Introduction to the Study of Public Administrotion, Macmillan

Co., New York, 1955, p. 1.
4. Marshall, E. Dimock. "The Study of Administration", American Political
Science Review, Feb. 1937, pp. 31-32.
5. J.M. Public Adminisn at ion, I960, p. 6.
?olk Administration, Harper and Row, New
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION : A DISCIPLINE 3
public administration. Public administration operates within a

pomical context. It is a means by which the policy decisions
made by the political decision makers are carried out. “Public
administration is decision-making, planning the work to be done
formulating objectives and goals, working with the legislative and
citizen organizations to gain public support and funds for govern¬
ment programmes, establishing and revisingorganizations. directing
and supervising employees, providing leadership, communicating
and receiving communications, determining work methods and
procedures, appraising performance, exercising controls, and other
functions performed by government executives and supervisors.
It is the action part ot government, the means by which the
purposes and goals of government are realised”.’
To summarize, these definitions identify public administration
with :
1. the formulation and implementation of public policies;
2. the executive branch of government;
3. organisational structures and machinery of administration;
4. administrative processes;
5. bureaucracy and its activities;
6. coordination of group activity or social relationship;
and
7. interaction between organisations and their environment.
Evolution and Growth

Public administration as an' activity is as old as civilization
but public administration as an academic discipline is not even a
hundred years old. This, however, does not mean by implication
that thinkers in earlier ages had never said anything significant
about public administration. Functioning of the governmental
machinery has attracted the attention of scholars and ad¬
ministrators since the earliest periods of history. Kautilya’s
ArihasasirOy the Mahabharata, the Ramayana and the maxims and
teachings of Confucius in the realm of Oriental thought contain
many profound observations about the organisation and working
of government. In the history of western political thought.
Aristotle^s Politics and Machiavelli's The Prince arc important
contributions to administrative thought and practice.
However, scattered thoughts do not constitute a discipline and
whatever administrative knowledge can be gleaned from recorded
history reveals the fact that public administration was considered
a pan of political economy, military organization and reiicious
practice.
7. John J. Corson and Joseph P. Harris,/’«/>//(• Administration in Modfrn

Society, McGraw Hill, 1963, p. 12.
4 PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
“Only when governments could be differentiated from other

societal institutions and their activities developed to the point
where professional administrators were indispensable for their
effective performance, could modern public administration emerge.
The term public administration began to creep into European
languages during the seventeenth century to distinguish between
the absolute monarch’s administration of public affairs and his
management of his private household. The contemporary discipline
arose out of the bureaucratization of the nation-state when the
church was separated from the state and government was
superimposed on all other societal institutions within a definite
territory”.®
Modern public administration was first taught as a part of

the training course of public officials-on-probation in Prussia. The
subject was largely compiled and taught in a descriptive manner by
professors of cameral sciences, which then included all knowledge
considered necessary for the governance of an absolutist state.
The cameralist approach continued to influence European studies
in public administration well into the twentieth century, until it
was replaced by the administrative law and legal studies approach.
Ideologically cameralism gave way to liberalism and socialism,
and authoritarianism gave way to bureaucracy. Civil ser\'ice
recruits had to study administrative law and gradually all over
Europe public service training schools started offering courses on
administrative law.
In English speaking countries with emphasis on generalist
administrators circumstances were unfavourable for the emergence
of a discipline of public administration. Special preparatory
courses were not required for training the new recruits in a
majority of services except the highly technical ones. The scope
of government administration was traditionally lower than in
Europe and administration was considered more of an experimental
art rather than a subject to be taught theoretically.
With the expansion of governmental functions, the need for
training practitioners in the art of public administration was felt
The study of public administration began in the United States
which led to its acceptance as a full-fledged discipline. Hence
the evolution of the subject will be traced here lareelv in the
context of the United States.
.c functions public administration

as an activity became highly diversified, complex and specialised.
There was a growing need for better management of public affairs
8.
Sf/™ Calden. The Dynamics of Public Aclministration • Guidelines to
Holt:-rS'S'"'s
5
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION I A DISCIPLINE
throuah scientific investigations into governmental functioning and

specialised training of public servants in the USA. An essay by
Woodrow Wilson in 1887 symbolised the beginning of what was
later to be an autonomous academic field of inquiry.
Many factors ha\c contributed towards the growth of the
study of public administration in the USA as a separate
academic discipline in the present century.
Firstly, the development of modern sciences and technology
made an impact on the life of the people and the functioning ol
the government. From the later half of ilie 19th century
industrialization gave birth to large-scale organisations with
complex problems of coordination and cooperation. Rapid
technological developments created large scale social dislocations
which made state intervention imperative and desirable. Hence
scholars came to pay increasing time and attention to the problems
of organization and management.
Secondly, the Scientific Management movement founded by
F.W. Taylor which began in the USA towards the end ol the I9th
century, gave great impetus to the study of public adminisiratiom
Taylor’s ideas had a revolutionary impact not only in the Ub
but throughout the world. His main thesis was that all "'ork
processes are separable into units; the efficacy ol each unit can be
tested and improved; the techniques can be extended upwards in
every organization, making industries and governments, even
societies, more efficient and rational.
A third factor which significantly helped in the growth of the
subject of public administration was the gradual evolution of the
concept of welfare state. The philosophy of slate functions every¬
where has now decisively shifted from the traditional notion ol
/omez/fl/re to that of social welfare. The welfare movement has
tremendously enlarged the scope of governmental functions, and
administration, since public administration has become the chief
instrument of social welfare.
Lastly, the movement for governmental reform gathered
momentum in the USA from the early years of the present
century when intellectual efforts were systematically made lor the
steady development and growth of an autonomous and specialised
field of knowledge based on the structure and functioning ot
public administration. TIic quality of public services was poor
and left much to be desired. The ‘spoils system’ of recruitment
had led to considerable corruption and nepotism m appointments.
Public finances were disorganized, and frequent scandals concern¬
ing public officials had caused great damage to their image. A
this culminated in an insistent demand for administrative relorn
in the US. It was against this background of the reform
mcnl that the emerging discipline of public adminislralion in inc
USA took shape.
6 PUBtiC ADMINISTRATION
The evolution of public administration as an academic

discipline falls into a number of critical stages. The first stage
which begins with the publication of Woodrow Wilson’s “The
Study of Administration” in 1887 can be called the era of
politics-administration dichotomy. Wilson is considered the
founder of the academic discipline of public administration.
Making a distinction between politics and administration, be
argued that administration is concerned with implementation of
political policy decisions. Another notable event of the period
was the publication of Goodnow’s Politics and Administration
in 1900, which endorsed the Wilsonian theme further by
conceptually distinguishing the two functions. According to him,
“Politics has to do with policies or expressions of the state will”,
whereas “Administration has to do with the execution of these
policies”.® Apart from this, the institutional location of these
two functions were differentiated. The location of politics was
identified with the legislature and higher levels of the government
where major policy decisions were taken. The location of
administration was identified w’ith the executive branch of the
government and the bureaucracy.
In the early years of the present century, the impact of the
reform movement in the US government permeated American
universities, thus popularizing the study of public administration.
As a result of the Taft Commission Report in the USA the
Federal Budget and Accounting Act was passed in 1921, creating
the Bureau of the Budget and institutionalising public administra¬
tion in a big way. State governments in the US began to appoint
commissions to study bureaucratic structure and organization,
lcgislali\e-excculive relationship, budgetary problems and propo¬
sals for better personnel administration.
1 he interaction between the government and the universities
increased. In a report published in 1914, the American Political
Science Association declared that one of the objectives of
teaching political sc.ence was to prepare specialists for govern¬
mental positions. Thus the study of public administration gained
^‘■'^^'Snilion in American universities. In 1926, Leonard
D Vynte wrote Introduction to the Study of Public Administration
which was recognised as the first textbook on the subject. This
book, while advocating a politics-administration dichotomy,
stressed the human side of administration, dealing compre-
hcnsivcK vNjtli cidniinistrution in government
The second stage of evolution is marked by the tendency to

rcH krcc , ,c .dea of poli.ics-administra.ion dichotomy and lo
L\oI\c a\aluc free science ol management’. The central belief of
this period was that there arc certain •principles- of administration
'''■ .'./mmirrornca. New York, Macmillan.

PUBLIC administration : A DISCIPLINE 7
which was ihe task of scholars to discover and advocate. W.F.

Willoughby’s Principles of Public Administration (1927) first
ushered in this new theme. Other important works of this period
stressing this approach were Principles of Organisation by Mooney
and Reiley, Creative Experience by Mary Parker Folleit, Fayol’s
Industrial and General Management and Papers on the Science of
Public Administration by Gulick and Urwick. The main reason lor
this upsurge of interest in administration, at least in the USA
was that following the catastrophic years of the Great Depression
in the thirties, the functions of the government had so rapidly
multiplied that there were not enough skilled government personnel
to fill in the welfare departments newly created under the New
Deal. Therefore, schools of public administration were esta¬
blished to quickly train as many men and women as-.possible, in
the techniques of administration.
The main difference between the protagonists ol the politics-
administration dichotomy of the first and second stages in the
evolution of the discipline is that, while the early thinkers hke
Wilson and Charles Beard emphasized the legal and constitutional
aspects, the new school of scientific management protagonists in
the second period, emphasized a purely scientific approacli to the
study of public administration. So, while the earlier emphasis on
ihe dichotoiny of politics und adminisiraiion was retained in llie
second stage of evolution, the techniques of study shifted from
legal to scientific forms (c.g., work flow studies, time and motion
studies, organizational charts etc.) Empirical studies were under¬
taken to find a scientifically accurate method of organizing human
relationships in large scale organizations ‘the one best way to
achieve a desirable level of organizational efliciency and economy.
With the help of scientific management methods, the leaders of
public administration tried to discover certain principles ol public
administration which could be of universal applicability.
Luther and Gulick coined the word POSDCORB'® to promote
some of these principles of administration. POSDCORB stands for
Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing. Coordinating. Reporting
and Budgeting. These maxims of administration were said to be
of universal applicability in all organizations.
The third stage began with a reaction against this mechanical
approach. The so-called ‘principles’ of administration were
challenged and dubbed as ‘naturalistic fallacies’ and ‘proverbs.
Meanwhile scientific maiiagemcnt in industry was also undergoing
a broadening and humanizing process in response to insistent
social needs and forces. The most notable contribution, in this
connection, came from the famous Hawthorne experiments in the
10. GulieV and Urwick (cds). Papers on the Science of Puhlic Aiiniiiii.urativn.
Inslituic of Public Adminisiraiion, New York, 1937.
8 PUBLIC ADMINISTRAlidN
late 1920’s carried out by a group of scholars at the Hawthorne

Plant of the Western Electric Company. The experiments which
focused upon work groups, shook the foundations of scientific
management school by clearly demonstrating the powerful
influence of social and psychological factors on the worker’s out¬
put. This approach to organisational analysis drew attention to
the effect of informal organisation in the formal set-up, the
phenomena of leadership and influence, and impact of conflict and
cooperation among groups in the organisational environment.
By pointing out the limitations of the ‘machine* concept of
organisational thought, it revealed the vital importance of human
relations in organisations. Chester Barnard published the Func¬
tions of the Executive in 1953 and Organisation and Management a
decade later, in which he stressed the psychological and behaviou¬
ral factors in organisational analysis. Jn 1954, Peter Drucker wrote
the Practice of Management in which he emphasized long range
planning and human relations in industry and government.
The fourth stage was ushered in by two significant publica¬
tions in the forties—Simon’s Administrative Behaviour and Robert
Dahl’s essay entitled “The Science of Public Administration; Three
Problems”. Simon's approach widened the scope of the subject by
relating it to psychology, sociology, economics and political
science. He rejected both the classical “principles” of administra¬
tion and the ‘politics-administration dichotomy’ in administrative
thought and practice. Simon’s" was one of the first books in the
behavioural field, wherein he argued that all of administration
revolves around nitionality and decision-making. In the develop¬
ment ot the discipline, Simon identified two mutually supportive
streams of thought. One was engaged in the development of a
pure science of administration which required a solid base in social
psychology. Another stream was concerned with the normative
aspects of administration and prescription for public policy. The
second approach would require a broad understanding of political
science, economics and sociology as well. Simon favoured the
co-existence of both the approaches, empirical and normative, for
the growth and development of the discipline of public
administration. ^
Dahl’s'2 essay identified three important problems in the

evolution of the science ol public administration :
f . impossibility of excluding normative consideration
from the problems of public administration. Values inevitably
permeate administration \\ liilc science is Nalue-free ^
GrowcIJ, Collier and Macmillan,
I'ublic Administration : Three Problems”,

i i‘olic Adimmstrauon Review 1 {19^1)^ l.\l **ncc
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION : A DlSCIPLlNt 9
(ii) The second problem arises from the inescapable fact that
the study of administration must include a study of human heiia-
viour, which is open to all possible variables and uncertainties
making it impossible to subject it to the rigours of scientific
enquiry.
(iii) The tendency to enunciate universal principles based on
a few examples drawn from limited national and historical sellings.
The last point has been taken up as a challenge and consi¬
derable efforts have been made to study comparative public
administration with special emphasis on the developing countries.
The fifth stage in the evolution of the discipline was marked by
strenuous efforts to build a new and theoretically rigorous science
of administration. Some of the other characteristics of this period
are as follows.
Administration came to be viewed increasingly as a unit in
the process of continuous interaction between the people inside and
outside the organisation at any given period ot lime, e.g. some
theorists developed the notion that the state of an organisation at
a given moment is an equilibrium between, say. the demands of
the clients for certain services, of the employees or officers for
income, security, status and satisfaction in work, and of the
leaders, controllers, or citizens, or shareholders, for the achieve¬
ment of the goals nominally set down for the organisation, such
as profits, lax revenue or land regulathm. The significance of this
view is that these last organisational goals arc not, ns in the
traditional approach, regarded the ultimate justification for its
operations, they are considered in combination with other equally
legitimate aims of all the groups concerned, and even with another
goal, the survival and expansion of llic organisation itself.
Secondly, separate studies of public an«] private business
administration tended to merge into a single science of organisa¬
tion, whose theories and concepts were to be equally applicable to
both private and public administration. Organization theory
experienced a remarkable growth in the post-war era. Its findings
concerning organizational dynamics, small-group behaviour, com¬
munications, leadership patterns, decision making, open systems
and human relations etc. are highly relevant to public administra¬
tion. New insights in administration also came from management
sciences and cybernetics theories.
Thirdly, the increasing use of the systems and behavioural
approaches encouraged the comparative study of administrative
systems, in diverse social settings and environments. New perspec¬
tives were badly needed and the impetus for study ol comparative
public administration and development administration, (a relatively
unknown field before the Second World War) came trom great
power competition, iiilcrnational liumaniiariunism, and appeals
for help from newly independent states.” In the transference of

western administrative knowhow to the developing countries,
western administrative concepts were found to be inadequate and
culture-bound. The result was a questioning of the traditional
framework of public administration and its universal applicability.
It was to fill in these gaps that F.W. Riggs'^ pioneered a new
administrative vocabulary to describe different societal typologies,
administrative cultures and systems.
Fourthly, with the ushering in of the computer age attempts
were made to understand the decision making, and problem
solving processes of the human mind with the help of computers
and other mechanical aids. In his book, The New Science of
Afanagemeni, Simon tries to assess some of the effects of this new
science. According to him, machines will be able to replace human
labour in various spheres of work in the years to come though not
in the most economical manner. With increasing scientific and
technical knowledge at his disposal man will come to possess more
political power of control over his fellow human beings.
The final stage of the evolution of public administration
coincides with a general concern in the social sciences for public
policy analysis. The emphasis can be generally noted as a post-
World War II phenomenon, led by important scholars from public
administration and political science. This approach was built upon
two basic themes :
(a) the interpenetration of politics and administration at

many levels ; and
(b) the programmatic character of all administration.
These themes directed attention in public administration
towards political or policy making processes and specific public
programmes. Like many other disciplines in social sciences—public
administration was also shaken and infiuenced by the social
turbulence and crisis-ridden period of the sixties. Since 1968, the
evolving discipline of public administration has come to be en¬
riched by the emergence of what has come to be known as the
‘New Public Administration*. The major landmarks in the growth
and emergence of New Public Administration are :
(i) The Honey Report on Higher Education for Public Service,
1967, in U.S.A.
(ii) The Philadelphia Conference on the Theory and Practice
of Public Administration, 1967, in U.S.A.
(iii) The Minnowbrook Conference, 1968, in U.S.A.
F W. R\sgsT/ie Ecolopy of P„hlic Ad/nmisiration, Asia Publishing

House. BomKay. 1961. ^
PUBLIC ADMINISIRATION ; A DISCIPLINE 11
(iv) Publication of Toward a new Tublic Adminislraiion: The

Minnowbrook Perspectixe, edited by Frank Marini, 1971 ;
(v) ?\xh\\Qdi\\or\ oi Public Administration in a Time of Turbu¬
lence edited by Dwight Waldo, 1971.
Some of the features of the new public administration may
briefly be discussed as follows
(a) It is anti-positivist in more than one sense. It rejects a
definition of public administration as ‘value-free’.
(b) It rejects a rationalist and determinative view of mankind.
(c) It also rejects a politics administration dichotomy.
(d) It is anti-bureaucratic and anti-hierarchical.
(e) It is anti-mechanistic in its approach to organizational
problems, rejecting the over-emphasis on the ‘machine’
and the ‘system’.
New public administration tiierefore is marked by the above
anti-goals. It displays an intense concern for relevant societal
problems. It stresses ethics and values, innovation and social
equality. It lays great emphasis on human relations, a creative
approach to administration and social change. The study of formal
organisation, its structure and processes is ol secondary importance
to the new theorists. The most important need of the limes is to
be alive to the contemporary social and political issues and pro¬
blems with a view to finding ways and means for their solution.
And to have organisational changes to suit the changing times.
Therefore, to achieve its objectives, the new public administration
should have the following characteristics :
(i) Increasing orientation towards changing reality.
(ii) Influence policies which can improve the quality of
working life, as well as have competence to implement
such policies.
(iiij More oriented towards measuring the impact ot laws on
citizens rather than resting content with their mechanical
application.
(iv) More normative and less neutral.
The foregoing discussion amply proves that public adminis¬
tration has come a long way since 1887. It has established us
credentials as an autonomous field of enquiry, with an ever
expanding literature and concerns which have greatly influenced its
evolution as an academic discipline. Scholars of public adminis¬
tration have sought to borrow a lot from other disciplines, maKuig
Robert T. Gobmbiewski. Public Adminisiraiion As a Deve lopitig Discipline,

Marcel, Dckker. Inc., New York, 1947, pp. 8-24.
12 ptJBLic administration
it truly inter-disciplinary in nature. Organizational dynamics also

draws heavily on the management sciences. Public administration
has faced both empirical and normative thrusts from time to time.
It has also incorporated much new developments from the field of
policy sciences.
Though public administration is not even a hundred years old,
it has been marked by a growing output of literature mostly
originating in the USA where the federal systems of govern¬
ment, a relatively open social system, and rapid technical change
provide fertile spawning beds for reform movements and
experimentation.
However, it must be pointed out that there is a close relation¬
ship between administrative theories and concepts on the one hand,
and the cultural and technological changes of the society in which
they develop, on the other. In the field of public administration, for
example, the early period of politics and administration dichotomy
was a logical reaction to the nepotism and corruption in the then
prevailing administrative culture of the US which led to much
deterioration in the standard and efficacy of public services.
Later empliasis on human relations coincided with the rise of trade
unions and the manpower shortages of the 40’s. With the advent
of the scientific and technological revolution in the West, the social
and technological changes in the atomic and computer ages,
reflected in the rigid cftbrls at mathematical exactness demands of
later behaviouralism, and systems analysis in the contemporaneous
literature of public administration. Recently the concern for social
equity, comparative study ot administrative systems and emphasis
on the developmental goals ol Third World administration coincides
will) a renewed acceptance of values and normative theory as basic
features ot the new public administration. In brief, the entire
cvtfluiion and changing character of public administration has
reflected in the changing character of technology and the social
associated therewith in the administration
ol different societies.
Approaches ; Past and Present
Since 1887 tliere have been different approaches to the study

of public adniinisiraiion when this subject as a separate academic
diciphne was born. The traditional approaches concentrated on the
formal legal and institutional aspects of organisations. The methods
employed m the study were mainly historical and descriptive The
major concerns ol the older literature on administration^ were the
^^‘‘I'liistraiion, the adminis-
or functions of public administra¬
tors. riiL HLW approaches which mainly appeared after World War
II came as a reaction to the older approaches.
IlhtorU-,,! Ann-each : The historical approach is essentially based
PU8UC ADMINISTRATION : A DISCIPLINE 13
on the belief that knowledge of history is absolutely essential for

an indepth study of any subject. For a proper understanding ol
the subject the study of public administration of the past in parti¬
cular periods is necessary to link up with the present administrative
systems. For example, for a proper understanding of the back¬
ground and growth of administration in India, a historical perspec¬
tive is essential. To understand the evolution of the administrative
system in India, the characteristics of British Indian Administration
and also the pre-British period have to be studied. White's two
volumes, The Federalists The Jeffersonians (19.’'1). are
important studies of the federal administration of the USA
during the early years of the Republic. Biographical and autobio¬
graphical studies are also closely related to the historical approach
In Europe and America reminiscences of ex-administrators reveal
many important facets of administrative processes. Several volumes
\n IhQ Rulers of India scucs and specialized studies dealing with
tenures of particular Governor Generals during the Briti'-h era, are
important to the study of Indian administration of these periods.
Legal Approach : Exponents this approach would like to
study public administration as part of law and concentrate on the
formal legal structure and organization ot public bodies. Its duct
concern has been with power—its structure and tunctions. Itsiiesses
the formal organisation of offices, official duties, limitations ot power
and discretionary authority of administrators. Its main sources are
constitutions, codes of law. office manuals of rules and regulations
and judicial decisions. Many countries of Europe like Germany.
Belgium and France have particularly applied the legal approach
to the study of public administration. In these countries there are
two principal divisions of law—constitutional and administrative.
Whereas constitutional law deals with the three main organisa¬
tions of the government, their interrelations and the distribution of
power among them, administrative law is mainly concerned with the
structure and functions of public bodies, departments and authori¬
ties. The legal approach is valuable for the understanding of the
legal framework within which the administrative system has to
operate, but by neglecting the informal forces operating in tlie
organization (the sociological and psychological variahles), it
remains to a great extent an incomplete approach to ti e study ol
public administration.
Institutional Approach : This approach tried to establish link¬
ages between the study of public administration and the institutions
of government. It approached the study of administration through
the study of the structure and functioning of separate institutions
and organisations of the state—such as the executive, the legisla¬
ture, the departments, government corporations, boards and
commissions. Scholars of this school defined the task of adminis¬
tration as non-political or technical which lay merely in the field ol
policy implementation. They were mainly advocates ol the politics-
administration dichotomy and their efforts were channelized

towards discovering ‘principles’ of public administration. However,
the majority of scholars of this approach like L. D. White and
Luther Gulick were content merely with description of institutional
structures without any attempt at theory building. This is essentially
descriptive though attempts have been made by some thinkers to
combine normative elements with the descriptive. Some of these
have not only described the institutions but also suggested ideas
for reform, where necessary.
Among the older approaches the scientific management
approach, the classical approach and the human relations approach
may also be included. These three approaches have been discussed
in the next chapter. Among the current new approaches we shall
include the behavioural, systems, structural-functional and the
ecological approaches to the study of public administration.
Behavioural Approach : Modern behaviouralism which develon-
ed in the late 30’s and 40’s of this century is mainly concerned
with the scientific study of human behaviour in diverse social
environments It started as a protest against traditional, historical,
normative and largely descriptive approaches, in the social sciences
In public administration behaviouralism as a distinct line of study
started in the J930 s with the Human Relations Movement and was
later developed by Chester Barnard.>5 Herbert Simon,i« and others
Simon observed that “administrative behaviour*’ is a part of the
behavioural sciences and the study of public administration should
involve the study of individual and collective human behaviour in
administrative
problems an interdisciplinary approach which includes sociology
social psychology and cultural anthropology. The behavioural
fcâm^res • ^^'"‘"'slrativc studies has the following salient
1. Its literature is descriptive, rather than prescriptive, with

the studies on motivation being an exception.
2. Increased attention is paid to the individual based on more
realistic research concerning motivation, decision-making
processes and the nature of authority. ^
3. Stress IS laid on informal relationships and communication
patterns among members of an organization.
4.
h emphasizes operational definitions of terms and empiri-
methods such as field study
laboratory experiments or use of other statistical methods!
Harvard University
16. Herbert Simon, Admmh,ra,ive Behaviour. Macmillan. New York. 1987.

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION : A DISCIPLINf- 15
5. It is chiefly though not exclusively concerned with

quantification, and forma! theory construction.
6. It is interdisciplinary in character, and makes consider¬
able use of propositions drawn from other social sciences.
In short, the behaviouralisls sought to adopt an integrated and

interdisciplinary approach, for, according to them all [luman
actions are motivated by social, economic, political, or psychologi
cal environment from which they come. This approach aims at
substituting empirical and realistic judgments for the purely vmuL-
oriented. It also emphasizes a scientific approach to the suidy ot
administrative problems and their solution.
The behavioural approach in public administration has ci\en
an additional impetus to scientific research and systematic theory
construction. The scholars in the field of public administration
have made “cross structural, cross-national and crO'^-culiural
studies of administrative behaviour. This has helped in the de\elop-
ment of knowledge of public administration in the comparative
context. In the field of comparative public administration Robert
Presthus and Michael Crozier*’have conducted empirical studies
of bureaucratic behaviour in different social and cultural perspec¬
tives. In India also a number of scholars have used behavioural
techniques in research like Pai Panandikar. Kuldecp Mathur,
Ramashray Roy. ShantI Kothari. C.P. Bhambhri*"*. Contem¬
porary research in administrative behaviour has been classified by
Herbert Simon as follows :
(i) The study of bureaucracy ; (Robert Merton, Peter Rian
and others using and extending upon the Weberian Model):
(ii) Human relations pertaining to motivation and increasing
job satisfaction (Chris Argyris, Warren Bennis and others):
(iii) Motivation studies using the Barnard Simon Equilibrium
Model; and
(iv) Decision making studies emphasizing primarily cognitive
processes and the rational components of administrative
behaviour. ”
17. Robert Presihus, “Behavionr and Bureaucr.ncy in M;iny Culuircs*’.

Public Administraiiun Review , XIX (1959) pp. 25-35; Michael C ro/ici.
The Bureaucratic Phenoruenon, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
1964.
18. Pai Panandikar has made an empirical analysis of values and bebasiotirs
of India’s dcvciopmenlal adminisirators; Roy and Koihari have mad ? an
empirical study of the relationship between politicians anu adminisirators
of a UP district, Kuldcep Mathur has studied the background,
approaches and values of Sub-divisional Dcselopmcnt Cllicers ol UP and
Rajasthan, and C.P. Bhambhri has studied li e l'cha\iciii;'l patterns of
IAS officers.
19. Ramesh K. Arora, Comparative Public Admini^-tioiiou : An Ecological
Perspective, Associated Publishing House, New Delhi, 1979, p. 16.
The behavioural approach has been criticised for being of

limited utility in the analysis of all types of administrative pheno¬
mena. It is contended that the study of man as a social animal,
though in itself praiseworthy, cannot be considered a part of the
administrative sciences unless the resulting knowledge is particularly
applicable to the ‘administrative man*. Moreover, the behavioural
sciences, it is maintained, appear to be largely valid and appli¬
cable to small social groups, whereas the study of public adminis¬
tration deals with larger communities. Secondly, the total exclusion
of values from a study of administrative problems and phenomena
will make the study of public administration rather sterile and
irrelevant to the vital issues of the modern age. Human values,
needless to say, are not directly quantifiable or observable to the
degree that physical phenomena are, or can be.
The behavioural approach, therefore, appears to be of limited
relevance in dealing with all types of administrative problems and
their solution, since the complexity and variability of human
nature, motivations and behaviour preclude the attainment of
precision that is so characteristic of the physical sciences. Value-
oriented or normative problems and issues of organisation
cannot really be explained or interpreted in terms of the
behavioural approach.
Systems Approach : One of the most significant landmarks in
the evolution of organization theory is the development of general
systems concept for organizational analysis. The origin of general
systems is traced to the thinking of the biologist Von BertalanfTy,
in the twenties. But it was only due to the quest of a number
of post-World War 11 scholars for a body of concepts lending
unity to studies, undertaken in various disciplines, that the concept
of‘system’ was developed. In short, general systems theory
originated in a movement aimed at the unification of science and
scientific analysis. The term ‘system’ has been defined as a
complex whole, a set of connected things or parts. According to
this approach in organizational analysis, an organization can be
considered a social system to be studied in its totality. In other
words, a system is a collection of interrelated parts which receives
inputs, acts upon them in an organized or planned manner and
thereby produces certain outputs.
There is a growing trend to place all types of organisations
within the broad framework of general systems theory. A system
is seen as an assembly of interdependent parts (sub-systems) who
interact among themselves. Interdependence implies that a change
in one part influences other parts, ultimately aflTecting the entire
system. Individuals are viewed as the basic unit of organisational
systems.
All human organisations are open sub-systems engaged in

transactions within the larger social system, that is, society. All
sub-systems receive inputs in the form of human and material

resources from the larger system, while giving out outputs in the
form of products, services or rewards to its members as well as
to the larger system.
Other features of organisational sub-systems arc they are
adaptive; they affect the larger system as well as are affected by
if they are dynamic in the sense that they undergo continuous
change as a result of interaction with other sub-systems within the
larger social system.
The chief contributor to systems analysis in organizational
theory is Herbert Simon. Simon views the organization as a total
system* a composite of all the sub-systems which serve to produce
the desired output. His basic assumption is that the elements ot
organizational structure and function emanate from the characteris¬
tics of human problem-solving processes and rational choice.^
Therefore, the organization is viewed as a system comprising
individuals making choices and behaving on the basis of their
reactions to their needs and environment.
The chief value of the systems approach lies in the systematic
search for significant interactions wnile evaluating policies or
actions of any organization. What systems analysts are set to
achieve is to predict the system's movements by interpreting tiie
relationships between its parts.
The systems approach is particularly relevant to the study of
large public organisations operating in larger social, political and
economic environments.
C. West Churchman^* draws attention to five basic considera¬
tions in relation to the systems approach to management :
1. The total objectives of the system and the measures of

system’s performance.
2.
The system’s environment acting as a constraint.
3.
The system’s resources that are put to use in performance.
4.
The system’s components and its goals and activities.
5.
The management of the system (the regulating and decision
making aspect).
The organisation has been conceived by many administrative
thinkers as a socio-technica! system comprising
and technical variables. It is not merely an assembly ol buildings,
money, machines and processes. The system consists m the
organisation of people around various icchnologies, whose
20. Herbert Simon and James March, Organizaiions, John Wiley and Sons,
NewYork, 1959, p. 169.
21. C. West Churchman, The Systems Approach, Dell. New York, l
motivation, behaviour and relationships determine both the

quality and quantity of its inputs and outputs.
As Miller and Rice put it: “Any enterprise may be seen as
an open system which has characteristics in common with a
biological organism. An open system exists, and can exist, only by
exchanging materials with its environment. It imports materials,
transforms them by means of conversion processes, consumes the
products of conversion for internal maintenance, and exports the
rest. Directly or indirectly, it exchanges its outputs for further
intake, including more resources to maintain itself. These import-
conversion-export processes are the work the enterprise has to do
if it is to live.“22
The systems approach to organisational analysis is now
widely used. This approach can take into account more variables
and interrelationships while looking at an organisational problem
in the framework of a larger system. Another important dimension
is the interaction between a system and its environment. The
underlying assumption of the systems approach is that there is a
continuous mutual interaction between the system and its environ¬
ment. This conceptualisation was to eventually become the
precursor of the ‘ecological* approach to organisational study.
Structural Functional Approach :TJie structural functional
approach as an analytical tool in the social sciences developed
from the work of the anthropologist Malinowski and Radcliffe
Brown in the early years of the present century. The important
followers of this approach are Gabriel Almond, David Apter,
Talcotl Parsons, Robert Merton and Fred Riggs. The two concepts
basic to the approach are structure and function. All social
structures exist to perform certain functions. While functions
concern the consequences of patterns of action, structures refer
to the patterns of actions and the resultant institutions of the
systems themselves.
The structural functional framework provides an important
mechanism for the analysis of different social processes. In
structural functionalism social structure is viewed as ‘any pattern
of behaviour which has become a standard feature of a social
system.* There may be ‘concrete’ structures (e.g. government
departments and bureaux) or ‘analytic’ (e.g. structure of authority
or power). All social structures perform some ‘functions’. In
structural functional terms, a ‘function’ involves ‘a pattern of
interdependence between two or more structures, a relationship
between variables. It refers to “any consequences of a structure in
so far as they affect other structures or the total system of which
22. E.J. Miller and A.K. K\cq, Systems Tavistock Publica¬

tions, London, 1976, p. 3.
they are a part.”^^

The structural functional categories presuppose a systems
framework. The experts can locate the structures they want to
analyse and their functions, e g. to analyse the working of
bureaucracy in any society it is first defined and identitled in
structural functional terms. Structurally bureaucracy is viewed as
an administrative system possessing features such ns hierarchy,
specialization, system of rules, and role specificity. The set of
behavioural characteristics identified with bureaucracy arc
rationality, impersonality, rule orientation and neutrality. However,
it may be clarified at the outset that there is no clear and direct
relationship between structures and functions. All similar structures
do not necessarily perform similar functions. A social structure
may perform multiple functions and similarly one function may
be performed by mere than one structure. Structural-functionalists
have helped to clarify the general miscon.'cption that similar
structures in diverse environments perform similar functions or
that absence of certain structures implies that particular functions
are not being performed in p.irticular social systems.
Notwithstanding the fact that structures aiid functions are
not uniform in all societies various scholars of this approach have
laid down what they consider certain necessary structural and
functional prerequisites for the emergence of a society. Though
various scholars have laid down dilTerent “prerequisites," these
requisite functions have been greatly helpful in the comparative
analysis of different social systems.
According to Riggs, there are five functional requisites of
any society. These arc economic, social, communicaiional,
symbolic and political.-^ He has applied these functional requisites
to the study of the administrative sub-system. Later he developed
his Agraria-Transitia-Industria Model for the comparative study
of administrative systems as a part of the wider social system.
Since then various other thinkers have adopted this approach
in comparative public administration. This approach has helped
to prove the vital points of diflcrencc between the administrative
culture and processes of the developing and developed societies.
Certain structures of developing societies, which though
apparently dysfunctional from the western point of view, may
proveto be functional in their own social or political milieu. In
developed societies, structures and functions may be relatively
difTerentiatcd and autonomous in operation, unlike developing
ones where functions may bedilfcrenliated, but the structures whicli
perform these functions arc rarely separate or distinct.
23. Ramesh K. Arora, Comparalive Public Ailrniuis/ration, Associated

Publishing House, New Delhi, 1979, p. 106.
24. F.W.. Riggs, "Trends in the Comparative Study of Administration”,
IRAS 28(1962).
20
Ecological Approach : Various scholars and administrators

have often referred to the need to relate public administration to
the environment in which it functions. ‘Ecology’ refers to the
mutual relations, collectively, between organism and their environ-
ment”. The ecological perspective in the study of public adminis¬
tration was introduced primarily through the writings of John
Gaus who first elaborated this approach in his Reflections of
Public Administration in 1945. Gaus advocated the concept of
relating government functions to the environment which included
such factors as people, situation, scientific technology, social
technology, wishes and ideas, catastrophe and personality. These
factors, he concluded, must be included in the ‘ecological study of
public administration.
The ecological approach assumes that administrative behaviour
is peculiarly moulded by the values of the administrative culture
in which it functions, the administrative culture in turn being an
outgrowth of the interaction of values and traits of the administra¬
tive system with the social system as a whole.
The ecological approach is further based on the idea that
an administrative system may not act as an independent variable
in all circumstances. It acts and reacts under the influence of
various sub-systems surrounding it. There is a great degree of
interdependence between all social organisations and their
ecological settings—which include among others topography,
population. level of physical and social technology and the inter¬
relationships and interactions between people and organisations.
Organisations, structures, procedures and goals are largely created
and changed as a result of the interaction between an organization
and its environment. Thus, if an organization is to survive it must
adapt itself to the changing needs and conditions of its external
environment which is continuously changing. In a highly industria¬
lised and developed society like the USA the system of government
and administration must not only cater to public needs and
demands, but also to the compulsions of the American economy.
The level of production and consumption of material goods is the
highest in the USA compared to any other country in the world.
Therefore, the administrative framework most favoured in that
country is a free market system through which Americans are
able to make free choices in production and consumption. A
capitalistic economy with a democratic system of minimum state
intervention and controls is what the Americans have found
suitable and that h.'is existed in the country with only minor
variations from time to time.
In developing countries the two main goals of administration
25. J.M. G&us, Reflections of Public Administration. University of Alabama

Press, 1947.
are nation-building and socio-economic progress. Administration

in these countries functions in an environment of scarcity and
multiple pressures and controls.
Most of these ex-colonial developing countries inherited an
authoritarian and unresponsive administrative culture, from their
colonial days, which they carried into their systems even after
the post-independence adoption of rationalist western models of
administration. It has often been found that mere imposition of
western administrative systems on the developing societies did
not lead to their functioning in the same manner as they did in
the West. The Weberian model of bureaucracy, for example, has
been found to be dysfunctional for development in the Third
World societies.
Fred W. Riggs is one of the foremost exponents of the
ecological approach in public administration. On the basis of
certain functional prerequisites of a social system. Riggs attempted
a veriety of models and typologies such as the “agraria-lransitia-
industria” and fuscd-prismaiic-difTracted societies.-® His quest
for an ecological perspective in cross-cultural studies led him
mainly to the field of development administration. His ecological
models emphasize an open system perspective that attempts to
describe and analyse the interaction between the administrative
sub-system and the wider social system.
Robert Dahl’s advocacy of an ecological approach was based
on what he stated were three problematic issues :
(i) Administrative generalizations based on the experience
of one nation-stale cannot be universally applied to
administrative systems in all kinds of diverse environ¬
mental settings.
(ii) Before formulating theories and concepts of administra¬
tion, it is necessary to empirically test their validity in
all types of social settings to see what is universal.
(iii) This implies that public administration must be truly
interdisciplinary and ecological in character, not only to
widen its horizon but to make its study more scientific
and relevant to all types of societies.
The great merit of this approach lies in the value and
relevance of studying people in relation to their environment,
taking into consideration their peculiar characteristics and
problems. Public cooperation is a vital input for the successful
operation of any administrative system. Unless the administration
caters to particular public needs, wishes, activities and problems
26. Fred W. Riggs, Administration in Developinfi Countries, Houghton

Mifflin Co., Boston, 1964.
Subtle ADMINISTRATION
2l
they cannot solicit public cooperation to the extent desired. In the
Third World countries, public administration is ridden with
corruption, inertia and inefficiency. To improve their functioning
one has to suggest solutions and reforms keeping in mind the
peculiar history, customs, traditions and culture of the people,
coupled with their present needs and aspirations. Every popular,
efficient and democratic administration, must be ecological in
character and approach.
Challenges in Colonial Societies

Colonialism is the establishment and maintenance of rule, for
an extended lime, over an alien people which are different from, and
subordinate to the ruling power. Colonialism has now come to be
identified with rule over people of different races inhabiting lands
separated by land and water from the imperial centre. More
particularly, it signifies direct political control by European states
or states where Europeans have settled, over peoples of other races,
notably over Asians and Africans. Some more features of colonia¬
lism are: “domination of an alien minority, asserting racial and
cultural superiority, over a materially inferior native majority,
contact between a machine oriented 'modern' civilization, a
powerful economy, and a rapid rhythm of life and a ‘backward’
civilization that lacks machines and is marked by a stagnant
economy and a slow rhythm of life, and the imposition of the first
civilization upon the second."-’
Though the history of colonization can be traced to the
ancient colonial empires of Egypt. Rome and Greece, to 300 B.C.,
the liistory of modern colonialism begins roughly from the fifteenth
century when the Europeans discovered the route to the East and
America. America was subsequently colonised by Britain which
later spread its empire to Canada, Australia, and various parts of
Asia and Africa. France, Spain, Holland and Portugal followed
suit to colonise various parts of the world, mainly Asia and Africa.
The main characteristics of colonial rule have been economic
exploitation of the colonics, undemocratic and irresponsible
systems of government, where frequently the ruling country
resorted to devious methods, including use of force to maintain
law and order. The colonial version of British, French or any
Ollier systems of administration was suited to the requirements of
the ruling countries rather than to the colonics. They were elitist,
aloof, authoritarian and paternalistic. Colonialism was essentially
rule by bureaucracy over the natives with policy guidance from the
mother country.
The imperial powers. of necessity, established bureaucratic
/nicniiUiothil EncyclopacJia of Social Sciences, Vol. 3, Macmillan, 1968,

pp. I'5.
system of administration in their colonics for safeguarding and

protecting their vital interests, Lucian Pye observes^® :
It is of profound significance that the overriding stress in all

western efforts to make traditional societies into nations has
been in the sphere of developing administrative capabilities.
During the era of colonialism it was universally assumed
that the process of political development involved primarily
the creation and the effective operation of the authoritative
instruments of the modern state. Whatever other motives were
present, it was always believed that the highest expression of
enlightenment was to be found in efibrts to provide a society
with efficient, competent and rational administration. Political
development meant the suppression of all irrationalities,
emotionalisms and wildly contending forces, in favour of
coldly efficient, intelligent and far-sighted management of
public affairs.
The era of colonialism is far too close to us for any definitive

and objective assessment of it to be possible. A few salient features
of colonial administration may be discussed here.
1. Colonialism imposed alien and authoritarian regimes on
subordinate societies. These regimes tended to train a few of their
Subjects in bureaucratic management and required passive acquies¬
cence from the remainder. Colonial administration is in essence
undemocratic, authoritarian, elitist, and unresponsive to public
needs and aspirations.
2. The main role of colonial administration is to maintain
remote bureaucratic control over the colonies with minimum invest¬
ment over them in terms of welfare services or other benefits while
expecting maximum return in tangible (wealth) and intangible
(prestige, status, power) resources from the colonies. The essential
base of colonial administration lies in economic exploitation of
the colonies by the imperial power.
3. The bureaucracies are generally manned by citizens of the
imperial powers in the early stages to be gradually supplemented
by an elite group of natives, who by their privileged position in
colonial society are generally the most stable supporters of the
colonial regime.
4. The administrative functions are mainly confined to look¬
ing after the interests of a few and are regulatory in nature, with
due emphasis on law and order and revenue collection. However,
with the gradual consolidation of colonial power, all imperial
28. Lucian Pyc, “The Political Context of National Development”, in Irving

Swerdlon (ed), Developtneni Administraiioii, Concepts ami Problems,
Syracuse University Press, 1903, p. 28.
24
administrators attempt to introduce some measure of welfare

administration in the colonies, either as a conciliatory gesture
towards rebellious natives or as a precautionary measure against
incipient rebellion in the colonies.
5. Welfare services provided to the subject peoples may take
the form of establishing educational and medical institutions,
developing communication facilities like railways, post and
telegraph or opening new avenues of employment for the subjects
by creating an infrastructure for industrial development.
With the dissolution of most of the colonial empires in the
early second half of the twentieth century (except the Portuguese
who delayed the process of decolonization till the eighties) the
study of colonial administration has lost much immediate urgency
and is studied now mainly for historical value and acadernic
interest as one type in the evolution of various administrative
processes.
Colonial Administration: The Indian Example

The history of British imperialism in India covers a long
period of about two hundred years beginning from the last days
of the decadent Moghul empire in the eighteenth century till the
advent of independence in 1947. The first phase beginning from
the last days of the Moghul rule and lasting till about the first
decade of the nineteenth century may be described as an era in
which the East India Company adhered to the policy of economic
plunder and territorial annexation for the sake of monopoly trade.
The second phase beginning from about 1813 and lasting till about
1857 may be ••egarded as a period in which some reasonable reforms
took place for bringing about a reconciliation between the diver¬
gent interests of the Company officials and the controllers of
British government. The final phase beginning from 1858 and
lasting till 1947 which witnessed the incipient India's freedom
movement gather momentum may be described as the most fertile
period of contemporary Indian history in which India moved from
a colony to an independent country.
The British administration in India had three features:-’
1. Supervision of overseas affairs through a central office in
the British capital.
2. Assignment of specific authority to a representative of the
29. r-or dclails on the pre-indcpcndence British Indian administration sec,

B.B. Misra, The Administraiive History of India, Oxford Press, London,
1970; Shrirani Maheshvvari, Evolution of Indian Administration, Lakshmi
Narain Agarwal. Agra, 1970; Robert I. Crane and N. Gerald Barrier,
British Imperial Policy in India and Sri Lanka, Heritage, New Delhi,
Crown on the spot and to provide him with adequate

administrative assistance.
3. To encourage the participation of the colonial inhabitants
to the greatest extent practicable.
The British colonial office depended too much on the Viceroy
who had a small coterie of administrators on whom he depended.
The administration was influenced by generalist administrators
who specialised in law and order functions. Their attitude towards
the natives could best be termed as patriarchal. They kept a safe
distance and aloofness from the ordinary people, considering them¬
selves the best judges and custodians of public interest. Economic
welfare was not one of their priorities.
The colonial service comprised an elite group and most of the
middle grade and subordinate duties were carried out by local insti¬
tutions or locally recruited staff. In developing the new colonial
administration the British adopted members of the Indian Civil
Service (ICS) as the key officials in whose hands were concentrated
both executive and judicial authority. An entirely new network
had to be evolved to bring to the people services they had not
hitherto enjoyed and which they often had to be persuaded to
make use of. Some of these ICS officials worked at headquarters
offices where matters of protocol were more important, but many
took charge of posts in out-of-the-way places where they
depended a good deal on their own ingenuity and resources, per¬
forming clerical as well as magisterial work at their own mini-head¬
quarters, or undertaking tours in the field.
Among the institutions which India inherited from Britain,
the best is the civil service. The pre-independence ICS was meant
to strengthen the colonial structure and expand British dominance
in India. The main task of the bureaucracy was the maintenance
of law and order, and welfare administration was never its goal.
The British governors acted on policy guidelines from home.
The Indians looked upon the ICS as the greatest instrument
of colonial exploitation. The members of the ICS came from the
elite in India and Britain which coloured their attitude towards
ordinary people. The majority of top administrators who were the
privileged classes under colonial administration wanted to streng¬
then the foundation of British empire. They felt social welfare
services may lead in the long run to sowing the seeds of discon¬
tent. However, it is to be admitted that the British administration
in India though performing only regulatory functions at first,
started delivering welfare services to the people from the late
nineteenth century onwards. With the introduction of western
education, railways, post and telegraph, hospitals and avenues of
employment a network of social services came to be provided to
the Indian people by the British administrators.
26
Challenges in Industrial Societies

The term ‘industrial’ societies here will be used to mean all
those developed countries of Western Europe and the USA where
industrialization has produced an identifiable change in economic
structure and growth followed later by political and administrative
modernization. ‘Development’ and ‘modernization* both imply in
abroad sense societal transformations involving a complex of
economic, social and political changes. “An individual country
may simultaneously exhibit some traits that appear to be developed
and others that appear to be less developed. Some features of
public administration may likewise appear developed, while others
in the same country—indeed in the same capital city—may resemble
the administrative features of a less developed country. There are
differences in public administration at each pole of the development
continuum that do not reflect the stage of development as much as
they reflect peculiar historical experiences or cultural traits.ô Riggs
has defined development as ‘a process of increasing autonomy
(discretion) of social systems, and made possible, by rising level of
‘dilTraction’. While discretion is the ability to choose among alter¬
natives, ‘dilTraction’ refers to the degree of difierenliation and integ¬
ration in a social system.”^*
Social scientists tend to disagree among themselves about the
characteristics of development. Economists equate it with the
capacity to produce a high level of material output or resources in
relation to size of population—translated in concrete terms such as
industrial and agricultural produce, raw material, national and per
capita income. Others focus on the forms of social and economic
organization of developed countries like a relative measure of :
1. Justice and equality;
2. Utilization of modern technology;
3. Criteria of rewards based on achievement rather than
ascription; and
4. Political and administrative modernization.
However, the concept of political modernization is itself tricky,
subject as it is to multiple connotations. Eisenstadt and Diamant
equate political development with the ability of a political system
to grow or adjust to new demands upon it. Gabriel Almond, using
“change” as a synonym for “development*’ defines political change
as the “acquisition of a new capability, in the sense of a specialized
role, structure and diflerentiated orientation which together give the
political system the possibility of responding efficiently, and more
30. Ira Sharkansky, Public AJminiiiratiou, Rand McNally College Publish¬

ing Company, Chicago, 1970, p. 29.
31. Ramesh K. Arora, Comparative Public Aiimirtistration, p. 143.
PUBLIC administration : A DlSCIPLlNt 27
or less autonomously, to a new range of problems."^- However.

La Palombara has objected to the use of the concept for three
reasons. Firstly, he says it leads to the erroneous implication that
a “modern” political system is one that exists in industrial
societies with high level of material development. Secondly, the
concept is value-laden, using western standards of modernity.
Thirdly, he thinks that such a term suggests “a deterministic uni¬
linear theory of political evolution” which is not what it should
bc.^^
Some of the important features of the administrative systems
of the industrial societies, which despite individual dilTerenccs, can
be distinguished as a group from other developing countries, arc as
follows :
1. Governmental organization is highly dilfercntiaicd and
functionally specific and the allocation of roles arc based more on
achievement criteria than on ascriptivc ones. The bureaucracy is
marked by a high degree of internal specialization. Recruitment
of personnel is generally based on merit.
2. Laws and political decisions arc largely rational.
Traditional elites have lost real power, if any, to alTect public policy
making.
3. Government and administration have become all pervasive,
affecting all major spheres of the life of citizens.
4. There is a high correlation between political power and
legitimacy since popular interest and involvement in public afiairs
is widespread.
Incumbents of political or governmental office arc widely
viewed as legitimate holders of those positions and transfer of
power and positions tend to occur in accordance with prescribed
rules and procedures.
Some of the characteristics have been reflected in the nature of
the public administration of these industrial societies.
1. Public bureaucracies are large, and organizationally
complex with diverse functions, divided as they are in numerous
units and sub-units. These units require personnel both of a gene¬
ralist and technical character, and together they represent the full
range of occupational specializations that arc found in those socie¬
ties. Structurally and functionally the bureaucracies tend to resem¬
ble the Weberian type.
32. Gabriel Almond, “A Dcvciopmcnial Approach to Political Sjstenis”,

World Politics, XVII, No. 2, Jan. 1965. pp. 183-214.
33. La Palombara (ed.), Bureaucracy and Political Development, Princeton
University Press, Princeton, 196?, pp. 35-39.
34. Ferrcl Heady, Public Administration : A Comparative Perspetive, Prcuticc
Hall, Inc., Englewood ClilTs, New Jersey, 1966, pp. 38-39.
28
'> The bureaucracy exhibits to a marked degree professiona¬

lism both in the sense of identiheation with the public service as a
profession and in the sense of belonging to a narrower field of pro¬
fessional or technical specialization within the service, such as law,
engineering or social work. This professional outlook is the result
of various factors, such as educational background, career orienta¬
tion and standards of competence applied in recruitment to the
public service as against private sector.
3 Due to the relative stability of political systems, in these
societies, the bureaucracy is more fully developed, its role m the
political process is fairly clear and it is generally accepted in
practice as an autonomous institution. In functional terms, the
bureaucracy is primarily involved in rule application, performing
secondary functions of rule-making and interest aggregation to a
limited extent.
4. The bureaucracy in a modernized polity will be subject to
effective policy control by other functionally specific political
institutions.
The tasks of public administration in industrial societies do
not dilTer in theory from other societies where the primary task of
public administration is to implement public laws and policies.
However, as empirical studies have proved that numerous linkages
exist between the features of an administrative system^ and their
environment, the role and challenges of public administration in
industrial societies have to be viewed in their particular socio¬
economic and cultural context. The history of public administra¬
tion as an activity and as a discipline is inextricably linked with
the administrative evolution of industrial societies. The develop¬
ment of modern sciences and technology in industrial societies has
led to a tremendous impact on the life ol the people and the activi¬
ties of the government. Industrialization has created huge organi¬
zations. These in turn, have created complex problems of social
co-opcraiion and administrative co-ordination, which if not
met in time, may cause the ruin of society. Unless the structure
and functions of social organizations and management practices
keep pace with the increased powers science and technology have
placed into the hands of man, these inventions may bring the doom
of man.
The great extension of the basic communication network in
these societies has greatly widened the effective scope of adnainis-
trative activity, while simultaneously increasing the responsibilities
of public administration and causing it to reach out for new means
of fulfilling its new duties and growing role. The public services
in industrial societies do not dilTer in theory, organization or
technique from the administration in developing societies but in
practice diiTerenccs inevitably crop up due to the dilTerence in
environment. Most of the industrial societies are democratic wel¬

fare states, where the public administration has a challenging role
to play in order to fulfil its democratic and welfare tasks. It has
to be both responsive and responsible to the public. The citizens
of advanced industrial societies are used to efieclive and efficient
public services. Bureaucracies have to perform both routine and
welfare tasks as efficiently and economically as possible, within a
specific time framework.
The citizens of these societies have increasingly come to view
public administrators as an impartial, and expert body of profes¬
sionals intellectually equipped to cope with their administrative
needs. In fact the entire discipline of public administration has
evolved and grown with the changing public administrative culture
of the industrial societies. As stated earlier, there was and still is a
close relationship between the various theoretical concepts and
approaches of public administration as a subject and the actual
social and technical problems of industrial societies.
Commenting on the special administrative problems of indus¬
trial societies Ira Sharkansky writes:
A problem that appears widely in more developed countries is
a lack of coherence in relations between numerous service and
regulatory agencies. The problem is often pronounced at local
levels, where authorities design and implement their own pro¬
grams, as well as implement programs designed and funded in
part by national authorities. ‘Who controls w’hat ?' is a topic
of some concern when many units share policy design, funding
and implementation. A typical result is control by bureaucra¬
tic elites who operate within their specialized domains. There
is occasional dominance by politicians who take an interest in
a particular matter, but there is also a lack of general integra¬
tion of programs by elected officials.”
Most of the industrial societies especially in Europe are typical
examples of the ‘Administrative State’. The bureaucracy in these
states mainly performs three types of functions:
1. Regulatory and preventive functions, enforcing laws,
collecting revenue, and protecting the state against external aggres¬
sion.
2. Service functions—making provisions foreducation, health,
culture and recreation, social insurance, unemployment relief, hous¬
ing, transportation, and communication.
3. Entrepreneurial functions—operating industrial enterprises,
loaning funds etc. In industrial countries with planned economies,
the public administration acts as the chief agent of planned econo¬
mic development and social change. To maintain the existing
35. Ira Sharkansky, Public Adminlstraiion, p. 33.

level or even to increase the economic growth and development of

their societies the public bureaucracies are being continuously asked
to live up to the role and meet the challenges posed before them.
Socio-economic Challenges in the Third World

One of the most significant and far-reaching political realities
of the post-World War 11 era has been the gradual ebbing out of
the era of colonialism and the emergence on the world scene of the
newly independent states of the Third World nations of Asia,
Africa. Latin America and the Middle East. There is a wide range
of differences in the location, resources, history, culture, political
systems and developmental patterns of these countries, yet they
can all be termed “developing.” Most of these new self-govern¬
ing states are caught up in the process of transition, facing acute
problems of social uplieavals, economic depression and administra¬
tive chaos. In terms of societal models, they are moving from the
traditional towards the modern type, from what Fred Riggs once
called, “Agraria” towards “industria”.
Despite dilTerences in the political and developmental patterns
of these countries, there is a widely shared consensus among the
majority of the people and their leaders regarding the goals of
development towards which efforts should be directed. The
majority of scholars on comparative administration agree that the
two major elements of the developmental objectives are nation¬
building and socio-economic progress. Esman describes nation
building as “the deliberate fashioning of an integrated political
community within the fixed geographic boundaries in which the
nation-state is the dominant political institution.”^^
In most of the developing states the geographical boundaries
arc arbitrarily carved by colonial rulers at the time of independence
with scant regard for ethnic groupings, cultural ties or the feelings
of minorities opposed to integration. This has resulted in periodic
outbursts of communal frenzy, inter-group clashes, riots and seces¬
sionist tendencies in the majority of these states.
The related objective of social and economic progress has
been defined by Esman as “the sustained and widely diffused
improvement in material and social welfare.
Though the goals of development are more or less similar, the
patterns chosen by dilTerent countries to achieve them have been
diverse and experimental in nature. However, there is a strong
trend towards concentration of power in the hands of the execu¬
tive at the centre based on the notion that such widespread goals
36. Milton J. Esman. “The Politics of Development Administration,” in

Montgomery and Sifim, Approaches to Development PoliticSt Adminislrq-
tion and Change, McGraw Hill Company, New York, 1966, p. 59.
37, ibid., p. 60.
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION ! A DISCIPLINE 31
make centralization inevitable. Some of the major features of the

socio-political systems of these countries appear to be as follows :
1. A relatively widespread consensus on developmental goals.
Some of the common goals are introducing changes in almost all
the sectors of the economy including social overheads, infrastruc¬
tural facilities, and productive enterprises like industry and
agriculture; social services such as health, education and water
supply; infrastructural like roads and communication facilities,
electricity and market centres, and productive activities in industry
and agriculture are sought to be developed within particular time
spans;
2. A great degree of reliance on the state and bureaucracy for
achieving developmental goals. Many developing countries have
evolved structures that have a socialist orientation;
3. Social disorganization, economic backwardness and political
instability; and
4. A wide gap between the modernizing and the traditional
elites, who very often differ in social background, orientation
towards change, and in their respective linkages to the mass of
the population. The modernizing elites lend to be from the urban
areas; they are well educated westernized young men and women
committed to economic, social and political change and moderni¬
zation. The traditional elites tend to be rural, oriented to local
customs and to the native religion, and opposed to change as a
threat to these values.
The following five points arc indicative of general administra¬
tive patterns currently found in developine countries of the Third
World.38
1. The basic pattern of public administration is imitative
rather than indigenous. All countries, including those that are not
ex-colonies have consciously tried to introduce some version of
the bureaucratic model in administration. Usually, it is patterned
after a particular national administrative model, perhaps with
incidental features borrowed from some other system. Ex-colonics
will almost certainly resemble the parent administratively.
2. The bureaucracies arc deficient in the requisite skills
necessary for developmental programmes. The problem is not a
general shortage of employable manpower, actually the typical
developing country is generally overpopulated with an abundance
of labour in relation to other resources. The shortage is in trained
administrators, with management capacity, developmental skills,
and technical proficiency.
38. Ferrcl Heady, Public Administration ; A Comparative Perspective, Prentice

Hal), Inc , NciV Jersey, 1966, pp. 69-72.
3. Another tendency is for these bureaucracies to emphasize

non-productive orientations. Much bureaucratic activity is
channelled towards the realization of non-devclopmental goals.
Riggs refers to this as a preference among bureaucrats for personal
expediency as against principled public interests. The value attach¬
ed to status based on ascription rather than achievement explains
much of this behaviour. Non-merit considerations may greatly
influence promotions, assignments, dismissals, and other personnel
practices. Corruption is also widespread. Another problematic
popular practice is that of using the public service as a substitute
for a social security programme or to relieve the problem of un¬
employment. There is always a surplus of employees in the public
services.
4. The widespread discrepancy between form and reality is
another distinguishing characteristic. Riggs has called this “forma¬
lism.” It reflects an urge to make things seem more as they
presumably ought to be rather than what they really are. The gap
between expectation and reality can be partially filled by enacting
laws that cannot be enforced, adopting personnel regulations that
are quietly bypassed, announcing a programme for delegation of
administrative authority while keeping tight control over decision¬
making at the centre, or reporting as having met production
targets, which in fact remain only partially fulfilled.
5. The bureaucracy in a developing country is apt to have a
generous measure of operational autonomy, which can be account¬
ed for by the coincidence of several operating forces in a newly
independent nation. Colonialism was essentially rule by an
unresponsive authoritarian bureaucracy. Groups capable of
competing for political influence or of imposing close controls
over the bureaucracy are few, so that, often it is able to
move into a dominating position. The political role of bureaucracy
varies from country to country and is intimately related to varia¬
tions in political system types among the developing countries.
The immensity of the developmental problems and the urgency
of their solution has in fact thrust upon the state the principal
burden of accomplishing developmental goals. Despite severe
handicaps like shortage of capital, skilled manpower, and lack of
a developmental infrastructure, the Third World governments are
confronted with rising expectations of the people they have to
administer. In the early euphoria of nationalism, the people expect
the government to work miracles. Besides demanding basic utilities
like adequate electricity and water supply, drainage, roads and
power, the government has also to cater to welfare demands like
establishment of schools, hospitals, housing, and industrial enter¬
prises. The state is expected to bring rapid socio-economic
development in almost all sectors within the shortest possible time-
span, an accomplishment that was gradually achieved in developed
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION : A DISCIPLINE
33
through private and local initiative over
governments arc often

Pnhr^^t^ cooperation and participation
Public apathy may take the form of hostility to public officials an
attitude that develops from long periods of subjection to oppre "
sive regimes. At the same time, they have to deal with sod^
dislocations such as mass rural-urban migration, severe uncmploy-
ment. riots and communal clashes, besides pressing demands^ for
social reorganization such as land reforms, and other ndical
measures to promote social equity. umcr raaicai
importance of administration is almost universally recocnis-

ed by commentators of the problems of developmern Pdva .
sector may be induced to fall in line with general public ooh?!.
bur^n of development work would naturally fall on
the public sector. Hence, a high degree of public administrative
necessary for the successful implementation
of development plans and efforts at nation building- a fact which
reflected in the emcr-
anew approach to administration in the dcvclooinn
countries known as ‘development administration’. ^ ®
stated earlier, public administration becomes the main
agency of socio-economic change—a change requiring not onlv the
formulation and implementation of long term plans^ of indus^tria^
and fn^rm requiring the establishment
and formation of modern institutions, organisations ind ckillc
evolv^ffi /‘^"hnological civilization which would
deveônmJtVfi mdusyialization. The challenging role of
evelopmental administration demands three different functions ;
trial ^“Staining and promoting an indus-
erv S‘re Public mil y
cuIlivation''ofwhich requires the

runniL and managerial skills for
eSs®hi^^Tnc , , ™r.r'’''"
siaoiishing institutes of technology and science;This would involve
which would involve changing the very

to the nced« mft so that they may adjust
public change. The task of
and asnir^t' formal reforms with the felt needs
ana aspirations of the people.
ofterw'rnV'^^^’ wider role devolved upon public administration
theaHmU-fi^ a problem of imbalance between the political wing and
istrative wing of the government, This is a situation unique
to the development process of the Third World and contrary to

the one faced by the western societies during the course of their
development. In western societies, the developmental process had
originated from the economic sector. Economic development had
given birth to a large middle class, extension of franchise, growth
of political parties and trade unions, which in turn had led to the
specialization of administrative organization and functions. As a
result administrative development was the effect, rather than the
cause of economic or political development. But due to the
peculiarities of the developmental processes of the Third World
societies of the twentieth century, political and socio*economic
development was preceded by administrative development in these
societies. The relative predominance of bureaucracy over other
public institutions in these societies is a natural by-product of this
imbalance of development between the bureaucratic and other non¬
governmental institutions.
Features of Development Administration

Though the key role of public administration in bringing about
socio-economic change in developing societies is universally
acknowledged, many writers have expressed their misgivings over
the efficacy of the bureaucratic model of public administration in
effecting rapid socio-economic change. Bureaucracy has often been
portrayed as an inflexible soulless machine unsuited to the dyna¬
mic needs of social transformation. It is commonly associated
with red tape, rigidity and delay in work.
Historically, it has been observed that bureaucracy antedates

development administration, and does not fit in with the
requirements of modernization. Conservation rather than
change is the essence of bureaucracy. Culturally also the
bureaucratic form of organisation does not suit the needs of
the traditional societies that are currently going through a
process of change. Bureaucracy has also been criticised as
urban oriented and elitist in nature and unrelated to the needs
of rural areas where most of the people of the developing
countries live. Above all, development has been looked at as
essentially a matter of shrewd political management of a
society. Bureaucracy in this context has often been considered
a threat to political leadership and an undesirable monopolizer
of power. It has even been suggested that development calls
for a degree of debureaucratization and steady institutionaliza¬
tion of development.
In the Indian context, the role of bureaucracy in development
administration has often been severely criticised. Very often
39, Mohit Bhaitacharya, Bureaucracy and Development Administration Uppal

Publishing House, New Delhi, 1979, p. 2.
PUBLIC ADM[N1SrRATI0N : A DISCIPLINE 35
bureaucracy has been equated with maintenance of law and order

and regulatory administration. Its authoritarian and unresponsive
attitude has been criticised as being a hangover of the colonial
period and its suitability for developmental tasks has been
questioned. Besides the structure, the behavioural patterns of
bureaucrats have come in for criticism. It has been said that the
elitist background of the members of the bureaucracy has resulted
in their alienation from the masses and also their inability to
appreciate problems of development and the needs of the rural
populace. Another line of criticism has been the bureaucracy’s
apparent lack of commitment to development needs and pro¬
grammes. Development calls for full commitment to change
whereas bureaucracy has clearly stood for status-quo.
There are two schools of thought regarding the definition and

scope of development administration. Montgomery and Fainsod
are the exponents of the first school which defines development
administration in a narrow sense. According to Fainsod, it
embraces the array of new functions assumed by developing coun¬
tries embarking on the path of modernization and functionalisation.
Development administration ordinarily involves the establishment
of a machinery for planning economic growth, and mobilizing and
allocating resources to expand national income. To Montgomery,
it connotes planned change in the economy or capital infrastructure
and to a lesser extent in the social services, specially health and
education. To this school of thought, therefore, development
administration implies merely a programme and result oriented
approach to administration concerned with mobilizing existing and
new resources and skills to achieve developmental goals.
There is another school of thought represented by Weidner,
Riggs and Pyc who have used the term development administration
in the widest sense. Weidner, w'ho is one of the pioneers of the
concept, defines development administration, as "the process of
guiding an organization towards the achievement of progressive
political, economic and social objectives that arc authoritatively
determined in one manner or another.If understood in this
sense, development administration would include the entire process
of nation-building, both in its historical perspective and in the
developmental perspective of the newly emerging states of the
inodern world. In its latter connotation, development administra¬
tion becomes an integrated concept for the study of public
administration. Under this framework, past as well as present,
administrative systems can be compared from the point of view of
their achievement oriented goals.
40. Edward Weidner, "Development Administration —A New Focus for

Research” in Heady and Stokes (eds.). Papers in Comparaiive Public
Administraiion, Institute of Public AUmioisfration, Michigan, 1962, p. 98,
Whatever may be the difference in these two approaches, deve¬

lopment administration is essentially a concept of administration
which is related to change oriented administrative practices. It in¬
volves not only a study of the traditional routine type of administra¬
tive functions but is more directed towards the dynamics of change
within the system with a view to judging its capacity as an instru¬
ment of developmental planning and implementation. If develop¬
ment administration is seen in this perspective, the difference
between the two approaches is considerably reduced. For in that
case, one need not necessarily confine the term to the study of
administrative systems of the developing countries but also look to
the systems of the developed societies with a view to assessing
their capacity to promote development and social change within
their societies as well.
According to Riggs, the concept of development adminis¬
tration has two important dimensions.^* First, it is concerned with
the processes through which a public administration system directs
socio-economic and political change in the society and second, it
studies the dynamics of change within the administrative system.
The first refers to the “administration of development”, while the
second is related to the process of “administrative development.”
In administrative development, administration is an independent
variable which can bring about political, social and economic
change. In the systems model administration is viewed as a depen¬
dent variable which is affected by the environment. According to
Pai Panandikar and others, development administration is marked
by six defining features.**^ They are : (1) change oriented, (2) result
or goal oriented, (3) citizen-participation oriented, (4) commitment
to work oriented, (5) client oriented, and (6) time oriented.
Development administration in a developing country is con¬
cerned with two main dimensions of development—political and
economic. The characteristics of political development, especially
relevant to development administration identified by Huntington
are: rationalization of public policy formulation and execution,
national integration, democratization and public participation in
political processes. Friedrich suggests six more features.
1. The capacity to act efficiently to cope with technological

requirements of survival;
2. enforceable restraints on government;
3. operative popular participation in rule making;
41. F. W. Riggs, Administration in Developing Countries, Houghton,

Mifflin Co., 1964.
42. Pai Panandikar and Kshirsagar (eds.). Bureaucracy and Development
Administration, Centre for Policy Researeb, New Delhi, 1978.
4. existence of general rules replacing shared values and

beliefs of the community;
5. a judiciary to interpret these rules and define terms of
settlement; and
6. voluntary associations such as political parties, which pro¬
vide alternatives to existing government, continually re¬
examine existing rules with public participation.-*^
The economic dimension has already been discussed elsewhere.
Administrative development in developing societies has generally
been defined as a pattern of increasing effectiveness to achieve
prescribed policy goals. It, therefore, involves both qualitative
and quantitative changes in bureaucratic policies, programmes,
procedures and methods of work, organizational structures and
staffing patterns, number and quality of development personnel of
different types, and patterns of relations with clients of administra¬
tion. Public administration in general, and development administra¬
tion in particular, are closely linked to the capacity of the state to
satisfy increasing developmental needs and demands of the people.
Briefly, the present and future priorities of development
administration are as follows :
1. With the ever increasing functions of slate, the role of
administration will continue to expand in the developmental sphere.
The government will become the principal planner, organizer,
promoter and director of developmental efforts in all Third World
countries.
2. Administrative activities will gradually become complex and
technical with increasing diversification of government functions.
3. The need for planning, coordination and control of all
government activities connected with development will be greater.
4. The administrative reforms and improvements in manage¬
ment will have to be greatly stressed.
5. Personnel structure and training will have to be geared to
developmental tasks. In such a setup respect for hierarchy and
a rigid application to rules and regulations at the cost of goal
achievement will have no place.
6. Decision making in organisations will have to be flexible
and innovative, status-consciousness in bureaucracies will have to
be icpiaced by increasing service motivation.
^ 7. There is need to redesign public bodies to enable collective
decision-making and promote collaborative problem-solving.
43. Sec R. Brajbanti (ed.). Political and Administrative Development, Duke

University Press. Durham, N.C., 1969, pp. 33-34.
8. Increasing decentralisation will enable developmental agen¬

cies at field level to operate more autonomously.
9. There should be free flow of communications at all levels
of the organisational pyramid.
10. There should be an adequate working partnership between
the political and executive wings of the administration.
11. Commitment and dedication on the part of all engaged in
developmental tasks, specially the political leadership and bureau¬
cracy, is the first and most essential prerequisite of development
administration.
12. The active participation and cooperation of the people
has to be forthcoming for the success of developmental
programmes.
2
ORGANISATION AND DEVELOPMENT
ALTERNATIVE THEORIES
Public and Private Administration

There arc two different views on tlic relationship between
public and private administration. One group ol thinkers like
Urwick, Folleit and Fayol are of the view that administration is
an indivisible entity, and its basic principles are applicable equally
to all organizations whether public or private. This view is obvi¬
ously based on certain clearly observable similarities in the practice
of public and private administration.
In the first place, it is extremely diflicult to clearly demarcate
the spheres of the two types of administrative activity. Though
the activities performed by government agencies arc defined as
public administration, there arc many private agencies which also
perform tasks which arc strictly public service or welfare-
oriented. Conversely, there arc many tasks performed by the
government bureaucracy which may be of a private nature.
Secondly, methods and work procedures may be common to
both public and private administration. Accounting, statistics,
office management and procedures and stock taking are problems
of administrative management common to both public and private
administration.
With the continuous expansion of the public sector in industrial
enterprises and the steady growth of public corporations, govern¬
ment has been drawing heavily upon the business knowledge and
expertise of private administration to run these enterprises. In
fact, in many countries, including India, there is a growing inter¬
action between the public and private sectors. In India candidates
from private establishments have often been recruited to senior
administrative positions in the government. Ever since private
enterprises have been developing into huge administrative giants,
with^ widening network of offices all over the country, private
administration has become as impersonal as public administration.
Also with the popularisation of the concept of democratic welfare
40 i>u&Lic administration
state, the principles of democratic control, public accountability

and popular checks on administrative behaviour are increasing in
all private organisations.
However important the similarities may be, it cannot be
denied that there still remain fundamental differences between the
two. The major points of difference are in the spheres of “unifor¬
mity and impartiality, responsibility, accountability and service¬
ability”. According to Josiah Stamp the four principles which
differentiate public from private administration are :
1. uniformity;
2. external financial control;
3. ministerial responsibility; and
4. marginal return.
The popular idea of public administration is that it is bureau¬
cratic. characterized by red tape, inefficiency and inertia, whereas
private administration is efficient and business-like. Following are
the differences between the two types of administration.
/. Political Direction or Ministerial Responsibility : Unlike
private administration, public administration is subjected to
political direction in most policy matters. It is the minister who
lays down broad policy outlines, under which the bureaucrat has
to implement the policy. Operational autonomy is, however,
granted to a great extent to public administrators, who are not
responsible for their actions to the legislature. It is the minister
who represents his department in the legislature, and is held
responsible for all acts of omission and commission of his adminis¬
trative juniors to Parliament.
2. Profit Motive or Marginal Return '■ Public administration
is service oriented and profit-making is not its goal. A business¬
man will never undertake a venture which is not likely to yield any
profit to him. In public administration, there is no correlation
between income and expenditure, since most government depart¬
ments are spending departments and even in the so-called revenue
producing departments, the primary motive is always public
service. Public utility services of the Government of India often
run at a loss, yet the government is duly bound to spend on them.
3. Social Necessity : Public administration caters to social
needs and public utilities. For example, it maintains railways to
facilitate movement of goods and passengers ; the post and
telegraph network facilitates communication; hospitals and dispen¬
saries .^rc meant to provide medical aid and public health
services to the people. The scope of private administration is
narrower. It is mostly concerned with providing marketable con¬
sumer goods to public, catering to the economic needs of citizens.
Besides, the nature of some of the government services is so wide,
DtlGANlSAtlON AND DEVELOPMENT : ALTERNATIVE THEORIES 41
comprehensive and expensive that no private administration can

undertake them, e.g., maintaining a vast network of police, army,
railways or post and telegraph.
4. Public Responsibility : The public administrators are
trained and duty bound to respect the wishes of the public and
cater to their needs. In the words of Appleby. “Government
administration differs from all other administrative work by virtue
of its public nature, the way in which it is subject to public scrutiny
and outcry”. Private administration has no such obligation, its
main objective is to secure its own ends.
5. Uniformity of Treatment: Public administration should
be consistent in procedure and uniform in its public doalings.
This principle is more applicable to public administration than
the other, because the former is mostly regulated by common apd'
uniform laws and regulations. Public administration is subjpiet^^
the principle of external financial controL'i^GovernmeîW^t^nues
are controlled by the people’s rcprescntafTVLs tlirCuî the legis¬
lature. In private administration finances are not controlled by
any outside agency.
6. Conformity to Laws and Regulations ; The public adminis¬
trators cannot do anything contrary to, or in excess of legal
power. It has to function within the legal framework, it can never
break law. If it docs so, its actions can be declared invalid or,
ultra-vires by the courts. Private administration has no such
responsibility.
While we do admit that there arc considerable dilVerences
between the two types of administration, many would agree with the
conclusions of Fayo! and Urwick who have said, “Wc are no
longer confronted with several administrative sciences, but with
can be applied equally well to public and private
affairs. ' Public and private administration function in difl'erent
environments. But despite that, differences between the two have
narrowed down considerably. Prof. Waldo said :
The generalizations which distinguish public administration
from private administration, like special care for equality of
treatment, legal authorization and responsibility for action,
public justification or justifiability of decisions, financial pro¬
bity and meticulousness, and so forth are of very limited appli¬
cability. In fact, public and private administrations are the two
species of the same genus. But they have special values and
techniques of their own, which give to each their distinctive
character.
%
A Private Business Firm (Joint Stock Oompany)

The joint stock company is a form of business organization in
which a number of people contribute their capital by purchasing
»
42 PUBLIC ADMlNISTRAtloW
shares of the company. The work of actual management is entrust¬

ed to the salaried managers who work under the direction and
supervision of the board of directors elected by the shareholders.
A joint stock company is the most important type of business
organization today. It is a legal entity, distinct and separate from
the shareholders who own it. As such, the company can sue and
be sued. It can acquire and own property in its own name. It
can produce and sell products, make contracts, incur debts, give
credit to others and carry on all those functions which any other
form of business organization performs.
As said above, the shareholders are the owners of the com¬
pany. They elect a board of directors which takes the decisions
for the company. The board of directors appoints managers and
other officials and workers who perform the day-to-day work of
the corporation. These managers and officials are responsible to
the board of directors. Of course, the ultimate control and
responsibility lies with the shareholders.
It is the shareholders who bear the risk inherent in the busi¬
ness. But in case of losses, they cannot be asked to pay more
than the amount of shares they have purchased. In other words,
their liability is limited.
The following arc the main features of a joint stock company :
Accumulation of Capital by Shares : A distinctive feature of a
joint stock company is that it raises capital by selling shares to
public. In this way a large amount of capital is accumulated and
the business can be started on a large scale.
A joint stock company can also raise capital by the issue of
debentures or bonds. The debentures carry a fixed rale of interest
whether or not the company earns profit. The debentures represent
the loans taken by the company. The holders of debentures arc
the creditors of the company, while the shareholders are the
owners.
Democratic Organization : Another important feature of the
company is the domestic nature of its organization. The owners
of the company arc the shareholders. The board of directors
whose duty is to run and manage the business are elected by the
general body of shareholders. The important decisions regarding
business are taken by the directors. They also decide the general
policy of the company. But these directors arc answerable to the
shareholders for their decisions and policies. The general policy and
the major issues concerning business are discussed in the general
body meetings of the shareholders. The day-to-day work of the
company is carried on by the salaried employees who are respon¬
sible to the board of directors.
Limited Liability : A very significant characteristic of the joint
stock company is the limited liability of its shareholders. The
ORGANISATION AND DEVELOPMENT : ALTERNATIVE THEORIES 43
liability of a shareholder is limited to the extent of the value ot the

shares of the company he has purchased. In other words, in
case of losses or bankruptcy, the shareholder cannot be called upon
to pay more than the value of the shares he owns. Due to the
limited liability, the risk undertaken by the shareholder is reduced.
This has induced many people to subscribe to the share capital of
the joint stock companies. As a result, it has become possible to
raise large amounts of capital required for starling a big business.
Legal Entity : Another notable feature of the company is that
it is a legal entity. It has a separate and distinct existence apart
from the sharcholdcis. As such, the company can sue and be sued.
It conducts its business with other persons or firms under a fixed
seal. It can acquire and own property, make contracts or incur
debts in its own name. It is legally bound to honour tlie terms of
contracts it makes.
Transferable Shares : The shares of a joint stock company
arc transferable. In other words, a shareholder can sell his shares
to other people. The market in which the shares are sold and
purchased is called a stock exchange or share market.
Separation of Ownership and Control : There is divorce between
the ownership and control of business, that is, the performance of
entrepreneurial functions is separated from ownership. The share¬
holders who arc the owners of the corporation do not take part in
the control and management of business. They elect a board of
directors which controls and is responsible for the management of
the company. The entrepreneurial decisions regarding price and
output are taken by the directors and other salaried managers,
while financial risks arc borne by the shareholders.
The joint stock company has indeed become a dominant form
of business organisation today. Without this form of business
organization, large-scale business would not have been possible.
By facilitating the accumulation of large amount of money capital
and distributing the risk of production among a large number of
shareholders, it has made possible the starling and running of huge
companies required in fields like steel, machinery, engineering,
banking, insurance, etc. It represents the typical features of a
private business firm in the modern age.
Scientific Management
The first systematic theory of organization was formulated in
the early years of the present century by Frederick Winslow
Taylor (1856-1915). An engineer by profession, he is regarded tiie
father of .Scientific Management. He was the first to advocate the
adoption of scientific methods in the field of industrial work
processes and management, to promote industrial ellicicncy and
economy. During the later half of the nineteenth century, when
44 PtJBUC ADMlNlSTRAllOM
the Industrial Revolution bad reached a stage of maturity, the

rapid expansion of business and industry were giving rise to new
problems of industrial planning and management. The working
conditions in the factories were chaotic. The work methods,
tools and procedures were neither standardized nor planned for
efficiency. Choice of methods of work was mainly left to the
workers themselves resulting in considerable ad-hoc planning and
inefficiency. There was need to increase productivity which
required in the long run a more rational and integrated approach
to managerial problems. Rapid industrialization had given rise
to a new managerial class who were being called upon to face new
problems not encountered earlier. It was mainly to fulfil this need
and find ways to raise industrial productivity that Taylor came out
with his ideas on Scientific Management, a term coined by Loius
D. Brandies first, and subsequently used by Taylor in his widely
known book, tlic Principles and Methods of Scientific Management.
Taylor’s main thesis is that management rests upon clearly
formulated laws and principles with universal applicability in all
organizations which entitles it to the status of a true science.
Taylor had several objectives. He was responding to the
challenges of the Industrial Revolution which necessitated optimum
utilization of all available resources—human and material, in the
fiercely competitive world of business and industry. The need to
raise production and promote efficiency with economy in industry
urgently required new techniques of management. Taylor’s
principles of management were ’‘scientific” to the extent that they
were based on first hand experimentation in, and observation of,
work procedures and conditions in industrial enterprises.
The major goals of Scientific Management were to raise

industrial output by systematic application of the methods of
science, to managerial problems and work procedures, in industrial
establishments. Taylor in his book made certain fundamental
assumptions. They were : (a) industrial processes can be made
open for scientific observation and experimentation. The work
procedures of labour can be reduced to basic motions to ascertain
the longest, shortest and average time needed for each motion.
(b) The standard time prescribed for each operation can be
produced at a designated standard of efficiency and economy.
(c) The workers can be trained in the best methods for achieving
the industrial objectives, by the management.
The major principles of Scientific Management are as

follows :
Standardization of work methods : Taylor’s first principle
related to the development of a scientific method for each task
which would replace ad hocism in selection of work procedures.
This could be achieved, he said, by scientifically investigating the
ORGANISATION AND DEVnLOPMENT : ALTBRNAIIVE THEORIES 45
working conditions and the total quantum of work to be under¬

taken in any enterprise in a given period; and then fixing daily
task assignments so that the workers may work in a planned way.
The goal of good management should be either higher productivity
or lower unit cost. To achieve this goal, the management must pay
high wages. If the output of the worker achieved an optimum
level under desirable conditions, the worker should be rewarded,
but conversely, if he failed in increasing his output, penalty should
be imposed on him.
It is only through enforced standardization of methods,
enforced adoption of the best implements and working
conditions, and enforced cooperation that this faster work
can be assumed. And the duty of enforcing the adoption of
standards and of enforcing this cooperation rests with tlie
management alone. . . .•
Scientific selection and training of workers :Taylor’s second
principle related to the selection, placement and training of
workers in a scientific manner. Standardization of working condi¬
tions will be crucially served by selecting and placing workers on
jobs for which they are best suited by their physical and intellectual
abilities. Moreover, it is the duty of the management to train
workers for their tasks and provide them all facilities for develop¬
ment of their personalities.
Equal division of work between management and workers:
Taylor’s third principle was an open advocacy of an equal division
of work and responsibility between management and workers.
Taylor had noted in his observations the unhealthy trend of the
managers to place increasing burden on the workers, while
assuming for themselves only minimum responsibilities. In the
context Taylor advised that half of the workers’ work should be
taken over by the management. The management should under¬
take the functions for which it was best suited, i.e., planning,
organizing, controlling and determining the methods of work.
Mutual collaboration of the workers and management : The
last Taylorian principle was that there should be active cooperation
and cordial relations between management and workers. There
should be mutual faith and trust. Efficiency and productivity can
be best promoted by creating a healthy and congenial environment
in the organization which is the joint responsibility of both
workers and the management.
By maximizing the productive efficiency of each worker,
scientific management would also maximise the earnings of
1. I.W. Taylor, The Principles of Scientific Management, Harper and Row,

New York, 1947, p. 140.
workers and employers. Hence, all conflict between capital

and labour would be resolved by the findings of science.^
The combination of these four principles constituted the base

of scientific management. Viewed in the context of its own times,
scientific management was a revolutionary concept. It brought
a drastic change in the whole approach to industrial management.
Through it, wastage of human and material resources was greatly
minimized effecting a better and efficient utilization of labour and
material. It helped in the standardization of work procedures
and improvement of working conditions in factories. Labour was
greatly benefited by higher wages, better placements and training,
limiting of working hours and the general improvement in working
facilities. The scientific management movement provided effective
guidelines to the management to develop an effective organization.
Taylor was the first management thinker to introduce and stress
these five postulates of management—research, standards,
planning, control, and mutual collaboration between labour and
management. These five principles form the crux of every
successful management.^
Commenting on the importance of scientific management for
public administration Ira Skarkansky writes.
Some agericics applied its principles to mail-sorting and other
such repetitious tasks. Thus, the time-motion study entered
the portfolio of the public manager. In more subtle ways,
the widespread adoption of ‘human engineering’ in private
industry spread to the public sector and influenced the ways in
which organizations were designed and managers trained.
The principle of hierarchical management and the consequent
design of government departments into neat pyramids with
precise chains-of-contmand drew* on the precepts of scientific
management. Even in dealing with middle and upper level
government administrators, there was acceptance of Taylor’s
view of an organization’s member as a pliable instrument
who would, given appropriate material inducement, perform
the assigned tasks. The employee was not seen as a variable
personality having needs, preferences, attitudes, and commit¬
ments, all of which must be considered by the organization’s
leaders. Those who designed government departments and
trained their managers were concerned with ‘span of control*
(i.c., how many subordinates a manager could supervise) and
with otlier principles of the ‘one best way’ for management;
each subordintc should have a single superior; there should
be no division of responsibility. These principles were far
Reinhard Bendix, IVork ond Authority in Industry, John Wiley and Sons.
New York, 1956, pp. 274-5.
Shun Nisa, AH, Eminent Administrative Thinkers, Associated
Publishing House, New Delhi, 1984, pp. 17-26.
ORGANISATION AND DEVELOPMHNT I ALTERNATIVE THEORIES 47
too simple to be actually supportive of precise recommenda¬

tions. To the credit of their creators, however, it must be
said that the special studies undertaken to investigate depjrt-
ments did recognize that subtle forces (many of them 'p^l'lical')
operate in and around public bureaucracies.*
In the early years of the 20th century, scientific management
had a snowballing impact on administrative thought and practice
in the United States. It permeated not only industrial enterprises
and business establishments, but also government organizations.
In 1910, the scientific management movement manifested itself in
the establishment of the Commission on Economy and ElTiciency
under President Taft. The recommendations of this commission
further popularized the scientific management movement. Later,
President Woodrow Wilson, who was an advocate of admini>tra-
tive efficiency through the democratic credo and civil ser\ice
reform, tried to harmonize efficiency with democratic principles of
government. Taylor’s advocacy of the one best way to do each
work—productive or managerial—was equally implemented in
industrial and governmental business and management. Thus the
scientific technology of Taylorism, besides the democratic principle,
comprised the twin elements of American public administration.
The popularity and impact of the scientific management
movement can be further gauged from the fact that it gained
considerable significance in industrial management in the Soviet
Union. Lenin had exhorted Russian industrial managers, as early
as 1920, to apply the principles of scientific management for in¬
creasing production. Throughout the 1930's and 1940*s great
efforts were made to increase the productivity and efficiency in
Soviet industries through the application of the principles of
scientific management.
The scientific management movement aroused much criticism
and apprehensions in various quarters. It has been alleged that
the movement was mainly concerned with organizational efficiency
viewed in purely mechanistic terms. Labour's opposition to
Taylorism led to an investigation by Prof. Robert Hoxic on behalf
of the United States Commission on Industrial Relations. Tlic
major criticism of Hoxie was that the basic ideals of scientific
management and trade unionism were incompatible. Scientific
management concerned itself mainly with production, efficiency
and managerial problems, without touching on the psychological
and emotional problems of workers—the routine and monotony of
their work, uncertainly of employment etc.
Sam Lewisohn and Oliver Sheldon, both management thinkers
also criticized certain aspects of Taylor's work. Sheldon stressed
4. Ira Sharkansky, Public Administration Policy Making in Govcrtimem

Agencies, 1978, p. 199.
the human aspects of managerial problems, whereas Lewisohn

emphasized the maintenance of good human relations in an
organization. The worker, according to Lewisohn wanted justice,
status and opportunity above everything else, and hence simply a
rise in wages will not automatically lead to added efficiency.
The above factors will also have to be taken into account to
keep labour happy and motivated towards the organizational
goats. Miss M.P. Follett, a contemporary of Taylor and a well
known administrative thinker, also stressed the need to bridge the
gap between the mechanistic approach of Taylor and the approach
emphasizing human relations in organizations.
The general allegation that Taylor had neglected the human
factor in management led to a series of psychological and sociolo¬
gical studies with special reference to this factor. The Hawthorne
experiment (1927-32) and post-World War II researches in group
dynamics and human relations in industry helped in establishing
to a great extent that psychological and emotional factors were no
less important than economic in explaining workers’ behaviour and
determining organizational output and efficiency.
However, the significance and importance of the theory of
scientific management cannot be underestimated by the above
criticisms. Its true worth can be measured by the growth of a
science of management through the application of scientific
methods. It would be important to remember that in Taylor’s work
the human relations aspect of organizations was underemphasized
but certainly not entirely neglected. As stated earlier, he recog¬
nized the importance of mutual collaboration of workers and
management as one of the essentia! principles for raising industrial
efficiency. Besides, improvement of the working conditions of
labour was his chief concern. One of the main by-products of
Taylorism was that workers came to be paid and trained better,
besides working in more congenial conditions than before.
Nevertheless, it was gradually realized that a mechanical applica¬
tion of Taylor’s principles and methods in industry and govern¬
ment without taking into account other relevant factors would not
necessarily result in higher efficiency or productivity. However,
the essence of his theory that the speed, cost and quality of goods
and services were dependent variables, and that they could be
maximized by the adjustment of independent variables such as
division of labour, method of supervision, financial incentives,
flow of materials and, lastly, physical methods and condition are
still true to a great extent.
Classical Theory
The classical theory of organization is also known as the
structural theory and its foremost proponents have been Henri
Fayôl Luther Gulick, L.F. Urwick, J.D. Mooney, A.C. Rejley.
M.P. Follett and R. Shelton,
The most important concern of the classical theory is the

formulation of certain universal principles of organization. It deals
primarily with formal organizational structure. The theory assumes
that there are certain fundamental principles on the basis of which
a specific objective.
The watchwords of this approach are efficiency and economy, as it
conwives that these principles, if fully adopted, can lead to
maximum organizational efficiency and economy. The structuralists
concerned with discovering the true basis on which
ZJih in an organization and devising proper
methods of bringing about effective organizational coordination
Henri Fayol (I841‘1925) observed that management was an

undertaking common to all human activities. He enunciated certain
basic concepts and principles of management and viewed manaee-
ment as a teachable theory dealing with planning, organizing
commanding, coordinating and controlling work processes. Fayol's
IS often considered the first complete theory of management
Fayol was primarily concerned with the job of thg chief executive
and pinned his faith in the principle of unity of command. Fayol
divided all activities in an organization under six groups : techni¬
cal, commercial, financial, security, accounting and administrative.
In his book, General and Industrial Administration, he propounded
fourteen principles of organization listed below :
1. Division of work
2. Authority
3. Discipline
4. Unity of command
5. Unity of direction
6. Subordination of individual interest to general interest
7. Remuneration of personnel
8. Centralization
9. Scalar chain
10. Order
11. Equity
12. Stability of tenure of personnel
13. Initiative
14. Esprit de corps
th 3nd Reiley’s Onward Industry is a pioneering work on
ine development of organizational theory and is considered the
rst coherent approach to find organization univcrsals. Mooney
argued that all organization structures are based on a system of
superior-subordinate relationships arranged in a hierarchical
order. This, he termed as “Scalar principles”. According to this
principle in every organization there is a grading of duties in
varying degrees of authority and corresponding responsibility. The

scalar chain constitutes the universal process of coordination,
through which the supreme coordinating authority becomes effec¬
tive throughout the entire structure. The scalar process has its
own principle, process and effect. These they term as leadership,
delegation and functional definition.^
Other notable thinkers of the classical school are Luther
Gulick and Syndall Urwick. Gulick defines major managerial
techniques by the word POSDCORB. Each letter of the word stands
for a different technique such as planning, organizing, staffing,
directing, coordinating, reporting and budgeting.
The classical thinkers perceive organization as a formal

structure of plan created in accordance with certain accepted
principles. In the words of L.D. White,
It is a formal declared pattern of relationships established in
government by law and by top management. It is based on
the nature and volume of work to be done and is dictated by
the requirements of efficiency in the sense of securing the most
effective use of men and materials and by the need for
responsibility.®
This theory is marked by four features—impersonality, specia¬
lisation, efficiency and hierarchy.
An important contribution of the classical theorists in general
is their attempt to find certain universal principles of organization.
It instilled a sense of purpose and increased coordination of
administrative operations and by specification of roles, brought
more predictability and stability in organizational behaviour.
However, the classical theorists are criticised on the ground that
each “principle” has been proved to be neither empirically valid
in organizational functioning nor universally applicable which has
led Herbert Simon to dub them as “proverbs”.’ Another criticism
often levelled is the classicists' lack of behavioural analysis and
neglect of the human factor in administration. Their methods tend
to be prescriptive rather than descriptive. They are also accused
of a pro-management bias with over-emphasis on the formal
structure rather than the informal aspects of organizational
dynamics. The theory is marked by an undue concern for the
problems of the structure in relation to roles. Stress is laid not on
human beings (role occupants) as such, but on the role as it relates
to other roles in the broader context of organizational goals. It is
5. James D. Mooney and Alan C. Reiley, 77/^ o/ Organisation,

Harper and Row. New York, 1967, pp. 14-24.
6. L D. White Int^diiction to the Study of Public Administration,
Macmillan, New York, 1958, pp. 26-27.
7. Herbert Simon, Administrative Behaviour, 1957, pp. 20-36.
ORGANISATION AND DEVELOPMENT ALTERNATIVE THEORIES 51
atomistic and voluntaristic in the sense that it fails to view indivi¬

duals from an integrated perspective, i.e., it ignores the ‘social’
aspect of man and the influence of the social environment on his
work. The classical theory treats organization as a closed system
completely unconnected with, or uninfluenced hy
environment. Its obsession with th&-*ii(5rmaiiv^ a§pe^'^*b^the
functioning of organizations leads to fts ifcglecl of the^ sftidy
actual and informal behaviouraLp'attdrns 4n' the formal organlza^
tional structure. ' t
Human Relations Theory I.: •■■ ■ >

The essence of the humartwelafiops theory lies in its primary./
emphasis on human beings, pSjrhologioaLmptiva.tions and infop^
mal group behaviour—in contratiis^ctiomwo^ Uve. stfuclurijisis’
exclusive concern for principles of oreS^rnaaiion.
This theory or approach focuses on management as a web of
interpersonal relationships. It lays greater stress on the behaviour
of role occupants in an organization than on the formal structure
of the organization. The advocates of this school argue that since
management and administration involve group cflori and collective
endeavours of people, the study of management must be centred
on interpersonal relations. The scholars of this school highlight
the individual as a socio-psychological being and are more
concerned with his motivations. They view human relations as the
heart of the task of management; others equate management with
leadership. The underlying emphasis of all these views is that the
solution of the problems of management can be found in the realm
of social psychology.
The greatest single influence of the human relations theory
came from the Hawthorne experiments which were carried out in
the USA by Elton Mayo and his colleagues of the Harvard
Business School in the late twenties and early thirties of this
century. The findings were first published in Management and the
Worker (F.J. Roethlisberger and William J. Dickson) in 1939. The
Hawthorne studies carried out at the Western Electric Company at
Hawthorne in the USA is a historic landmark in organizational
theory, since it helped to develop the Human Relations School of
Organization. The immediate objective of the study was to
measure the elTcct of improved lighting on workers’ output, and
the psychological and social problems of industrial workers.
Some of the startling findings of the Hawthorne experiments
are discussed below. In the first experiment workers operating
under a piece-rate system were observed to sec whether higher
wages motivated them to work more. The researchers were
considerably surprised to find that the workers worked to a point
they felt would ensure them of an adequate income, and then
refused to work more, thus giving a lie to a well known Taylorian
52 PUBLIC ADMINTSTRAIION
principle. The main reason for this unexpected behaviour was the
underlying fear that overproduction may lead to retrenchment, a
situation which any of them might have to face. The researchers
discovered that the workers were a well-knit social group who
were governed by their own code of work ethics informally agreed
to by all members.
In another experiment, some female workers were isolated

from the rest and placed under observation. Their level of
productivity under diverse working conditions were carefully
measured. But under all physical changes in their work environ¬
ment (like less or more room lighting, rest pauses in work etc.), the
production of these girls showed a continually upward rise. This
proved that there was no positive correlation between the working
conditions and productivity, invalidating another Taylorian dictum
which greatly puzzled researchers. However, the reason for the
behaviour of the female workers seemed hardly surprising on
further analysis. The girls were conscious of the fact that they had
been selected for a special experiment. Hence, it was little wonder
that they tried to give their best performance.
The Hawthorne experiments proved that men are not atomistic
or voluntaristic creatures, but arc motivated by a variety of factors
(not purely economic) in work, and are influenced by their social
environment. These studies proved that organizations are social
systems comprising thinking and acting individuals. U further
disclosed the tendency of workers to form small informal social
groups with their own code of ethics and conduct in matters of
work, behaviour, beliefs and goals which may be often different
from the goals of management and the stated objectives of the
organization.
The human relations theory of organization rejects formal
institutionalization. It considers the informal, day-to-day function¬
ing of the structure more revealing than the mechanistic study of
structure and principles of organization. It assumes that the
study of organizational behaviour is a very complex process
which has to take into account, both the economic and non-econo-
mic variables. For a realistic analysis of workers* behaviour,
all the factors motivating them have to be studied. White remarks.
It is the set of work relationships that grow out of the
mutual interactions of persons working together over a long
period of time. The informal organization is more subtle,
reflecting such matters as social and economic status, race or
language diffênces, educational levels, and personal likes
and dislikes. The formal organization tends to be relational
and impersonal, than informal, emotional and personal. The
two usually overlap, may nearly coincide, or may be far apart.®
8. L.D. White. Introduction to the Study of Public Administration, p. 27.

ORGANISATION AND DEVCLOPMLNT : ALTERNATIVE THEORIES 53
Some important thinkers of the liumanislic school arc Robert

K. Merton, F.J. Rocihlisbcrger. Alex Ba\elas. Keith Davis,
A.H. Maslow, D. Cartwright, Leonard Sayles and Chris Argyris.
Humanists lay greater emphasis on the study of major psychologi¬
cal processes such as perception, learning and motivation which
reveal a worker's personality more than other mechanical factors.
Roelhlisberger in his book Management and Morale argues
that organization is essentially a conglomeration of small working
groups. Inter and intra-personal relations within and between
groups are determined by various social and psychological factors.
Every worker is both a social and an economic being. Therefore,
any technical change in the work environmeni of a worker affects
not only his economic but his total social status as well, and his
reaction to it may vary accordingly.
According to Merton if the bureaucracy is to be functional it
must attain a high degree of behavioural predictability ora high
degree of conformity with prescribed patterns of action. Our
understanding of the social structure has been considerably
increased by empirical studies like Merlon’s which focussed on
the interactions of bureaucracy and personality. Chris Argyris
contends that the ‘classical’ school places the worker in a situation
which affords him little opportunity for psychological gratification
orjob satisfaction, such is the dullness and repetitive nature of
an average worker’s work.
Other notable contributions to the Human Relations School

are Keith Davis’s Human Relations at Work, Alex Bavcias’s
Leadership : Man and Function, A.H. Maslow’s, A Theory of
Human Motivation, Leonard Sayles’s The Change Process in
Organization.
It is important to note that the early theories of Mayo,

Roethlisberger and Dickson were criticised for underestimating
Hie scope oi worker-management conflict or even labour unrest.
They were termed anti-union and their theories were allegedly
misused by managers to exploit the working class. As a conse¬
quence, the later human relation theorists such as Argyris and
Bennis have stressed the significance ot “fusion” approach, where
the individual worker in an organization is considered as important
as the organization itself. Organizational goals were deemed as
important as goals of individual workers. Every effort should be
made to see that the organizational work fulfils the worker's
talent and creative potential and leaves him satisfied with his job.
It IS the goal of every management to strike a balance between
the workers’ needs and those of the organizaiion.
Comparison Between Classical and Human Relations Theory

Although the Human Rclalionists and the Classical Theorists
54 PUBLIC ADMINtSTRATlON
are generally considered antithetical in their approach to organiza¬

tional dynamics, it is interesting to note that there is a significant
similarity in the views of both regarding the objectives of an
organization. In both theories, the goals remain the same, viz.,
economy, efficiency, and the use of scientific methods in manage¬
ment. The former’s conceptualization was based on the recogni¬
tion of the motivation of a “social man” who was emotional
while the latter’s focus was on the needs of an “economic man”
who was rational and logical. The classicists focussed on the
motivations of workers, while human relationists examined the
needs and aspirations of workers as well as managers. The former’s
prescription of organizational change lay in the realm of formal
structure while the latter recognized that it is the informal group
in an organization which primarily determines the nature of
change. Despite these differences both have played a major role
in developing administrative thought and practice. The classical
theory played a notable role in rationalizing and stimulating the
quality and quantity of production. By formulating certain
concepts in administration it evolved a base for subsequent
research in organizational theory. The human relation theorists
started where the former left off; their emphasis on the variables of
leadership, morale, motivation, informal groups and the external
as well as the internal environment of organization in relation to
the personality of workers paved the way for a new orientation
in administrative studies, based on the empirical and behavioural
approach. Further, their stress on the concept of organization
as a system of interrelated parts and functioning in a dynamic
environment acted as a precursor to the systemic-ecological
approaches to the field of scientific-administrative studies.
Difference Between Formal and Informal Organization
As stated earlier, the classical school emphasizes the formal
structure and principles of an organization, rather than the
informal group behaviour in any organization stressed by the
human relationists. The human relations theory goes beyond the
formal institutionalization of an organization to concern itself with
the Iiuman motivations and the informal behind-the-scenes group
functioning of the structure. It believes that a worker is a ‘social’
being, who does not act or react in a vacuum moved by only
mechanical or economic considerations. There are a variety of
influences motivating his behaviour and to understand him, it is
necessary to understand his environment and these influences.
The formal organization, its structure and principles, is generally
documented in charts and handbooks of the organization. The
informal organization is customary in nature; it refers to the
whole pattern of actual work behaviour and interpersonal relations
that affect decisions within the organization but may be formally
absent or inconsistent with the formal plan or structure. In the
words of L.D. White,
The informal organization is more reflecting of such matters

as social and economic status, race or language differences,
educational levels, and personal likes and dislikes. The formal
organization tends to be relational and impersonal; the
informal, emotional and personal. The two usually overlap,
may nearly coincide, or may be far apart.^
Formal organization is the planned structure ; it corresponds

to a formal design. By contrast, informal organization is a natural
growth, which may or may not coincide with the formal model of
organization. Central to the distinction between formal and
informal organization is the difference between authority and
influence. Authority is the legitimate exercise of power over
others whereas influence is the informal capacity over others to get
things done.
All organizations have both a formal design without and

informal patterns of influence within, which may not coincide for
various reasons; like the difference between the relative strength
and capacity of those exercising authority and influence or the
various elements in the organizational environment which make
it relatively easier or more difficult in exercising so. Procedural
coordination—the specification of the lines of authority and the
spheres of activity and authority of each organization member—
creates a formal organization, a set of abstract, more or less
permanent relations that govern the behaviour of each participant
. . . .Relationships based on influence result from the interplay
of a combination of factors. Some are unique to the particular
scene; but others are recurringly characteristic of many agencies
and situations.
Informal groupings and interpersonal relations and person*

al associations result in parallel sources of influence in the formal
organization. There are always certain members who by their
proximity to strategic post-holders in the organization manage
to exercise a lot of influence. Like the men behind the throne,
all departmental heads have their ‘caucus’. Factions of all sorts are
fairly common in public organizations, each faction having some
membership and influence. Employee welfare unions, specially
among lower grade staff, may often determine unofficial standards
of conduct and discipline which the senior officials by mere
authority may find difficult to change.
However, it must be stated that these two approaches are
not mutually exclusive but rather supplement each other. There
can be no informal organization without a formal one, from where
the former can operate. Informal organization is a self-evident
fact and a functional necessity, which no formal structure can
9. ibiiL
56 public administration
completely choose to ignore. However, the formal structure is the

basis on which an organization can start to operate and subse¬
quently provides it with the stability and precision required for
smooth production processes. Every organization has to operate
within a normative framework of structure, objectives, principles
and goals. But since the organization comprises men and not
machines only, an informal interpersonal style of functioning
(the human touch) will inevitably emerge which will be flexible
and changeable in nature. The formal organization theory gives
only a partial and incomplete picture of organizational dynamics.
The complete picture of an organization emerges only when the
formal theory is supplemented with the informal. Undue empha¬
sis on one will lead to a distorted view of organizational reality
and undermining of the advantages of both.
The human relations approach filled in the gaps of the classi¬

cal approach, and corrected its one-sidedness but in the process
could not avoid the pitfalls of becoming an equally one-sided
theory on its own. Therefore, neither of the two is a complete
theory. With their opposing emphases they very well supplement
and correct each other. For a student of public administration
the best course would be to read the two theories in conjunction
w ith each other to get as near a picture of the total organizational
reality as is possible by the present stage of knowledge of organiza¬
tional dynamics.
Bureaucratic Theory
Bureaucracy as an organisational model was first developed
systematically by Max Weber, an eminent German sociologist, in
the nineteenth century. According to him, every organization can
be defined as a structure of activities (means) directed towards the
achievement of certain objectives (ends). To maximize efficiency
and productivity every organisation develops a system of specialisa¬
tion (division of tasks) and a set of systematic rules and procedures.
Weber stressed that the bureaucratic form is capable of attaining
the highest degree of efficiency, and is in this sense, formally, the
most rational known means of carrying out control over human
beings in any organization. It is superior to every other form in
precision, stability, discipline and reliability.’®
Elaborating this point Weber wrote :
The development of the modern form of organisation of cor¬
porate groups in all fields is nothing less than identical with
the development and continual spread of bureaucratic adminis¬
tration. This is true of church and state, of armies, political
10. Max Weber. “The Essentials of Bureaucratic Organisation : An Ideal Type

Construction , in R.K. Merton; ct. al. (cd.), Reader in Bureaucracy, The
Free Press, New York, 1952, p. 24.
ORGANISATION AND oeVELOPMENT : ALTERNATIVE THEORIES 57
parties, economic enterprises, organisations to promote all

kinds of causes, private associations, clubs, and many others.
For bureaucratic administration is, other things being equal,
always from a formal, technical point of view, the most
rational type. For the needs of mass administration today, it
is completely indispensable.’*
Weber tried to identify the various factors and the conditions

that have contributed to the growth of bureaucracy in modern
times. The development of modern large scale organizations and
corporations has led to the development and considerable spread
of bureaucracy in organisations. Whatever may be the evils of
bureaucracy, it is simply indispensable for the running of complex
administrative structures. Secondly, an important factor respon¬
sible for the superiority of bureaucratic organisation is the role of
expanding technical knowledge, and the development of modern
technology. Whether the economic system is capitalistic or socialis¬
tic, a considerable degree of bureaucratic specialization is required
to attain a high level of organizational efficiency. Thirdly, Weber
repeatedly stressed the fact that the capitalist system has undeniably
played a major role in the development of modern bureaucracy.
The proper functioning of a capitalist system necessitates a stable
state and a well organized administration. Besides, capitalism is
considered the most rational economic basis for bureaucratic
administration itself.
The bureaucratic form of organization, according to Weber,
is distinguished by the following structural and behavioural charac¬
teristics :
Division of labour :
This involves a specified sphere of compe¬
tence which has been marked ofl'as part of a systematic division of
labour in the organisation. Each office holder is the incumbent of
an office as long as he holds it, but he cannot personally own the
office or the means of production and administration. His job
placement is based on his qualifications and/or special training.
Hierarchy : Hierarchy is the second fundamental characteris¬
tic which is the feature of any bureaucratic form of organization.
There is a clear separation between superior and subordinate
offiws, i.c., each lower office is under the control and supervision of
a higher one. Remuneration is fixed in accordance with the nature
of the job and the grade of responsibility. Promotion and career
advancement is on the basis of seniority and merit.
Rules ; Thirdly, bureaucracy operates in accordance with a
consistent system of abstract rules laid down regarding the perfor¬
mance of official jobs. The role of rules has been stressed by Weber
11. Max Weber, The Theory of Social and Economic Orgoniiotioii, The Free
Press, New York, 1964, p. 337.
58
SO that persona! favouritism, arbitrariness or nepotism may not

hinder the working of an organization. Every act of personal
discretion of officials must be justified by impersonal ends.
The set of behavioural characteristics can be described as
follows :
Rationality :Weber's ideas on efficiency and rationality are
closely related to his ideal typical model of bureaucracy. He
observed that bureaucracy is the most rational known means of
atcbieving imperative control over human beings. It is capable of
a taining a high degree of efficiency since the means used to
achieve goals are rationally and objectively chosen towards the
desired ends. An added factor of efficiency is that personal whims
of the leaders and traditional pressures are no longer effective in
such a system; it is run according to rules and there is a clearer
demarcation between personal and official affairs. Rationality is
also reflected by the relatively easier means of calculability of
results in the organisation.
The bureaucratic form has no place for
Impersonality :
personal whims, fancies or irrational sentiments. Official activity
is conducted in a business-like manner with a high degree of
operational impersonality.
Rule orientation : Rationality and impersonality are mainly
achieved through formulation of rules and procedures which
clearly define official spheres of authority and conduct, which the
employees are to rigidly maintain in discharging their duties.
Neutrality :Bureaucracy is supposed to be apolitical and
neutral in its orientation and support to the political regime it
serves. It is also value-neutral committed only to the work it is
meant to perform.
The bureaucratic theory of organization is criticis¬
Criticism :
ed along several lines.
Weber’s ideal has evoked much criticism of his statement that
a bureaucratic type of organization is, at least from a technical
angle, capable of attaining the highest degree of efficiency.
Behavioural theorists such as Herbert Simon and Chester Barnard
have emphasized the point that administrative efficiency would be
reduced by following Weber’s structural approach and that
efficiency in an organization could be increased through informal
organizations and better human relations.*^ Gouldner, who has
tested Weber’s ideal-type empirically, found that the Weberian
model has internal contradictions which are reflected in the tensions
between the claims of expertise and the claims of obedience based
12. Peter M. Blau, in Modern Socieiv, Random House, New

York, 1962, p. 36.
ORGANISATION AND DEVELOPMENT : ALTERNATIVE THEORIES
on disciplined^ To enable a bureaucrat to function successfully

It IS necessary to give him maximum operational freedom. Weber
has also been criticised for not paying adequate attention in his
theory to human behaviour, relations, morale and motivational
lactors. His theory bas been called a ‘machine-theory’ and a clos¬
ed system model overemphasizing the formal rational aspects of
bureaucracy while ignoring the whole range of socio-cultural
environment and behavioural characteristics of large formal
organizations. ^
According to Laski, bureaucracy is characterised by a passion
tor routine in administration, the sacrifice of flexibility to rule,
delay in the making of decisions and a refusal to embark upon
experiments. In his New Despotism, Lord Hewart argued that
citizen rights and liberties are now in jeopardy because the typical
bureaucrat has lately come to exercise a lot of discretionary power
Which IS strictly against the principles of democratic administration
U has grown and developed under the cloak of ministerial responsi-
hilily. Max Weber has himself stated that “bureaucracy is the
means of carrying‘community action’ovei into rationally ordered
societal action’. Therefore, as an instrument for ‘socializing’
relations of power, bureaucracy has been and is a power instrument
ot the first order. ...”
R.K; Merton has argued that bureaucracy as an organizational
lorm is characterized by rigidity, over-emphasis on rules and regu¬
lations rather than on goals and objectives, and marked by lack of
public relations and class consciousness on the part of bureaucrats.
Lloyd and Susanne Rudolph have argued that the Weberian
model IS not necessarily the most rational and effective organiza¬
tional structure in terms of efficiency. They state.
Formal ^tionality (and technology) can contribute to organiza-
10^1 efficiency, but can also contribute to organisational
tlie sources of alienation and
istance, and fuelling the struggle of power against authority,
i ne persistence or retention of patrimonial elements in bureau-
cratic administration can mitigate if not eliminate the struggle
bureaucratic fe^tuês in patrimonial
enhance its efficiency and elTec-
Of bureaucracy in a democratic
Weber also analyzed the possible ill-elTects a burcau-
y m could have on the functioning of a democratic order.
ôn^*Un!v^rJ^tv^r (<-‘<1^), Papers on Cotnparaiixc Public Administra-

non. University of Michigan Press, 1962, p. 72.
“"tûsanne Hoeber Rudolph. ‘Authority and Power

Se?aii«n S'f®w Patrimonial Adminisiratioii : A Revisionist Inter¬
pretation of Weber on Bureaucracy," World Politics, January 1979.
PUBLIC ADMlNISTRAtlON
60
He noted that permanent officials may be inclined often to misuse
their authority. Bureaucratization which tends to concentrate
power in the hands of an administrative elite militates against the
principles of democracy. But on the other hand, he also realized
that without a rationally selected administrative class, democracy
will be plagued by the evils of a spoils system (nepotism and
patronage), which in the long run, leads to public waste, corruption,
red-tapism and inefficiency.
The Weberian model, the critics point out, can best function
in a stable environment with routine and repetitive tasks. Its capa¬
city for adaptation to change is rather limited. The model is
dysfunctional in terms of development and also in terms of jobs
involving innovation and creativity. In the developing countries
where rapid change is required to bring about socio-economic
transformation, the traditional structure of bureaucracy is ill-equip¬
ped to meet the tasks it is called upon to perform. Its limitations
in performing developmental tasks have often been pointed out.
The bureaucratic model is too rigid and inflexible to suit dynamic-
change oriented situations. As Trist comments,
The nineteenth century cannot be repeated in developing
countries in the last third of the twentieth. A fallacy is to
suppose that large-scale organisations in these countries must,
initially at least, be regimentally constructed in the bureaucra¬
tic mode that is beginning to decline in the advanced countries.
Evidence is mounting that the pre-industrial traditions of
many developing countries enable transbureaucratic styles to
be learnt more quickly than in some advanced countries where
a great deal of unlearning must first take place.*^
Other writers on bureaucracy, like Presthus, have also opined
that the Weberian model is a product of an alien culture which is
fairly inadequate for imposition in the developing societies. A
study of liic interaction between the administrative culture and the
social environment in India makes it clear that the bureaucratic
behaviour is more a product of past historic-colonial legacy than
of a rationally ordered developed society as said in the Weberian
model. Much of the bureaucratic behaviour tends to be dysfunc¬
tional, marked iii terms of developmental goals by rigidity, red-
tape and formalism ratlier than goal orientedness.
Social scientists like Warren Bennis have also predicted that
the bureaucratic form is outmoded and is likely to disappear in the
new developing societies. According to him, every age evolves its
own typical organizational form which becomes extinct with time
and bureaucracy; having outlived its utility in the present age it
15. Mobil Bhaltacharya, Durcaucracy ond Development Administration,

Uppal Publishing House, New Delhi, 1979, p. 7.
will be replaced by a more adaptable and appropriate form of

organization suited to contemporary needs.
The concept of bureaucracy has been criticised as being “the
product of a specific historical, social and political milieu”. To
overcome the shortcomings of the bureaucratic model, Riggs
introduced his ecological model of public administration. He
observes that Weber’s ideal type construct of bureaucracy assumes
a relatively autonomous administrative system and thus is not
particularly relevant to the study of developing societies. In deve¬
loping countries, the administrative structures do not enjoy sulTi-
cient autonomy from other social structures whereas in developed
societies they are comparatively more autonomous. I urlhcr, in
developing countries the administrative structures become multi¬
functional and are likely to perform a variety of “extr i-administra-
live functions” besides the strictly “administrative”. In the fluid
environments of transitional developing societies it is difficult to
study the administrative sub-systems on the basis of ideal type
constructs of Weber. Riggs thus points out the need for develop¬
ing new conceptual constructs to study such societies which have a
mixture of the primitive and the modern.
Conclusion : The bureaucratic theory of organization has
served a useful purpose in history by helping to develop professio¬
nalism in administration by incorporating rationalist ethics and
standards of conduct and business. It helped to evolve a modernist
administrative culture from the earlier feudal remnants of a corrupt,
authoritarian and unresponsive administrative ethos based on the
spoils and patronage system. It, therefore, was a progressive and
useful model of organization at one time. Much of the criticisms
of the bureaucratic model generally emanate trom Weber's ideal
type construct. It is necessary to understand that Weber wanted
to construct an ‘‘ideal type” or a “pure” model of bureaucracy
which obviously cannot be approximated to reality. Weber was
not a champion of the bureaucratic order, in fact he was more
than sufficiently aware of the evils of “bureaucratization.” He had
merely stated that compared to the then prevailing administrative
forms, bureaucracy was more capable of operating with greater
efficiency and rationality.
Weberian Mode! of Bureaucracy and Development Administration
The present century has witnessed remarkable changes in
almost al! facets of human life under the impact of science and
technology but there is no relevant change in the operational style
of bureaucracy in response to such changes. It still projects its
classical image which is based on the bureaucratic theory of orga¬
nisation propounded by Max Weber. The bureaucracy as an
organisational model has shown remarkable resilience to change
in keeping with the changes in the environment in which it func¬
tions. This problem has now assumed great significance in the
62 ptmuc administration
context of the structural and attitudinal changes required in the

bureaucracy in conformity with the changing socio-political and
economic environment of transitional societies. In these societies,
the state has assumed the responsibility of multifaceted develop¬
ment, and the bureaucracy has assumed the role of a key partner
in initiating and implementing programmes of nation building and
socio-economic progress.
In Weber’s ideal type construct, authority in the bureaucratic
organisation inheres in the office and not in the particular person
who happens to be the office holder at any given period of time.
This stress on depersonalisation of office is reflected in the bureau¬
crat’s trained impersonality since functionaries are supposed to
minimize personal relations and resort to detached work proce¬
dures. In such an approach the peculiarities of individual cases
are often ignored which tend to produce conflict in the bureau¬
cratic contacts with the public or the clientele.*® Thus the concept
of an impersonal order has within it the seeds of latent conflict
between the officials and the public. In fact, it is greatly dysfunc¬
tional to the emerging concept of human relations oriented
administration and harmful to the interests of a developing nation.
The concept of impersonality may bring a rigid rule oriented
approach which is the very opposite of commitment now regarded
as an essential prerequisite for development administration.*’
Secondly, in this model, the organization of official functions
is bound by rules. Rules provide stability and continuity to an
organization but as Merlon observes, “Adherence to the rules,
originally conceived as a means, becomes transformed into an end-
in-itself ; there occurs the familiar process of displacement of goals
whereby an instrumental value becomes a terminal one”. In
achieving developmental tasks, very often new rules have to be
framed or old ones modified to suit the changed conditions of
society. In case rules are outdated or static, they will tend to
become dysfunctional to development. A rigid application of old
rules will promote an clement of conservatism in bureaucracy. In
the changing set up of developing societies rule application should
be rational and dynamic which requires special training on the part
of bureaucrats.
Thirdly, according to Weber, bureaucracy functions according
to a strict division of labour based on specified spheres of compe¬
tence and authority which should be clearly demarcated in every
organisation. A clear-cut carving out of a sphere of competence
of a particular administrative branch or division helps to avoid
overlapping or confusion. But in the context of development
16. Merton, et. al.. Reader in Bureaucracy, p. 368.

17. See A.V. Satyanarayan Rao, “Weberian Model of Bureaucracy and Deve¬
lopment Administration” in Avasthi and Arora(cd.), Bureaucracy and
Development: Indian Perspectives, Associated Publishing House, New
Delhi, 1978, pp. 1-8.
admiuistration, the rigid application of this principle may lead to

considerable delay in getting things done. Development adminis¬
tration throws numerous new challenges in the sphere of adminis¬
tration and the administrator is expected to perform as he thinks
fit in any new situation that may develop in his sphere of
authority. Strict adherence to this norm will only lead to red-
tapism, shirking of responsibility and delay in programme imple¬
mentation. What is required is a flexible approach to the division
of tasks at all levels, keeping in view the need to meet any
emergency as and when it arises.
Fourthly, under the Weberian model, the organization of
offices follows the principle of hierarchy, that is, each lower office
is under the control and supervision of a higher one. The criterion
of hierarchy, it has been stated, is more appropriate to a centra¬
lised administrative system than to a democratically decentralised
system. In developing countries, the government has become a
multipurpose agency employing a number of technocrats and
specialists in its numerous branches, divisions and bodies. If all
these agencies were to be placed in strict hierarchical order, it
would lead to tricky problems of generalist-specialist relationships
regarding placement in the hierarchy, which may result in consi¬
derable heartburning on the part of both. Further, a rigid
adherence to the hierarchical principle does not contribute to the
feeling of mutual trust, either in the inter-organizational relations,
or in the inter-personal relations in the administration. In a deve¬
loping country all agencies and officials of the government should
consider themselves active participants and co-partners in the
development process rather than parts of a hierarchical ladder they
have to climb.
Weber’s ideal type model advocates the separation of adminis¬

trative staff from ownership of the means of production or
administration. It makes a complete distinction between the olficc
and the office holder, thereby stressing the fact that personal and
public ends arc distinct and have separate spheres. This view was
necessary to a great extent to check corruption and to explain the
main difterence between private and public administration. How¬
ever, it is not enough to formulate a code of conduct for bureau¬
crats, to check corruption. It is more necessary to examine the
cause of the malady which has assumed alarming proportions in
developing countries, and try to strike at the roots.
Another postulate of the Weberian model is that administra¬
tive acts, decisions and rules should all be recorded in writing,
in order to help public accountability of administration and to
make administrative transactions more scientific and professional.
But unfortunately in the context of developing countries, this has
only given way to rule-orientation, and excessive formalization of
the official work greatly impeding efficiency in an organization.
Too much documentation not only results in procedural delay

but also makes it difficult to discriminate between important
matters. Stress should be more on performance rather than proce¬
dures and file work in the administration of development projects
and programmes.
Commenting on the special characteristics of a development
bureaucracy Ghiidyal writes :
Bureaucracy for development tends to be characterized by
flexibility (even expediency) in place of excessive emphasis on
rationality. It reflects a sense of commitment in terms of
convictions and enthusiasm instead of impersonality and
chilling neutrality conveying lack of interest. It represents a
sense of social equality instead of ascribed respect to positions
in hierarchy and rank-consciousness which generates syco¬
phancy and flattery. It places premium on professionalisrn and
authority of competence in place of authority and legitimacy
of position in the hierarchy. It acknowledges authority of the
situation and it may even tend to develop a sense of ad hocism
in place of predictability of patterns of behaviour. It fosters
a sense of permissiveness and accessibility of the top brass of
administration and tears off the executive mask of aloofness of
those in the higher echelons of the pyramid. It also encourages
and fosters communicability and openness of communication
and consultation in inter-personal relationships in place of
secrecy because developmental processes thrive on democratic
traditions. Democracy distributes power by changing the loci
of power rather than by concentrating it at some focal points.
Delegation, therefore, becomes the hallmark of developmental
bureaucracy, just as coordination and teamwork are its
essence in implementation.’®
18. U.C. Ghiidyal, “Bureaucracy in a Developing Society” in Avasthi and

Arora (cd ), Bureaucracy and Development: Indian Perspectives''^ p. 22.
3
ADMINISTRATION, POLITY AND SOCIETY
Interaction with Historical and Political Legacies

The character of modern administration has been greatly
moulded by much expansion in the functions of modern stales.
The factors which taken together gave rise to ‘Big Govern¬
ment’ also contributed to the establishment of the ‘administrative
state’ in almost every developed and developing country ol the
world. The government formulates public policies and depends
on the public administration for their implementation. In modern
states bureaucracy performs multiple functions. Besides, perform¬
ing the older regulatory functions which were mostly preventive,
and coercive in nature (maintenance of law and order, collection
of revenue, defending the state against aggression), they now
render various services to the people. Provision of modern ameni¬
ties of life, education, health, employment and imoroved me ins of
transportation are some of the important tasks ot socio-economic
transformation undertaken by newly created departments of
government everywhere, specially in the developing countries ol tlic
Third World.
In these countries the bureaucracy for historical reasons, being
more articulate and well developed than other social structures is
in a belter position to assume key responsibility for socio-economic
change. Therefore, despite various alternatives which arc often
floated from time to time the public bureaucracy, retains the
central place in the politico-administrative system due to its
“homogeneity, large numbers and professional competence.”
Most of the Third World countries face the common problems
of moving towards the twin goals of nation-building and rapid
socio-economic progress. They are caught up in a whirlpool of
rapid change and an upsurge of rising expectations which create
tremendous pressure on the governments to bring about an all
round development and modernization of all sectors of ad¬
ministration, polity and society. Though various Third World
countries have adopted varying strategies of development, there

are certain common elements in their politics of development.
The major elements are ; (i) a widely shared consensus on the
goals of development ; (ii) a high degree of reliance on the govern¬
ment for achieving the developmental objectives ; (iii) wide preva¬
lence of primordial over national loyalties ; (iv) oft-recurring
political unrest and instability ; (v) existence of a modern political
elite ; and (vi) uneven growth of political structure and the bureau¬
cracy among those in the more developed category.
Developmental goals and the urgency with which they are
sought to be achieved inevitably calls for vigorous state action as
the principle instrument of social transformation. Neither time nor
means is available for experimentation with slow and gradual
progress in the western pattern of development with private enter¬
prise as the main vehicle of change. The political authority with
its power and resources almost automatically assumes a position
of pivotal importance in the developmental process of the Third
World.
To become an agent of change, public bureaucracy must have
the potential to give direction and dynamism to the pace of change
and have the capacity to adapt itself to changes demanded or
planned by the political authority and also initiate its own changes,
where needed. In other words, public administration should
undergo structural and attitudinal changes to develop the right
type of vision, change-orientedness and administrative skills for
the success of developmental programmes. This brings us to the
question of how far the existing administrative structures of the post¬
colonial, post-independence societies of the Third World are com¬
petent and capable enough to carry on the tasks expected of them ?
How well have they been playing their role and meeting the
challenges ? This can be better understood if wc analyse the pro¬
blems and strains of the bureaucracy in the Third World in the
context of the problems of interaction between the existing
administrative structure and its colonial or past heritage in the
functioning of administration and politics.
Ferrel Heady has discussed some of the common historical
legacies of the developing countries as reflected in the characteristic
features of their present administrative systems. These are as
follows :*
(1) All countrie.s, including those which escaped western
colonization, have consciously tried to introduce some
version of modern western bureaucratic administration.
A country which was formerly a colony its administra¬
tion will almost certainly resemble that of the coloniser.
1. Ferrel Heady, Public Administration : A Comparative Perspective, 1966,

pp 69-72. f • ,
ADMINISTRATION, POLITY AND SOCIETY 67
(2) These bureaucracies are deficient in skilled manpower

necessary for developmental programmes. The shortage
being of trained administrators with management capa¬
city, developmental skills and technical competence.
(3) These bureaucracies are other than production oriented.

The value attached to status based on ascription rather
than achievement explains much of this behaviour. Non-
merit considerations may greatly influence promotions,
assignment dismissals, and other personnel practices.
Corruption is widespread.
(4) The widespread discrepancy between form and reality is
what Riggs has called ‘formalism’. It reflects an urge to
make things seem as they presumably ought to be rather
than what they really are. There is a wide gap between
government proposals and their implementation, most
laws being quietly bypassed or not implemented at all.
(5) Finally, the bureaucracy in a developing country is apt to

have a generous measure of operational autonomy, which
can be accounted for by the convergence of several forces
usually at work in a recently independent and moder¬
nizing nation. Colonialism was essentially rule by bureau¬
cracy with policy guidance from remote sources, and
this pattern continued even after independence. Groups
capable of competing for political influence or of impos¬
ing close controls over the bureaucracy are fesv, so that
often it moves into a partial power vacuum. The political
role of bureaucracy varies from country to country and
is closely related to the particular political system type In
a developing country.
During the colonial period the emphasis in transitional

societies was on the establishment of legal and administrative
structures of modern government. The task of building cohesive
political processes was not the concern of colonial rulers. This
led to an imbalance between .administrative and political develop¬
ment in these countries. When they achieved independence their
administrative systems were far more developed than the political
with the result that the latter was ineffective and ill-equipped for
determining the appropriate goals of administration, maintaining
the integrity of the administrative system, and collaborating with it
in achieving its welfare goals. Lucian Pyc, F.W. Riggs and La
Palombara also came to this conclusion in their analyses of
bureaucratic and political developments in the new states. Pye,
for instance,' finds that these countries have neither effective
administration nor stable polities and that public administration
cannot be greatly improved without a parallel strengthening of the
democratic, representative political processes.^ Similarly, Riggs is

struck by “the weakness of their extra-bureaucratic political
institutions in contrast with the burgeoning growth of their bureau¬
cracies and advances the thesis that premature or too rapid
expansion of the bureaucracy when the political system lags behind
tends to inhibit the development of effective politics”.^ Both Pye
and Riggs thus emphasize the importance of strengthening the
political system as a pre-condition for the effectiveness of adminis¬
tration; if the former is weak and ineffective, the latter will also
partake of the same character. To both of them, excessive
concentration on strengthening the administrative system without
parallel strengthening of the political processes, will only accen¬
tuate the imbalance between administration and politics. By
emphasizing the problem of the viability and relative importance
of the political and administrative structures in political moder¬
nization, they provide a valuable insight for the planners and
builders of new societies.
A conclusion which emerges from the above discussion is that

the goal of realising a modern state and a modern society is greatly
dependent upon the establishment of both a stable and cohesive
polity and the strengthening of the authoritative structures of
government. For example, in India, it would appear that there
has been a decline in the functional capability of both the political
and the administrative sectors of the system. A fundamental
feature of political development in India is the ineffectiveness of
the political system in dealing with increasing demands in the
shape of providing basic services, maintaining law and order and
formulating and executing policies.
The Indian administration still exhibits a continuity of the
British bureaucratic system with its emphasis on formalism,
impersonality, obsession for security and lack of bureaucratic
initiative .... A major weakness of the Indian administrative
system is its callousness in responding to the goals and demands of
nation-building and modernization. A key problem in India is,
therefore, the training, socializing and directing of a cadre of
administrators who are sensitive and capable of adapting to the
needs and responding to the issues of society. Another major
problem of the administrative system relates to the need for its
modernizatioit which is related with the degree of specificity of
functions, the extent of unlversalistic norms of conduct, and the
existence of achievement standard. Such a transformation of the
administrative system implies, among other things, its minimum
2. Lucian Pye, The Political Context of National Development’ in Irving

Swerdlovv (ed.). Development Administration : Concepts and Problems
Syracuse University Press, 196?.
T; .Riggs (cd) Frontiers of Development Administration. Duke
University Press, N.C., 1970.
ADMINISTRATION, POLIIY AND SOCIETY 69
professional and funclional autonomy and its separation from

political roles, and tlie adoption of modern administrative
practices. The adoption of universalistic norms in administration,
as in the sphere of political development, does not mean the sup¬
planting of traditional norms and institutions but their utilization
for the achievement of new goals.
The Indian Situation
The interaction between the administration and its p.ist

heritage in administrative and political fields can be further
explained by citing other examples from the Indian situation. At
the time ot independence we had constitutionally adopted the
goal of a democratic social welfare slate. In this framework the
public bureaucracy was to play a pivotal role as the chief agent of
change and modernization.
Tlic Government started on an ambitious model of planned

development through democratic means relying on the traditional
bureaucracy, which the nation had inherited from the British
colonial period, to implement new schemes and programmes.
Though the post-independence rulers viewed the old bureaucracy
with suspicion, they retained the old structure of administration
with piecemeal changes, wherever necessary. The Indian civil
service of British days was a well-knit, homogeneous, all India
service, generalist and non-technical in nature and comprising a
small administrative elite, highly qualified, selected on merit, and
trained in the traditional virtues of integrity, functional efficiency
and neutrality in civil service. The colonial administration in India
was authoritarian, paternalistic, preventive and coercive in nature
and was fundamentally non-dcvelopmental. The main task of the
administrators was the maintenance of law and order and collcclion
ot revenues. The bureaucrats being a specially privileged class in
colonial society, gradually became by position and training
conscr^tive, rigid and the greatest supporters of British imperia-
iisrn. 1 hey were given a large measure of operational autonomy
without any institutionalised system of accountability to the people.
After independence the national scenario underwent iremcn-
uous change to incorporate the democratic socialistic ethos
envisioned in the Constitution. Democracy brought in the
ar lament, rriinisters, elections and political parties coupled with
inc concept of public accountability of civil servants. The nature
onH tasks also completely changed in variety, multiplicity
ana orientation. The emphasis shifted from preventive functions
to service and development oriented.
..rt„ *'■ social and economic changes

alter independence the suitability of the inherited model of
Dureaucracy in the present time is often questioned. The change
70 POBLIC ADMlNiSTRAtlON
from the pre-independence to the post-indepcndcncc era is not only

a change from ‘limited government’ to Big Government; but also
from ‘autocracy’ to ‘democracy’.
The bureaucracy has now to function in an environment where
it works under the direction of a political head who is responsible
for the department under his charge to the legislature. The politi¬
cal head has to act under many constraints like the policy guide¬
lines from the legislature, and various pressures from political
parties and other pressure groups.
Some of these important implications of democracy for the
functioning of bureaucracy in our country have been discussed at
length by C.P. Bhambri in his study of the Indian bureaucracy.**
Unlike the British period, the bureaucracy now is guided and
controlled by the people’s representatives. The political element
lays down the public policies, defines the tasks of bureaucracy,
and supervises their implementation. The meaning of supremacy
of the political element in public policy formulation is that
whatever may be the source of the origin of policy, its ultimate
responsibility is on the political chief to defend and account for
the policy in legislature. The challenge for the bureaucracy in
India is to accept the supremacy of political leadership and to give
it full co-operation. Indian bureaucrats who were given a large
measure of functional autonomy during the British rule had
developed a certain authoritarian style of functioning which they
found diflicult to give up after independence. Bureaucrats have
repeatedly complained ol political interference in administration
in independent India. Tlie elected representatives think they
know what is best lor the people, whereas bureaucrats who are
working in the field feel that with their intimate knowledge of
people and administration they have a right to interpret laws as
they think fit. The politicians accuse the bureaucrats of being
rigid and ol blocking the implementation of progressive socialistic
laws. The bureaucrats resent the latter’s role in increasing
politicisation of administration and tlieir power in matters of
civil service appointments, transfers, promotions etc., which has
only led to increasing servility and compliance on the part of the
civil servants to please their masters.
Another controversial leature of the politico-administrative

relationship is the neuiraility ol civil service. One of the distingui¬
shing features of the traditional concept of bureaucracy is its
neutrality. In western societies the civil service retained its
neutrality and anonyniity in a liberal democracy w'ith a competitive
party system. A value-tree neutral bureaucracy was possible in a
society where consensus existed on values, but in transitional
^P Îj'^nibhri. Bureaucracy anti Poliiics in Wio, Delhi, Vikas, 1961,

ADMINISTRATION, POLl fY AND SOCIETY 71
class-divided societies like ours where there is no consensus on

values, it is neither desirable nor possible for the bureaucracy to
function impartially, neutrally or in a value-free manner. There
are all sorts of political parlies, with wide ranging differences in
opinion on political issues. It is scarcely surprising for civil
servants to have political views and prelerences of their own which
may lead to unavoidable political bias, at times, in their attitudes.
Can impartial, passive and detached civil servants have
the requisite emotional involvement with developmental pro¬
grammes which is a necessary prerequisite of their success?
Other qualities needed of a modern administrator arc farsighted¬
ness, flexibility, dvnaniism and result orientedness. The old
structure could perform w'cll in a stagnant society. The civil
service has to undergo radical, structural, procedural and at-
liludinal changes if it has to serve as an elTective instrument of
change and progress in a developing society. The civil service
has to cultivate much wider social awareness and responsiveness
to popular needs and aspirations. The administrative culture and
ethos in our country has not kept pace w’ilh popular expectations
after independence' The organisational structure and socio¬
economic background of the bureaucracy remains much the same
as it was during the British days, except that tlic strength and
functions of public administrators have increased greatly.
Another implication of a democratic political system is that
the bureaucracy should shed its c.xclusiveness, reserve, and authori¬
tarian style of functioning in general and come closer to the
people. The people should on their part give up their anti-bureau¬
cracy stance and show more inclination to participate at all
levels of administrative and political activities, if they desire to
get the fullest benefit of democratic government and administration.
The relationship between the citizen and the administrator should
be based on mutual goodwill and trust.
In a democratic administration the bureaucrats, who are
accountable to the people arc expected to have high standards
of conduct, integrity and morality coupled with merit and
efficiency. In India publicenquiries revealed widespread corruption
in the public services. Civil servants allege that corruption is an
unfortunate by-product of political interference and increasing
politicisation of the services. The issue of corruption has assumed
gigantic proportions and is a great slur on our administratise
system.
It is often said that this is a general reflection of the falling
standards of integrity and conduct of our civil service as compared
to the British period. However, this cannot be entirely true,
says Bhambhri. The integrity and ethical standards ol the
British Indian Civil Service were not necessarily higher in every
respect. Corruption was prevalent even in the British era, the
instruments of public control over administration in our dcmocraiic
system have only helped to expose corruption much more than

was possible during the British rule.
Conclusion : Like so many other developing countries, India
is a state and society in transition from a semi-feudal, semi-
capitalist, to an industrial and modernized society ; in Riggsiao
terms we are moving from the ‘agraria’ towards the ‘induslria’. The
public administration too, like other social and political structures,
is passing through a phase, when old norms and values of the
bureaucracy are going through a process of renovation, readapta¬
tion and redeGnition to suit new socio-economic changes and
conditions of our time.
Interaction with Traditional Structures and Culture

Culture has been defined as the entire sum total of beliefs and
social behaviour. Modes of social action and behaviour are
human activity with respect to food, clothing, shelter, marriage,
child rearing, entertainment, creative e.xpression and so forth.
The culture of a country Gnds expression through the medium
of language and art, philosophy and religion, education and science,
Glms and newspapers, radio and television, social habits and cus¬
toms, political institutions and economic organisations. Every
society's culture is a storehouse of symbolic structures which func¬
tion us institutionalized systems of meaning by which a human
being assesses the historical situation and adapts himself to it.
An administrative system is concerned with the implementa¬
tion of public policy and execution of laws. It renders various
services to the people and in modern times is no longer a mere law
and order enforcing agency but an indispensable arm of the
government for attending to the welfare needs and aspirations of
its citizens. Commenting on the relationship between culture and
administration Waldo writes,^ “Administration is a part of the
cultural complex; and it not only is acted upon, it acts. Indeed, by
deGniiion, a system ol rational cooperative action, it inaugurates
and controls much change. Administration may be thought of as
the major invention and device by which civilised men in complex
societies try to control their culture.”
Developing countries all over the Third World arc facing
common problems ot poverty, overpopulation, ignorance, disease
and underdevelopment. Most ol them are ex-colonies and after
independence have adopted nation-building and socio-economic
progress, as their primary goals. With these objectives in mind
they have adopted numerous welfare programmes and have entrust¬
ed the major responsibility for their implementation to public
5. pwighi Waldo, T/ie S(ud}' vf Public Adnunisiratioiit Random House, New

York, 1955, p. 11.
ADMtNlSTRATION, POLITY AND SOCIETY 73
^hcsc couiitrics have inherited an undcmo-

craUc administrative culture (authoritarian, unresponsive and
elitists) which is a legacy of their colonial past. Modernization and
development requires a dynamic, goal-oriented public administra
tion which can initiate and implement Pîs p ogT ^n es
Another important prerequisite of social change is active Sk
‘i^vclopmein process Unfortm
natc y the public bureaucracies in these countries are most often
neither structurally nor bchaviourally equipped to carry out devclon-
mentai tasks They are further hampered by pubi c !n rtia a„d
resistance to change. This is mostly due to psycho omcal hurdles
like fear, poverty and ignorance of the people condh oned bv
national or regional customs and traditions ^ ^
£i;=las|spa;
elcvam .o" o'' '•'l.ange a'l.d n od. ° tn

localTnsmuJons rn vV, "’^'>'"8 o''"’o
early pa o X the nincKcmh and
WorM^ôni.,vV L,V ‘ \ century, modernization in the Third
classes aXhl nln, 'o mean Europeanization of the upper
growth models to .1 ° -’'■‘"agemcni and econo,nie
in th^^ ' 'i f?oio.econo,„ie progress. Modernizatiou
Firsllv it ^ ^ come to acquire different meanings.
. worldwide dillusion ol“a
cultural ctan,i ^^liojcsalc adoption of western norms and
DOW to ^ K- societies. Each developing nation is seeking
now to achieve economic progress and development not merely by
Public administration
74
imiiaiion of western models of culture and growth but by evolving

its own pattern of modernity. In other words, the sources of develop-
ment should not be entirely exogenous but endogenous as well.
There is an increasing tendency to evaluate the ^cio-cultural
functionality of imposed structural innovations in Third World
countries. In the evaluation of successful public administration, the
older concepts of efficiency and performance are not the sole
criteria now; the first concern is the satisfaction of citizens.
Development’is not merely economic growth, but growth with
justice and social equity. To talk of endogenous development is
to seek development without cultural alienation, without destroying
or disiorling the cultural personality of a people. It is to affirm
the principle that each society must remain itself drawing its
strength from the forms of thought and action that are peculiar to
it and cearina its development elforisto goals consistent with its
native value-system, needs and available resources. In short, the
work of development must be based on what the people of a
nation do, want, think, and believe. Their active and strongly
motivated participation is thus a precondition for ensuring the
originality of forms, styles and channels of development. The
administrator's role is to muster, organise and make rational use
of resources, once the political authorities have laid down the
main guidelines and objectives of development and to adapt and
incorporate plans and programmes to the socio-cultural environ¬
ment.
That pan of culture which bears relevance to politics or
management of polity is commonly known as political culture. In
any operative political system it is a force which gives meaning
as well as direction to the polity. This could be perceived in the
traditions of the society, the spirit of its public institutions, the
passions and collective'behaviour of its citizenry and the style of
operation of its leaders.
The political clement in a polity largely defines the goal
of administrative action based on the constitution and laws,
and it is the administration which has to carry out the
tasks towards achieving these goals. Administration keeps the
fabric of society intact. It is the art of management, the tool of the
state to acliieve its goal. The art of administration is the direction,
coordination and control of many persons to achieve some collec¬
tive purpose. The major dilTerences in the political and cultural
patterns of modern and traditional societies have been analysed by
ditferent scholars. Fcrncr describes the major difference between
traditional and modern political culture thus :
It deploys people by kinship into communities isolated trom
each other and from a center; without an urban-rural division
of labour, it develops new needs requiring economic inter¬
dependence; lacking the bonds of interdependence, people’s
liorizons arc limited by locale and their decisions involve only

other known people in known situations.... Modern society
is participant in that it functions by consensus—individuals
making personal decisions on public issues must concur with
other individuals they do not know, to make possible a stable
common governance.^
J S. Coleman in an impressive summary of a wide variety of
developing political cultures also identifies paiticipation as an
essential aspect of modern society. He calls attention to the “wide
gap which exists between the traditional mass and the essentially
modern sub-society of the westernized elite.” They are, in fact, the
main focus of political activity. He indicates that governing elites
(includes the administrators) in many emerging nations are ‘ engag¬
ed in the development and strengthening of sjsiem wide secondary
structures that not only impinge directly upon the individual but
also penetrate the primary socializing structures. They are seeking
to create by an act of will, an integrated process of political sociali¬
zation in which at all levels there is an inculcation of positive
sentiments of respect, loyally and pride in the new politics . . . .
Their efforts are being met with strong resistance, especially from
particularistic forces—forces whicli modernization itself ironically
tends, in many situations, to strengthen.”’
Traditional structures and culture arc often ignored in the
various efforts made to reform administration in developing
countries. The characteristics of western bureaucracy arc generally
considered tlic ideal typical type to be imitated in Third World
countries.
Besides, development is the responsibility of the stale alone
and the people arc considered an ignorant and passive mass to
be directed by administration. The local culture and traditional
structures are all sought to be replaced by western structures and
values imposed by the slate administration. However, western
style bureaucracies often tend to become irrelevant in the vastly
dilTerent environments of developing societies. A coldly lormal
and neutral bureaucracj concerned with proper procedures and file
work will find it impossible to deal with people who are illiterate,
superstitious, and ignorant of llic forms and methods ol the lunc-
tioning ot secular institutions. Wliat is required in these countries
is oral communication and cflcclivc dialogue coupled with intormal
relationship, to gel public co-operation and support, to break
the vicious circle of fear and ignorance against cliange and
innovation.
6. Daniel Fcrner, The Paisitif; of ilie Transitional Society, Cilcneoc, The

Free Press, 1958, p. 50.
7. Paul Meadows. “Moiivalion for Change and Dcvclopmcni Administra¬
tion” In Irving Swerdlow (ed.), Derclopnient Ailniinixiratiun : Concepts ana
Problems, Syracuse University Press, New Yotk, 1963, pp. 98-99.
The public administrator should make use of the existing

traditional forms of cooperation to encourage greater participation
by the people. The real goal should be to make the administration
endogenous in terms of attitudes and behaviour, that is, its
acculturation. With the responsibility that has devolved upon it
to execute socio-economic programmes, there is need for making
the administration culturally sensitive.
Culturally sanctioned values and symbols have acted as
important catalysts of change in human history. History is wit¬
ness to the fact that whenever the economic task has become a
cultural challenge, economic development has received a fillip. For
example, the Puritans in England, the Samurai in Japan and the
Bolsheviks in Russia. They came, not as economic or industrial
pioneers but as the torchbearers of “new all round transformation
of the nation’s destiny.’’® Similar was the message that Gandhi
gave to our nation. He used our culture as an instrument of moder¬
nization and social change.
Indian culture is a composite one, of unity and synthesis,
of reconciliation and growth, of harmony and assimilation, a
fusion of old traditions and new values. While viewing culture
as power, we have to take note of the fact that the forces of pro¬
gress and regress have simultaneously worked in our culture.
Historically our culture has sustained a highly individualistic
ethos and a stratified society. It was considered natural and
proper for man to be born unequal and enjoy unequal rights and
privileges. These inequalities were given some sort of legitimacy
by means of a system based on the theories of dharma and karma.
Nlcn were born as Brahmins, or Shudras according to the law of
karma and in society it was their dliarma to act in accordance
with the situation of life to which they were born. The law of Manu
more or less formalised these inequalities. The forces of rationalism
and change invigorated our society with the rise of Buddhism
and Jainism, but these failed for a variety of reasons. In certain
periods of history, there developed institutions of caste and
untouchabiiity. The caste system broke up the unity of Indian
life and impeded the growth of an open society. It continues to be
a powerful force still.
Viewed against tliis backdrop a trend which is clearly discerni¬
ble in the Indian situation is the hiatus between the political culture
of various elite groups and mass political culture. After indepen¬
dence, India became one of the few nations in which power was
deliberately and successfully decentralised. The result has been that
at the local levels lc^s educated and more traditional individuals
have acquired political power who have brought w’ith them their
8. For a detailed analysis see B.P. Singh. “Political Culture and Public
Administration in the National Value System: The Indian Scenario,”
Indian Journal of Puhlic Administration, Vol. XXVIl, No. 4. 1981,
pp. 104.1-1054.
ADMiNISTRATION, POLITY AND SOCIETY 77
attitudes towards power and government, which the educated urban

elite, mostly at the national level, find less acceptable. There, thus,
have emerged two political cultures in our country operating at
different levels of the Indian polity. The elite political culture is
personified by India’s planners, national political leaders and
members of senior administrative services. The mass culture is
rural oriented and is more rooted in tradition.
A look at the administrative history of India reveals that
barring certain periods, there was no unity in administration.
India’s political disunity has been largely conditioned by the
inadequacy of her scientific and technological strength viN-a-vis her
geographieal and cultural unity. While geography and culture
demanded unification of the country, the prevalent slate of control
over the forces of nature rendered this difliculi to achieve and
almost impossible to maintain. The vaslncss of the country and
the absence of modern methods of communication worked against
political unification.
In India, the modernization process has created problems of
its own. The traditions of family and village have undergone
change, leading to the breakup of joint family system. Within
the same village and in the simc town. dilTerent consumption
patterns and purchasing capacities have come up. Unemployment,
regional disparities, the growth of rural urban hiatus have created
social divisions and inequality. Tiiis has led to some dissent from
rnodernization. However, the need is to accelerate the nioderniza-
tion process to alleviate people’s poverty which can be achieved
only through science and technology and spread of education. In
other words, people are to be motivated to break ‘The culture of
poverty” and adopt a rational scientific cultural ethic wlilch would
hasten progress and development. In this the administration has a
vital role to play.
The most crucial impact of social change has been in the
growth of administrative functions in India. Increasingly, a new
administrative ethos is being seen in India which reflects the popular
will and is motivating to develop organisational competence and
inputs to tackle the new challenges. In this context, administration
is continually interacting with the political, economic and socio¬
cultural value system of our society. It is both a modifying iiillu-
ence upon these systems and is itself getting modified by them
in turn. Unfortunately, the declining moral standards in public life
have adversely affected quality of administration at every level. It
IS in this context that the new public administration has to devise
built-in safeguards against forces leading to maladjustment and
confusion, corruption and lethargy.
Eradication of poverty as well as an overall progress can only
ne achieved through science and technology and by a clear under¬
standing of how natural forces work and how these could be
78
harnessed for human betterment. Science has created the capacity

to liberate large masses of humanity from misery, poverty, squalor
and disease. The increasing use of science and technology in the
aiTairs of our economy and society at large is dependent upon the
type of values which we cherish and propagate. Administration
could provide the patent catalytic force to the forces of change by
forging culture and administration into instruments of social
change.
Conclusion
In the foregoing discussion certain aspects clearly stand out :
first, there are forces operating in the name of culture against
change and progress. Second, a pre-requisite for rapid socio¬
economic progress is the expeditious propagation of a scientific
temper and respect for rationality. Besides, a third important aspect
is to initiate certain institutional changes like electoral reforms
and decentralisation to usher, in a new political culture which
will be able to hold the people together and will move them, and
the administration, to work for improving the present state of the
nation, ensuring total commitment for secular institutions in all
matters relating to our social, cultural, political and economic life.
Onr political leaders and administrators should understand the
logic of development processes and fulfil the rising expectations of
the people by moulding and recreating cultural symbols, where
necessary, to hasten the development process.
Where tradition does not conflict with development administra¬
tion, initial public resistance to change can generally be overcome
by visible signs of success. There is seldom continued resistance,
on principle," to innovation, be it administrative or technological.
Once an innovation or administrative programme is shown to be
useful, religious teachings often encourage cooperation. Hindu
scriptures, for example, speak of nishkama-karma (action without
the desire for its fruits), a code taken by Gandhi and most other
Hindu leaders to inculcate a new work ethics. Secondly, in the
four stages of life in the Hindu religion, artha can be interpreted
as keen participation iti social activities to improve material and
ideal living standard among fcllowmen. In India, the persuasive
power of the religious or charismatic leaders, considered the tradi¬
tional authority figures, can also be utilized in mobilizing popular
support.
Knowledge of the culture of a region can be of positive benefit
to the development administrator. A familiarity with tradition
can help him to refine liis method of introducing an innovation and
getting support for it. Traditional patterns of thought and action
can often be turned from impediments into assets. Generally, the
methods rather than the targets of administration determine
whether cultural processes will retard or facilitate development
efforts. The targets are so broad and general that they can be
made acceptable no matter what the cultural milieu. But an agency
or administrator’s methods may cither clash or fall in line with
traditional norms and values.
The administrator must strive to distinguish cultural hurdles,
conditioned by peculiarities in regional traditions from what has
been called universal psychological hurdles, e.g., fear, general
poverty, insecurity and ignorance. Changes which arc truly in¬
compatible with tradition must be distinguished from those that
are merely thought to be so. Problems arising from cultural as
distinguished from universal hurdles can often be overcome by
reference to tradition. “Only by such cultural improvisations can
the administrator’s method be designed to minimize friction
between modernization and tradition.”’
Impact of Political System

The main function of a political system is the formulation and
implementation of public policy through the mobilization of
national resources and their allocation for the attainment of
societal goals. The capability of a political system refers to the
capacity of both the policy and government to meet increasingly
heavy demands and challenges, the loads they are able to bear, and
their outputs in terms of policies, decisions and their implomenia-
tion.
With the expansion of the functions of government and its
increasing role in social and economic development, the adminis¬
trative system has assumed much importance. The administrator
plays a dual role primarily performing the “output” function of
executing policies and programmes; he also performs important
“input” functions which relate not only to policy making but also
to determining public orientation towards the government, ihc
expectations that the public has from the government and the
demands that are channelled into the political process. The
administrative system thus performs a significant role, in the
capability function of the political system, both in the “input” and
"output” aspects, and links the polity to society.
In the words of Peter Self :
The political process deals with the input of demands and the
administrative process with the output of services. The former
process moves upwards, embracing ihc claims ot successively
broader constituencies, while the latter process moves down¬
wards, disaggregating laws and general policies into specilic
operations, both processes can be said to have become more
9. Aghenanda Dharaii, "Cultural Hurdles in Developmcni Administiaiion

in Irving Swcrdlow (cd.). Development Adrtiinistiaiion : Concepts anti
Problems, 1963, pp. 68*82.
‘pluralistic’, in the sense that influences and decisions have

become more diffused and that (in most western democracies)
more contacts occur between the two processes.*®
The influence and impact of the political system on the
administrative system is great due to the close relation between
politics and administration in all societies. There is a continuing
academic debate in the discipline of public administration regarding
the relationship between the two. The history of public adminis¬
tration began with an essay written on the issue by Woodrow Wilson
in 1887 when he made a clear distinction betweeen “politics”
(where government makes choices over public policy) and “admini¬
stration” (which serves the people by implementing and execut¬
ing government decisions and laws without participating in active
politics.)
There were and still are a group of scholars in public adminis¬

tration, who would “take administration” out of politics and
would want the public servants to remain politically neutral and
out of partisan politics. But the fact is that the activities of policy
making and policy execution are not entirely separate. All govern¬
ment and administrative work is to a certain extent political.
Much legislation originates in the executive departments and the
administrators play an important role in policy formulation by
their expert advice, suggestion and supply the required information
to the ministers concerned. According to Paul Appleby all
administration and policy making within the government are
political, but only a small part of either has identifiable partisan
character. He has elaborated the relationship between politics and
administration thus: society has certain needs and demands and
government is the only institution in society to meet these demands
and needs. Government today has both preventive functions, like
maintenance of law and order and collection of revenue, as well as
welfare oriented functions. like providing for education, transport
and sanitation. Politics is the means by which society faces up to
the issues and decides how to resolve them. Politics involves a
choice among alternative values, philosophies, and goals.
Societal needs and pressures when accepted may eventually
become law. Law takes many forms, including enacted constitu¬
tions, statutory enactment, and administrative and judicial deci¬
sions. Administration is the application of policy formulated by
law in a constantly untolding process, making the laws of legisla¬
tures and the courts increasingly specific by means of policy
application to particular cases.“
10. Peter Self, Adminixnathe Theories and Politics, S. Chand and Co. Ltd.,
New Delhi, 1984, p. 5.
11. M.E. Dimock, Public Administration, PP. 101-103.
Irrespective of the nature of political system, at the higher

levels politics and administration arc inseparable from each other.
Herbert Simon designated the entire process, as one of
‘decision-making,’ regardless of its policy or administrative nature.
Political thinkers like Peter Self have accepted the concept of
administrative politics, thereby meaning that administration is a
branch of politics.
The executive in most countries comprised two major
elements—the political and the permanent, with interlocking
functions at the higher levels. In the socialist countries, adminis¬
tration is highly politicised, and suffused with political content and
control at every level. The hierarchies of the political and
administrative systems interlock at every level, in the discussion
on the Russian and Chinese administrative systems this point has
been clearly elaborated.
In democratic systems, the legislature through law lays down
the government policy, that is. it clearly states the framework with¬
in which the administration has to execute or implement laws in
particular circumstances. In cabinet systems, as in Britain and India,
political control is further exercised by making members of the
council of ministers (who arc members of the majority party in
Parliament) the heads of administrative departments. In the
American system, the fact that the chief executive as well as the
legislatures are popularly elected, implies a common source of
authority, power and purpose.
Legislatures make laws, but administrators determine what
the law is, in terms of execution. Administrators offer consider¬
able suggestions and guidelines to framers of policy, who only lay
down a very broad framework of policy which is made functionally
more specific by the administrators. Moreover, the scope of
government functions today is so vast that legislatures, out of
sheer necessity, delegate more and more responsibility for the
content of policy proposals to administrative agencies. This was
the main reason for the origin of the concept of delegated legisla¬
tion.
Situation in Developing Countries

A significant feature of the political systems of developing
countries is the increasingly central role that their governments and
bureaucracy have come to play in the programme of development.
The very concept of government is undergoing a fundamental ch:inge
in these countries. Not only has its rolcchanged from governance by
coercion, to that of administration of public welfare but its activi¬
ties are also assuming a new range, and depth. Whether democratic
or authoritarian, the governments of developing countries arc
playing a key role in stimulating, programming and implementing
development activity. Therefore, the growth of the state capacity
82
to give a purposeful direction to socio-economic change is a crucial
dimension of the capability function of the political systems of the
developing states.
It is clear that the capacity of developing countries to deal
effectively with the problems of nation-building and modernization
depends upon the development of coherent and viable political
systems and effectiveness of bureaucratic role. To fulfil these tasks
the political system must evolve a participant “civic culture”,
ensure sustained economic growth and promote national unity and
consensus. Such a transformation or development makes it
necessary to secure the acceptance of, and commitment to, the new
purposes, goals and techniques by, at least, the major sectors of
society. This underlines the importance of social mobilization for
building a sustained support to the efforts at nation building and
socio-economic and technological development.
While the administrative structure is essential for formulating
and carrying out operating programmes, they sufi'er from many
deficiencies in their framework in the developing countries. Often
the administrative agencies align with political leaders leading in
factional politics and rivalry between the departments. They also
show a tendency towards acquiring independent power positions
to increase their group interests. Their energies are more often
spent in perpetutating their self interest than in the pursuit of
development goals. Bureaucracy in developing countries is often
short on enterprise, initiative and adaptability, slow to act, and
arrogant and callous in dealing with the public.
Political leaders and the administrators, as stated earlier,
perform the Important functions of maintaining societal stability,
and goal-attainment. Performing different but complementary
roles and manning structures which involve the development pro¬
cesses of society, thev constitute two fundamental instruments of
social and political change. The relation and interaction between
these two sectors, politics and administration, therefore, have an
important bearing on development processes and tasks. Their
relationship and interactions operate both at the macro level
affecting the stability and dynamism of the regimes and at the
micro level influencing the implementation of individual
programmes.
Administration influences, and is influenced by the polity.
Some of the elements in this interaction in India need to be briefly
noted here. Firstly, the administration is getting increasingly politi¬
cised. The political leaders and elected representatives of the
people tend to control the administration excessively, interfere with
its implementation process and bring unjust pressures and demands
on it. This has both healthy and adverse eflects on the adminis¬
tration, it restrains administrative excesses and corruption and
makes the administrators responsible to the elected representatives
ADMINISTRATION, POLITY AND SOCIEIY 83
of the people and responsive to their problems. But excessive

political control on and interference with the administration makes
the latter frustrated and powerless thereby reduces its indepen¬
dence and effectiveness. This also frequently leads to the involve¬
ment of administrators in partisan politics such as elections.
Secondly, the administration shows a tendency towards grabbing
power at levels where the political leadership is weak. In such
cases, the administration becomes a power centre and resists the
growth of democratic supervision over its activities.
In other words, both the political leaders and administrators
seek to exchange their power. This gives rise to tensions and
conflicts in their interaction and does not permit them to collabo¬
rate in nation-building and development activities. Given the
dift'erences in culture and professional background of the politicians
and administrators, conflicts and tensions between them are likely
to continue.
Finally, and as emphasized earlier, the performance capacity
of the administrative system depends to a great extent on 'the
development of cohesive and stable political institutions and pro¬
cesses, the emergence of dynamic and change-oriented political
leadership, and a cooperative relationship between politicians and
administrators. No administrative development can take place
unless there is eflective “organization and institutionalization’’ of
political organizations and procedures such as the p.trty system,
legislatures, cabinets and democratic norms and procedures.
Administration is also conditioned by the quality and capility of
the political leadership. Both the politicians and administrators
have to work together for fulfilling the common goals of nation-
building and development.
Relationship of Ministers and Civil Servants

The relation betw'cen ministers and higher civil servants in
a modern parliamentary government is cssenlially based on the
concept of civil service neutrality. The theory of the neutrality of
the civil service was developed in England to meet the requirements
of the parliamentary system of government in which the tenure of
the political executive is unstable due to periodic elections, and
resultant change of government.
In the cabinet system, as it evolved in Great Britain, a clear
demarcation was made between the political executive (the
ministers) and the permanent administrators. The poUtica
executive normally performed the following functions :
(i) Represented the government policy within the administra¬
tion;
(ii) Brought the viewpoint of the general public to bear on
the administrative decisions;
84 PUBLIC ADMINISl RATION
(iii) Provided leadership in developing national policy;

(iv) Exercised statutory powers vested in them.
On the other hand, the functions of the career administrators

are the following :
(i) execution of laws and government decisions;
(ii) providing expert guidance, information and managerial
assistance to the political executive, where necessary;
(iii) maintaining the continuity of administration;
(iv) helping the political executive to understand the probable
consequences of alternative courses of action.
The points of difference between the political and administra¬
tive officers do not end here. A minister is an amateur in
administration, his office is of a temporary nature and he is more
in touch with the public. He plays a key role in formulating
policy, and has a partisan outlook. On the other hand, a career
official is a professional in administrative affairs and enjoys a
permanent tenure. His contacts with the public are much less,
and his main task is to execute policy without dabbling in active
politics. He is e.xpected to be non-partisan and politically
neutral.
In all systems, according to Peter Self, there are certain

typical forms of interaction between the politicians and administra¬
tors which result from the distinctive style and interests of the two
groups of participants. Important areas of interaction include
policy-making, arbitration of interests, treatment of individual
and local claims, and balancing between political accountability
and administrative discretion. In the first two areas,
politicians have formal responsibility, but administrators supply
the missing elements of political decisions. In the third area,
administrators defend their distinctive methods or uniformity and
impartiality against politicians’ frequent interest in influencing
particular decisions. The fourth area represents an inevitable
point of conflict between the needs and interests of the two
groups.
Political neutrality is an essential complement to the merit
system (in recruitment and promotion of personnel) for it
guarantees that the civil servants who have been recruited and
promoted by merit will give the minister—whatever be his political
complexion—impartial advice and criticism whenever he needs it.
Further, it assures the ministers that irrespective of the personal
12. Peter Self, Administraiive Theories attci Politics—An Enquiry into the
Structure and Processes of Modern Government, p. 153.
ADMINISTRATION, POLITY AND SOCIETY
85
likes or dislikes of his subordinate officials, ihc uliimatc decisions

ot the minister will be faithfully implemented by the civil servants
Fohtical neutrality means not only the absence of political activity
or bias on the pan ofeivil servants but also that they will serve
e^ry government that comes to power irrespective of iis party
affiliations. * ^
The main reason for the advocacy of civil service neuiralily is

that the civil servant can serve the changing governments drawn
trom difierent parties with the same vigour and honesty Since
execution, not formulation is the task of the civil servant, any
commitment other than to the goals and objectives of his allotted
tasks will defeat the very purpose for which he exists. Besides
exercising his voting rights, if he engages in partisan politics his
role as an impartial adviser and administrator would be seriouslv
impaired in the eyes of the public.
If the administration is to work emciently and smoothly and

the governmental objectives are to be achieved satisfactorily the
minister and his subordinate officials must work in cooperation
and harmony. There should be mutual faith and trust. Ministers
should not interfere too much in day-to-day administration
Commenting on the minister-civil servant relationship the
Administrative Reforms Commission laid down the followine
norms : ^
,9^. servant to implement

fâilhfully all policies and decisions of the ministers even
If these be contrary to the advice tendered by him;
(b) the freedom of public servants to express themselves
irankly in tendering advice to their superiors including
the minister; and
(c) the observance by public servants of the principles of
political neutrality, impartiality and anonymity. It
expressed the view that due to differing backgrounds and
interests of ministers and their secretaries the desired
emotional unison and unily of purpose is still to be
realised.
his 1' '^'’O .fC'nains constitutionally responsible for

denarim^nTh ? "■ goes wrong in hi,
?he narTirm?m ^ satisfactory account of ,t to
om^- ^ responsible, he has to take responsibility for any act of
ommission and commission of his official subordinates.
service neutrality is
under^th^'fmn Particularly in the developing countries,
neutr;4litv r*. many Iâclors. The doctrine of civil service
y presents a particular stage in the development of the
86 PUULIC ADMINISTRATION
party system of government. An important factor bearing on this

question is the pivotal role the civil servants are being called upon
to play in the developing countries. The successful implementation
of developmental tasks requires on the part of administrators, not
only qualities of initiative and leadership but emotional and
intellectual commitment to the social welfare values adhered to by
the state as well.
The relevance of the classical theory of neutrality has often
come to be questioned for the following reasons, (a) The processes
of policy decision-making arc no longer confined to the political
executive: they percolate through the entire fabric of government
resulting in inescapable items of delegation and zones of such
policy wiiere the political executive does not come into the picture
at all, and yet, the decisions rcfiect the ethos of the party in power,
(b) The leadership role of public bureaucracy is explicit in ail
political systems, but is more pronounced in the setting of develop¬
ing countries. In the context of large-scale welfare programmes,
neutrality is neither possible nor desirable. A certain commitment
to the goals and objectives of the slate is inescapable—neutrality
cannot be allowed to degenerate into disinterestedness, (c) In
the sphere of policy advice and execution, modern bureaucracy
takes an active part, (d) At the top levels, even the performance
appraisal of public bureaucracy is done by political heads and an
element of political assessment is bound to creep into such an
assessment, (e) As a human being, no civil servant can be
psycludogically neutral on issues and problems which confront
liini; he is a product of his upbringing and a certain subjective
element from his judgments cannot be eradicated.'^
Thus, the basic assumptions behind the concept of bureau¬
cratic neutrality are tlial it is the product of a merit system and
therefore seeks to rcfiect it in those systems where this concept is
recognised in the behaviour of the bureaucrat, and that the
advantages of perm inency, continuity, reliability and professiona¬
lism wliich are supposed to obtain in a neutral bureaucracy far
outweigh the disadvantages, conservatism, reluctance to depart
from routine and resistance to change. These assumptions are
refuted in modern times in practically all political systems—
including western democracies where such ideals originated.
Therefore, the only acceptable connotation for this doctrine
seems to be an idea of non-partisanship and impartiality in the
sense that where the civil servants arc implementing a body of
statutory laws and regulations, they sliall act impartially and not
carry into those operations any political considerations which arc
not contemplated in the statutory law. However, for the large
13. O.l*. Dwivedi and R.B. Jain. f/iJut's Slate, Citanjali Pub¬
lishing House, New Delhi, 1985, pp. 72-73.
bulk of their activity, that is. non-stalutory. a new doctrine js

necessary to suit the modern times. In the absence of a belter
phraseology what should shape the attitudes of the civil servants
now is a doctrine of political responsiveness which may have the
broad name of commitment.'^
Interaction Betueen .Vdminisirativc and Economic S> stems

The economic system is one of the subsystems of society
concerned with the production of goods and services and to
meet the material needs and wants ol the citizens. The economic
system includes the entire productive process—factors and instru¬
ments of production, land, labour, capital and entrepreneurs, as
well as the clients and consumers of goods, and services. I nc
economic system is vitally connected with the administrative
system in more than one ways. Administration executes and
implements policy, and the economic factor is one of the prime
determinants of public policy.
Marxist social thinkers view the entire political process as
an outcome of the economic process; the economic system is the
subsystem on which the entire superstructure ol politics and
administration is built. Liberal social scientists though admitting
substantial link between the economic and other subsystems ot
society, emphasize the autonomy of the political and economic
structures in society especially in industrial societies.
Economic systcmscan be of various patterns—feudal, capitalist,
socialist and mixed economy type depending on the nature and
level of socio economic development and economic infrastructure
existing in these societies. DilTercnt economic systems may
co-cxis*t with different types of governmciil-monarchical,
democratic and autocratic. But the only common element in any
kind of economic or political system is the existence of a public
administrative structure which is indispensable to the proper
functioning of both the economic and political systems. Economic
activities arc not exclusively carried out by economic structures of
society, other structures—social, political or administrative—also
perform economic functions. In the policy of laissez faire the
intervention of the state in economic matters is minimum;
administrative functions arc mainly regulatory and negative in
nature. With the advent of modern welfare states the economic
intervention of the state has increased tremendously—specially m
developing countries where the state not only provides basic
utilities and a wide range of services, but undertakes the major
14. M.K. Chaturvedi, ‘'Conimilment in Civil Service”, hution Journal of I’ubhc

Administration, 17 (1971), pp. 41-42.
15. Ryan C. Amacher, R.D. Tcllison and T.D. Wdlett (eds.). The Economic
Approach to Public Policy, Cornell University Press. Ithaca, 19/6.
responsibility of economic welfare and development. The entire

administrative machinery of the state is geared to the tasks of
nation-building and socio-economic progress. The administration
in developing countries is over-burdened with what may be called
economic aspects of administration, that is, tasks related to
administration of developmental programmes. Administration is
expected to be the Key instrument of socio-economic change
and well-being of the citizens. The major component of develop¬
ment or modernization is economic progress and the entire success
of administration depends on how well it is able to perform
these tasks. Administrative failure to deliver the goods may bring
discontent, alienation and turbulence which may have catastrophic
consequences for the stability of any state. However, in sharply
class-divided societies, administrators generally belong to the
privileged classes. Their vested interests may often block the
implementation of progressive laws.
In industrial as well as developing societies, how socio¬
economic conditions aO'ect the policy making process has been
discussed elsewhere in the book. Every policy is decided after a
rational assessment of its economic costs and likely impact and
political outcome.'® The political outcome is often influenced by the
economic impact of different policies, some explicitly economic
in nature and sonic not so. Economy is one factor which helps
to regulate what is possible or desirable among alternative policies.
Policy makers and administrators in developing countries face a
different economic setting, that is, dilTerent demands for pro¬
grammes as well as diflereni resources to pay for them, than do
policy makers in developed countries. It is not only the differences
in economic environment that distinguish these various policy
makers and the policies they produce but their economic
enviromenls often explain many of the diflerences among them.
When writers on political economy decscribe the various
economic forces that shape public policy, they often refer to the
level of economic development. This is a wide concept that
summarises a set of economic components plus certain social
variables that reflect economic conditions. Developing states
not only sulfer from shortage of capital but also from other
handicaps that both reveal and reinforce this shortage. The
entire concept of economic development would include (a) the
quantity and quality of natural resources, such as, land, fuel and
other mineral resources; (b) the human physical and financial
resources, weighed in terms of skills of the population, industrial,
transportation and power generating facilities, and financial assets;
(c) the level of agricultural and industrial development; (d) the
16. Aaron Wildavsky, “The Political Economy of Efficiency : Cost Benefit

Analysis. Sys^ms Analyses and Program Budgeting'*. Public Administration
Review, Vol. XXVI No. 4, 1966, pp. 292-310.
capacity of such financial institutions as the tax system and

banks to generate the funds needed for investment: (c) the
character of foreign trade; a developed economy exports mainly
processed and manufactured goods whereas an underdeveloped
economy exports mainly raw materials; (f) the nature of the distri¬
bution of economic rewards. Highly developed economies have a
relatively even distribution of incomes and opportunities among
the various regional and social divisions of the population.
The various components of economic development arc the
concerns of policy makers and the administrators. They arc an
important part of the environment of policy making and imple¬
mentation, influencing the demands and resources received by the
policy makers and administrators. They are also the targets of the
policymakers as they seek to improve the economy by the short
or the long term measures.
The degree of economic development in a state alTccis public

policy by shaping the quality and quantity of the resources
available to officials. The more developed an economy, the more
easily its governments should be able to collect the revenues to
pay for the activities it undertakes. Studies of different nations
reveal that governments of richer nations spend more on education,
health benefits, housing, pensions and welfare benefits to the
poor. Yet even in the wealthiest slates limiicd funds continually
restrict the selection of policy.
Well developed economies also make available more of the
highly trained professional and technical personnel needed to
staff administrative agencies. This supply of trained personnel
results partly from earlier investments in schools and universities,
as well as from cultural factors that make the pursuit of education
and an administrative career attractive for the talented job
seekers. A problem faced by developing countries is a lack of
skilled native personnel needed to staff their administrations. The
level of economic development also shades the demands made on
the administration. Citizens with better education, Jiighcr occupa¬
tional skills tend to demand facilities for higher education,
investinents in research and development, and creation of more
recreational facilities in the state. However, the primary concerns
of the citizens of developing societies arc jobs, housing and public
health facilities.
The urbanization and industrialization in a well developed
economy also generate demands on administrations, for example,
programmes of sewage disposal, housing and drinking water faeili-
hes, slum clearance.
The influence and impact of the economic system of the

adrpinistrativc system, though universal, varies in different societies.
In industrial societies the bureaucracies arc more efficient and
public administration
have less of welfare functions than in economically backward

societies where the administration has multifarious functions to
perfom Tn the economic sphere. The steady increase m the s,^
and functions of bureaucracies is, however, a universal phenome-
non.
Public administration is concerned with the activities of all the

three branches of government, but the widely accepted view is that
public administration is connected with the activities of the execu¬
tive branch only. In the words of Marx .
At its fullest range, public administration embraces every
area and activity under the jurisdiction ef pe^‘ey. . • .
By established usage, however, the term‘Public Administra-
uln' has come to signify primarily the
personnel practices and procedures, essential to effective per
formance of the civilian functions entrusted to the executive
branch of government.'''
Also it has much to do with the activities of the executive
branch of the government at all levels—national, state and local.
Pfiffncr writes that public administration
‘the what’, and ‘the how’ of government. » The what >s the
subject matter, technical knowledge of a
administrator to perform îs tasks. The‘how is th^^^^
management. The major divisions of the subject matter fall natu
rally into four groupings :
I. What a government docs—determination of objectives,
internal administrative policies and plans and the range ot
governmental business.
2 How a government organizes its staff, and finances its
work, that is, the structure of government organization.
3. How administrators secure cooperation and team-work-
study of such problems as administrative responsibility, leadership,
direction, coordination, delegation, headquarters-field relation¬
ships, supervision and public relations.
4. How administration is held accountable? This means
study of internal controls, and control of administrative activities
by the legislature and the courts.
I3v common consensus, the essential components of adminis¬
tration arc : (1) planning, !2) organising, (3) staffing, (4) initiating,
(5) delegating, (6) directing, (7) overseeing, (8) co-ordinaling, and
(9) evaluating. The various activities forming part of the scope of
17 F.M. Mar\» Eletuenfs of Public Adnunistrafiou^ p. 5,
18. Pfiffner and Presthus. Public Adminisiration, p. 3.
public administration are indicated by POSDCORB, a word coined

by Luther Gulick.
Generally, public administrative activities fall into the follow¬
ing main categories: (1) protective and regulatory activities, c.g.,
maintaining police, fire, health protection agencies, national
defence, education, conservation of natural resources (protective);
regulation of particular business or activities through such
agencies as the TarilT Commission, the Coffee Board, the Finance
Commission etc. (regulatory); (2) promotional activities and or
assistance to particular economic and social groups, e.g., farmers,
factory workers, businessmen, women and children in industry,
the aged, the unemployed ; (3) entrepreneurial activities, where a
government owns and operates enterprises serving the public, c.g.,
post offices, irrigation canals, public corporations or a municipal
water or electric-power department.
Public administration in any developed government is a com¬
plex affair. It can be examined in terms of the people of which it is
composed—departments, agencies, branches and units; of its legal
procedures—constitution, statutes, executive orders ; of its proce¬
dures—filing systems, correspondence, conferences, memoranda,
reports; and of its techniques—management improvement,
personnel classification, accounting controls. All these go to make
up public administration; but these do not comprise all the acti¬
vities of public administration. Administrators arc also deeply
concerned with legislative and public relations, with programme
objective and pressure groups, with public support and social ends.
Finally, administration is concerned with organizational rela¬
tionships and the problem of integration, which may be related to ;
the citizen, the structure of government, society and the economy,
the human factor in administration, techniques and values, stages
of national development, levels of operation, and to the ingredients
that constitute the synthesis of public administration itself.
The systems framework provides a clue to the need for an
integrated perspective on public aJminislration. Ira Sharkansky'^
has elaborated the systems framework in her approach to public
administration. Her analysis runs thus:
An administrative system is the combination of the adminis¬
trative unit and all of the elements and processes that interact
with the unit, that is, (1) the environment within which llie
administrative unit operates and which influences and is in¬
fluenced by the unit, and (2) the inputs to the (3) outputs from
the unit that arc connected with each other by the (4) conver¬
sion process, and by (5) feedback mechanisms.
19. Ira Sharkansky, Public Admhustraiion, Rand McNally, Chicago, 1978,

p. 7.
The enviroDment includes the numerous social, economic and

political conditions that present problems to the administrators
and that subsequently assist or confound their efforts to resolve
these problems. The environment comprises the clients who are to
benefit from a policy; a market that is influenced by the adoption
of a policy; interest groups, members of the public, and other units
of government that express political support for or opposition to
a policy. While some of these elements facilitate policy-making
and the solution of social problems, others make the problems
difficult for the administrators. Policy inputs are the resources sent
from the environment to the conversion process of the administra¬
tive system. These include demands for policy, human and natural
resources, support or opposition towards the actions of
administrators. People demand public goods and services for their
own use, for example, recreation facilities, education, transporta¬
tion, and health services. They also demand the regulation of
other people’s behaviour, for example, by the policy commissions
that limit the actions of business and labour, and the military. A
‘demand’ may take the form of a routine request for service, such
as filing an application with a welfare office or a state university;
it may simply be a statement that an agency should introduce a
new service; or it could be a public confrontation with law
enforcing agencies. Resources include personnel, skills, materials,
technology, and money. Support, opposition, or apathy shows
itself in the degree of willingness of a population to pay taxes, to
accept government employment, and to accept the government’s
regulation of behaviour. It is also evident by their patience in the
face of adversity and by their sentiments towards administrative
personnel.
It is not only the inputs that influence the actions of adminis¬
trators, features of the conversion process itself affect their actions.
Because they originate within the conversion process, they are
called ‘with inputs’, which include chains of command and other
formal structures found within administrative agencies, the proce¬
dures used by officials to make their decisions, the administrators’
personal experiences and predispositions; and the ways the
administrative superiors control their subordinates. Besides, there
may be conflicts between the formal rules of the organization and
the personal values of administrators; clashes among administra¬
tors that increase the problems in making agency outputs; and
decision-makers’ use of routine procedures to simplify complex and
numerous inputs.
‘Outputs’ that administrators provide to their environment
include services, tangible goods, and behavioural regulations,
statements, and activities. Administrators also provide direct
benefits—information, technical advice, and concrete proposals
necessary for policy formulation to officials in other government
units. Legislators and politicians make their living by promising
and delivering services to voters. Most of these services are imple¬

mented by administrative agencies. The administrators* failure to
provide desired services may offend both the citizens and the
elected members of the legislative branch. Such failures are
‘negative outputs’.
‘Policy*, then, represents efforts of administrators and other
ofBcials to make choices in public affairs. Performance represents
the work that is actually delivered. Policies can aim at services
by dehning expenditures, salary levels, number of employees and
the rules that govern treatment of clients. Performance may
reflect the influence of policies, but it also reflects the influence of
various factors that complicate the implementation of policy. It is
often difficult to judge administrators’ performance, partly because
a policy may have several goals spelled out in the legislation or the
statements of administrators. For each policy, there may be
different ways of measuring performance, by the frequency with
which services are actually made available; by the evaluation of
services by clients or professional experts; or by changes in the
levels of consumer satisfaction as a result of a programme.
‘Feedback’ represents the influence of earlier outpuls upon the
demands, resources, support, or opposition (inputs) that an
administrative system receives. Existing tax legislation influences
the flow of economic resources into administrative agencies. Public
services and regulatory policies affect citizens directly and thus
shape the demands they make. Past efforts to promote economic
development may affect social and economic conditions in ways
that influence both the resources provided by existing taxes and
the demands and supports coming from the population. Feedback
mechanisms are evident in the continuity of interactions among
administrators and the many sources of their inputs and the reci¬
pients of their outputs. Citizens and legislators are seldom
satisfied once and for all times. Some always demand more. They
may demand improvement of existing services, expansion of the
magnitude of services to provide for increased population, and
expansion of the scope of a programme to provide for certain
needs left unmet by present activities. Client groups and legisla¬
tors are always making some effort to get administrators to change
their policies or their decisions in particular cases. The diagram
of the administrative system illustrates these points.
Environment includes (1) clients, (2) costs of goods and
services, and (3) members of the public and other government
officials who support or oppose agencies, administrators, or
programmes.
The administrator plays a two-fold role. Firstly, he assists the
process of policy-making; and secondly, once the policy has been
determined, he has the responsibility for its implementation,
primarily performing the “output” function of executing policies
The Administrative System^®
Inputs from 1 Conversion Process f Outputs to

environment environment
include include
1. demands, 1 With-ioputs include Expressions of

2. resources, and | (1) structures, policy plus per¬
3. support or 1 (2) decision, formance, or
opposition I procedure I goods and
from citizens (3) administrator’s services actually
and officials personal experi¬ delivered to the
of other ences and predis¬ public and to
branches of positions, and officials in other
government (4) control procedures segments of
government
J
Feedback
It represents influence that outputs have upon the environment in a way
that shapes subsequent inputs.
and programmes, the administrator also performs important

“input” functions. His “input” functions relate not only to policy
making but also to determining public orientation towards the
government, the expectations that the public has from the govern¬
ment and the demands that are channelled into the political
process. The administrative system thus performs a significant role
in the capability function of the political system both in its “input”
and “output” aspects and links the polity to society.
The systems framework helps to provide an integrated per¬

spective on administration by showing the linkages between the
administration and its environment. It attempts to establish the
relevance of public administration to politics, economics, and to
other features of its environment that interest us as political
scientists, economists or as citizens.
The Riggslan Model : An Ecological Approach
F.W. Riggs has been primarily interested in conceptualizing

the interactions between administrative systems and their environ¬
ment. He maintains that an administrative system operates in the
context of its socio-cultural, political and economic environment
and there is a continuous interaction between the environment and
the administrative system, both influencing mutually. This
ecological model is the focal point of Riggslan analysis and has
20. ibid., p. 200.

ADMINISTRATION, POLITY AND SOCIFTY 95
been one of the most creative models in analysing the administra¬

tion of developing countries.-' In presenting his concepts, he has
taken the help of structural-functional systems, and ecological
approaches. The structural-functional approach considers struc-
ctures as patterns of behaviour which have become standard
features of a social system. Functions represent the interrelation¬
ships among various structures or the consequences of one
structure over other structures. In Riggsian terms, the less
number of functions a structure performs, the more “diffracted”
it is, and conversely, the more functions a structure performs, the
more “fused” it is. A combination of both creates “prismatic”
structures.
A social system is a vast network of interrelated parts, each
one of which can be understood in relation to other parts and to
the whole system. Accordingly Riggs suggested that administra¬
tive structure and behaviour being an integral and interacting part
of the entire society, could be comprehended properly only in
the context of the social system in which it is embedded. The
environment influences the system in the form ol “inputs which
are “converted” into “outputs” by the system. Through a process
of feedback, outputs cause the emergence of new inputs. The
interaction between a system and its environment is characterised as
an “ecological” interaction. Using the ecological approach. Riggs
considers public bureaucracies as one of the several basic insti¬
tutions in a society that interact with other sub-systems in a society,
viz., the political, the economic, the social and the cultural systems.
Riggs has particularly studied the differences in social, cultural, his¬
torical or political environment and their elTcct on administration.
He has also studied as to how an administrative system affects the
society of which it is a part. This interaction of the environment
with administration has been termed by him as “ecology" of
administration.
Development, according to Riggs, is a process of increasing
autonomy (discretion) of social systems, made possible by rising
levels of diffraction. The development level of a society is reflected
in its ability to make decisions in order to control its environment.
This decision-making capability is based on the level of diffraction
in a society. Diffraction in turn, is a function of differentiation
and integration. A high level of differentiation coupled with a
high level of integration makes a society or a system diffracted.
However, a low level of differentiationAsulhôripsôiiding level
of integration makes a system
differentiation with alow le^(ff\of'friê^ration_ makes
“prismatic”.
r T* - i i •
21. F.W. RiggSt Ailministhiifpn^ in 'Counfricf^ Houghton

Boston, 1964, and The MoJogy.of Public^ Adrninlitrafion. Asia Publish!'
House. Bombay, 1962.
Riggs views development administration as a goal-oriented

administration—an adminislration which is engaged in the task of
achieving progressive political, economic and social goals. In this
context Riggs has presented the concept of “administrative
development” which refers to the increase in the capabilities of an
administrative system to achieve the prescribed goals.
Riggs has been primarily interested in social change and in

understanding the process of transition in developing societies.
Here a reference will be made to two of his typologies, first the
“agraria-industria” typology and second the “fused-prismatic-
dinVacted’* typology. In the first model Riggs differentiated two
types of societies—societies where agricultural institutions dominat¬
ed, and societies where industrial institutions were predominant.
Riggs has identified certain structural features of agrarian societies,
such as 1“^
1. There is a dominance of ascriptive, particular and diffuse

patterns.
2. The local groups are stable and there is very limited
spatial mobility.
3. Occupational differences are very simple and stable.
4. There exists a defferential stratification system of diffuse
impact.
The chief features of an industrial society are the following :
1.There is a dominance of universal, specific and achievement
norms.
2. The degree of social mobility is higher.
3. Occupational system is well developed and cut off from
other social structures.
4. There is an egalitarian class system based on generalized
patterns of occupational achievement.
5. Associations arc functionally specific and nonascriptive
in nature.
The “iransitia” society represents a transitional stage of society
between the agraria and the industria.
On the basis of empirical research Riggs later came out with
his second model which constructs two ideal polar types :
(a) a refracted society where every function has a correspond¬
ing structure that specialises in its performance; and
(b) a fused society in which a single structure performs all
functions.
22. Shum Shun Nisa All, Eminent Administrative Thinkers, Associated, Ne\y
Delhi, pp. 103-104.
For example, in developed societies, the family performs certain

social functions, the market performs the economic functions and
the legislature and political parties perform political functions. In
traditional societies, it is not unusual to see a fevv structures such
as a family ora leader performing a whole set of functions like
rule-making, rule adjudication, economic allocation, and even
health administration. As society grows and develops, specialised
structures increase in number, each one of which becomes engaged
in speciflc functions. So, differentiation of structures is often
viewed as the essence of development.
Riggs talked of the “prismatic” society as a midpoint between
the two ideal types, combining the features of both, fused and
refracted, that are characterised by heterogeneity (the simultaneous
presence of quite different kinds of systems, practices and view¬
points) ; formalism (the extent to which discrepancy exists between
formal structures and actual modalities, between the prescriptive
and the descriptive, between impressions and real practices); and
overlapping (the extent to which what is described as administrative
behaviour is actually determined by non-adminisirative criteria.)
In a prismatic society pressure for change is external as well as
• .^^1 ‘ . ... ....
^ -ansj uic lu vAiot lu can
exo-prismatic” society in comparispn with an “endo-prismatic” one.

Problems of formalism, heterogeneity and overlapping are faced by
prismatic or transitional societies in their bid to assimilate social
change in the shortest possible time.
The Riggsian approach tries to provide an integrated perspec-
tive on public administration in so far as he maintains that an
administrative system operates in the context of its socio-cultural,
political and economic environment and that the process of inter¬
action between the environment and the administrative system is a
^ntinuous one. Both interact with and influence each other.
He makes it very clear that ‘"administration” is different in different
He thereby focuses on the obvious nexus between
the administrative system and the society in which it is embedded.
4
STRUCTURE OF ADMINISTRATION
Line, Staff and Auxiliary Agencies

Governmental work is done through an intricate and elaborate
organization which is tied down in a single, chain of^ command.
The central hierarchy of this organization is called ‘line* and those
which fall on the margin are known as ‘staff’ and auxiliary
agencies.
The term ‘line' is drawn from military organization wherein
line refers to command. The hierarchy which commands the
military forces in the battlefield is known as line. Those agencies
which help the commanders are known as ‘staff* and ‘auxiliary
agencies. ’
The distinction between the two kinds of services is essentially
based on the type of work performed by the different branches or
units of a department or agency. Most of the functions performed
by the several divisions or units of an agency are regulatory or
operational meant for the achievement of the departmental goals
or purposes. All services of this nature are called line services.
Besides, in any department or agency there are certain housekeep¬
ing, institutional or managerial activities without the performance
of which the substantive function of the department cannot be
achieved. These are known as staff.
In the departments of education, health and police, those
divisions or units which perform the activities leading to the
achievement of their purposes are line services. In the same
departments or in the administrative branch as a whole there are
certain services which help in planning the operations and give
advice regarding the organization of personnel and finance and
others. These organizations are known as staff services. In other
words, line services are those which come in close contact with the
people and the staff services are concerned with the routine
activities of the government which are of little direct benefit to the
people.
STRUCTURE OF ADMrNISTRATION 99
It is now realized that authority is more a matter of influence

than of command and that both line and staff work are involved
at most levels of operation. Further, as the number of staff
officials multiplies along with the varieties of sialT functiot)s. some
of the work shades off into the type of activity traditionally
reserved for line officials. Hence staff work becomes in some
degree a combination of both direct and indirect activity, including
advice as well as direction to line officials.
Auxiliary agencies have been called by Willoughby as
“institutional” or housekeeping services. Gaus names them
“auxiliary technical staff services”. L.D. While prefers to use the
term “auxiliary services”.
Auxiliary agencies serve the line departments but do not serve
the public. They perform functions common to all the departments.
A line agency to perform the primary duties for which it exists
must provide itself with and maintain an office; establish and
operate a system for the recruitment of its personnel; perform the
work entailed in contracting, purchasing, storing, and issue of
supplies and it must contain a system for keeping of accounts.
These functions have now been organized under separate agencies
called auxiliary agencies. The Government of India has four main
auxiliary departments :
1. The Law Ministry
2. The Ministry of Information and Broadcasting
3. The Department of Parliamentary Affairs
4. The Central Public Works Department
Difference Between Staff and Auxiliary Services
Willoughby* draws a distinction between staff and auxiliary
services.
1. The auxiliary services are operating services. Whether they
are recruiting boards, purchasing agencies, or stationery stores, they
perform some operation. But staff services are only thinking,
observing, planning and advising agencies.
2. Auxiliary agencies are not concerned with major substan¬
tive policies, while the staff is concerned with the formulation of
major policies and even with matters of reorganizing.
The two services arc, however, simitar in one respect. Both
facilitate the work of the main operating agencies, namely, the line
departments. They do not have a locus standi of their own.
Pfiffnerand others do not distinguish between staff and auxiliary
services. They define staff in such a way as to include auxiliary
1. W.F. Willoughby, Principles of Public Administration, p. 95.

100 PUBLIC ADMINISIRAT ON
functions also. According to Pfiffner, staff are of three main kinds:

general, technical and auxiliary. By ‘general staff* he means the
staff which helps the chief or other senior executive in his ad¬
ministrative work generally by advice, collection of information,
research and sifting important issues from the unimportant. The
technical stair consists of the technical officers such as engineers,
doctors and financial experts. They advise the head in the technical
matters of the departments. Under the third category, Pfiffner
puts the auxilLiry staff which comprises unit or officers who
perform certain duties and functions common to the various
administrative departments but which are incidental and/or of
housekeeping nature. They are stationery, supply and disposals,
recruitment of personnel and audit and accounts. .As Pfiffner uses
the term stalT in a broad sense, he includes under this category,
staff as well as auxiliary functions. He gives the following list of
staff functions.
1. Advising.
2. Coordination.
3. Fact finding and research.
4. Planning.
5. Contact with other organisations and individuals to know
what is going on.
6. Assisting the line working without, but without infringing
its authority.
7. Sometimes, exercising specially delegated authority from
the line commander, within clearly defined units.^
Staff, line, and housekeeping agencies are essential for the
effective organization of government. Staff agencies engage in
planning, research, and advice but do not carry on operational or
managerial activities. Line agencies perform these basic or
substantive functions and are able to accomplish their work more
efficiently because they have the benefit of stafi' studies and house-
keeping aids. Housekeeping agencies provide common services for
all other agencies, for example, central purchasing, preparation
and distribution of standard forms, printing, legal, financial,
custodial, and other kinds of general assistance.
Line agencies can be of three kinds :
1. Departments,
2. Public corporations, and
3. Boards and Commissions.
/. The department is the largest and most prevalent form of
administrative organization. It is directly under the chief executive
2. Pfiffner and Presthus, Public Administration, pp. 183-185.

STRUCTURE OF ADMINISTRATION 101
and is clearly held in a single chain of command. Thus, wc find a

'lot of departments in a government, e.g., ihe deparimenl of home
affairs, foreign affairs, defence, education, and health.
2. The public corporation is a new organizational device
imported into public administration from private business admini¬
stration. In private business, there are limited liability companies
comprising a large number of shareholders, a board of directors
representing the general body of shareholders and a general
manager or managing director looking after the day to day
administration of the company. Similarly, to carry on the business
and industrial activities of the government, a company-like
organization has been ilevised. It is called corporation and it
functions, more or less, like the body of shareholders. It appoints a
board of directors who arc responsible for laying down the policies
for the corporation. There is also a general manager who is
responsible for the internal administration of the corporation. The
corporation is a body corporate and holds property and cash in
its own name. It can sue and be sued in a court of law. It enjoys
the autonomy and flexibility of private enterprise coupled with
accountability to the public (like government departments).
3. Boards and commissions have some features of the depart¬
mental form of organization and some others of the corporation
form. At the top, they have a corporate structure, but internally
they have a departmental structure.
Difference Between Line and Staff Agencies
The line agency is concerned with the primary functions of the
organization for which it came into existence, and for which it
continues to exist. On the other hand, a staff agency is concerned
w-ith the functions of planning, organization, coordination and
advice. The need for a staff agency is felt in two principal areas of
administration :
(1) management problems like that of organisation, personnel
and coordination; and
(2) the substantive problems of policy formation and
planning.
The main functions of the staff agency have been summarized
by Dr. L.D. White in these words ?
(i) To ensure that the chief executive (and other top officials)
is adequately and correctly informed.
(ii) To assist him in foreseeing problems and planning future
programmes.
(lii) To ensure that matters for his decision reach his desk
3. L.D While, InirodtiCiion to the Study of Public Administration, p.

promptly, in a condition to be settled intelligently and

without delay and to protect him against hasty and ill-
considered judgments.
(iv) To exclude every matter that can be settled elsewhere in
the system,
(v) To protect his time.
(vi) To secure means of ensuring compliance by subordinates
with established policy and executive directions.
While theoretically there is a clear distinction between the
line function and the staff function, in actual practice it may be
that the two functions may vest in one and the same person or
body of persons. More particularly in a small organization the
two functions are indistinct and also vest in the same person. In
relation to his superiors, a person may be a stall official while in
relation to his subordinates, he is a line officer. Similar is the
case with technical organizations like the health, education, and
the public works departments. In relation to the secretaries and
the ministers the heads of these departments are merely staff
officers. But within their own departments and directorates, they
arc line officers. Secondly, in terms of organization units the
distinction between line and staff is relative rather than absolute.
Complete separation of functions among distinct units of organiza¬
tion is impossible in practice. Therefore, when a unit or agency
is called line or staff it only means that its functions belong
predominantly to this class.
Departments
A department is the basic unit of organization in which the
administrative branch as a whole is under the chief executive.
Authority to organize departments may be vested in the constitu¬
tion. the parliament, or the executive. In the USA the Congress
regulates the details of public administrative organizations, the
President is not free to reorganize the executive branch of the
government as he likes. These restrictions, however, do not bind
the British executive. The Ministers of Crown (Transfer of
functions) Ad, 1946, conferred on the British executive the power
to organize and reorganize departments. In India, the creation and
abolition of ministries and departments is an executive function,
whereas in the Soviet Union this can be done only after an
amendment of the constitution.
Advantages : The departmental system leads to a rational
classitication o\ govcnimenial operations. A modern government
has to pel form multiple, diverse, and complicated functions. One
cannot have a conception of the scope of governmental work and
the agencies performing it in the absence of an integration of
related activities, falling within the same general he’d. Specializa¬

tion and integration of related functions are indispensable for
simplification and rationalisation of governmental tasks and
procedures. Secondly, grouping of services operating in the same
general field helps in the formulation and implementation of a
proper task programme. The chief executive can evolve a proper
work programme only when he has to deal with a few chiet
subordinates, each of whom is made in charge of services falling
in the same broad functional area. Similarly, the legislature too.
can give proper consideration only if connected operations are
arranged together. Thirdly, it helps the chief executive in exercis¬
ing more effective control over administration, his attention now
being restricted to a few departments. Fourthly, under the
departmental system, conflicts of jurisdiction, overlapping of
functions, and duplication of organization, plant and activities
may be avoided. In several services, whose operations fall in the
same field, are grouped in a department, they avail of the
services of the single agency, which can now be belter equipped.
Sixthly, the grouping of related services dcpartmentally brings
about economy and efficiency in the performance of what are
called institutional or housekeeping activities. The general
character of the latter is the same for all services. Hence, per¬
formance by central agencies, of the housekeeping activities, results
in economy and efficiency, and promotes standardization and
uniformity of administrative processes.
A study of organizations reveals four different bases of depart¬
mental organization : (i) fuiiction or purpose, (ii) clientele, and
(iii) area. According to Luther Gulick the four P’s ‘purpose, pro¬
cess, person, and place* are the bases of organization.*
{i) Purpose : Purpose means the major objective to be aimed
at or major services to be performed. Functional division of work
is very common, and is regarded by many as the only efficient
method. Ministries of defence, education, transport and communi¬
cations and railways in the Government of India have been formed
on this basis.
(//) Process : Process is identified with a technique, profession,
of a somewhat specialized type, though it is to be admitted that it
is not quite easy to differentiate between process and function.
Ministry of Law in India manifests this principle. Generally, pro¬
cess or profession is considered the basis of staff organization
rather than of line oranization.
(/Vi) Clientele : The principle of clientele, too. has beeri adopted
as the basis of organization. The Department of Rehabilitation at
the Centre and the Department of Tribal Welfare in some States in
India have been formed on this principle. Similarly, the Office ot
4. Luther Gulick, Notes on the Theory of Organization, p. 15.

Indian Affairs, and Veterans* Administration in the U.S.A., are the

examples of clientele being the basis of organization. There is a
possible justification for creating client-based organizations. Some
groups in the community have distinctive problems, so special as
to be dilTerently dealt with. Hence separate departments are created
for them. A clientele organization generally caters to all or most
of the needs of the group served.
(/v) Area or territory : Area, that is. the place where a job is done,
may be the basis of organization. Underlying this principle is the
belief that a region may have problems peculiar to itself, lending
it a distinctive character, and thereby favouring a separate handling
or treatment. The now defunct North-East Frontier Agency
(NEFA) in India, and the Office of the Secretary of State for
Scotland in Britain indicate the adoption of this basis of organiza¬
tion. Also, at one level or another, most departments have their
operating units organized on the area or territorial basis. The
Ministry of Railways thus has nine territorial zones—Eastern
North-Eastern, North-East. Frontier, South-Eastern, South-Central,
Northern, Eastern, Central and Southern. Zonal Councils too in
India have been organized on this principle.
Bases of Departmental Organization

The work of the government is distributed among depart¬
ments according to four possible bases, namely, function, process,
clientele, and area. These bases are not alternative bases of
organization. All the four bases or principles are pressed into
service while dividing the work of government into departments.
No single base, however, can be made the sole criterion of dividing
the work. This can be illustrated by showing how the four bases
have been employed for departmentalization in the Government
of India.
Ministries
1. Function : (i) Health and Family Welfare
(ii) Education and Culture
(iii) Labour
(iv) Shipping and Transport
(v) Defence
2. Process : 0) Law
(ii) Works and Housing
(iii) Steel and Mines
3. Clientele : (i) Department of Rehabilitation
(ii) Ministry of Agriculture
4. Area : (i) External Affairs
(ii) Indian Missions Abroad
(iii) Regional OflBces of the Director
of Supply and Disposal
STRUCTURE OF ADMtNlSTRATlON 105
A strict adherence to the process principle would sec members

of dilTerent professions all grouped inio separaic deparimetus on
the sole basis of their prolcssion. Certain activities cut across
horizontally the functional departments, as the latter need them as
part of their housekeeping activities. The execution ot any given
task would require cooperation of a large number ot process
departments. The clientele principle, discussed above, also has
rigid limitations. Any wholesale application ol this principle
results in what the Haldane Committe called 'Lilliputian adininis-
tration’. Again, the use of the territorial principle of organization
ought to be conaned to regions having problems so special or
distinct that they (problems) need separate handling. To carry this
to its logical conclusion could be to recreate problems ot coordi¬
nation. Finally, the functional principle too may lead to overlap¬
ping at times.
The different bases of organization are not mutually exclusive;
these, in fact, should supplcraent one another, where necessary, for
the sake of convenience and cfTicient execution of administrative
tasks.
Types of Departments
Departments may dilVer in their size, structure, nature of work
and internal relationship. From the point ot view ol size, a depart¬
ment may be large or small. For example, in the Union Govern¬
ment the ministries of Railways. Transport, Posts and Telegraphs,
are very large, but the ministries of Education. Health, and Agri¬
culture and the Department of Atomic Energy arc small, tor t le
simple reason that all of them except the last also have their
counterparts in the Slates. Considering structure, a department may
be unifunctional or multifunctional (federal). Unilunctional
departments, that is, those created lor the achievement ol
purpose such as education, defence, health, agriculture and la our
are unitary in their structure performing homogeneous tunciions.
But a federal or holding type department is multitunelional or
federating, that is, several minor departments arc combined^ into
one large department. These departments lunction as subdepar -
ments performing dilTcrcnt functions. At present the Home
Ministry in India is an amalgamation of a number ot subdivision
and the Cabinet Secretariat has live departments under it.
According to their nature of work, many departments have
operating duties, while a tew perform only coordinating and super¬
visory duties. Examples of the former are the departments ot 1 osts
and Telegraphs. Railways, Defence, Police and Public Works, ana
the examples of the latter arc Local Self-Government departmenis
in the States, Ministries of Education. Health and Agriculture in
the Union. Again, from the point of view of internal
the work of a department may be mostly concentrated at the iieaa-
quarters, so it need not have field agencies. But the work ol many
}06 PtJBLlC ADMINISTRATION
departments is generally carried on in the regional and local offices

besides the head offices.
The leadership of the department involves two important
organisational issues—first, whether the head should be a single
individual or a plural body, such as a board or commission; and,
second, whether the chief qualification for headship should be
administrative (managerial competence) or technical knowledge of
the subject matter concerning the activities of the department.
So far as the second question is concerned, in the United
States the heads of departments are generally personshaving special
knowledge of the subject. In Britain and India there are two kinds
of heads—political and permanent. The minister is the political
head and he is ordinarily a layman, not even necessarily possessing
administrative competence. Under the minister there is the perma¬
nent head, that is, the secretary of a department. He is usually a
man who possesses some knowledge of the subject matter and
much administrative competence. As a political leader the depart¬
ment head is an indispensable link with the administration. He is
expected to provide a certain political point of view to department¬
al operations. He also acts as an advisor to the prime minister
both on specific duties which arise within the field of his assignment
and also on broadly related fields. Finally, the department head
must also serve as a connecting link between the permanent
officials and the legislature as well as the chief executive.^ His task
is one of ensuring proper consideration of both the political and
departmental viewpoints in the preparation of departmental
policies and programmes for the consideration of the chief executive.
A department may be divided into branches, divisions, bureaux,
sections and various other units of organisation.
According to Willoughby a standard scheme of departmental
organisation would include : (1) Office of chief clerk; (2) Division
of mail and files; (3) Division of personnel; (4) Division of
supplies; (5) Division of accounts; (6) Division of printing and
publications; (7) Office of the Superintendent of the building.
United Kingdom
The ministerial deparlmetu is the key point of the British
administrative system. Directly or indirectly all parts of the
administrative machine, however autonomous in form, are under a
minister who is responsible to Parliament for a department stalled
by permanent civil servants. This applies equally to government
departments, specially headed by ministers, to departments which
have no ministerial head (but for all of which some minister is
responsible, as the Chancellor of the Exchequer is for the Boards
of Inland Revenue and Customs and Excise) and to semi-autono¬
mous bodies like public corporations for which a minister will have
ultimate responsibility even if it is not formally so wide ranging
STRUCTURE OP ADMINISTRATION 107
as his government department. It is through the agency of

government departments that government policy is formulated and
implemented.
Since the first use of the term in 1915 the most common
formal designations for a department and its political head have
been ministry and minister respectively. The major British
departments are Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Cabinet Office,
Management and Personnel Office. Defence, Education and
Science, Energy, Environment, Foreign and Commonwealth Office.
Industry, Trade, Transport, Treasury and Health and Social
Security.
United States of America

The administrative organization of the executive branch of the
Federal Government has administrative departments headed by
secretaries. There are eleven departments, namely, Departments
of State, Treasury, Defence. Justice. Interior, Agriculture,
Commerce, Labour, Transportation, Health, Education and Wel¬
fare, and lastly, the Department of Housing and Urban Develop¬
ment. The departments are functionally organised and are
immediately below the Chief Executive, that is, the President. In
the USA the Congress regulates the details of departmental
organization; and the President is not free to reorganize the
executive branch of the government, unlike the parliamentary
systetnsinUK and India, where this power is vested constitu¬
tionally in the Chief Executive.
Soviet Union
The departmental form of governmental organization has been
widely adopted in the Soviet Union. Government work is divided
into functional departments which may be further subdivided into
various divisions. All government departments come under minis¬
tries. Each ministry is headed by a minister who is the political head,
whose immediate subordinate is a government bureaucrat who is the
administrative head of the departments. Government departments in
the Soviet Union fall under the ministries which are more than thirty
in number. Law making, administration, as well as adjudication
emanate from the Council of Ministers. The ptineiple of separa¬
tion of powers, though found in some degree in llic Soviet govern¬
ment, is in theory repudiated.^ However, the government is so
structured that power is, in fact, divided. Rule making power,
administrative authority, the power to supervise and control, and
5. A characlcrisiic feature of the system of So\ict siaic organs is il>c unity

and interconnection of all its component parts. The Soviet state organs
do not oppose each other, are not isolated and self-contained ortianiiâ-
tions. on the contrary, there is constant interaction. See A. Denison
and M. Kirichenko, Soviet State Law Moscow, 1960. p. 195.
108 PUBLIC ADMINlSl RATION
various otlicr functions are distributed among multiple agencies.

each having jurisdiction over a broad or narrow sector of public
life in the USSR. Thus there is what might be called a bureau¬
cratic divisioEi of powers in the USSR which is a natural outcome
of the complexity and multiplicity of governmental functions. Such
division is therefore required for administrative efficiency.
The Council of Ministers, which heads government adminis¬
tration in the USSR has final authority in the organization of all
ministers and cabinet level agencies. It is also the principal source
of legislation in the Soviet Union. It is charged with the task of
drawing up the national economic plans—from the five year to the
shorter annual ones. The Council of Ministers draft the laws
which go into ctfect after the Supreme Soviet formally ratifies
them. Decrees or executive orders of the Supreme Soviet also have
the binding of laws. The administration or execution of these laws
is the task of the individual ministries and other cabinet level
agencies aitaclicd to the Council ol Ministers. It is also the task
of the union republics constituting the Soviet Union.
The ministries and boards of the central government may be
divided into two categories—those dealing with primarily economic
matters and the non-cconomic ministries. For most of the non¬
economic ministries and state commissions, institutions analogous
in jurisdiction and functions can be found in most western coun¬
tries and elsewhere, for e.xample. the ministries of Foreign Affairs
and Defence, the Home Ministry and the Ministry of Finance.
The Ministry of Finance functions as the nation's treasury depart¬
ment and tax collector, and shares budget making functions with
such additional cabinet-level agencies as the Slate Bank, the State
Economic Council and tiic Stale Planning Commission. An impor¬
tant agency attached to the Council of Ministers is the Commis¬
sion of Soviet Control, which functions as a general inspectorate.
Finally, among the most important non-cconomic ministries is the
Ministry of Higher Education, which is directly in charge of all
institutions of learning above the level of secondary schools. Often
in the history of the USSR, other activities have been elevated to
cabinet rank or demoted to the status of a department within an
existing ministry. An example of this is the Civil Service Commis¬
sion, which c.rrlier existed within the Ministry of Finance, while at
other times it ha? been directly subordinate to the Council of
Ministers. Another non-economic agency which deserves mention
is the Committee for State vSccurity (KGB)—the political police of
the government.
Among the ministries and boards dealing with economic pro¬
blems some arc general planning and service organisations ; the
Stale Planning Committee, the Stale Economic Council, the State
Bank and the State Commission for Foreign Economic Relations.
Other ministries and commissions which exert control over specific
branches of the economy arc the Ministry of Merchant Marine

which operates the commercial fleet : the Ministry of Railroad
Communications runs the railroads ; the Ministry of Postal Service
and Telecommunications manages post offices and telephone
exchanges and the Atomic Energy Commission whose task is to
produce fissionable material.
All economic ministries have direct managerial functions for
entire sectors of the economy. For almost each branch of industry
or production, there is a ministry. These ministries are divided
into divisions dealing with various branches of the industry. Under
the command of each division arc enterprises or conibit»at ion of
enterprises, some of the largest being designated as trusts. Directly
or indirectly, therefore, all enterprises are subordinated, in a
straight line of command, to the minister in charge of a particular
branch of production. Each ministry headed by a minister is
divided into departments or branches headed by depuis ministers
or assistant ministers. A number of these highest civil servants
form a small advisory group called the collegium. A minister
today is obliged to consult his subordinates in the collegium,
though he is not bound to follow their advice; at the same time,
the collegium has the right to appeal against his decision to the
Council of Ministers. Besides, a ministry may organise a large
advisory council or ad hoc committees made up of senior civil
servants of the staff, together with leading officials from llie field.
Like any national bureaucracy, a ministry will have a complex
staff organization as well as field agencies. The organization of the
staff, the number and kinds of departments and subdivisions, will
naturally depend on the various activities the ministry is expected
to undertake.
China
With few exceptions, each ministry, as ucll as many oilier
ministry level organs in the central government in Beijing, operate
as the command headquarters for a nationwide lunciional
“system” which includes equiv.ilenl bodies performing similar
work at each level of government, from the centre do vn to the
local levels. These are grouped together into what might lor
convenience be labelled ‘‘general systems” whicli include at the
national level several ministries, and often other agencies as well,
whose work is closely related.
In the words of Doak Barnett, these systems have important
characteristics—a distinct function or line of work; a vertical
nationwide organizational structure with specialized institutions
and personnel at each level of the administrative hierarchy into
which China is divided, and distinct, centralized, special channels
of authority and communication through which there is a direct
flow of instructions from top to bottom as well as of reports from
bottom to top.
no PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Though there is still consiJerable diiTerence of opinion as to

which groupings of institutions and functions should be regarded
as “general systems”, it has been possible to identify ten major
functional areas which possess most of the features noted above.
They are :
1. Political and legal affairs
2. Culture and education
3. Agriculture, forestry and water conservancy
4. Industry and communications
5. Finance and trade
6. Party mass work
7. Foreign affairs
8. Women’s and youth work
9. Military affairs
10. Organisational and personnel
The mojority of government ministries fit into one or another
of these “general systems” and, as stated earlier, each also
constitutes the apex of a vertical “system” of its own. It is the
ministries which carry the main burden of day to day administra*
tion at the national level.
Ministers in China are obviously persons with broad responsi¬
bilities and high status in the bureaucracy. Each minister is
responsible for supervising the entire work not only of his
ministry but also of its subordinate regional counterparts through¬
out the country. In short, each minister heads one basic functional
“system” into which government work is divided on a nationwide
basis.
Boards and Commissions

A board or commission is defined as a group of people
elected or appointed to discharge collectively some public
function. A commission is also referred to as “certificate of office
or a body of men to whom some public function has been
entrusted.”^
A board or commission is generally held desirable for the
following:
(I) Those services which are of a quasi-judicial and quasi¬
legislative character, e.g., public utility corporations which perform
two principal functions, viz., (a) quasi-legislative formulation of
6. H.J. Pandya. “Boards and Commissions in India”, in Ramesh K.

Arora (cd.). The Indian Admini.siraiive System. Associated Publishing
lôusc, 197S, p. 124.
SIRUCTUUE OF ADMINISTRATION Ill
rules and regulations for determining the rates and conditions of

services; (b) quasi-judicial decisions of judgments on issues
affecting public and private rights arising under such rules and
regulations.
(2) Those services whose duties call for the exercise of wide
discretionary powers of general control, for example, a Public
Service Commission.
(3) Organization in which different interests are to be
represented, e.g., commodity promotion board or conciliation
board for the settlement of labour disputes.
(4) Such institutions where attempts are made to eliminate or
reduce to a minimum the factor of party politics in the conduct of
its operations.^
Merits
(i) It gives an opportunity to the adminisirati.'n to secure
the advice and services of the best lay competence in the commu¬
nity at almost no cost.
(ii) It also tends to promote intelligent citizen cooperation
and develop a sense of civil responsibility by enabling wider citizen
participation in government.
(iii) Boards have grown up in welfare and educational
activities in response to demands that these activities be freed from
the political interference of the general government.
(iv) Commissions give an opportunity for representin'’
different phases of opinion in the community.
Demerits
.. .(•). "Theoretically, the board administration violates the

distinction between government and politics, because throush it
politics is injected into the administration.
(ii) It has been found that the personnel on boards or
commissions have been, in many cases, rather mediocre, because
while making appointments, authorities are concerned with cither
repaying political debts or in securing safe individuals.
anything goes wrong.it is impossible to fix responsi-
bility. Action is slowed down, and proper decisions are delaved
or vitiated by compromise.
(iv) As compared to a bureau, a board or commission type of
organisation is more expensive.
A board is a body of members who are required to act
collectively. A ’Commission’ is also a body of members, but they
7. W.F. Willoughby, Principles of Public Admiriistraiion, rp. 121-J22.

112
act in two capacities. First, the members act collectively like
those of a board; and secondly, each member also acts individually
as head of a distinct branch of organisation. The common
examples are those of a municipal board, and commission type
organisation of a local body as in the USA. According to Graves
the term ‘Commission’ is to be used when the body is charged
with important regulatory duties relating to public utility enterpris¬
es. Where the duties are primarily administrative or where, it
regulatory in character, they relate to matters other than public
utilities, the ‘board’ is in general use.
Composition of Boards and Commissions
They may be composed of (i) members serving full time and
entitled to compensation like other similar government servants,
(ii) private members receiving no compensation as they are requir¬
ed to give only a small part of their lime; (iii) ex-officio members,
holding other offices. When duties arc numerous, part-time members,
should not be appointed. There are usually three to nine member^
All the members may be appointed simultaneously for a
term normally of three to five years or, one-half, or one-third
retiring, and new ones being appointed in their places every
alternate years or so.
India
Since Independence many boards and commissions have been
established in India. These can be classified into three broad
categories on the basis of their origin.
(а) Constitutional commissions : Our Constitution makes a
mention of some of the commissions that have to be appointed.
Such commissions are : the Finance Commission, the Backward
Classes Commission, and the Official Language Commission.
Because of the constitutional sanctity attached to these commis¬
sions, they enjoy the greatest autonomy. They are appointed by
the President of India and do not come under the purview of any
executive authoritv. The members of these commissions are
appointed by the President but they cannot be removed from office
except by a special procedure. Their salaries are charged on the
Consolidated Fund of India and cannot be reduced during the
term of their office.
(б) Statutory commissions/boards : The statutory commis¬
sions/boards are set up by the Acts of Parliament. Examples
of such bodies are : the University Grants Commission, the Atomic
Energy Commission, the Railway Board, the Oil and Natural Gas
Commission and the Flood Control Board. The statutory boards
or commissions function under the general administrative control
of one or the other ministries of the Government of India but
enjoy autonomy in their own administrative work. The depart¬
mental procedures are not applied by them in the conduct of their
work except when they voluntarily opt for them. Such boards and
commissions exist in the state governments also.
(c) Boards!commissions set up by executive orders : There are
boards and commissions which are set up by an order of the
executive, that is, the Central or State governments. Examples of
such bodies are : the Handicrafts Board, the Handloom Board, the
Central Social Welfare Board, the Central Water and Power Com¬
mission. Such boards and commissions'cnjoy.much less autonomy
than the constitutional and statutory boards and commissions.
They are generally attached to the concerned minister who has
the power to regulate their conduct of business and even abolish
them altogether.
United Kingdom
Boards and commissions have become an increasingly impor¬
tant feature of the central administrative system as the government
has extended its direct intervention in the economic activity and as
social provision has expanded. Some of the examples are the
Monopolies Commission, Agricultural Marketing Boards, the
British Standards Institution. C^'iocil for Industrial Design, Com¬
mission for Racial Equality. Equal Opportunities Commission,
Manpower Services Commission
Tn the USA the board and commission type of organization

is widely used. This is partly due to the loseness of the American
administrative system, and parllv due to a desire to escape the
pervasive influence of party politics in administration.
Some of the important boards are : Civil Aeronautics Board.
National Labour Relations Board, Federal Home Loan Bank
Board, National Mediation Board, National Transportation Safety
Board.
independent Regulatory Commissions
The independent regulatory commissions are peculiar to the

constitutional set-up of the United States of America. They are
a progeny of the separation of powers and the deep distrust of the
Congress in the powers of the American presidency. The need for
such commissions was felt on account of the growing industrializa¬
tion and urbanization of the countrv during the nineteenth century
when the government felt it imperative to regulate private economic
activities. The first independent regulatory commission, set up by
the Federal Government, was the Inter-Stale Commerce Commis¬
sion in 1887. At present there are eleven such commissions in the
Federal Government of the USA which are as under:
1. The Inter-State Commerce Commission.
114
Z The Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System.

3. The Federal Trade Commisfion.
4. The Federal Communications Commission.
5. The Federal Power Commission.
6. The Securities and Exchange Commission.
7. The National Labour Relations Board.
8. The United States Maritime Board.
9. The Civil Aeronautics Board.
10. US Tariff Commission.
11. Nuclear Regulatory Commission.
The main functions of these commissions can be summarized.
First, they set standards, rules and regulations to govern the
behaviour of a particular industry, and secondly, they enforce these
standards, rules and regulations and prosecute the defaulters. They,
therefore, enjoy both the powers to make administrative legislation
and to adjudicate administrative disputes. They regulate the econo¬
mic activities in three different procedures : (a) make rules, that is,
elaborate and dehne the general norms laid down in the parent
Acts; (b) administrative methods such as licensing, inspection,
publicity; and (c) case-bycase decision method which is used on
complaints against the violation of the law or the norms laid
down.
The commissions can hear cases and award decisions cither on
a regular petition having been made by a private party or on their
own initiative. The power to take initiative is the main distinguF
shing feature which differentiates the commissions from the ordi¬
nary courts. The ordinary courts cannot start judicial proceedings
at their own initiative. As soon as a commission takes the initia¬
tive on its own or on a petition from a private party, it issues
notices to the party or parties concerned. The ne.xt step is the
hearing of the case. The commission is not bound by the formal
rules of evidence and whatever relevant evidence can assist it in
fact-finding is ,acccpied. Nor is it essential that the petition must
be heard by the person who is to ultimately decide the case. The
usual procedure is that the case is heard by over a dozen examiners
and on the basis of relevant evidence, a decision is recommended
to the head of the commission. Generally, the head of the com¬
mission simply endorses the decision of the examiners. Judicial
review of, and appeals against these decisions again rest with the
commission which sits as an administrative tribunal in respect of
these decisions.
Afain Features
1.The functions of independent regulatory commissions are
of a mixed nature—administrative, quasi-legislative, and quasi¬
judicial. They frame rules and regulations, execute these rules and
hear appeals against their own decisions. It is on account of the

mixed nature of their functions that they have been called ‘ the
fourth branch of the government” for they do not fit into any of
the three traditional branches of the government—legislative,
executive and judicial.
2. These commissions arc staffed by experts and are relatively

small.
3. They are collegial in character and consist of a group of
men who discuss and decide by a majority vote.
4. They are relatively independent of the Chief Executive,

i.e., the President. They are neither responsible to him nor have
to report to him. They are set up under a statute passed by the
Congress laying down their constitution and functions. It is
because of these reasons that these commissions have been describ¬
ed as “headless” for they owe no subordination to the President or
any other executive authority. In fact, they are outside the frame¬
work of the departmental organization under the President and
have been rightly called “islands of autonomy” within the American
administrative set-up. The federal administration of the USA
stands “disintegrated” because of the presence of these
commissions.
It may, however, be mentioned that the independence of these

regulatory commissions is relative and not absolute. First, they
are controlled by the Civil Service Commission in personnel ad¬
ministration. Secondly, their budgets are subject to the review of the
Office of Management and Budget which is a staff agency of the
American President. Thirdly, their actions arc subject to judicial
review and can be declared void. Finally, they are subject to the
control of the Congress. They receive their annual appropriations
from the Congress, which has the power to order an investigation
into their working and operations. The Congress can also amend their
constitutions, and even abolish them, although the last step has
never been taken. As a matter of fact the control of the Congress
is only of a general character and these commissions are regarded
as “the arms of the Congress”. On the whole, these commissions
are largely autonomous.
The regulatory work of the administration is usually done by

the various government departments, corporations and local bodies,
in most countries. Even in the USA most of the regulatory work
is done by the departments, local bodies and such other agencies.
In India, one is well familiar with the rules and regulations regard¬
ing construction of buildings and zoning, framed by the municipal
bodies. What distinguishes these bodies from the independent
regulatory commissions is the statu; of the latter in being outside
the purview of the Chief Executive.
Merits
The merits were clearly brought out by the Hoover Commis¬
sion Task Force on regulatory commissions which observed
The number of members and their security of tenure are

intended to assure freedom from partisan control or favouri¬
tism. The group is able to resist outside influence more
effectively than an individual and each member is free from a
threat of removal as a source of pressure. Moreover, since
the activities of the commission may be more subject to public
scrutiny than would be a single bureau in a large department,
there is greater opportunity for exposure of pressures or
improper actions. Finally, while provisions for hearings and
similar safeguards against arbitrary actions are not peculiar to
commissions, they may be more effective when combined with
group action.
Demerits
1. It is said that the regulatory commissions owe no responsi¬

bility to any constituted authority. They function outside the ad¬
ministrative set-up of the President and have been rightly called
“headless*’. The President has no power to dismiss any of the
members with the result that they can easily stand in the way of
effective and integrated administration of the Chief Executive.
2. The commissions combine in themselves the functions of

the legislator, prosecutor, and the judge, thereby jeopardising the
rights and liberties of the people. The commissions formulate very
important policies in business and industrial fields and with these
combined functions, can easily act arbitrarily.
3. As these commissions are outside the purview of the

President, they have served as a great “disintegrating” force in the
federal administration of the USA. They can obstruct effective co¬
ordination of the national policy by non-cooperating with
other departments of the federal government. Besides, there
usually arise conflicts of jurisdiction between these commissions
and other executive departments because some of the regulatory
functions are common to both these bodies. This can result in‘‘a
decentralized and chaotic administration.”
It is clear that there is no unanimity of opinions about the
utility of these commissions. It appears that the Americans have
accepted their existence as a matter of fact. Under the circumstan¬
ces, what is needed is that Congressional as well as judicial control
over them should be strengthened. James W. Fesler has made the
8. The Task Force Report on Regulatory Commissions, p. 20.

remove them is well recognized in most countries. In

India, all the Public Corporation Acts empower the
Government to appoint chairmen and members of the
board as well as managing directors and general
managers. These Acts do not lay down any qualifica¬
tions for selection to these posts, leaving the minister with
considerable discretion in the matters.
2. It is a well established principle of public corporations
that matters of broad policy arc the concern of the
minister while matters of day-to-day administration arc
left to the discretion of the corporation. However, in
practice there is no clear line of demarcation between the
two spheres. Therefore, all Public Corporation Acts
provide that the government shall have the power to issue
policy directives to the corporations from time to tirne.
And to enable the government to keep a watth over policy
execution of these corporations, the Acts also require
them to submit periodical reports, returns and other
information to the government. The minister may him¬
self ask for any information at any time and the corpora¬
tion has to supply it to him even though it may relate to
matters of detailed administration. The approval of the
minister is also necessary for the new schemes and pro¬
grammes of the corporation if they involve policy matters
and important financial considerations.
Financial control: Besides annual statements of accounts and
audit reports of public undertakings there are other ways of
government control in India.
The Finance Ministry has a great control over the enterprises.
In the first place, it is represented on the boards of directors of
all the corporations. Secondly, to certain corporations, it also
sends a financial advisor, whose approval is necessary on all
financial transactions. In certain financial matters government
approval is also necessary for undertaking works of a capital
nature involving expenditure of more than a specified sum.
Public Corporations in tIK

There are over fifty public corporations in the UK. inclusive
of the nineteen nationalised industries. The major public corpora¬
tions are the British Broadcasting Corporation, Civil Aviation
Authority. Commonwealth Development Corporation. Housing
Corporation. National Film Finance Corporation. National Ports
Council and National Research Development Corporation.
The general pattern of the relationship between boards of
nationalised industries and public corporations and the Parliament
in UK. can be summarised as follows :
(1) The minister appoints and has the power to dismiss the
chairman and members of each board. He has the power to give
general directions on how the industry shall be run but does not
interfere in everyday management. Boards are normally required
to provide the minister with any information, statistics or financial
accounts which he may require.
(2) As far as financial matters are concerned, the usual statu¬
tory requirement is for the board to conduct its business so that its
accounts are in balanBe^,taking one year with another. Some of the
corporations are self-supporting and realise con^derable annual
profits; others receive Exchequer grants to enable them to dis¬
charge their responsibilities etTcctively. Financial targets are set in
agreement with the minister.
(3) The Government haS\to answer in Parliament for its policy
concerning the nationalised^^dustries. ’ Opportunilfes for parlia¬
mentary discussion ar\alTordc^y debates, especially the dilates
on the Annhal Repems^ and j^ccouHts for each indi«try, and
parliamentary questioq^ The minister is only resMmsible for
answering questions con^j^ned with general policy not with
matters of daj'^to^ây administrationTYThe SeIec|i^Committee bn
Nationalised Industries plays the most ihiportant/Tole;_iD'highlight¬
ing problems affecting the dcvc|opmeni|s of public corporations.
I
Public Corporations in USA ^

In the USA public corporations were created for three
purposes : (i) During the Depression to facilitate the extension of
credit to financially needy banking, insurance, transportation, manu¬
facturing and other private companies; (ii) to carry on enterprises
of a business or commercial nature; and (iii) to deal with emer¬
gency problems that arose in certain industries which necessitated
government intervention. In 1948 President Truman indicated in
his budget message the following four criteria for the creation of
public corporations :
1. When a government programme is essentially of a com¬
mercial nature involving business type public transactions.
2. When it is a revenue producing (or profit-making) venture
requiring greater flexibility and autonomy than normal
business enterprises.
Public control over government corporations in the USA
takes many forms. Due to the presidential form of government
congressional control over these corporations is more limited than
in countries like India. Public corporations had enjoyed in the
early period of their growth a great deal of autonomy in financial
matters as they were independent of the financial control of the
Congress. However, over the years, various statutes like the First
Deficiency Act 1936, the Ramspeck Act 1940, and the Corporation
Control Act 1945 have considerably limited the unbridled autono¬
my these corporations enjoyed earlier. By the First Deficiency
Act, Congress necessitated compulsory review of administrative
expenses even though the Congress was not authorized to sanction
these expenses. By the Ramspeck Act the President was given
discretionary power to subject federal corporations to civil service
laws. The Corporation Control Act provided for the assimilation
of the budget and audit system of public corporations (except the
Tennessee Valley Authority) with those of governn^nt depart¬
ments. \\
As a result of the enactments, public corporati^s itAfVe
USA (except Tennessee Valley Auihorily and tPort of Nbv^/VirK
Authority) are now completely under the t«dgotarv^d administra¬
tive control of the ExccutiveCand als{>un(icf tn/j(t)t^cd review
of the Congress. The majom public corpohj,iTOns* in the USA
are Commodity Credit (Corporatio^'^xport Import Bank of
Washiiôn, Federal CroAutsw^ê Corporation, Federal Deposit
Insurafiwi Corporation. Foetal National Mortgage Association,
Federal Pfisoly lAdustries, Federal Savings and Loan Insurance
Corporation, %nnW'Canal Corporation, Postal Service, Tennessee
Valley A^lhîlyjand Port of New York Authority.
Public Enterprises in the Soviet Union

In the Soviet Union public enterprises embrace not only
utilities but almost the whole of industrial production, commerce
and finance.
All public enterprises arc owned and managed by the Slate.
In the USSR industrial enterprises, factories, mines, oil wells,
and shops at the union, republican or local levels are managed
respectively by ministries at the federal, republican and executive
commiuce level of local soviets. The basic unit of production is
the individual enterprise (comprising one factory or more) which is
an integrated operation under a single manager. All employees of
public enterprises scientists, technicians and engineers or others are
public officials, with fixed salaries. All nationalized industries are
grouped in related combines, each of which is given separate
economic status. The state treasury allocates to each group of
industries such nationalized property as is necessary to its function¬
ing and this property is inventoried and attached as a schedule of
properly to a “charter” in which the purposes for which the
corporation or trust, as the enterprise may be called, is created are
enumerated. At the head of the trust there is usually a single
individual named by the ministry under which the enterprise is to
function. Wages arc set in collective bargaining arrangements arrang¬
ed by the management with labour unions and under the guidance
of the Communist party. The corporation or the trust is expected
to make a profit between the planned costs and the planned selling
price. Each corporation or enterprise is charged with property res¬
ponsibilities and held accountable for its property through a system
of cost accounting. It could sue and be sued as a corporate entity.
The manager of a Soviet industrial enterprise has at his disposal all
the material and monetary resources of the enterprise, and directly
manages the drafting of workshop tasks (technical, industrial and
financial plans) and the plans for its technical progress and capital
expansion. The manager selects all the basic personnel, establishes
work procedures, and maintains labour discipline. He has to bear
the entire responsibility for the work of an enterprise. The primary
industrial producing unit is the factory or plant, normally referred
to in Soviet terminology as the enterprise. It is a business organi¬
sation in that it not only produces goods or services, but also
purchases raw materials, sells its product, hires and fires its
employees, and seeks to make a profit. Within this general format,
the enterprise has a measure of choice in decision making and a
certain amount of administrative flexibility, for example, in the use
of its financial resources to achieve its assigned goals. On the other
hand it must fulfil its plan, and its actions at all times are subject
to the continuous review and supervision of local and central party,
government and economic agencies. The profits are intended to
keep the enterprise on a financially self-sustaining basis. Profits
(income after deducting expenses and planned charges) are impor¬
tant sources of state revenue, constituting perhaps one-fifth of the
entire national budget. The enterprise director's fund also is taken
from the profits. This fund is an important source of additional
money avilable to the director for the purpose of covering enter¬
prise losses, improving services and benefits to the worker, expand¬
ing production facilities, increasing capital, granting bonuses and
for other uses such as paying interest on loans.
Public Enterprises In China
Public enterprises in China are both large capital intensive
enterprises, and small labour intensive factories organised on a
territorial management production basis. Management of economic
operations is mostly concentrated at the commune level (small
scale industrial projects) and the principal level (large scale indus¬
trial projects), each supervising the operations of the level
immediately below it. The centre has given all territorial levels of
the administrative hierarchy the right to start factories and
organise the industrial network in their area. This does not mean
that the centre waives all power and control over such factories,
hut in addition to financial responsibility for their management,
the province or a commune gets a share of the profits, besides
sharing responsibility with the centre for acquiring raw materials,
and having a say in the objectives and use of their output. The
percentage of national production which now comes under pro¬
vincial or commune management is almost fifty.
Many units engage in factory supervision. Each may specia¬

lize in certain types of planning problems: supply, sales, produc¬
tion planning, labour allocation, capital construction, finance, or
statistics, to list a few. These supervisory bodies can be
grouped into two major categories. The first comprises the local
representatives of central government organs (such as ministries),
while the second is made up of local representatives of the
administrative level which controls an enterprise (such as a
province or country).
The Chinese refer to this system as “dual control”.
Industrial ministries play an important role in the allocation
of supplies, investment funds, skilled labour, and other critical
resources ; the planning, design, and supervision of major cons¬
truction projects, setting technical standards and prices for their
products! research and development of new technology, and the
training of technical specialists.
The system of “dual” control is supposed to work in this
manner; the horizontal levels of government below the centre, in¬
cluding the provinces, municipalises, and counties are empowered
to cut across the “vertical” lines of control emanating from
ministries and other planning bodies in the capital. There is joint
control by local authorities in cooperation with the field represen¬
tatives of central government organs. This was done to enable the
industrial management policies of the centra! government to be
modified through local participation, whenever necessary. The
entire scheme of industrial management in China was meant to
strike a balance between centra?lz:»tion and decentralization.
Bureaux and corporations : The increased participation of
local authorities in industrial management'^ led to the creation of
two important kinds of specialized bodies, bureaux and corpora¬
tions. both of which are modeled after ministries. Some units
appear to have been established in every large industrial city in
China. The bureaux specialize in different industrial areas, such as
iron and steel, textiles, machine tools, trade and capital construc¬
tion among others. The corporations are normally subordinate
to bureaux and tend to oversee more specialized industrial activi¬
ties, such as the manufacture of certain types of machine tools. ^ In
general, the corporations are responsible for purely technical
operations and are directly above most enterprises, each may super¬
vise about ten enterprises.
Generally, the increased jurisdiction of local authorities has
meant a tighter control over factory management. The most
important tasks of administering the factories are entrusted to the
factory directors, and administrative cadres in the enterprises
13. For details on industrial management, planning and administration seo

Encyclopaedia of China Today, M&QiaiWzn, London, 19^9, pp. 176-178.
PUBLIC ADMINISI RATION
130
themselves. The factories have the power to recruit their own

personnel and sign contracts for procurement of raw materials and
selling their products. In the Chinese industry one of the most
common forms of decision making advocated is the
combination” in which technical problems are solved by ad-hoc
groups composed ot cadres, technicians and workers. Planning
apparently entails extensive negotiations and bard bargaining
between the factory leadership and the higher authorities.
The organisational structures of public enterprises in China
difier from factory to factory. The key person in each factory is
the factory manager; only the largest factories have deputy
managers. The larger enterprises also have personnel cadres, an
accountant, at least one clerk, and one or more production
management cadres. Other technical or specialised personnel
varies from factory to factory.
Workers in public enterprises are classified as either ordinary
or technical workers and are paid according to graded wage
scales.
Staff Agencies in India, UK, USA, USSR and China
India
Staff agencies in India include the Cabinet Secretariat, the
Prime Minister’s Office (known as Prime Minister s Secretariat
till June 1977), the Cabinet Committees, the Planning Commission,
the Budget and Economic Affairs Department in the Finance
Ministry, the Administrative Vigilance Division in the Home
Affairs Ministry, and the Staff Inspection Unit (S.I.U) in the
Finance Ministry.
Cabinet Secretariat : The Cabinet Secretariat performs staff
functions, serving the Cabinet as well as the standing committees
of the Cabinet. It performs the necessary secretariat work pertain¬
ing to the meetings of the Cabinet and its committees. Its functions
include preparation of agenda for the meetings of the Cabinet,
keeping record of discussions in the Cabinet and the decisions
taken, circulation of memoranda on issues awaiting^ the Cabinet s
approval circulation of the decisions to each ministry, prepara¬
tion and’submission of monthly summaries on a large number of
specified subjects to the Cabinet.
The Cabinet Secretariat functions under the direct charge of
the Prime Minister and is headed by a functionary called the
Cabinet Secretary. The Cabinet Secretary is the seniormost civil
servant and is the principal adviser to the Prime Minister.
Prime Minister’s Office : The Prime Minister’s Office assists
the Prime Minister in his public activities in that capacity and in
his functions as the head of Government within the general frame¬
work of established government procedure. Generally, the status
of the officers of the Prime Minister’s Secretariat can be taken to
STRUCTURE OP ADMINISTRATION 131
be the same as status of officers of the corresponding rank in the

ministries of the Government.
Cabinet Committees: The Cabinet carries on much of its
work through its committees which generally have the authority to
give binding decisions on matters assigned to them. Any decision
of a committee may. however, be reviewed by the Cabinet. The
decisions arrived at bv the committees are reported to the Cabinet
for information. Ordinarily, no matter comes before the Cabinet
unless it has been considered by the concerned committee of the
Cabinet.
These committees facilitate effective coordination and quick
decisions in addition to relieving the Cabinet of considerable
amount of preliminary work. leaving it free to concentrate upon
more important matters. They are of two types—the standing
and the ad hoc committees. An ad hoc committee may be
appointed by the Cabinet or the Prime Minister for investigating
and reporting to the Cabinet on specific matters and. if .so authoriz¬
ed, to give even binding decisions on such matters. The membership
of the Cabinet Committee varies from three to eight. Their
chairmanship is shared between the Prime Minister and the Home
Minister.
Planning Commission : Established bv a Government resolu¬
tion in March 1950, the Planning Commission, with the Prime
Minister as the Chairman, soon emerged as a powerful and
effective staff agency in India. The functions of the Commision
are as follows:
(1) Make an assessment of the material, capital and human
resources of the country, including technical personnel, and
investigate the possibilities of augmenting such of these resources
as are found to be deficient in relation to the nation’s requirements.
(2) Formulate a plan for the most effective and balanced
utilization of the country’s resources.
(3) Determine priorities as between projects and programmes
accepted in the plan.
(4) Indicate the factors that retard economic development,
and determine conditions which should be established for the
success of the plan.
(5) Determine the nature of the machinery for successful
implementation of the plan.
(6) From time to time appraise with the progress of the plan
and recommend the necessary adjustments of policies and
measures.
(7) Make recommendations after considering the economic
conditions, policies, measures and development programmes, or
after examining problems referred to it for advice by the Central or
State Governments or for facilitating the discharge of duties

assigned to it.
The Planning Commission at present consists of the Chairman,
the Deputy Chairman and six members. The Prime Minister is
its Cliairinin. The Deputy Chairman is the full lime functional
head of the Commission. Of the six members three are ministers
in the Central Government—the Finance Minister, the Home
Minister and the Defence Minister. The remaining three are
full time members. Each member looks after one or more subjects
and directs the study of problems in his field, but all the members
function as a body. All cases involving policy are considered by
the Commission as a whole. The formulation of plans, adjustnients
in the plans, matters involving departure from the plan policies,
important cases involving disagreement with a Central ministry or
a State Government, and difference of opinion between two
members are some of them.
Other staff agencies in India are the Budget and Economic
Affairs Department in the Ministry of Finance. Vigilance Division
in the Ministry of Home Affairs, and the Staff Inspection Unit
in the Ministry of Finance. The Department of Economic
AlTairs, primarily concerned with the formulation of the financial
policy of the Central Government, looks after a diversified group
of subjects, like banking, currency, capital issues, public debt,
foreign exchange, balance of payments, consolidation and prepara¬
tion of central budgets, review of state budgets and technical
assistance programmes. The Administrative Vigilance Division
provides a centralized drive, direction and coordination regarding
the battle against corruption in the public services. Each
ministry and department has a Vigilance Officer, and the
Director, Administrative Vigilance Division, acts as the chief guide
and co-ordinator of the combined operations. The Vigilance
Office is responsible for:
(a) examining all aspects of the work with a view to locate
points where opportunity for corruption is likely to arise; for
organizing regular and surprise inspections and devising other
ways and means for minimizing the scope for corruption; and
(b) initiating prompt action and pursuing it with speed and
vigour when there appear to be reasonable grounds for suspicion
of corruption or malpractices against individual officers.
The Staff Inspection Unit, constituted in April 1964, replaced
the Special Reorganization Unit which had been in existence since
1953. The Staff Inspection Unit is located in the Department
of Expenditure (Ministry of Finance), and it is charged with
(i) securing economy in staff consistent with administrative
efficiency, and (ii) evolving performance standards and work
norms. The function of the Staff Inspection Unit is to keep the
staff position in ministries/officcs under the Central Government
under constant review in accordance with predetermined pro¬

grammes of work measurement studies. It also undertakes ad hoc
reviews, on special requests of minislrics/offices not included in
the programme as well as of public sector undertakings.
Britain
The Treasury in the UK has been described as the e.K-
ecutive agency through which the authority of the Chancellor of
Exchequer is imposed on the operation of all departments of slate.
The British Treasury as the Department of the Prime Minister
has three important aspects. First, it performs some important
general service functions. Secondly, the Permanent Secretary to
the Treasury is the principal adviser to the Prime Minister, who
has an overall concern with the entire business of the state. When
a vacancy arises in the high posts of any department, he submits
advice for the consideration of the Prime Minister and of the
minister of the department concerned with regard to that appoint¬
ment. Thirdly, the Treasury is related to the cabinet secretariat,
which is especially attached to the Prime Minister. In addition to
these aspects, the Organisation and Methods Division of the
Treasury plays an important part in effecting economics of time,
effort and materials through the introduction of improved methods
and procedures.
Another important staff* agency in Britain is the Cabinet
Secretariat, which was established during the First World War
in 1916. This office serves both the Cabinet and the cabinet
committees. Its main functions are: preparation of the agenda
for meetings of the Cabinet and its committees; circulation of
memoranda, other papers and reports on the implementation of
decisions; keeping the non-cabinet ministers informed of the results
of cabinet discussions affecting their departments; and keeping
all important records of discussions held and decisions made at
Cabinet meetings.
The executive offee of the President is made up of the White
House Olfcc, the Office of Budget and Management, the National
Security Council, the Office of Defence Mobilization, the Council
of Economic Advisers, and some other agencies, like the General
Accounting Office and the Office of Economic Stabilization.
White House Office: The White House Office covers the
entire range of presidential functions. Consisting of personel
assistants, appointed by the President, this office performs all
lose functions that assist him in the everyday running of his
omce. The office analyses the problems confronting him and
assists him in taking decisions. It transmits his decisions and
orders to the departments, thus becoming an essential link between
the latter and the President. Also, it is this office which, as the
reprcsimtative of the President, deals with the parlymcn, members
01 the Congress, and private groups.
Office of Budget and Management : The Office of Budget and

Management, known until recently as the Bureau of Budget,
created by the Budget Accounting Act of 1921, has become an
arm of the overhead management. Its primary duty is to assist
the President in the preparation and execution of the annual
budget. Besides, it subjects all the executive orders, proposals for
legislation, originating from the executive branch, and bills
coming from the Congress to review and analysis, it suggests
the schemes for better organization and management of agencies
and departments of the executive branch. It also coordinates the
federal statistical activities. The Office of Budget and Manage¬
ment works through offices for budget review, legislative reference,
management and organization, and statistical standards.
National Security Council : Set up by the National Security
Act of 1947, the National Security Council advises the President
on the integration of military, foreign and domestic policies
pertaining to national security; assesses and appraises the objectiv¬
es, commitments and risks of the United States m relation to the
country’s military power, and considers policies on matters of
common interest to the departments and agencies of the govern¬
ments. The Council only studies and advises, the President takes
the decision.
The office of the Defence Mobilization, dealing with national
security, engages in mobilization planning and executes the plans
in times of emergency.
The Council of Economic Advisers, established in 1946, assists
the President in preparing his annual economic report which is
presented to the Congress, and submits to him information on
economic matters.
Soviet Union
Every ministry in the USSR has a research institute to
assist, guide and provide latest information and technology
for policy making and execution. Thus the Ministry of Agri¬
culture has a research institute on agricultural economics, the
Procuracy (Office ol the Prosecutor General) has an institute
on the causes of crime and measures to pre\ent it, the State
Committee on Prices has one on piice determination and so forth.
Similarly, each ministry lias educational institutions to prepare
the middle level personnel it needs, for example, the Ministry of
Agriculture has over one hundred colleges w'hich it supervises.
The staff of these scientific and educational institutions often
work on technical problems, but many also study problems
directly relevant to the policy concerns of the ministry. As a
result, the top administrators of the major governmental institu¬
tions have a great deal of within house scientific expertise at their
disposal if they wish to utilise it either for policy study or
augmentation in a policy.
The State Committee that has special responsibility for

coordinating and controlling the actions of the ministries is the
State Planning Committee or Gospian. It engages not only in
long term planning but also in the extremely detailed compilation
of the annual plan. The primary function of Gospian is to reconcile
the various ministerial requests within the framework of available
resources and priorities. It produces four balances—(a) the
overall economy, (b) labour resources, (c) finance and currency,
and (d) material resources. To carry out its functions, Gospian
has two types of internal departments. The “summary" depart¬
ments supervise the overall balances, territorial planning and the
like. The branch departments are structured along the same
general lines as the ministries. Gospian has four research institutes,
the officials of which not only conduct research and calculations
needed in the compilation of the plan but also participate
in the published policy debate. Another stalT agency in the
USSR is the Civil Service Commission which acts as the chief
adviser to the government on policy mutters pertaining to personnel
administration. Other important government bodies performing
research and advisory functions (essentially staff functions) are
the State Committee for Science and Technology and State
Committee for Foreign Economic Relations. Most of these bodies,
however, have operational responsibilities as well.
China
At the highest level the overall framework for plan¬
ning was established according to policies and goals defined
by such top party and government authorities as the Party
Central Committee, the Politburo, the Politburo Standing
Committee, and the State Council. On the basis of the plans and
policies the State Planning Commission is responsible for working
out long'term plans, and the State Economic Commission is
responsible for short-term ones. Every ministry has its Planning
Bureau, Statistical Bureau, Bureau of Finance and Accounting
which acts as a staff agency in the ministry. Each one is in charge
of providing specialized research, knowledge and advice on plan¬
ning, statistical and financial work related to the ministry. Most
ministries have large special cadre schools providing specialized
training relevant to their work. There are also independent
personnel training institutes involved in cadre training.
There arc six major staff offices in China. They are:
1. The Staff Office for Foreign Affairs
2. The Stafl'Office for Political and Legal Affairs
3. The Staff Office for Culture and Education
4. The Staff Office for Industry and Communication
5. The Stair Office for Finance and Trade
6. The Stair Office for Agriculture and Forestry
5
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN INDIA,
SOVIET UNION AND CHINA
India
The Indian administrative system as it exists today is a product
of two dilVcrcnt sets of influences; the British colonial administra¬
tive traditions and the ideals of democratic welfare state which was
constitutionally adopted in India after independence. Among
India’s colonial legacies, perhaps the most well developed insti¬
tution which the British left behind was the Indian Civil Service
(ICS). The Indian Civil Service consisted of an exclusive adminis¬
trative elite, selected on merit who were exceptionally devoted to
duty, but were by interest and training, the main supporters of
British imperialism. Colonial administration in India was authori¬
tarian, unresponsive, exclusive and paternalistic in character,
qualities which the civil servants were taught to imbibe and main¬
tain in their dealings with the public. Primarily performing
regulatory functions like maintenance of law and order, collection
ol revenue, the administration during the British period had practi¬
cally no developmental tasks to perform or welfare goals to achieve.
The civil service was a very powerful body with powers of policy¬
making and execution vested in their hands to a great extent.
However, though the colonial government was involved in minimal
welfare lunctions (construction of roads, railways, educational
institutions and hospitals, to name a few), the ICS men served to
some extent as an integrating force, in a country with multiple
diversities such as India. They were elTicient though bureaucratic in
approach.
legacy which India inherited at the time of

mdependence: a generalist civil service trained in routine regulatory
functions and in the rigid application of rules, unused to the task
of nation-building or social reconstruction and without any institu¬
tionalised system of accountability to the people. However, it must
be stated that the inherited bureaucracy had many merits. During
the colonial era the foundation of a modern educational system
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN INDIA. SOVIET UNION AND CHINA 137
capable of providing a pool of future administrative personnel ssas

there, besides a network of communications, that is, schools,
colleges, banks and the press which provided the basic require¬
ments in developing an infrastructure of a modern nation.
Evolving Administrative System
The advent of independence and the resulting political and

social changes constituted the second set of influences on the
administrative system of the country. The adoption of a democra¬
tic social welfare state brought with it the concept of welfare
administration and public accountability which necessitated
considerable changes in the structure and functioning of the
colonial mode of administration. In the changed environment,
bureaucracy was expected to be subservient to its political masters,
act as the major instrument of social change and be accountable to
the people and responsive to their needs and aspirations. India
launched massive five year plans meant to eradicate poverty and
backwardness through rational and comprehensive stale efforts.
The state became the major promoter of planned change. The
government adopted as its goal a social welfare state and embarked
on an ambitious programme of nation-building and rapid socio¬
economic development. The nature of governmental goals and
tasks, therefore, underwent a qualitative change. These expanding
frontiers and the new tasks of government required an cllicient and
capable government machinery to handle social, economic, political
and technological problems in the context of development adminrs-
tration. The entire emphasis of bureaucratic functions shifted from
regulatory to that of individual and community welfare. A suitable
administrative structure was, therefore, required to plan and
implement the various tasks undertaken by the government.
Unfortunately, however, despite the changed socio-economic
and political milieu after independence, the influence of the earlier
colonial system continues to dominate the Indian scene. The
structural characteristics of the Indian Civil Service during the
British period, an open entry system based on recruitment bv merit,
permanency of tenure, dominance of generalist administrators at
all levels of the administrative hierarchy, a regular graded scale of
pay with promotions based predominantly on seniority have all
been retained with only minor modifications. Some of the now
leaders, no doubt, expressed their grave misgivings over adoption
of a post-independent bureaucratic structure with no major changes.
They fell that development administration needed a new structural
and behavioural orientation. This demand was, however, ultimately
resisted by a stronger lobby within the political leadership who on
the contrary being great admirers of the ‘sieel-frame’ (the civil
service structure) felt that the British pattern had inherent virtues
which were vitally needed for maintaining the country’s unity uud
PUfeLiC ADMINISTRATION
138
continuity in administration. Thus the arduous tasks °f nat>°“-

building and progress were entrusted to the newly êated Indian
Administrative Service (the IAS) successors to the ICS, but with
no radical changes in the British administrative traditions.
The civil services in India are divided into three categories :
all India services, central services and state services. The Constitu¬
tion specifies two all India services, the Indian Adniinistrative
Service and the Indian Police Service, but additional all India
services can be created by the Parliament, provided there is appro¬
val by two-thirds of the members of the Rajya Sabha. After
independence three new all India services were created—engineeing,
health and forestry. The recruitment to all India serves is by
competitive examinations organised by the Union Public Service
Commission, the officers of which are later assigned to state
cadres Though serving in the states they remain under the payroll
and disciplinary control of the Central Government and may come
to New Delhi for short-term assignments under the Central
Government.
The Central government services numbering more than twenty,
include the Indian Foreign Service, the Central Secretariat Service,
the Indian Postal Service and the Indian Revenue Service, the
personnel for these are recruited on the basis of a common competi¬
tive examination. Each service has its own grades, pay scales,
promotional avenues and distinct operational sphere and orienta¬
tion. Personnel for the state services are recruited by the State
Public Service Commissions. Structurally they do not differ much
from the other two services, the only difference being that their
personnel are subject to state control and are normally not trans¬
ferred outside the state. Another structural characteristic of the
Indian system of public administration is the rapid increase in the
number of civil servants and its increasing structural diversification
by the recruitment of more and more specialists and technocrats in
the public service. Numerous reasons have been put forward for
the rapid growth of the bureaucracy in India —the primary being
that in a developing nation much needs to be done and there is
usually no shortage of employable manpower. Hence to relieve the
pressure of unemployment and meet increasing public demands for
more government involvement the size of the bureaucracy goes on
expanding. In India, the number of the Central Government
employees stood at 1445,050, on April 1, 1948; it had gone upto
1,773,870 on June 30. 1957; by January 1971, it had risen to 29,82
lakh; and in 1980, the number of Central Government employees
stood approximately at 3.6 million. The state and municipal
public services have also shown significant growth in the last three
decades.
The change in the character of the government and its ever
expanding functions has been accompanied by an increasing
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN INDIA, SOVIET UNION AND CHINA 139
diversification in the composition of the public services cvcrjvvhcrc

leading to the recruitment of a growing number of specialists and
technicians in government services. In India public services are
increasingly employing more and more specialists like scientists,
doctors engineers, agronomists, economists, statisticians, cduca*
tionists’and jurists. According to the Third Central Pay Commis¬
sion Report, 1973, the technical and professional services group of
officials constituted 6.4 per cent of the total number ol Central
Government employees.
The Union Public Service Commission is responsible for all
matters relating to the recruitment, appointment, transfers, promo¬
tion and disciplinary control of Central Government public service
personnel.
The Socio-Economic Background
The IAS, constituted after independence on the model ol the
iCS, continues to have an elitist character by background and
training of its members. This is evident from the many empirical
studies on the socio-economic background ot the Indian bureau¬
cracy undertaken by various scholars—C.P. Bhambhri, V.
Subramaniam, and R.K. Trivcdi.‘ These studies have revealed that
the Civil Services in India are still manned by persons belonging
to the urban educated professional middle class of India.
service as a career seems to attract the youth from educated middle
class more than from any other social sector. A higher proportion
of young recruits come from the English medium convent schools
and the more well known colleges. Consequently, the higher
echelons of bureaucracy gencreally belong to the educated upper
middle classes of the urban areas or higher castes of rural areas.
Their parents come from the upper strata ol society and are
engaged in the professions such as law, engineering, medicine and
teaching. This fact is quite often rcnccted in their attitude to life,
career, and the public in general. C P. Bhambhri has observed
that in the Indian context there is a dissonance between the
orientation and attitudes of the higher civil service and the national
goals of planning, equality, secularism, social justice and
democracy.2
Children from business backgrounds, lower income groups and
rural farming or artisan classes are grossly unrepresented in these
services. In recent years, however, the social base ol the services in
India has considerably widened for the following reasons:
1. For a summary of ihcir views see G.B. Sharma, “Social Composition of

Indian Bureaucracy. Some Reflections on Its Repfescntativcness , in
Ramesh K. Arora, (cd.)/ic/tiiinislr(iii\c Symni, New Dcllii, 19/0,
pp. 200-223.
2. C.P. Bhambhri. “The Administrative Elite and Political Modernisation
in India/’ J. J.P.A. 17 C1971), pp. 47-64.
(a) Steady expansion of educational facilities and increase in

the number of scholarships and freeships for economically
needy students;
(b) reservation quota for scheduled castes and tribes; and
(c) lowering of marks for the interview to these services.
Despite these reasons, the Indian bureaucracy remains as un¬
representative as ever, the higher civil services being drawn from
only ten per cent of the community. The attitude of the bureau¬
crats reflects the bias and prejudice of their social class. Behaviour-
ally the bureaucrats continue to remain conservative and resistant
to change with an obsession for rules and regulations and routine
administration. They lack initiative, dynamism, and a will to change
their altitudes or orientation. In recent years, the reservation
policy has enabled many members of the lower castes to get into
the civil service. However, it has been observed that even among
them, it is the relatively better oflf sections, who avail of the reserva¬
tion policy, and after joining the bureaucracy soon become a part
of the privileged classes like their other upper caste brethren. Hence,
in the long run, they are behaviourally no dilTcrent from the rest.
Some scholars have however maintained that it is difficult to
say conclusively whether there is any direct correlation between
the socio-economic status of the services and their orientation.
The earlier theory that civil servants are sympathetic only to their
class of origin has not been proved without doubt. Many empirical
studies have proved that the socio-political attitudes of the
bureaucracy in general are not very different from the rest of the
society.
Indian Bureaucracy and Development Administration

Since independence India has attempted to follow a planned
system of development with the public administration as one of the
key instruments for spearheading the developmental efforts. India
is perhaps the only Third World country to experiment in planned
development through democratic means. The Government sought
to achieve growth with justice through a developmental model
which, as Jagannadham opines, reflects the combined influence of
the idealism of the freedom struggle, the democratic liberalism of
the West and the socialism of the Soviet Union.^ Needless to say,
the Indian model is both unique and difficult to achieve. In advanc¬
ed western countries economic development and growth was
preceded by political and administrative development. They took
years to reach the present level of prosperity and growth which wc
tried to achieve in the shortest possible time span through peaceful
3. V. Jagannadham. “Citizen-Adminis.iration Relationships in Development'*

in V.A. Pai Panandikar, (cd.I. Development Administration in India,
Macmillan, Madras. 1974, j>. 196.
PUBLIC ADMLNISTRATION IN INDIA, SOVIEF UNION AND CHINA 141
means which precludes the use of force or other totalitarian

methods. In Third World countries like ours, mere economic
growth means nothing without relative equality. India’s develop¬
ment plans were ambitious efforts me.int to remove poverty,
illiteracy, unemployment and disease. All public policies and
governmental efforts were geared to the tasks of achieving develop¬
mental goals. Planned development was meant to bring about the
most rational use of existing resources to create a developmental
infrastructure in the industrial and agricultural spheres, urban and
rural areas, and the benefits of development were sought to be as
widely distributed as possible. Commenting on the changing role
of the administrator today, T.N. Chaturvedi, a senior civjf servant
comments thus :
It is an instrument for implementation of people’s will and
aspirations as expressed in the Constitution. Ii is the focal
point of stability and order in the shifting sands of politics. At
the same time, as an elitist class, it is an instrumei.t of moder¬
nization and social change. It is an instrument of planning
and economic development. It may be expected to safeguard
the rights of the underprivileged sections in society. It has to
be all the time aware of the political milieu and the democratic
context in which it has to operate. Therefore, the civil service
has to undergo radical structural, procedural and altitudinal
changes if it has to serve as an effective instrument of change
and progress in a developing society. The civil service has to
cultivate much wider social awareness and responsiveness as
well as social base apart from the traditional virtues of
integrity, functional efficiency and a sense of fair play and
impartiality.’
The Indian bureaucracy suffers from numerous dysfunctional

constraints. Firstly, as discussed earlier, our bureaucratic culiurc is
still dominated by the colonial ethos which is greatly dysfunctional
frorn the point of required value-patterns for development adminis¬
tration. The Indian bureaucracy is still authoritarian, unresponsive
and paternalistic in its public dealings to a great extent. Secondly,
it displays all the demerits of the Weberian model, by its recurrent
tendencies towards delay, rigidity and obsession with rules and
regulations, at t!ie cost of performance. It lacks dynamism and
initiative and is best suited for routine jobs. Development adminis¬
tration has to be result-oriented, dynamic and flexible in approach.
Thirdly, the socio-economic background of the majority of
bureaucrats makes them conservative and rigid. Thev gradually
become incapable either by interest or habit, ofYeeling the
pulse of the people. They learn to pul a high premium on con¬
formity and propriety, and observance of precedents. In
4. T.N. Chaturvedi, “Forward” in A.R. Tyagi, (ed.). The Civil Service hi a

Developing Society, Delhi, 1960.
142
short, caution rather than change is their outlook on work. They

hardly make any efforts at soliciting public cooperation and parti¬
cipation in administrative affairs, or establishing rapport with the
citizens and community to understand their problems, demands
and desires. Other dysfunctions which the bureaucracy is subject to,
are impersonality, the tendency to stress organisational procedu¬
res rather than performance, lack of originality and initiative. A
rigid hierarchical structure precludes team spirit and mutual trust.
The power and privileges of the higher levels of the bureaucracy
have only strengthened their class consciousness and elitist
character.
A study undertaken by Ralph Braibanti and his associates*
clearly displayed that British values continued to set the tone of
bureaucracy in India, and there has been no radical departure
from the pre-independence norms which included obsequiousness
towards superiors and an ostrich-like attitude to changing
conditions.
In a study on the impact of cultural environment and the
prevalent value systems in a society on bureaucratic behaviour
Higginbotham® has analysed the behavioural patterns of the Indian
bureaucracy in a setting characterized by conflicting and changing
cultural patterns. The Indian bureaucrats, many of whom were
raised in traditional Hindu environment, as they carry out their
duties in formal bureaucratic structures, are strongly reminiscent of
the pre-independence British administration. They reveal ambival¬
ence and contradiction in values which are the result of the twin
processes of traditionalism and modernity.
The Indian bureaucracy also suffers from certain strange
paradoxes like extreme impersonality combined with ready suscepti¬
bility to personal pressures and corruption. Administrative corrup¬
tion may take many forms in India. It may be nepotism and
favouritism in the process of selection, recruitment or promotions
in public services and taking bribes and doing illegal favours in
a variety of ways. One of the reasons for its widespread increase is
red-tapism and delay in administrative functioning.
In a recent study of the Indian bureaucracy and its compatibility
with development administration, Pai Panandikar and Kshirsagar
observe that the bureaucratic structure and its orientation to a
development role are not necessarily incompatible. However,
bureaucratic behaviour generally adversely influences development
orientation. The bureaucracy in India will not be able to accomplish
the developmental programmes as long as it retains its present
5. Ralph Braibanti and Joseph J. Spengler (eds.), Administration and

Economic Development in India, Cambridge University Press. London,
1963.
6. Stanley J. Higginbotham, Cultures in Conflict, The Four Faces of Indian
Bureaucracy, New York, 1975.
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN INDIA SOVIET, UNION AND CHINA 143
character, although such a bureaucracy could yet be utilised in

certain specified sectors of structural transformation such as
improvement of roads, irrigation and public sector enterprises’.
The failure of the Indian bureaucracy has been most prominent
wherever nation-building programmes required a new value-orienta¬
tion or a modified institutional framework.
Generally, the bureaucracy in India has resisted innovations
in its structural arrangements and it has been firm in its faith in
the superiority of the pyramidal structure of administration, in its
resentment of the efforts to remodel the administration for nation
building purposes, and its adherence to the numerous administra¬
tive routines which practically immobilise developmental adminis¬
tration. The bureaucracy’s lack of adequate understanding of the
culture and value in India and lack of a balanced assessment of its
past and future roles have been important factors in the failure of
its effective utilisation in the programmes of planned socio¬
economic change.*
Bureaucracy and Politics

Though it is proved that the bureaucracy in India still retains
a continuity with pre-independence traditions after independence,
it has had to operate in an environment which is qualitatively
different from the earlier period. It has now to function under
elected political leaders and operate within a democratic frame¬
work of responsible cabinets, questioning legislatures, prying
political parties and highly demanding pressure groups. It has to
be responsive to public policies laid down by the political executive
and legislatures, the objectives of the leadership and the demands
and wishes of the ordinary public. The three implications of this
new dimension arc rcfiecled in’
(a) the minister-civil servant relationship;
(b) increasing politicisation of the bureaucracy; and
(c) growing exposure of the public ofiicia! to public attention,
scrutiny and control. The present pattern of relationship
between the ministers and the civil servants in our country
is based on constitutional provisions and conventions
regarding the working of the parliamentary form of
government, namely, the obligation of ministers as well as
government officials to uphold the Constitution and the
7. V.A. Pai Panandikar and S.S. KsMnagar, Bureaucracy amt Development

Administraiion, New Delhi. 1978.
8. Dvivedi and Jain, India's Administrative State, 1985, p. 226.
9. See A. Avasthi, "Role of Public Service in Development”, in A. A\asthi
and Ramesh K. Arora (ed), Bureaucracy and Dc\clopwetu : Indian
Perspectives, Associated, New Delhi, pp. 1-12.
rule of law; the obligation of every public servant to

implement faithfully all policies and decisions of ministers
even if these be contrary to the advice tendered by him;
and the freedom of public servants to express themselves
fearlessly in tendering advice to their superiors including
ministers.
In practice however, the civil servant-minister relationship is
quite delicate and has been the cause of considerable strain and
mutual heart burning in recent years. In the discharge of their
respective duties differences of opinion often lead to prickly
relations. Sometimes the civil servant may attempt to do a thing in
a way the minister docs not approve of, at other times the civil
servant’s obligation to observe rules of procedure and strict neutra¬
lity might prove irksome to the minister. On the other hand, the
civil servant may blame the minister as undue interference in his
work. Free and frank advice by a subordinate official often proves
to be inconvenient and unflattering to the minister who may start
resenting his subordinate's advice. This has led to a tendency on the
part of an increasing number of civil servants to attempt to anti¬
cipate tile minister’s wishes, and proffer their advice accordingly.
A further development of this unhealthy trend is the emergence of
personal affiliations leading to an element of politicization among
the civil servants.
According to British parliamentary traditions the responsibility
of the minister to the legislature demands that for every act or
neglect of his department, the minister must answer and the official
must be protected from legislative attack. The traditional concept
of the civil servant in a parliamentary democracy has been that of
the anonymous servant of his minister bound by constitutional
convention to make his experience, judgment and departmental
knowledge confidentially available to his political master, no matter
what party is in office, and to accept and put into effect the
minister's decisions. The essential features of the concept of civil
service neutrality stemming from this are:
(1) Public confidence in the freedom of the civil service from
all political bias.
(2) Ministers* confidence in obtaining loyal service from the
civil service irrespective of what political party is in power.
(3) High staff morale based on confidence that promotions
and other rewards do not depend upon political origins or partisan
activity but on merit alone.
These aspects of the traditional concept have been challenged
of late. The role of the senior civil servants is not only confined to
giving policy advice to the persons above them but increasingly
they are assuming a managerial role for implementing development
programmes. Secondly, the administrator is no longer anonymous.
He also participates in the policy making process and is sometimes

required to defend in public the decisions which the minister has
taken, because of the unhealthy tendency of the minister to make
the official the scapegoat for all acts of omission and commission
in his charge. Thirdly, as indicated by Appleby, administration lias
acquired a political dimension as it must be responsive to public
opinion and public welfare and interest.
Lastly, democracy has influenced the administration in diverse
ways. Public administration is one of the vital elements of a
popularly elected government. A public official today, in the
present set-up, cannot mechanically implement development pro¬
grammes. He has to take initiative, explain the objectives of
government policies to the people, and seek popular support and
enthusiasm in their implementation. He has to be both responsive
to and responsible for public needs and aspirations. The civil
service now has to work not only under political direction but also
under the obligation of political accountability.
Another aspect of carrying on administration within a demo¬
cratic framework has been that the pressure on administration has
increased alarmingly. Public expecialions have increased rapidly,
the people have become more conscious and increasingly vocal of
their rights and needs. The pressure to show results has gone up
which has led to a power struggle between the elected representa¬
tives and the bureaucrats for taking major political decisions
relating to development administration. The bureaucrats claim the
sole authority to determine and administer governmental program¬
mes while politicians insist that being the people’s representatives,
they alone have the right to know what benefits the people most.
Political inlerlercnce in matters of appointment, promotion and
transfer have adversely affeeted the morale of the public officials.
In the changed environment, therefore, it is not enough for
a civil servant to be efficient, competent, remain anonymous and
neutral to perform the multiple tasks he is being called upon to
perform in India today. In the context of development administra¬
tion. if the government is to deliver the goods, the civil servant
must be something more than a mere executor of policy. Me must
be a specialist and a professional committed to (he national goals
of progress and development. The needs of contemporary Indian
society and people’s aspirations demand that the civil servants have
to^ be equipped to handle the political, social, economic and
scientific problems of our time. They will be increasingly called
upon to keep pace with the rapid change in knowledge and techno¬
logy and acquire new techniques to apply it. Thus the norm of
having generalist administrators have come to be severely question¬
ed. It has been stated that the civil service is no place for the
amateur. It must be staffed by men and women who are profes¬
sional in their outlook and training and well equipped for the tasks
they have to perform.
In the second place, a civil service, which is neutral, will tend

to be callous and indifferent; unresponsive and unsympathetic to
the impact of its actions on the people. Development administra¬
tion requires committed public officials who possess a sense of
emotional integration with the policies and programmes and identi¬
fication with the interests of the common man. It hasi, been argued
that the traditional concept of anonymity and neutrality of the
civil servant is irrelevant in the present context. Emotional
neutrality towards work or indifference to the objects of manage¬
ment is a concept of dubious validity which is neither possible nor
desirable. A certain amount of dedicated involvement in the goals
of service is required and is the first criteria of successful adminis¬
tration. What is to be avoided is partisan politics. A “commit¬
ment” to social welfare goals of public service has to be consciously
cultivated among the career civil servants.*®
The basic problem of Indian development is how to utilize new

sources of initiative and loyalty and to evolve new patterns of
organization and action. Systematic transformation of Indian
society requires both political and administrative modernization
and constitutes critically interrelated processes. The basic problem
is to strike an appropriate relationship between representative
institutions and the implementation of public policy. Democracy
requires political control of the bureaucracy, but the reins should
not be so tight as to make the bureaucracy demoralised, and
completely dysfunctional to development. The responsibility for
gearing the bureaucracy to the tasks of development and providing
adequate political direction remains in the hands of the political
leadership.
The Soviet Model of Administration

A constitution for the new Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
(USSR) was first adopted in January 1924, and later superseded by
the constitution of 1936, which defines the USSR as a ‘Socialist
state of workers and peasants.' It has been revised several times
since. Soviet Russia thus came to be divided into fifteen Union
Republics of which the Russian Soviet Federal Socialist Republic
(RSFSR) maintains its prominence. There are also several autonom¬
ous Republics and autonomous Regions falling within this major
division. Besides the Federal Government, there are complete
systems of local government, regions, districts, towns and rural
areas, forming a hierarchy of governmental institutions, deriving
power from a perallel system of local soviets.
At the apex of the federal system is the Supreme Soviet of
the USSR, which exercises both legislative and certain other state
10. See S.P. Singh, “Civil Service Commitment and Socio*ccODomic

Development”, in ibid., pp. 40-45.
powers not specifically assigned to other branches. Ii is a two-

chamber body comprising a Council of Nationalities and a Council
of the Union, both elected, the first on a nationalities basis and the
second on a population basis. But the Supreme Soviet which meets
only for short periods annually, elects a Presidium consisting of a
Chairman, fifteen Deputy Chairmen (one for each Union Republic),
a Secretary and twenty-one members to act for it between
sessions. The Presidium is in effect the government of the USSR,
with high political and diplomatic responsibilities and numerous
specific functions of a legislative and executive nature, including
interpretation of existing laws. On the recommendation of the
Chairman of the Council of Ministers, it appoints the Ministers of
the USSR and other high offices of State, subject to subsequent
confirmation by the Supreme Soviet. The actual administration is
placed in the hands of the Council of Ministers, which is described
below.
The Union Council of Ministers consists of a Chairman, a

Vice-Chairman, Ministers of the USSR and Chairmen of State
Committees. There are about one hundred members of the Council
of Ministers. The Chairmen of the Council of Ministers of the
Union Republics arc ex-officio members of the Union Council of
Ministers. The Council of Ministers is the supreme executive
organ of the state in the USSR. It is responsible and accountable
to the Supreme Soviet or to the Presidium. The main task of the
Council is the execution of laws and their operation throughout the
Union.
All Union Republics have a parallel structure with a Supreme

Soviet, a Presidium and a Council of Ministers. The Council of
Ministers is the supreme executive and administrative organ of
each Union Republic. Local Soviets are organs of state power
who have the authority to act independently on matters that come
within their scope in their local administrative divisions ranging
from a territory to a rural community. Local Soviets arc elected
for a term of two and a half years by the members of a given area.
They arc responsible for the direction of economic, social and
cultural life of the people in their area of jurisdiction and to ensure
the compliance of laws.
The Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) is the

highest social and political organization in the USSR. The CPSU
provides ideological and political guidelines to the Soviet people.
Primary party cells arc found in all industrial enterprises, collective
and state farms and in various government institutions. They
ensure that party members arc directly connected with the working
of all spheres of Soviet society. The supreme organ of the party
is Its Congress. Its meeting takes place once in every five years.
In between its sessions, the Central Committee performs ail the
activities of the parly. The Party Congress elects members of the
Central Committee. The Party Politbureau which guides Party

activities in between the sessions of the Central Committee is
elected by the Central Committee. The decisions taken by the
Politbureau are implemented by all other organs of the party. The
policies worked out by the Party serve as guidelines for the Soviet
Government.
The Sonet Administration
At the top of the pyramid stands the Presidium of the Council
of Ministers, exercising supreme policy making and co-ordinating
responsibilities. Just below it are the All Union and Union-
Republic ministries which make up the Council of Ministers;
besides a substantial number of committees, commissions, councils,
and agencies attached to the Council of Ministers.
The typical all-union ministry covers one or the other branch
of heavy industry such as automobiles, road building machinery
or fuel. To carry out its responsibilities, the ministry is divided
into many departments, organised on what is called the territorial
production principle. This means that responsibilities of a parti¬
cular department are limited not only to enterprises carrying on
a particular type of activity but also to those enterprises which
cover a specific area. Several departments, for example, deal with
oil refining, each in a different part of the country. Each depart¬
ment has powers to deal with the enterprises, like factories and
mines, in its field and area. It controls their supply of raw
materials, sale of goods and gives advice on technical and financial
questions.
The Union Republic ministries are concerned with sectors
jointly directed by the USSR and the Union Republics, such as
agriculture, education, culture, trade,communication, coal mining
and finance.
There arc two major distinctions between the All-Union and
Union Republic ministries. The pattern of organization in the Union
Republic ministries is less centralized. The All-Union ministries
operate with a field organization directly responsible to the centre,
the Union Republic ministries work in the field throi gh counter^
part ministries in each of the fifteen republics which compose the
USSR. Tliese counterpart ministries supervise all the enterprises
or administrative subdivisions of the ministry which are located in
that republic.
Secondly, the All-Union ministry is responsible only to the
Central Government. The counterpart ministries in the republics
are responsible to the Council of Ministers on the one hand and
legislative organs of their own republics on the other.
Each republic of the USSR has its own Council of Ministers.
The Council is made up of two types of ministries—the union
PUBLIC ADMINISTRAFEON IN INDIA, SOVIET UNION AND CHINA 149
republic minlsiries, and the republican ministries which vary in

number from republic to republic. Below ihe level of the republic
there are at least three subordinate levels of adminislralion in the
Soviet Union; the autonomous republican oblasts or Krais, which
may be treated as regional administrative units, the raions or
district units, and the towns and villages, which may be described
as local units. The urban areas operate under a separate system.
The largest cities are directly subordinate to the republics and arc
themselves broken up into districts. The cities of moderate size
report to the oblasts, while the smaller towns arc subordinate to
the raion governments.
At each level of this hierarchy, there arc various administrative
departments which are responsible both to the executive committee
of the Soviet elected at that level, and to the administrators exercis¬
ing corresponding functions at the next higher level. In the event
of a conflict arising out of such double supervision, the higher
soviet organs are vested with the right to resolve the dispute.
The structure of the Soviet public administration is built
around differential treatment of various types of administrative
functions and activities. In the case of the All-Union heavy industry
ministries, the pattern is one of extreme centralization, with the
held organization responsible directly to Moscow. In the Union
Republic ministries, policy control is centralised, but some adminis¬
trative decentralization is achieved by utilizing the rebublic and
its subordinate levels of government as instruments of supervision.
Where administrative activities arc of diversified local significance,
the point of policy control is the republic, with operational respon¬
sibilities lodged at the regional, district and local levels. At each
level of government, administrative action is theoretically subject
to check by soviets which are popularly elected at that level. Such
checks are described by the Soviet scholars as infusing elements of
mass participation and control into the administrative process.
Recruitment of administrative and technical personnel is the
responsibility of the various ministries and agencies. Every sector
of industry and administration has its parallel system of advanced
schools and institutes which feed their graduates into the branch
of public administration for which they prepare. Annual admission
quotas are set for each school. Students who are accepted and
who graduate with a satisfactory record are referred to an appro¬
priate government agency or enterprise for assignment to a job.
Officials in the Soviet executive arc not recruited by formal
civil service procedures such as competitive examinations, nor are
they guaranteed job tenure. Yet informally, civil service principles
seem to have permeated the administrative system. Top ministerial
officials, as well as junior personnel, generally arc the products of
the hierarchy in which tliey are employed. Their career patterns
usually have the specialized orderly nature that suggests promotion

on the basis of performance rather than political criterion.
Notable Features and Trends

Since the nature and working of every scheme of administra¬
tion is largely determined by the peculiarities of a country’s socio¬
economic milieu and its political culture, public administration in
the Soviet Union is understandably different in its nature and
scope from that of western constitutional democracies.
The nature of the state bureaucracy and the scope of the
demands made upon it reflect the needs of the Soviet system
as developed in Russia since the 1917 revolution. The system
aims at monolithic unity under the guidance of the Com¬
munist Party. Soviet Administration is one-party administration
with its ideological context. Every field of administration is
regarded as a channel for the propagation of the party policies
under the direction of the lop leadership. Soviet public adminis¬
tration exhibits features which sharply dilTerentiate it from the
administrative systems of other western democracies. It is all
pervasive in character. It seeks to organize and regulate the
complete range of human activities in the Soviet society. Every
held of the economy and every type of social expression from art,
music and culture to sports and entertainment are subject to
administrative regulation and control. The socialist system requires
a nation of disciplined public servants trained for serving the
public interest. To convey an idea of the scope of government
activities in the USSR, the following may be listed which though
by no means extensive, give an idea of the range of government
tasks :
(a) The government maintains public order. It maintains
courts and law enforcement agencies for the purpose of
adjudicating conflicts and executing legal decisions.
(b) Tlie government conducts foreign relations with foreign
states, maintains a military establishment and by other
means prepares for the defence of the country.
(c) The government maintains the educational system. All
educational facilities from nurseries to the highest post¬
graduate institutions are created and operated by the
government. Their curricula are worked out by the state
administrators and their personnel are public officials.
(d) All scientilk work in the USSR is organized, planned,
sponsored and supported by the government, whereas in
other societies, this kind of activity is distributed among
various public authorities, private institutions of learning,
and business corporations.
(e) Virtually all health care, insurance, and social security
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN INDIA, SOVIfcT UNION AND CHINA 151
activities in the Soviet Uoion are carried out by agencies

of the government. Hence physicians and all other
medical personnel are public officials too, as are lawyers
and social workers.
(f) Art and entertainment are organized by the government
either directly or indirectly under its control. For instance,
sports clubs, theatres, film industry, radio, television and
publishing houses are government controlled.
(g) The economy of the Soviet Union has been almost com¬
pletely nationalized. Virtually all enterprises are public
enterprises, owned and operated by the government
including all industry and communications and most of
the distribution system, with the exemption of some
retailing of agricultural produce.
Thus the scope of government activities in the USSR seems
truly all encompassing. Figures on the size and number of govern¬
ment employees seem irrelevant in this connection. In a society
where all organized activity is managed by the government, almost
everyone becomes a civil servant, and the state the only employer.
The notion of “bureaucracy” however, will be restricted here to
include only the supervisory, managerial or administrative
personnel—the overhead staff.
Lenin developed the basic principles of administration of
socialist society—the principle of democratic centralism whereby
systematic centralised control is combined with broad democracy
and local initiatives by foremost bodies of workers ; the principles
objectivity concreteness, \\W\z\\ require that the system of
control should take into account the objective laws and their
specific manifestations in concrete historical conditions; the princi¬
ple of effectiveness and optimisation, under which maximum results
must be obtained at a minimum expenditure of materials, labour
and money ; the principle of stimulation, which is to ensure the
combination of the material and moral stimuli to work; the
principle of the main bulk or singling out from a great number of
tasks that which provides the key to the entire complex of adminis¬
trative problems ; the territory-and-branch principle of combining
administrative, territorial and industrial branch approach ; the
principle of combining the official^^ and social principles of
administration. Lenin insisted on every administrative worker
being judged (a) from the point of view of his conscientiousness,
(b) from the political angle, (c) in the light of his knowledge of his
job, and (d) by his administrative ability.
Lenin stressed more than once that neither age, nor past
ll. For a detailed discussion of iheir principles see V.G. Afana Syev,
The Scientific Management of Society, Progress, Moscow, chapter 7.
services, high rank or influential connections were adequate criteria

for promotion to administrative posts but “loyalty to socialism”
combined with “a sober and practical mind,” adequate scientific and
technical knowledge, talent for organisation, and ability to get a
large number of people to work together were to be taken into
account. He believed that only such people should be promoted
to responsible posts as directors of the people’s labour, or
directors of administration. A manager of administration
or industry must be not only “ideologically firm, politically
mature and highly responsible”, he must also be familiar with the
science ot nianageraent and able to pursue his activities in keeping
with its principles. The measures taken by the Communist Party
clear the way for development of a new business-like style of
management free from narrow technicalism and administration,
and of a new type of managers with a broad social approach to
administering.
In theory, the Soviet political S3Stem is a combination of
democracy and centralism. Democracy is seen here as the power of
the Soviet working people, election of governing bodies at all
levels, and above all, their accountability to various institutional
units ol the political system as well as to the main source of power,
the people. On the other side, centralism is conceived as a collective
leadership exercised on the principles of subordination of minority
to the majority, undivided authority, and above all, obedience and
discipline. Democracy and centralism are claimed to be inter¬
linked, indeed integrated in the Soviet political system. It means,
in brief, expressing different views, ascertaining majority opinion
incorporating in it a decision, and conscientiously implementinc
that decision. &
Initially, the Communist revolutionaries W'ere confronted with

the dilemma of all communist countries that of reconciling the
expectations ol Marxist thought w ith the fact of governing through
an administrative machinery inherited from pre-revolutionary
• • j ng away of the State” was a concept that
anticipated a lime when no police, no courts, no army, or force
ot aiy kind would be necessary to restrain the people. There
would remain only the administrators who might be even ordinary
citizens. Certainly the Bolsheviks came to power determined to do
away with the bureaucratic apparatus of the old regime.
However to meet the immediate needs for survival and to
assume the burden ot industrial dcvelofment. it became gradually
apparent that the existing bureaucracy could not be eliminated
entirely but would have to be revamped to suit the needs of the
regime. The strategy adopted was to utilize the old bureaucrats as
long as this could not be avoided, while surrounding them with
controls and to train a new generation of soviet-administrators as
soon as possible.
The system of administration that developed during the

late 1920's and I930’s was highly centralized and increasingly
staffed with products of the massive Soviet educational pro¬
gramme of post-revolutionary Russia. The new Soviet technical
and administrative personnel became more and more important
to the Party leadership and large numbers were recruited into the
Parly during the middle and late 1930’s until its social composition
was changed. Of great importance for the policy process in the
Soviet Union is the fact that scientific and technical personnel
constitute a significant part of the staff of administrative and techni¬
cal organisations in the USSR. This is due to the fact that
administration of economic enterprises constitutes a sizeable part
of the administrative work in the Soviet Union. Most of the All
Union ministries are economic ministries dealing with the ad¬
ministration of heavy industries. Since the energies of the Soviet
Union are concentrated to such a vast extent upon industrial
production, it is hardly surprising that the majority of outstanding
public servants in the country are the industrial managers. As a
result there is much less difficulty in moving from the position of a
manager of an enterprise to an important position in a ministry
than would be the case in western countries. Former factory
managers now occupy many of the highest administrative posts
both in the Soviet government and in the Communist Parly. Since
the government directs industry, both government and industrial
posts require much of the same qualifications—technical knowledge
of industry, efficiency in handling w'ork and people, and a strong
commitment to the goals of the Party and the Stale.
Control of the public administration is the primary means
through which the Communist Party has established and maintain¬
ed its power. It is intimately involved in administration and
ultimately dependent on the bureaucracy to preserve its political
control, though the government and the parly machinery are
theoretically different. Parly control is ensured through a network
of interlocking directorates at each hierarchical level of both the
party and the bureaucratic apparatus. The Party has its units in
every major organization in the Soviet society. Day to day
operating responsibilities are vested in the governmental hierarchy
of managers and administrators. But every level of the «overn-
niental hierarchy is both interpenetrated with and subject to check
by the corresponding level of the Party hierarchy.
The Communist Party in the USSR has developed a variety of
devices to make its control operative throughout the bureaucratic
structure. There is an attractive system of incentives, bonuses and
rewards for production in excess of plan. It combines positive
incentives with negative controls which impose harsh penalties for
failure. Positive incentives to higher productivity arc provided by
differential wage payments carefully graded to reflect and stimulate
increased work output on the part of individual workers. A system
of supplementary incentives in the form of bonuses, prizes, orders

and models is utilised to recognize outstanding work. Appeals are
made to emulate instincts by organizing campaigns of "‘socialist
competition” among enterprises and individual workers. Through
exhortation and indoctrination, the party leadership attempts to
persuade both officials and workers to identify their interests with
state interests. Thus the main aim of Soviet personnel policy is to
increase output through every possible means—like compulsion,
incentives and exhortation to stimulate administrative efficiency
and inculcate loyalty to the socialist system.'^
Comparison Between the Weberian Model and the Soviet

Bureaucracy
Evidently one attribute of all bureaucratic organisations is the
implementation of policies through an administrative staff. No
discussion on conception of a bureaucratic organisation can proce¬
ed without reference to the Weberian model of bureaucracy. The
basic structural prerequisites of the Weberian model are:
(i) defined rights and duties prescribed in written
regulations;
(ii) systematically ordered authority relationships;
(iii) promotions regulated by merit and seniority;
(iv) technical competence as a formal condition of employ¬
ment;
(v) fixed monetary salaries;
(vi) strict separation of the office and the incumbent in the
sense that the employee does not own the means of
administration and cannot appropriate the position;
(vii) administrative work as a full time career; and
(viii) operations governed by a system of abstract rules and
their consistent application to particular cases.
The Soviet conception of bureaucracy has been influenced by
the Marxist theory of slate as defined and adapted by the Soviet
ideologues. There are three basic elements in the Marxist perception
of the state. Firstly, state is an organ of class domination. Second,
it exists to create an order which legalises and perpetuates the
oppression of one class by moderating class conflicts. Thirdly,
Slate is a temporary phenomenon, it will wither away with the
abolition of classes. In advocating the abolition of the state,
however, the Marxist theory does not rule out the imperative of
having an administrative machinery in a society. It contends that
unlike the capitalist society, in a communist society agencies of
12. Merle Fainsod, How Russia is Ruled, Harvard University Press,

Cambridge, 1953, Chapter XII.
administration will be organised on the principle of rcprcseniation

and their functioning will be conditioned by social division of
labour. In this context the function of administration primarily
relates to the management of the level and the varied modes of
production in the light of the social priorities at a given point of
time. In other words, it ceases to remain merely an instrument ot
coercion and becomes responsible to society.
Evidently the Western and Soviet conceptions of bureaucracy
differ regarding its specific functions and rolc.*^ VN'eber views
bureaucratic organisation in a value-neutral context; it stands for
rationality and machinc-Iike efficiency. In Marxist-Leninist concep¬
tion it is an organ of political coercion in a class society. Weber
underlines the continuity and permanence of bureaucracy and
considers it an indispensable machinery for managing a complex
industrial society. In the Soviet viewpoint, the old bureaucratic
model needs to be replaced by a new one based on the elective
principle and accountability to the public. These differences apart,
the Soviet theory emphasizes the continuance of administration
(though on a social basis) even after the so-called withering away
of the Soviet State. Theoretically, it denotes the management of
multiple public tasks on specific functional basis without the
impingement of the coercive political role of the state.
However theory apart, bureaucratic organisations, whether in
the West or in the Soviet Union, perform some important common
functions. Some of the common structural features of the Soviet
public bureaucracies arc : hierarchical structure, use of rules and
regulations, impersonality of operations, division of labour, com¬
plexity of administrative tasks, and employment of trained person¬
nel either on a career or programme basis.
In analysing the Soviet and western bureaucracies it has been
further demonstrated by various scholars that formal attributes by
themselves do not ensure the operational efficiency of a bureaucra¬
tic organisation. Despite the common view of the Soviet bureau¬
cratic system as a huge monoliihic structure, it has been noted by
various experts that Soviet bureaucratic organisations like their
western counterparts have been seen to develop pluralism and
informal interaction patterns.
Finally, like the big corporations or the governmental agencies
in the USA or UK, the Soviet organisations also sulTer from the
weaknesses of what a scholar has called “burcaupalhic” behaviour
that creates bottlenecks in their operations. This is due to the
“perennial problem of insecurity that results from imbalance
13. Shivajj Ganguly, ‘'A Comparative Paradigm of VVcNtcrn and Soviet

Bureaucracies”, Imlian Juunial of Public Adiuiiiisiruiion, V'cl. XXIll,
1977, pp. 100-113.
between the hierarchical authority and specialised ability.”*^ These

dysfunctional tendencies may be considerably reduced either by
periodic structural adjustments for improved co*ordination or by
the control imposed by certain external agencies to which the
bureaucratic organisations remain accountable. In the West,
governmental agencies are not only responsible to the legislative
bodies but also are mutually counterpoised. In the Soviet Union
though the bureaucratic organisations are theoretically responsible
to the party, they are also answerable to a host of other organs like
the legal apparatus, the planning agencies and the political
agencies.
In the Soviet Union, the organisational structure as well as the
process of decision-making, ciiher at the level of the state organs
or the party apparatus, are guided by the principles of democratic
centralism, dual subordination, and production-territorial criterion.
The term democratic centralism*^ denotes the permissibility of
dissent or debate to the extent that it does not jeopardise organisa¬
tional unity of action already agreed upon. Besides, it also calls
for absolutely binding character of decisions of higher bodies on
lower bodies. The principle of dual subordination makes each
administrative unit responsible to the popular assembly which
apparently created it, and vertically, lo the corresponding organ at
the next level in the hierarchical chain. The production territorial
principle assumes that within a particular geographical area, all
enterprises engaged in a given line of production would be co-ordi¬
nated within one administrative hierarchy.
Generally, operative methods of the Soviet administrative
apparatus arc based on the concepts of “one-man-management”
and collegiate management.*® Theoretically these two concepts
stand for two dilTercnt forms of organisation within the Soviet
system—board governed or individually managed agencies. In
practice, however, both the principles are involved in the operation
of all Soviet agencies, irrespective of their cited form, if the
principle of collegiate management seeks to ensure collective leader¬
ship in making of decisions regarding vital problems, “one-man
management principle” has been so conceived as to inhibit shirking
of individual responsibility by entrusting a precise task to any one
in charge of an agency or a bureau. The method of recruitment
in the Soviet Union is exceptionally centralised and is also an
extremely political-civil system. It operates through what is known
as the ‘Nomenklatura’—a comprehensive set of job categories and
descriptions, defined as a list of posts confirmed by superior
14. John N. Hazard, The Soviet System of Government, University of

Chicago Press, 1968, pp. 219-257.
15. ibid.
16. David Granick, The Red E.xceutive, A Study of the Organisation ^ôn in
Russian Industry, London, Macmillan, 1960.
organisations.*’ It is administered in accordance with their status,

by the Party and the government. This system seeks to ensure
standardization of selection norms, tenure of office, and promotion
based on competence and ideological commitment. Inclusion in
the nomenklatura list is not determined by any test, but by the
recognition of one’s efficiency and merit in a particular field or
profession.
Some Models of Soviet Administration

The best way to assess the viability of any administrative
system, particularly the Soviet, is its ability or inability to
effectively cater to the needs of the Soviet people through well
formulated policies. For any realistic assessment of the Soviet
administrative system, it is important to realise that the Soviet
Union is a modern industrial society, which contrary to the image
of monolithic unity that it still officially professes, has in reality
different notions of societal needs viewed differently by dilTcrcnt
social groups, which would make it similar in many ways to other
industrial societies. In the USSR, the official policymaker is the
Communist Party, which defines the needs of Soviet society in all
major spheres like social services, industrial production and
rnedical care; announcing goals and their methods of implementa¬
tion. These goals provide a yardstick by which the level of per-
forrnance of the Soviet administration can be measured by the
Soviet public, and others as well.
Two major models of Soviet public policy making that have
influenced scholars of administration fora longtime have been
the comprehensive decision making model and the incremental
decision making model. In the first model, rationality and optimal
solution are sought to be achieved by monocralic decision making
m organisations. This model seeks maximisation of goals by
rational decision making aimed at controlling all the elements
necessary for the performance of its tasks. Where such control is
impossible, the organisation attempts to predict or forecast changes
in the work situation that affect the outcome of goals.
Ideologically, the comprehnsive model is consistent witli the
goals of Marxism Leninism, says Gordan Smith.'* Marxist theory
assumes that the trend of evolution of the future society is towards
the ideal of communism. Similarly, the underlying assumption of
the comprehensive model is that policies are formulated to reach
optimal solutions, that is, an ideal end point. This model supports
the Weberian view of administration that administration is an
impersonal machine meant to carry out state objectives—a view
17. Alfred C. Mayer, The Soviet Political Synerti, Randcm Hou«e, New
York, 1965, pp. 209-210.
18. For a detailed discussion see Gordon Smith, Public Policy and Adniinistrn-
tion fn the Soviet Union, Praeger, New York, 1980, pp. i*14.
best typified in practice by the Soviet bureaucracy. In the Soviet

Union, the influence of the comprehensive model is reflected in
attempts at long range planning and centralised policy making.
Gordon Smith asserts that the second model of policy making
which is called the incremental model exists in practice, if not in
theory, in Soviet administration, incrementalism holds that though
it is not always possible to accurately predict policy consequences,
in the long run it is wiser to go for serial decision making. The
underlying assumption of this model is that of a pluralistic society
with divergent social groups and interests which could best be
governed by decentralised policy making or dispersal of decision
making power.
This model of policy making is incompatible with official
Soviet ideology which considers that the CPSU and its policies
reflect the will and best interests of all sectors of Soviet society,
thereby rendering all institutional factions illegitimate.
However, public policy in the USSR is often the result of a
compromise between conflicting groups and institutions. There
arc numerous in.stanccs of ad hoc policy making, representing shift¬
ing influences of particular forces or intere.sts, in Soviet society at a
particular time. Hough views incrementalism as a “hallmark of the
system” of Soviet decision making.
Pluralism in practice has led to reinforcing of centralised
tendencies in policy making from time to time. Since 1970, the
Soviet leadership has repeatedly stressed the need for structural
and atlitudinal change in organisation and administrative methods
to meet the changing needs of a modern industrialised nation and
increase the clTcciivcncss of state bureaucracy.
There has been a massive effort to transplant systems and
administrative models applied so successfully in defence and
space programmes into other areas in order to improve plan¬
ning and management in Soviet economy and Soviet adminis¬
tration in general. This drive toward organisation design and
application of technology is part of what is called scientific
technical revolution. However, until the Kremlin leadership
confronts and resolves the tension between the inherent
pluralism in Soviet policy making which fosters incremental
policy making, and its desire for centralised planning and
control, which points toward comprehensive policy making,
these efforts to streamline and rationalise the policy process
in the Soviet Union will have only limited success.*^
It is a fact that a great deal of decision making autonomy is
enjoyed by lower levels of the administrative hierarchy in the
USSR. According to the theory of democratic centralism, a deci¬
sion is taken at the top levels by the administrative and political
19. ibid , p. 30.

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN INDIA, SOVIHT UNION AND CHINA 159
elite only after considerable debate and discussion by officials at

all levels lower down the ladder. Local officials may ofien alter
and change original policies, both at the decision making stage
and at the stage of implementation. Thus information and
authority flow up as well as down the administrative hierarchy.
Most policies are framed in broad terms leaving room for
changes or modification during implementation.
Pluralism in policy making in the USSR can be identified in
terms of factions but has found wider expression in (bureaucratic)
occupational or institutional conflicts. There are many reasons
for this. First, policy conflicts in the Soviet Union tend to follow
institutional lines, rather than voluntary interest groups or lobby
organisations. In Soviet society the CPSU is the only legitimate
political organisation said to represent all sectors of society.
Hence other groups and factions with specific interests are not
granted legitimacy in the political process.
Second, an institution in which a person is employed provides
much more than employment and salary. It may also provide
housing, medical care, schools, daycare centres besides access to
certain other privileges and services. With the relative equality ot
income distribution in the USSR these extra benefits and privileges
may greatly define status. There is, thus, a fusion of institutional
and individual interests in the Soviet Union not found in the West.
Since factionalism is officially not recognised nor allowed a place
in the political process, group divisions or conflicting interests
legitimise their position by articulating their viesvs through occupa¬
tional or bureaucratic groups which have a voice in decision
making. Thus conflicts in the Soviet political system arc often
reflected in bureaucratic struggles for influence. Paul Cocks has
written of dispersal of administrative authority to important
bureaucratic sub-systems—the military, factory managers, regional
party secretaries, agricultural interests, and jurists.2° If important
interests wish to influence decisions they have to be represented
by a section of the bureaucracy. Most Soviet policies arc the
outcome of compromises and adjustments among these bureau¬
cratic group.s representing diverse interests in Soviet society.
Therefore, the bureaucracy in Soviet society is not mere
carrier of orders of the CPSU, but influential, semi-autonomous
participant in the policy making and implementing process.
China
The Chinese Communist Party (CCP), convened the Chinese
People’s Political ConsultativcConferenccon Septcmber21, 1949, in
20. Paul Cocks. “The Policy Process and Bureaucratic Politics*' in The Dytm-
mies of Soviet Politics, Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press,
1976. p. 158.
Peking. The Conference adopted a ‘Common Programme’ of

60 Articles and the ‘Organic Law of the Central People’s Govern¬
ment’of 31 Articles. Both became the basis of the constitution
adopted on September 20, 1954 by the First National People’s
Congress, the supreme legislative body.
The 1954 Constitution was both a political and an organiza¬
tional document. It indicated the steps to be taken to build a
‘Socialist’ society, defined the structure and functions of govern¬
ment organs and the rights and duties of citizens appropriate in
the period of transition to socialism.
In January 1975, the Fourth National People’s Congress
approved a constitution, under which China was defined as a
‘socialist state of the dictatorship of the proletariat’. The 1975
Constitution was a simpler document than its predecessor, empha¬
sizing the role of politics in society, especially the thoughts of
Mao, but giving fewer organizational details. In March 1978,
the Fifth National People’s Congress adopted a new Constitution
of 60 Articles which revived several of the provisions of the 1954
Constitution dropped in the 1975 document and eliminated much
of the latter’s innovatory radicalism.
Another Constitution was adopted in 1982. It defines ‘socialist
modernization’ as China’s basic task. Its most striking change is
the restoration of the post of the Head of State.
Administrative Structure
The Chinese Communist regime represents a revolutionary
movement, operating in a tradition rooted but changing society,
that has attempted not only to create a new polity but also to use
political power to achieve rapid modernization and to transform
China’s social structure and system of values. As such, it has
evolved organizational structures and modes of operation that
blend in a unique fashion elements from a variety of sources.
“The theoretical Leninist model of ‘democratic centralism,’ the
post-Leninist model of Soviet society, the Chinese Communists’
own prc-1949 experience in conducting revolutionary struggle and
administering ‘liberated’ areas, and not the least important China’s
centuries old traditions of authoritarianism, elitism, ideological
orthodoxy, and bureaucratic administration.”^*
Several important organizational hierarchies reach from the
centre of national power to the local level in Communist China.
However, the one with ultimate authority and undisputed import¬
ance is the Communist Party which monopolizes the processes of
policy making. Next in importance is the government bureaucracy,
21. Doak Barnett, Cadres, Bureaucracy and Political Power in Communist

China, Columbia, 1967, p. 427.
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATtON IN INDIA, SOVIET UNION AND CHINA 161
which in implementing Party defined policies carries the major load

of administration. Knowledge of the wav in which these parallel
hierarchies function and interrelate is essential to any understand¬
ing of how the administrative system in Communist China
operates.
Under the principles of “democratic centralism” on which the
Chinese political system operates, the final decision making
authority is highly centralized in both the Communist Party and
the government. Tn the Party the Central Committee elected by the
Party Congress is theoretically the ultimate renository of power
between congress sessions. In practice, the Politburo and its
Standing Committee, together with the Partv secretarial, run the
Party organization and the Party in turn directs all the other
organizations in the country, including the bureaucracy.
In the government, the National People's Congress (NPC) or
its Standing Committee, which functions in its name between
annual sessions—is theoretically the “highest organ of state
powers.’* Operationally, however, the State Council (Cabinet) and
its “Inner Cabinet” (consisting of the premier and deputy premiers)
are in charge of the government and are immediately responsible
for directing all the ministries and other administrative agencies
of the central government, as well as all local governments and
administrative agencies.
The NPC is the highest government organ and has consti¬
tutional duties similar to those of many parliamentary bodies in
other countries. It is empowered to amend the constitution, decides
on the national economic plan, and is empowered to make laws
and supervise their enforcement. Upon recommendation of the
party’s Central Committee, the NPC designates, and can remove,
^0 Premier and other members of the State Council, elect the State
President and President of the Supreme People's Court and Chief
Procurator of the Supreme People’s Procuratoratc. It is elected
for a five-year term and meets at least once a year.
When the NPC is not in session, its Standing Committee
serves as the executive body to act on behalf of the Congress (the
second Session of the fifth NPC in June 1979 approved a constitu¬
tional change which required the establishment of standing commit-
for People’s Congresses at and above the county level). While
the Standing Committee is elected by the NPC. it is the Standing
yomrnittee which has the power to conduct elections of the
of the NPC and to convene the NPC sessions. Since the
PC meets once a year, the standing committee controls a great
deal of this body’s powers.
The State Council, the nation’s highest executive organ.
Qmmisters the government through functional ministries and
commissions. The Constitution stipulates that the State Council

comprise a premier, vice-premiers and heads of national ministries
and commissions. The State Council may also include others,
such as vice-ministers. The membership of the State Council has
ranged from thirty to over one hundred.
Since the full State Council is too large a body for effective
decision making, in practice this role has been assumed by an Inner
Cabinet of the premier and his vice-premiers.
Doak Barnett has described the State Council as the “com¬
mand headquarters" for a network of bureaux and agencies staffed
by cadres who administer and co-ordinate the government’s
programmes at the provincial and local levels.
The powers and functions of the State Council have been
enumerated in Article 49 of the Chinese Constitution as follows;
1. Formulate administrative measures, issue decisions and
orders, and verify their execution, in accordance with the
Constitution, laws and decrees.
2. Submit Bills to the NPC or its Standing Committee.
3. Co-ordinate and lead the work of ministries and
Commissions.
4. Co-ordinate and lead the work of local administrative
organs of state throughout the country.
5. Revise or annul inappropriate orders and directives issued
by ministries or by heads of commissions.
6. Revise or annul inappropriate decisions and orders issued
by local administrative organs of state.
7. Put into effect the national economic plans and provisions
of the state budget.
8. Control foreign and domestic trade.
9. Direct cultural, educational and public health work.
10. Administer affairs concerning the nationalities.
11. Protect the interest of the state, maintain public order, and
safeguard the rights of citizens.
12. Direct the conduct of external affairs and defence.
13. Ratify the status and boundaries of autonomous regions,
counties, and municipalities.
14. Appoint or remove administrative personnel according to
provisions of law.
15. Exercise any other power vested in it by the NPC or its
Standing Committee.
PUBUC ADMINISTRATION IN INDIA, SOVIFT UNION AND CHINA 163
Though the People’s Republic of China is a unitary slate, the

country has been divided into administrative units which enjoy
merely delegalory power from the Central Government. Constitu¬
tionally the whole country is divided into provinces, autonomous
regions and municipalities directly administered by the central
governmont. Provinces and autonomous regions are sub-divid‘d into
autonomous prefe:ture?, counties, autonomous counties and cities.
At the grassroots level, there are people’s communes and towns
which are the subdivisions of counties and autonomous counties.
Municipalities directly under the Centra! Government, and other
large cities are divided into districts and counties. There is also the
division of autonomous prefectures into counties, autonomous
counties and cities. All the “autonomous” units of administration
are national autonomous areas. The term “autonomous” does not
mean that they possess special powers which are denied to other
units of administration. In fact, like other units of administration
they are integral parts of the centralised administrative hierarchy.
Doak Barnett says,
They (the autonomous areas) arc different from other units
mainly because within them concessions arc made to local
minority customs and languages and special efforts are made
to absorb minority cadres into the local administration.
The various organs of local government are parallel to the organs of
Government at the national level. Thus the provinces, municipali¬
ties, counties, cities, municipal districts, people’s communes and
towns—all have their people’s congresses and revolutionary com¬
mittees as deliberative and executive agencies of administration.
Tliese bodies are described in the Constitution as the repository of
political power at the grassroots level and the leading organs of
collective economy.
Administration in China is generally analysed primarily in
terms of the major regional levels of authority in the Party and/or
government hierarchies, starling from the national level and work¬
ing downward through the great administrative regions, provinces,
special districts, counties and communes. However, the operation
of ihe administrative system as a whole can also be usefully analys¬
ed in terms of functional “systems” each of which constitutes a
distinct chain of command organized on a nationwide basis and
reaching from the centre to the local level.^^
Interlocking Structure of the Government and Party
The Chinese Communist Party controls and directs ihc machi¬
nery of state through an interlocking system of party personnel and
a structure parallel to that of the state government.
22. ibid., pp. 3-10.

Party control and leadership of government organizations are

exercised in a variety of ways. Firstly, the central committee’s
departments, and committees within the Party’s own hierarchy
form a kind of “shadow government ’; as already indicated, each
department or committee is responsible for one of the broad
functional fields or “general systems” into which most government
work falls, and it provides continuous policy guidelines to all the
government agencies within that field.
Secondly, Party members monopolize the key leadership posts
in government bodies at all levels, and they are directly subject to
instructions from higher Party officials as well as from government
authorities. Party instructions always have primacy, since the Party
is universally recognized as the ultimate authority on policy. Large
number of non-party cadres still work in the government, but the
number occupying leadership posts, in ministries or any other
major government agencies, has steadily declined.
An example of interlocking personnel was Hua Guofeng, who
was both Chairman of the CCP and Premier of the government.
Besides, the Communist Party chairman automatically becomes the
chairman of the Party’s Military Affairs Commission, which super¬
vises the armed forces and sets military or defence policies. The
first vice-chairman of the party's Military Affairs Commission
becomes, by tradition, the Minister of Defence. One of the Party’s
Vice-Chairmen, Deng Xiaoping, was also the chief of staff of the
armed forces. Of the thirty-six ministers in charge of the various
governmental agencies elected by the fifth NPC in 1978, twenty-
nine, or eighty-one per cent, were members of the Central Commit¬
tee of the CCP. All major economic ministries, including economic
planning, capital construction, research and development, foreign
trade, and heavy and light industries were in the hands of minis¬
ters who were members of either the Politburo or the Central
Committee. In fact, the party's highest policy-making body, the
Politburo, is functionally organized parallel to the government
ministries, with members specializing in the various governmental
activities. In each state bureaucracy there is a party cell)of leading
CCP members who provide direction to the state organ. The party
has always been able to exercise its control in a state bureaucracy
by supervising its personnel. Thus, the state structure and the party
are not truly parallel entities since they interlock from top to
bottom.
Another major element in the system of Party control over
government agencies consists of the Party’s basic committees and
branches, which are established within all government organizations
as within other institutions in society where there are sufficient
Party members to form Party branches. Party control is reinforced
23. ibid., pp. 18-20.
k.
also by the Party directed mass organizations that exist within all
government agencies, from the central government to the county
level, for instance, the Young Communist League, the Labour
Union, Women’s Association. The Party’s control is further
enhanced by its monopoly of posts in certain areas they control
and “watchdog” units within government organizations. These
include the personnel units, major staff officers and, supervision
units—all of which operate with a relatively high degree of secrecy
and wield great power.
Development of the Chinese Bureaucracy
The Cadre System: Government policies and programmes are
generally carried out by the staff in the administrative agencies. In
the non-communist world, these people are called bureaucrats, the
Chinese call them “cadres” or “kanpu” which denotes leadership,
skill and capability in an organizational set-up. Thus, we may
refer to the State Council members as the Party and central
government’s leading cadres. The intermediary level of bureaucrats
is the middle-level cadres; and those at the bottom level, who
must deal directly with the masses, are the basic-level cadres. Every
cadre is a party member, but every parly member is not a cadre.
In short, cadres are the functionaries of the various parly and
government bureaucracies and have authority to conduct parly or
government business.
On the basis of their employment, the cadres are divided into
three broad categories : stale, local, and military.2-* Eacii group
has its own salary classification system with ranks and grades,
similar to civil service systems in non-communist countries. Urban
state cadres have a system with twenty-four grades, while local
cadres have twenty-six grades. Local cadres at the commune level
or below are paid directly by the organizations they work for. This
ranking system is also associated with status, privileges, and the
degree of upward mobility in the career ladder. A cadre’s rank,
particularly at the state level, is determined not necessarily by
length of service or seniority but frequently by educational back¬
ground, expertise, or technical competence.
Trends in the Cadre System : The term “cadre” has a variety
of meanings. In its broadest sense it includes both Party members
and non-party staff, who hold any ofiicial post in the bureaucratic
set up in China at any level. The term implies persons in authority
but over the years it has been applied to an increasingly large
number who may even be junior officials. As dedicated revolu¬
tionaries, the top leaders have fought a steady battle against
“bureaucratism” in all its forms and have placed great stress on
the need for promoting a “mass line style of work” that demands
24. James C.F. Wang, Coniemporary Chinese Politics : An IntroJiiciion,

Prcniicc Hall, Nc# Jersey, 1980, pp. 118-123.
166 Public administraIion
close contacts between the ruliug elite and those ruled, and be¬
tween different levels within the bureaucracy.
However, the sheer size of the bureaucracy required to rule
China, the enormity of its tasks, and the Communists’ totali¬
tarian concepts of power, all reinforce the tendency towards a
highly organized, stratified bureaucratic structure of authority,
in fact, if not in theory. In short, the problems of administer¬
ing a huge totalitarian nation have been very different from the
Party’s earlier problems of organizing a revolutionary move¬
ment, and it has simply not been possible to create an enor¬
mous ruling bureaucracy and still preserve the purity of
revolutionary values and outlook.^^
The Personnel Bureau of every ministry is a powerful organiza¬
tion staffed entirely by Party members, located adjacent to the
Party Committee’s office and having overlapping personnel with
the Committee, its influence derived not only from its responsibility
for personnel management but also from the fact that it served as
a key “watchdog” or control organ. Since the Party itself retained
ultimate control over personnel management including decisions on
appointments, transfers, promotions, and disciplinary action, the
bureau served in effect as a special extension of the Party appara¬
tus into the government bureaucracy.
Most cadre salaries are not specially high but a cadre’s
income is relatively good compared to that of an ordinary peasant
or a worker. He enjoys a greater degree of financial security than
the majority of the population. Moreover, cadre-status qualifies
him for free medical care, low-rent housing, cheap food, better
than ordinary accommodation while travelling and access to com¬
paratively good schools for his children.
The Chinese explanation for frequent transfers of cadres is that
it is necessary to combat “bureaucratism”, “localism”, “depart¬
mentalism” or excessive loyalty to one’s organizational unit.
However, the new leaders in post-Mao China apparently are
of the opinion that there need not be a contradiction between “reds’
(ardent ideologues) and “experts” (skilled technocrats); they have
proposed to educate a vast corps of cadres who can be both ideolo¬
gically correct and professionally competent. Attempts have been
made since 1977 not only to reduce the number of cadres and
educated urban youth sent to the communes for physical labour
but also to improve the living conditions of the government
personnel. There are two main reasons why these remedial
measures have been taken; firstly, the need for the nation which has
embarked on a very ambitious modernization programme, to
25. Doak Barnett, Cadres, Bureaucracy and Political Power in Communist

China, p. 440.
Utilize fully the technical skills of the educated, and secondly, to

minimize the constant complaint and resentment by the personnel,
particularly the educated urban youth, about the poor living condi¬
tions in the countryside. The new leadership in the post-Mao
China seems to have recognized that the work of the educated
elite and their professional achievements must be acknowledged
and given due recognition.
It remains to be seen how well they will deal with the challenge
of increased roulinization and bureaucratization to their
ideals of revolutionary ‘mass line’ politics, the steady growth of
functional specialization and the growing 'red and expert
problem, the delicate problems involved in determining the
correct balance between centralization and the search for
higher degree of administrative stability, the problem of mana¬
ging bureaucratic politics within a sjstem ihat idealises mono¬
lithic unity, and the question of w'hat mixture of persuasion
and coercion should be employed in dealing with the popula¬
tion.^^
Comparison Between the Chinese and the Western Administrative

Models
There are some differences in the civil services of China and
those of western countries. First, in China there is no independent
and impartial recruiting agency like the Civil Service Commissions
of these com tries. Whereas in other countries, government servants
are non-partymen elected on the basis of merit and open competi¬
tion, in China members of the Communist Party receive preference
and they are not recruited in accordance with the well established
principles of recruitment. The result is that most of the govern¬
ment employees and officials in China are committed communists.
Secondly in China, there is supposed to be harmony between
policy makers and administrators, both follow the same ideological
and social base. Civil services arc totally controlled by the Com¬
munist Parly. Civil servants do not form any trade unions.
Civil services in China can be compared with that of the Soviet
Union. In both the countries the absence of an independent recruit¬
ing agency has been responsible for the fact that large percentage
of government employees are members of the Communist Party.
The Party members man the top offices of state and economy. It
does this through the vigilance and agency of the personnel and
other departments of its secretariat.
The Chinese model of .administration Sased on the Maoist
ideal of “mass line politics'’ differs sighificanfly "froni The western
administrative systems based on the Weberian model, of bureau¬
cracy. Many of the structural and behavioural fcat\jri^ of the
26. ibid., p. 445. t ^-^63

\
168 PUBLIC^ÂDMINISTRATION
Weberian model have been severely criticised by Mao and he

sought to either replace them or substitute some of them with other
criteria in his own model of mass based participative administra¬
tion. The specific feature of the Chinese administrative model
which distinguishes it from western models of administration lies
in its emphasis on the “politicisation” of administration, its stress
on the ultimate political goals of administration, and in the scope
of its operations which is much wide and all encompassing in
nature than western administrative systems.
The Chinese bureaucracy like its western counterparts is also
based on a hierarchy of specialised offices to which people are
appointed or promoted but the criterion for appointment or promo¬
tion is not essentially technical competence as stressed in the
Weberian model. The Chinese scheme favours the politically
motivated generalist more than the apolitical technical specialist.
In practice, this means considering a bureaucrat’s social class
origins. Parly membership and level of commitment to communist
ideals, besides his education and technical skills.
The Chinese model does not emphasise “specialisation” and

“professionalism”, for various reasons. It is felt that if too much
importance is given to a limited number of technical experts it
might discourage the spirit and initiative of the ordinary lower
ranking members oi the administrative network, that is, the
“musses” upon whose efforts the Chinese model leans heavily for
organisational success. The success of the higher ranking bureau¬
crats would be judged by their ability to mobilise to the fullest, the
cooperation ot the energy and initiative of their subordinates in
the implementation of decisions. The ordinary workers and lower
level cadres should be made to feel capable of making positive
contributions to the decisions that vitally affect their lives, and
optimistic about their abilities to compete for higher positions.
The scope for upward mobility should be fully guaranteed in all
bureaucratic organisations to increase the motivation and dedica¬
tion to work ot all cadres, including the lowest in the hierarchy.
Thcrclore, the functions of the Chinese administrators are not

merely technical, both technical and political skills are required of
them. As a result technical and political considerations are given
importance in appointment as well as promotion of administrative
personnel.
Secondly, the Chinese model rejects the Weberian emphasis on

the autonomy of bureaucratic organisations and the notion of an
impersonal and natural” bureaucracy as an ideal for all
societies. The entire bureaucracy in China operates within a
political framework and qualities of political zeal and dedication to
political objectives of a communist state are considered virtues
which every bureaucrat should cultivate. An apolitical and purely
technical attitude to work is considered sterile and unproductive in

the Chinese model. The Chinese communists absolutely reject
the need for organisational autonomy, and epithets like “depart¬
mentalism” and “localism" are used for bureaucratic organisations
trying to assert such autonomy. What this really means is that all
organisational decisions are ultimately linked with the political
goals of the state which extend beyond organisational boundaries.
Political interference within and outside the organisations is viewed
as undue interference since it is the duty of political authorities to
see that organisational decisions do not have undesirable social
consequences and that administrators do not make mistakes and are
efficient in their allotted tasks.
The Chinese reject the rational-legal justification of authority
and stress more participatory leadership based on comradeship
among all levels of the bureaucratic hierarchy. In the Chinese
ideal of “mass line” politics, many procedures have been invented
to reduce the effects of hierarchy in organisations. Most of the
cadres have to spend a considerable part of their schedule doing
manual work in rural areas alongside llieir subordinates. This is
done to promote comradeship among various cadre levels and also
to enable superiors to get an intimate knowledge about specific
administrative problems in rural areas. Also, there are elaborate
procedures for mobilising support lor decisions made at higher
levels. A new policy is announced and explained by policy makers
and then cadres at all levels are encouraged to give their sugges¬
tions and comments. The fullest participation of the employees at
all levels is solicited, the aim being that subordinates by taking an
active part in decisions alVcctlng them, will identify more with the
organisation and contribute positively towards it. In Chinese
organisations participation of subordinates is actively solicited
through efforts to formalise and mobilize their intormal social
groupings. In every organisational unit there arc work, study or
discussion groups comprising eight to fifteen members, who elect
officers, arrange joint recreation, hold outside political study
meetings, and engage in group or sell-criticism. All these extra¬
curricular activities arc aimed at political indoctrination of cadres
at all levels and to increase their involvement in work.
Wage and status differences in hierarchical grades exist in the
Chinese bureaucracy but much effort has been made to undermine
these by increasing organisational cohesion and communications
across hierarchical divisions. Though in the Chinese scheme, to
ensure compliance to organisational goals, both coercion and a
broad scheme of incentives (material and non-material) remain
important, there is a constant endeavour on the part ol the
political authorities to get people to respond to what Etzioni calls
‘normative and social power’. The organisational elements of the
Chinese model (the mass line, politics takes precedence, group
discussions) are supposed to make this possible. According to the
PUDLIC ADMINISTRATION
170
Chinese if these methods are applied in a proper manner, the

bureaucracy at all levels should respond increasingly to social
pressure and patriotic appeals, making coercion and matenal
incentives gradually redundant to ensure compliance to organisa¬
tional goals.
In China no aspect of an administrator's life is considered
completely irrelevant to his organisational performance, unlike the
Weberian model, where a strict distinction is made between the
bureaucrat’s personal and official life. Various recreational activities
and political indoctrination sessions are organised to utilise the
spare lime of the cadres to increase their work motivation and
dedication to socialist goals. Work timings and schedules m
government, organisations and offices may also be changed from
time to time to suit political objectives. These efforts tend to make
Chinese bureaucracies more total in scope and pervasive m
character than their western counterparts. Chinese cadres engage
in more activities inside and outside the organisation than bureau¬
crats do in the West. Finally, the Chinese do not believe in the
concept of tenure posts or view bureaucracy as a career. Chinese
bureaucrats may hold posts for long periods but they serve at the
will of the state. Besides, bureaucrats are frequently transferred
from one post to another, up or even down the ladder, to meet the
changing demands of the developing economy. Manual labour in
rural areas is considered an essential part of their training.
The Chinese also stress the fact that administration should
strive to minimise their rules and procedures so that all members,
specially the junior personnel, who have new ideas and innâtions
to improve work, will be able to freely carry them out. Periodi¬
cally special political campaigns are launched in China to reform
organisational methods and procedures and bring administration
within easy reach of the masses. They reject the notion of unity
of command prominent in classical organisational theory and in
the Soviet principle of “one man management”. The Chinese stress
collective leadership and flexible methods of consultation. Hori¬
zontally this means collective decision-making by party committees
in consultation with administrators, technicians and worker^
Vertically this means referring many kinds of decisions up and
down the various levels of the administrative hierarchy, often for
ideas, reactions and approval. This procedure obviously results in
delayed decision-making to a certain extent, and makes it difficult
to specify responsibility at individual level, but the supporters of
the Maoist ideal believe it would lead to increased cadre involve¬
ment in organisational goals and activities.
The above survey points to the specific features of the Chinese
model of administration and how it differs in significant aspects
(normatively and operationally) from the western administrative
concepts and practices. How'ever, the Chinese administrative
PUDLIC ADMINISTRATION IN INDIA, SOVIET UNION AND CHINA 171
system has also many features in common with the western

bureaucracies. The Chinese bureaucracy is organised as a hierarchy
of specialized offices in pursuit of specific goals. Its primary task is
the implementation of state goals in the social and economic
spheres. Authority percolates from the upper to the lower ranks of
the bureaucracy, and those at the top generally have more senio¬
rity or experience, and receive more wages than their subordinates.
Recruitment and promotion are based on universalistic achieve¬
ment standards; rules and written communicaHons are vsidely used
in Chinese organisations, and offices are separate from office¬
holders who can be replaced.
Martin King Whyte has attempted a very useful comparison

between the western bureaucratic model (based essentially on
Weberian thought) and the Chinese model of administration based
on the thoughts of Mao. He has explained the similarities and
dissimilarities between the two models in the following manner
Western Conception of Administration

1. Criterion of technical competence in personnel allocation
is stressed.
2. Organisational autonomy is promoted.
3. Legal-rational authority should form the base of organiza¬

tional authority.
4. Informal social groups unavoidably occur in the formal
structure of organization.
5. Differentiated rewards to office and performance arc

encouraged.
6. Varied compliance strategics arc needed, depending on the

organization.
7. Formalistic impersonality is a characteristic of modern

organizations.
8. Another feature of large scale organizations is their unres¬
ponsiveness to emotions.
9. There is partial inclusion of limited contractual obligations
of office holders.
10. Job security is encouraged in organisations.
27. Marlin King Whyte, “Bureaucracy and Modernization in China; The

Maoist Critique,” American Sociological Review, Vol. 31, April 1973,
pp. 149-163.
PUBLIC administration
172
11. Calculability of organisational results is through rules and

established procedures.
12. There is unity of command and strict hierarchy of com¬
munications.
Chinese Conceptions
1. Use both political purity and technical competence.
2. Politics takes command, and opens to outside political
demands.
3. Mass line participative charismatic authority is stressed.
4. Informal groups can and should be fully coopted.
5. Differentiated rewards to office and performance are de-
emphasized.
6. Normative and social compliance should play the main role
everywhere.
7. Comradeship not hierarchy among interpersonal cadre
relations is stressed.
8. Political zeal is encouraged.
9. There is near total inclusion and theoretically unlimited
obligations.
10. Job security and career orientation are discouraged.
11. Flexibility and rapid-change values, rules and procedures
are looked on with suspicion.
12. There is collective leadership and flexible consultation.
Similarities Between the Two Models
1. Organizations have specific goa's.

2. Organizations utilize a hierarchy of specialized offices.
3 Authority and rewards are greater at the top of an organi¬
zation, though the Chinese try to de-emphasize this point.
4. There is universalistic hiring and promotion criteria though
the criteria is different in both systems.
5. Files, rules and written communications regulate organiza¬
tional life.
6. Offices are separated from office-holders.
Underlying the differences between the two models is a geneml
disagreement over the ways organisations are vicNved. In the
rational bureaucratic type, the chief concern is with achieving
internal efficiency through the maximum use of technical knowledge.
In the Chinese conception the predominant emphasis is on

finding ways to maximize the involvement and commitment of
organizational participants, particularly the masses at the bottom
of the organization. While Weber focussed most of his attention
on the administration within bureaucracies rather than on the
entire personnel, the Chinese focus most of their attention on how
subordinates are tied into the organization. The primary concern
of the Chinese is with maximizing (human) inputs rather than with
getting the most return from limited inputs. Whyte has argued
that there is some logic in this approach in China’s case. Given her
relatively low level of economic development and abundance of
unskilled labour, advocates of the Chinese model claim that its
implementation will produce full employment and involvement in
organizations among participants, thus producing more diligent,
careful and creative work.
Thus much of the dysfunctional aspects of Weberian ideal type
of rational bureaucracy are seen as avoidable if the Chinese ideal is
followed. In other words, the major emphasis of the Chinese model
is that only greater involvement can produce greater actual
efficiency.
The Maoist critique of bureaucracy is broad but not total, and
organizations with multiple levels of specialized offices continue
to exist in China. Individual organizations are controlled and
coordinated by national stale administrative, army and party
hierarchies. If we take size, hierarchy and division of labour
as our criteria, rather than other traits on our list, we can
say that the Maoists are not rejecting bureaucracy but are
trying to make it more responsive and efficient.^®
28. /6W.. p. 163.

6
PUBLIC POLICY
Significance
Policy can be broadly defined as a proposed course of action
of an individual, a group, an institution or governraent, to realize
a specific objective or purpose, within a given environment.
Policy formulation is necessary prior to every action in every
form of organization, private or public. It is a prerequisite for aU
management. It is the policy which lays down the framework
within which the organizational goals are set to be accomplished
The objectives of an organization which are often vague and
general are concretised in the policy goals, which set the adminis-
irative wheels in motion* Policy forraiilation is one of the vital
tasks of any government. In the words of Appleby, The essence
of public administration is policy-making”. Marshall Dimock
defines it as “the consciously acknowledged rules of conduct that
guide adminstrative decisions.”*
Public policies are those which are developed by governmental
bodies and officials, though non-governmental actors and agencies
may also exert direct or indirect pressure or influence in the policy
making process. The special characteristics of public policies as
differentiated from other policies emanate from the fact that they
are formulated by what David Easton has termed the “authorities”
in a political system, namely, “elders, paramount chiefs, executives,
legislators, judges, administrators, councillors, monarchs, and the
like.”
There are certain implications of the concept of public policy.
First, purposive or result oriented action rather than random be¬
haviour is the hallmark of public policy. Public policies in modern
political systems are not chance happenings. Second, public policy
refers to the action or decisional pattern by public administrators
on a particular issue over a period rather than their separate
1. Dimock and Dimock, Public Administration, Rinehart and Co., New

York, 1936, p. 82.
PUBLIC POLICY 175
discrete decisions on that matter in an ad-hoc fashion. Third, policy

is what governments actually do and what subsequently happens,
rather than what they intend to do or say they are going to do.
Fourth, public policy may be either positive or negative in form. Posi¬
tively, it may involve some form of government action regarding any
issue or problem; negatively, it may involve a decision by govern¬
ment officials not to take action on a matter on which government¬
al opinion, attitude or action is asked for. Lastly, public policy, at
least in its positive form, is based on law and is authoritative. It
has a legal sanction behind it which is potentially cocrci\e in nature
and is binding on all citizens. This is the main point ol difference
between public policy and policies of private organizations.
S/u(/y Public Policy ?
The reasons for studying public policy or engaging in policy

analysis may be both academic and political. A stud> of the policy
formulation processes may help to gain greater knowledge and
understanding of the complexities of the interacting social, econo¬
mic and political processes and their implications for society. Policy
may be viewed either as a dependent or an independent variable for
analytical purposes. When viewed as a dependent variable, the
attention is placed on the political and environmental factors that
help determine the content of policy. For example, how do the
distribution of power among pressure groups and governmental
agencies affect the policy outcome, or how do urbanization and
national income help shape the content of policy ? If public policy
js viewed as an independent variable, the focus shifts to the impact
of policy on the political system and the environment. Then the
questions arise what effect does policy have on social welfare?
How does it influence future policy choices or mobilize support
for the political system?
Secondly, factual knowledge about the policy-making process
and its outcomes are a prerequisite for prescribing on and dealing
wtth societal problems normatively. Many political scientists
believe that the study of public policy should be directed towards
ensuring that governments adopt appropriate policies to attain
certain desirable social goals. They reject the notion that policy
analysts should strive to be value free contending that political
science should not and cannot remain politically neutral or silent
on vital contemporary social, economic or political problems. They
want ^ improve the quality of public policy in ways they deem
desirable, notwithstanding the fact that substantial disagreement
may exist in society over what constitutes “desirable” or the
appropriate” goals of policy.
Factors Determining Policy Formulation
Policy formulation in practice often overlaps with the policy
ecisioo stage of the policy making process. Formulation aims at
176
getting a preferred policy alternative approved; an affirmative deci¬

sion is the reward of the whole process.
A policy decision involves action by some official person or
body to approve, modify or reject a preferred policy alternative. If
positive, it takes such forms as the enactment of legislation or the
issuance of an executive order. What is typically involved at the
policy decision stage is not selection from among a number of full
blown policy alternatives but, rather, action on what is chosen to
call a preferred policy alternative—one for which the proponents of
action think they can win approval, even though it may not provide
all that they might want. As the formulation process moves
towards the decision state, some proposals will be rejected, others
accepted, still others modified, differences will be narrowed, bar¬
gains will be struck, until eventually in most cases, the policy
enactment will only be a formality.
Policy-making cannot be adequately understood apart from
the environment in which it takes place. Demands for policy actions
are generated in the environment and transmitted to the political
system: at the same time, the environment places limits and
constraints upon what can be done by policy makers. Included in
the environment are such geographical characteristics as natural
resources, climate and topography: demographical variables like
population size, age and sex ratio distribution and spatial location;
political culture; social structure; and the economic system. Other
nations become a significant part of the environment for foreign
and defence policy. The discussion here will focus on two of these
environmental factors to which political scientists have given much
importance to, namely, political culture and socio-economic vari¬
ables.- Policy formulation in every country is, in the words of
Seckler Hudson, “arrived at, then, in all sorts of ways, condition¬
ed by all sorts of matters.’’^
Political Culture
Culture has been defined as the entire pattern of social life, the
inherited modes of living and conduct the individual acquires from
his community or environment. Most social scientists agree that
culture is one of the many factors that shapes or influences social
action. What is relevant here is that part of culture which is wiled
political culture, that is, widely held values, beliefs, and attitudes
concerning governmental policies and actions and some of the
implications and significance of this culture for policy formation.
Differences in public policy and policy making in various
2 George C. Edwards HI and Ira Sharkaasky, The Policy Predicament—

Xfaking and Implementing Public Policy, Allied Publishers, New Delhi
1979, pp. 220-235.
3. Seckler Hudson, Organization and Management, Theory and Practice, The
American University Press, Washington, 1957, p. 71.
PUBLIC POLICY 177
countries can be explained, at least partly, in terms of political

cultural variations. Social welfare programmes are older and more
widely covered in West European countries than in the United
States because there has been greater public demand and approval
of such programmes in those countries. Again, government owner¬
ship in business and industry is more prevalent in Britain than in
the USA where public opinion is more in its favour. Karl Dentsch
suggests that the time orientation of people—their view of the
relative importance of the past, the present, and the future—has
implications for policy formation. A political culture oriented
more to the past than to the future mav more sanctify age-old
traditions, customs and social moves in India than perhans in the
United States, a country whose culture may be more future
oriented, adaptable and innovative.
Almond and Verba have differentiated between parochial,
subject and participant political culture-. In a parochial political
culture, citizens have little awareness of. or orientation towards,
either the political system as a whole, or the citizen as a political
participant. It is suapested that some tribal societies and modern
day Italy are illustrative of parochial political cultures. In a
subject political culture, as that of manv developing countries like
India, the citizen is oriented tow.irds the political system, yet he
has little awareness of himself as a participant. He is aware of
governmental authority, he may have political views, but he is
essentially passive. In the narticioant political culture, which
Almond and Verba found in the United States, citizens have a
level of political awareness and information and have explicit
orientations towards the political system as a whole, and a notion
of meaningful citizen participation in politics Included in this
orientation is an understanding of how individuals and groups can
influence decision making The implications of these differences in
political culture for policy formation seem readily apparent.
Citizen participation in the policy formation in a parochial
political culture is going to be essentially non-existent, and
government will be of little concern to most citizens. The
individual in a subject political culture may believe that he
can do little to influence public policy which may lead to his
passive acceptance of governmental action that may be rather
authoritarian in style. In these cultures chances of popular unrest
culminating in violence are very high. In the participant political
culture, individuals mav organize into groups and otherwise seek
to influence government action to rectify their grievances.
Government and public policy is viewed as controllable by citizens.
Also, one can assume that more demands will be made on govern¬
ment in a participant political culture than in the other two
types.
Returning to an earlier point, political culture helps shape
political behaviour, it is related to the why and how of recurrent

modes of behaviour in a society. A study of political culture is
important because values, beliefs, and attitudes inform, guide and
constrain the actions of both decision makers and citizens.
Socio-economic Conditions and Natural Resources

The term socio-economic conditions is used here in the widest
sense (geographical characteristics and demographic variables being
inclusive in ‘economic resources’) because it is often impossible to
separate social and economic factors as they impinge on or influe¬
nce political activity.
Public policies can be seen as emanating from conflicts between
different groups (private and public) often with opposing interests
and attitudes. One of the major sources of conflict in modern
societies is economic activity. There are clashes of interest between
big and small business, employers and employees, wholesalers and
retailers, consumers and sellers, farmers and landlords, workers
and industrialists and so on. Groups that are underprivileged, dis¬
satisfied or threatened adversely by economic change very often seek
governmental intervention or assistance to improve their lot or
status. Thus it was that in many capitalist countries, organised
labour, dissatisfied with the wages resulting from union bargain¬
ing with employers have often sought minimum wage legislation
from the government. Rapid industrialization disrupts the equilib¬
rium of many groups in society. Feudal landed classe lose their
importance; new classes emerge like the middle class, big business
class and the industrial workers who want a voice in government¬
al decisions.
It is a well recognised fact that a society’s level of economic
development will impose limits on what the government can do in
providing public goods and services to the community. The scarcity
of economic resources will, of course, be more limiting in many of
the developing countries than in the affluent ones.
The ways in which socio-economic conditions influence or

constrain public policies have been subjected to considerable
analysis. Economic development shapes both political processes
and policy outcomes. Differences in the policy choices of slates
with different political systems turn out to be largely a product of
differing socio-economic levels rather than a direct product of
political variables. Levels of urbanization, industrialization, income
and education appear to be more influential in shaping policy out¬
comes than purely political variables like voter participation, inter-
party rivalry, political party strength and legislative apportion¬
ment.
PUBLIC POLICY 179
Conceptual Approaches to Policy Making

In an article published in 1959* and elaborated in his later
works Charles Lindblom noted the difTerences between the way
policy making was usually described in theory—the ‘rational-
comprehensive approach* and the way in which he believes policy
actually is made—by ‘incremental’ steps.
In the rational-comprehensive method, an administrator

confronts a given objective, such as reducing poverty by a list of
values (in the form of priorities) according to their relative
importance. The policy maker in choosing the best policy to
pursue, rationally ranks all the relevant ‘values’ or ‘advantages’ in
attaining this objective, such as improving the health of the poor,
reducing crime, and eliminating illiteracy. Then he formulates
several possible alternatives to achieve the stated objective, for
instance, a guaranteed income plan, direct government subsidies,
higher welfare payments, or unemployment relief programmes and
selects from among options the best alternative that serves to
maximise the ranked list of ‘values’. This approach to decision
making is rational, because the alternatives and values are logically
selected and weighed in relative importance, and also ‘compre¬
hensive’. for all the alternatives and values are taken into account
by the policy maker.
However, the variety of factors both within policy making

agencies and from their environment, along with the changes that
continually occur in these factors, complicate the policy-maker’s
task, making rational decision-making difficult.
If a policy maker were to follow the standards of the rational
decision-making model he would list and assess all goals that
appear relevant to the agency’s problems and would then take
such steps for each of the policies that appeared capable of
achieving each of the potential goals. On the basis of all relevant
information about the probable advantages and disadvantages
associated with each package of goals and policies, the policy-
tramer would then select the one best goal-and-pollcy combination
to realise the agency’s programme ob'ectives.
The rational model of policy-making expects officials to take
every issue into consideration and make clear decisions that can
then guide the actions of subordinates. This would result in integ¬
rated policies that complement rather than conflict with one
another. However, administrators who would accept the prescrip¬
tions of the rational model find their way blocked by a number of
constraints typical in democratic societies. They reflect the
4. Charles E. Lindblom, “The Science of Muddlinp Through”.

Administration Review 19, No. 2 (Spring 1959), pp. 79-88.
heterogeneity and conflict that are considered by many writers

components of the democratic process.
The five major features of public administrative systems that

block the fulfilment of rational decision-making by personnel in
administrative units include: (1) The multitude of problems, goals
and policy commitments that are imposed on or kept from decision
makers by actors in the environment of an administrative unit;
(2) barriers to collecting adequate information about the variety of
‘acceptable’ goals and policies; (3) the personal needs, commit¬
ments, inhibitions, and inadequacies of decision makers which
interfere in their assessment of goals and policies that are accepta¬
ble from their agency’s point of view; (4) structural difficulties
within administrative units and involving their relations with
legislative and executive branches of government; and (5) the
deviant behaviour of individual administrators.^ In the face of these
problems policy makers tend to seek decisions that will be satis¬
factory rather than optimal. They avoid as many difficult choices
as possible.
The rational method has also been criticised as impractical
according to critics. It is impossible to collect all the information
and make the complete list of policy options such a process
involves; furthermore, the process is very time consuming, and
policy makers must act without delay. Besides, the assumption that
values can be ranked and classified is also erroneous. Legislators,
administrators, and the public frequently disagree about the values
a nation should pursue and policy makers do not select values in
an abstract manner. Furthermore, according to this method, every¬
thing must be considered before new policies are decided. This
entails risks because the consequences of adopting new policies are
unknown.
What actually occurs in administrative decisions, argues
Lindblom, is quite another process, namely, ‘the successive limited
comparisons’ or ‘branch’ technique. An objective is established,
for example, of reducing poverty by a fixed allocation of funds;
but in policy making this objective is very often compromised. It
may soon be mixed up with other goals such as educating minority
students or providing unemployment relief for the jobless.
Administrators first take up on a priority basis programmes of
immediate relevance. In selecting appropriate policies, they do not
outline a wide range of possibilities, but only a few ‘incremental’
steps which appear to them to be feasible on the basis of their
experience. Lindblom states that policy makers do not rationally
select the most ‘optimal’ programme, as a matter of fact, under the
‘successive limited comparisons’ method public administrators
pragmatically select from among the immediate choices at hand the
5. Ira Sharkansky, Public Administration, p. 88.

181
PUBLIC POLICY
‘most suitable’ compromise that may satisfy the groups and indivi¬
duals concerned with the programme.
There are two advantages of ‘incrementalism’ according to
Lindblom. First, if the decision maker proceeds through a succes¬
sion of small incremental changes, he has the advantage oi
avoiding serious alterations, should mistakes be made. Second, this
method is truly reflective of the policy making process in demo¬
cratic states which operate chiefly by means of consensus and
gradualism and rarely by sweeping changes in public policies. Hovy-
ever, Lindblom admits that from the perspective of the ‘academic
theorist’ this approach may seem ‘unscientific’ and ‘unsystematic .
He also acknowledges that incrementalism can result in important
policy alternatives being overlooked. Yet, he believes that in de¬
mocratic societies, individuals are free to combine to pursue almost
any possible common interest they may have, so the values neglect¬
ed by one set of policy makers are likely to be considered by
others.
Though it is widely accepted that incrementalism describes the
reality of the policy making process, it is also true that problems
facing government are often so critical that incremental changes
are not sufficient and innovation is required. Aniitai Etzioni s
‘mixed scanning’ addresses itself to this problem, for it combines
incrementalism and rationalism.
He agrees with Lindblom’s attack on the rational approach
but also believes that incrementalism is not without flaws either.
He feels that incrementalism discourages social innovation and is
partisan in approach; which in reality means that the interests or
the most powerful and organized get the maximum attention
policy makers. Besides, incrementalism cannot apply to turida-
rnental decisions such as a declaration of war. Hence Elzioni
suggests a ‘mixed scanning’ approach, combining elements ol the
rational method with the incremental.
He explains his ‘mixed scanning’ approach by a simple
illustration.
Assume we are about to set up a worldwide weather observa¬
tion system using weather satellites. The rationalistic approach
would seek an exhaustive survey of weather conditions by
using cameras capable of detailed observations and by
scheduling reviews of the entire sky as often as possible.
would yield an avalanche of details, costly to analyse and
likely to overwhelm our action capacities. Incrementalism
would focus on those areas in which similar patterns develop¬
ed in the recent past and, perhaps, on a few nearby regions;
it would thus ignore all formations which might deserve
attention if they arose in unexpected areas. A mixed scanning
strategy would include elemenis of both approaches by
employing two cameras: a broad-angle camera that would

cover all parts of the sky but not in great detail, and a second
one which would zero in on those areas revealed by the first
camera to require a more in depth examination. While mixed
scanning might miss areas in which only a detailed camera
could reveal trouble, it is less likely than incrementalism to
miss obvious trouble spots in unfamiliar areas.^
Application of Etzioni’s model to social problems would lead to
a broad social survey in which general information is gathered, such
as indices of employment levels. If this revealed trouble spots, the
focus should be shifted to an in depth analysis of troubled sectors
of the economy. In this way, comprehensive action with respect to
the areas studied in detail would be possible encouraging innova¬
tion while at the same time recognizing the impracticability of
“comprehensive reviews of all community sectors and the stability
and predictability of incrementalism would be preserved.”’
The Official Policy Makers

Official policy-makers are those who are legally empowered to
formulate public policy (This does not preclude the possibility of
these people being controlled by others, like political party bosses
or other interest or pressure groups). These include legislators,
executives, administrators, and judges.
#
Legislatures : Formally legislatures perform the task of law-

making in a poliiical system. This does not necessarily mean that
they have independent decision making powers or that they
actually frame the official policy. Jt is olten said that the British
and Indian parliaments merely consent to laws that are originated
by political parties and pressure groups, framed by bureaucrats,
and introduced in the legislature by the government. This is
because the government enjo>iDg a comfortable maj'ority in the
legislature, knows that it can get any measure of its choice passed
by parliament. In the course of approving legislation the parlia¬
ment performs other important functions like deliberating,
scrutinizing, criticizing, and publicizing government policies and
their consequences for the public on the floor of the house.
However, in the American system of separation of powers,
legislatures often take an independent and final decision in matters
of law-making. In the US Congress, the standing committees
have ultimate authority over proposed legislation and may even
act in opposition to a majority of the members of the House in
W'hich they exist. On matters of taxation, civil rights, welfare and
labour relations policies tend to be shaped in substantial part by
6. Amilai Etzioni, “Mixed Scanning : A ‘Third* Approach to Decision-

nmking’’, Public Administration Review 27, No. 5, Dec. 1967, pp. 389-390.
7. Larry L. Wade, The Elements of Public Policy, Columbus, Ohio, Merill,
1972, p. 110.
Public policy 183
the Congress. In contrast, in matters of foreign and defence

policy, the Congress is guided more by presidential initiatives.
An individual legislator while voting will be guided more by his
party afhliations than personal bias or ideological orientations.
He may also be guided by his constituency requirements in
particular cases. In parliamentary democracies voting is essentially
on party lines.
In comparison, the Russian and Chinese national legislatures
often merely ratify or confirm decisions made by high officials
within the Communist Party. It can, thus, be safely concluded
that legislatures arc more important in policy formation in
democratic than in dictatorial countries; and within democratic
systems, legislatures generally tend to show greater independence in
policy formulation in presidential systems (USA) than in the
parliamentary (India).
The Executive : In what has been called an “executive-centred
era” modern governments everywhere depend vitally upon executive
leadership both in policy formation and execution. In parlia¬
mentary countries all policies must have the approval of the
cabinet and all important law.s in parliament are introduced by
the ministers of the government. In the USA the President’s
option to exercise legislative initiatives is clearly recognised as a
fact to stay. The divisions in the Congress resulting from the
committee system and lack of strong party leadership render
that body incapable of developing consistent and coherent legisla¬
tive programmes. Consequently, the Congress gradually has
come to expect the President to initiate or send proposals for
legislation. This does not mean that the Congress acts on the
President’s commands or merely approves his proposals. The
presidential proposals are very often rejected or considerably
modified before enactment. In the areas of foreign and defence
policy, the President possesses greater constitutional power and
operating freedom than in domestic policy. The US foreign
policy is largely a creation of presidential leadership and action.
In the developing countries the executive probably has even
more influence in policy making than in modern countries. Tliis
is because there is often no strong bureaucratic base, and the
executive plays a larger role in policy formulation because of a
greater concentration of power in governmental hands coupled
with less responsiveness to the legislature. In such countries
pressure groups have little influence or impact in policy making
due to their lack of sophistication or coordination. However,
executive decision making is not done in a vacuum. The executive
IS expected to act in conformity with the constitution, statutes
and court decisions. Foreign policy decisions often depend on
their acceptability by other nations, while domestic policy decisions
may depend upon their acceptance by legislatures, administrators
184 PUBLIC ADM1NISTRAT[0N
and the public. Another limiting factor may be availability of

resources.
Administrative Agencies : Administrative systems throughout

the world vary with respect to size and complexity, hierarchical
organization and degree of autonomy. Although it was once an
accepted doctrine in political science that administrators were
merely executors of policies determined by other organs of govern¬
ments, the fallacy of this distinction is now being increasingly
realised. It is common knowledge now that politics and
administration are blended, and that administrators are involved
in the policy formulation process in more ways than one.
In complex industrial societies specially, the technicality and
complexity of many policy matters, the need for continuing
control, and the legislators* lack of time and information, have
led to the delegation of much discretionary authority to adminis¬
trative agencies formally recognized as rule making power.
Agencies are also a major source of proposals for legislation in
the presidential systems like the United States and parliamentary
governments like Britain. Public officials are associated with policy
lormulation in three important ways. First, they have to supply
facts, data and criticism about the workability of policy to the
ministers or to the legislature if the initiative for policy-making
comes from them. The members of parliament or ministers are a
changing body of amateurs who may have political skill or
popularity but lack administrative acumen or experience, and as
such they have to rely and give due weightage to the suggestions
ot the officials. Secondly, very often the initiative for policy
legislation originates from the administration. This is due to the
fact that it is the administrators who are constantly in touch
with the general public, and therefore, in a better position to
understand the difficulties that arise in the implementation of
policies. It is from the bureaucracy that suggestions and proposals
for removing those difficulties or amendments in the existing law
often emanate. Thirdly, on account of lack of time and knowledge,
the legislature passes skeleton acts and leaves the details to the
administration.^ It is here that administrators have the maximum
scope for policy making. In order to execute these acts, the
administration frames rules, regulations and by-laws which is a
significant contribution to policy-making.
The Courts : In countries where the courts have the power
of judicial review, they have (as in the United States) played an
important role in policy formation. The courts have often greatly
affected the nature and content of public policy through exercise
of the powers of judicial review and statutory interpretation in
cases brought before them.
Basically, judicial review is the power of courts to determine
the constitutionality of actions of the legislative and executive
PUBLIC POLICY 185
branches and to declare them null and void if such actions arc
found to be in conflict with the constitutional provisions. The
judiciary has played a major role in the formation of economic
policy in the United States. Many laws relating to such matters
as properly ownership, contracts, corporations, and employer-
employee relations have been developed and applied by the courts
in the form of common law and equity. They originated in
England but have been adapted to American needs and conditions
by the American judges. Judicial activism in the United Stales
in the past svas restricted mainly to the areas of economic regula¬
tion and law enforcement but for the past two decades the courts
have also ventured into many new areas of social and political
activity. Legislative apportionment, the rights of welfare recipients,
the operation of public institutions such as public schools, prisons
and hospitals and the location of public facilities are major
examples of this type. The courts are playing a more positive
role not only by specifying the government’s limits to action but
also by stating what it must do to meet legal or constitutional
obligations. The increasing sphere of governmental interference
in people’s lives, the failure of the legislative and the executive to
act on many problems, the willingness of the courts to play a
more positive role probably guarantee a continuation of this
extended judicial involvement in policy formation even in the
future.
In India too, the courts have by their power of judicial review,
considerably affected the process of policy making. However,
in India, they have often been accused of playing a conservative
role in their interpretation of the Constitution which has led to
a considerable tussle between the legislature and the judiciary.
The main areas of conflict have been the interpretation of the
relationship between fundamental rights and directive principles
and the legislature’s power of Constitution amendment. The
verdicts of the courts often went against the government’s progres¬
sive laws. To overcome the judicial barrier the government had
to often resort to constitutional amendment.
Unofficial Participants : Besides the official policy-makers,
many others may participate in the policy-making process, like
interest groups, political parties and individual citizens. They
may considerably influence policy formation without possessing
legal authority to make binding policy decisions.
Pressure Groups : Interest or pressure groups play an important
role in policy-making in most countries. The strength and legiti¬
macy of groups differs from country to country, depending upon
whether they are democratic or dictatorial, developed or develop¬
ing. Pressure groups are found to be more numerous in the
United States or Great Britain than they arc in the Soviet Union
or China. The main function of these groups is to express demands
186
and present alternatives for policy action. They may also supply
the official law makers with much technical information for and
against a specific issue and possible consequences of a policy
proposal. Given the plural character of American society, it is
not surprising that pressure groups are many and varied in number,
interests, size, organization and style of operation. The primary
concern of a pressure group is to influence policy in a particular
policy matter. Often there are several groups with conflicting
desires on a particular policy issue, and policy makers are faced
with the problem of having to choose between conflicting demands.
Well organized and active groups naturally have more influence
than groups whose potential membership is poorly organised and
inarticulate. Influence also depends on other factors like numerical
strength, monetary and other resources cohesiveness, leadership
skills, social status and attitudes of the policy makers on specific
policy issues.
Political Parties : In modern societies generally, political
parlies perform the function of “interest aggregation”, that is. they
seek to convert the particular demands of interest groups into
general policy alternatives. The way in which parties aggregate
interests is affected by the number of parties. In predominantly
biparty systems such as the United States and Great Britain, the
desire of the parties to gain widespread electoral support will force
both parties to include in their policy proposals popular demands
and avoid alienating the most important social groups. In multiparty
systems, on the other hand, parlies may do less aggregating and
act as the representatives of fairly narrow sets of interests as
appears to be the case in France. In India, there is a multiparty
system, with half a dozen national parties and regional parties of
twice the number. Most of the national parties have manifes oes
which only differ in stress rather than in content since their
common desire is to e.xlend their electoral base as wide as possible.
The regional parties, however, are more sectarian in their approach
since they desire mainly to woo a particular regional segment of
the population. In one-party systems like the Soviet Union and
China, they are the chief ofiicial framers of public policy.^
Generally, however, political parties have a broader range ot
policy concerns than do interest groups, hence they will act as
brokers than as advocates of particular interests in policy
formation.
In parliamentary states, the political party'which has a majority
of votes in parliament forms the government which is the chief
official policy maker. Needless to say, most of the governments
make policies according to the policy manifestoes on which they
have been elected to office. In presidential systems like the United
States, the fact that members of Legislatures often vote in accord¬
ance with their party policy, which party controls the Congress
has significant policy implications.
public policy 187
The Individual Citizen : Since Jemocratic governments are

representative governments, it is often said that citizens arc there¬
fore, indirectly represented in all policy-making. In an abstract
sense, this is true, but concretely, this aphorism means very little.
Citizen participation in policy-making, even in democratic
countries, is very negligible. Many people do not exercise their
franchise or engage in party politics. Neither do they join pressure
groups nor display any active interest in public affairs. Even while
voting voters are influenced comparatively little by policy consi¬
derations. However, despite such political attitudes of a great
majority of citizens, some still participate directly in decision¬
making. In some of the American states (like California) and
some countries (like Switzerland) citizens can and still vote
directly on a legislation or on constitutional amendments which arc
submitted to the voters for approval. Elections arc the major
instruments in democratic countries to gauge public opinion or
popular wishes. As Charles Lindblom summarizes the argument :
‘The most conspicuous difference between authoritarianism and
democratic regimes is that democracies choose their top policy
makers in genuine elections”. Some political scientists speculate
that voting in genuine elections may be an important method of
citizen influence on policy not so much because it actually permits
citizens to choose their otTicials and to some degree instruct these
officials on policy, but because the existence of genuine elections
puts a stamp of approval on citizen participation. Indirectly,
therefore, the fact of elections enforces on proximate policy
makers a rule that citizens’ wishes count in policy making.
However, it is a truism that no government, however dictatori¬
al, can afford to go against the desires, wishes, customs or tradi¬
tions of the people. Even dictators will undertake many popular
measures to keep down unrest or discontent against the rigime.
One-party systems like the Soviet Union, also seem concerned to
meet many citizen wants even as they exclude citizens from more
direct participation in policy formation.
Policy Formulation in India

The various organizations that participate indirectly or directly
in the policy formulation process in India arc the legislature,
the executive, the judiciary, the administration, political parties,
pressure groups and the public opinion. Policy making is very
often a cooperative endeavour, a collective cfl'ort in which many
people and agencies participate. In India some of the important
organizations arc as follows.
The Constitution : All policies must be in accordance with the
Constitution which was adopted as the fundamental law of the
land. The Constitution is an elaborate and comprehensive docu¬
ment which clearly states the macliincry of the government, its
m fUBlIC ADMINISTRATION
objectives and its restraints and limits. The Preamble to the

Constitution declares the objectives while the Directive Principles
have laid down the policy-making framework of the government.
Legislature : Legislatures in the centre and the states enact
laws to give effect to the policies laid down in the Constitution.
Legislation is the declared will of the sovereign state and an
instrument for the expression of public opinion. The role ot
legislature is primarily to pass or veto policies because by itselt
it is rarely the forum for initiating or sponsoring legislation.
However it influences public policies through general discussions,
debates and various tools of legislative procedure may be adopted
for highlighting the merits, demerits, implications or consequences
of any policy.
The CabineV. In parliamentary democracies like India the
Cabinet is the chief source of policies. It is the real executive in
the country and the major policy-making or originating body.
Policies originating elsewhere have also to be approved by it. it
operates through several sub-committees which report to it on
specific matters.
Public Services: Public services though chiefly concerned
with the execution of policies, participate in policy-making in so
far as they advise and supply the necessary data to the minister
for policy-making; giving legislative shape to the policy proposals
and by framing administrative rules and regulations for giving
effect to the approved policies.
The Planning Commission- Although it is a staff agency, and
acts in an advisory capacity to the government it exercises much
influence over the formulation of policies relating to the entire
field of administration. The National Development Council,
(comprising the Prime Minister, a few central ministers and chief
ministers of ail states) is the supreme organization which frames
the Five Year Plans. It not only charts out the plans but also
recommends the pattern of resources for the implementation of
these plans.
The Judiciary: The judiciary influences public policies in
two ways : by its power of judicial review (acting as the final
interpreter of the Constitution) and by exercising its advisory
powers to define, interpret or set the limits of operation of public
policies.
Besides, there are various other institutions and agencies
which exert direct or indirect influence on the policy formulation
processes in India. Mention may be made of the advisory bodies
such as the Standing Labour Committee. Import and Export
Advisory Committee, Central Advisory Board of Education and
the University Grants Commission. Other influencing bodies are
pressure groups such as trade unions, chambers of commerce and
PUBLIC POLICY 189
various other associations, political parties and the press. All

these bodies advise, suggest and sometimes agitate to demand
correctives and reforms in reference to a specific policy.
Need for Policy Evaluation

Public policy analysis is concerned with the effect of govern¬
mental decisions on the target public. Vital government deci¬
sions in all sectors of public concern involve great cost to the
nation. Besides involving the tax-payers’ money, almost all govern¬
mental policies affect vast sections of the citizens, cither directly or
indirectly. Thus they have every right to know why particular
decisions were taken, how they were arrived at, and what would be
their likely consequences. These questions are now being raised by
policy analysts. Since the government’s long term policies and
plans will greatly determine the future shape of society, there is a
great need now for the building up of scientific knowledge about
policy making. To solve critical problems of society. Ychezkel
Dror advocates the development of policy science.
Policy science can ... be partly described as the discipline
that searches for policy knowledge, that seeks general policy
issue knowledge and policy making knowledge, and integrates
them into a distinct study.®
Policy issue knowledge is knowledge relating to a specific
policy, whereas policy making knowledge concerns itscll vsiih the
entire spectrum of policy making activii>—how it operates and
how it can be improved. Dror advocates an optimal approach to
policy making and policy analysis. He pleads for the adoption of
the best policy by a judicious evaluation of goals, values, alterna¬
tives, costs and benefits based on the maximum use of all available
information and scientific technology. He even recomrnends extra-
rational aids to facilitate effective policy analysis. Intuition, value
preferences, extraordinary leadership and acute reality perceptions
may also be used in policy making and analysis.
Policy analysis today is emerging as a subdisciplinc with its
focus on the following areas:
(a) There is comprehension of policies rather than rccoin-
mendalion. The emphasis is on understanding ol policies
and not directly proposing new ones.
(b) Efforts will be made for finding causal links on policy
matters. Causes and consequences of publ'C policies are
now being subjected to scientific enquiry.
8. Ychezkel Dror. Public Policy Making Re-e.xarnincel, Chandler,

San Francisco. 1968, p. 8-
(c) There is a need for creation of a body of policy science

knowledge. Specific policy issue studies are being utilised
for arriving at broader generalisations.
Evaluation of Pubiic Policy : JhQ Qy2i\niii\on of public policy
is an attempt to assess the content and effects of policy on those
for whom it is intended.® Often policy evaluation occurs through¬
out the policy process, not necessarily at its termination stage.
Evaiuational activity may restart the policy process (problem
formulation onwards) in order to continue, modify or terminate
existing policy. There are generally three recognised methods of
policy evaluation. They are as follows:
{a) Policy impact evahtation : In an assessment of overall
programme impact and effectiveness, the emphasis is on deter¬
mining the extent to which programmes are successful in achieving
basic objectives and on the camparative evaluation of national
programmes.
(6) Policy strategy evaluation : This evaluation is an assess¬
ment of the relative effectiveness of programme strategies and
variables. The emphasis is on determining which strategies,
methods and procedures arc most productive or effective.
(c) Policy project appraisal: The process is an assessment of
individual projects through site visits and other activities with
emphasis on managerial and operational efficiency.
While discussing policy evaluation, one must first understand
the basic difference between policy output and policy outcomes.
Policy output refers to the quantifiable actions of the govern¬

ment which can be measured in concrete terms, for instance,
construction of government offices, schools, public parks, highways,
payment of welfare benefits, operation of hospitals and prisons.
These activities can be measured in concrete terms but figures
reveal very little about the policy outcomes or the qualitative
impact of public policies on the lives of people. Knowing how
much is spent on pupils in a school system on a per capita basis
will reveal nothing concerning the effect schooling has on the
cognitive and other abilities of students, let alone the social conse¬
quences of the educational system.
However, broadly policy evaluation requires knowledge of
what is to be accomplished within a given policy (policy objectives),
how to do it (strategy) and what, if anything, has been accom¬
plished towards attainment of the objectives (impact or outcomes)
and the relation of policy thereto. The most useful method of
policy evaluation for policy makers and administrators is the
9, Ira Sharkansky, Policy Analysis in Political Science, Markham, Chicago,

1970.
PUBLIC POLICY 191
systematic evaluation to determine the cause and effect relation¬

ships and rigorously measure the impact of policy. It is, of course,
often impossible to measure quantitatively the impact of public
policies, especially social policies with any real precision. There
are certain barriers that create problems for policy evaluation.
Uncertainty over policy goals: When the goals of a policy
are unclear or diffused policy evaluation becomes a difficult task.
This situation is often a product of the policy adoption process.
Since support of a majority coalition is often needed to secure
adoption of a policy, it is often necessary to appeal to as wide a
spectrum of persons and interests (often conflicting) as possible.
Officials in different positions in the policy system such as legisla¬
tors and administrators, or national and state officials, may define
goals differently and act accordingly.
Difficulty in determination of causality: Systematic evaluation
requires that changes in real life conditions must demonstrably
be caused by policy actions. But the mere fact that action A is
taken and condition B develops does not necessarily mean that a
cause and effect relationship exists, for example, the relationship
between crime prevention measures and occurrence of crime is not
a simple cause and effect relationship. The determination of
causality between actions, especially in complex social and
economic matters, is a difficult task.
Diffused policy impacts:Policy actions may affect a wide
spectrum of people both in the target and non-target categories
and also have many intended or unintended consequences. A
welfare programme may affect not only the poor but also others,
such as tax-payers, bureaucrats and lower income groups. The
effect on those groups may be symbolic or material, tangible or
intangible.
Difficulties in data-acquisition: A shortage of accurate and
relevant facts and statistics may always hinder the work of a policy
evaluator. Thus mathematical models may predict the elTcct of a
tax cut on economic activity, but suitable data to indicate its
actual impact on the economy is difficult to obtain. Official resis¬
tance to provide all types of relevant data may also prove to be a
hindrance. Policy evaluation means commenting on the merits and
demerits of a policy, that is, value judgements have to be made.
Agency and programme officials, bureaucrats and others are
naturally going to be concerned about the possible political
consequences of evaluation. If the results do not come out in their
favour or show them in a wrong perspective, their careers may be
in jeopardy. Consequently government officials may discourage
evaluation studies, refuse access to data, show incomplete records,
or create various other hurdles in the researcher’s process of policy
evaluation.
Within the government, policy evaluation is carried on in a

variety of ways and by a variety of actors. Sometimes it is a
systematic activity, at other times rather haphazard or sporadic.
In some instances policy evaluation has become institutionalized, in
others it is informal and unstructured. A few agencies of official
policy evaluation are the legislatures and their committees, the
audit office, commissions of enquiry, the Planning Commission and
departmental evaluation reports.
Besides, there is much policy evaluation carried on outside the
government. The communications media, university scholars,
private research institutions, pressure groups and public interest
organizations make evaluation of policies that have effect on public
officials to some extent. These also provide the larger public with
information, publicize policy action or inaction, advocate enact¬
ment or withdrawal of policies and often effectively voice the
demands of the weaker or underprivileged sections of the public.
One of the declared functions of the

The legislative process :
legislatures in democratic countries, is the security and evaluation
of the application, administration, and execution of laws or
policies.
Policy evaluation is exercised through a number of techni¬
ques: (a) questions and debates, (b) various motions in parliaments
like call attention, no-confidence, (c) committee hearings and
investigations, and (d) the budgetary process. In the course of
these activities legislators reach conclusions regarding the efficiency,
effectiveness and impact of particular programmes and policies—
conclusions that can have serious consequences for the policy
process.
The audit process : The auditor’s office as in India and the
USA, has broad statutory authority to audit the operation and
finance activities of government agencies, evaluate their pro¬
grammes and report their findings to Parliament. In India two
committees of Parliament, the Public Accounts Committee and the
Estimates Committee, have been specially empowered to help in
effective parliamentary control over the governmental expenditure.
Their main purpose is to see that the budgetary appropriations
have been utilized economically by the government for the approv¬
ed purposes within the framework of the grants. Secondly, they
undertake a detailed examination of the annual budget estimates of
the government to suggest possible economies in the implementa¬
tion of plans and programmes embodied therein.
. Administrative agencies : All government departments prepare
their internal evaluation reports which provide an opportunity to
appraise the working of the programmes and projects undertaken
by the department, for example, the Budget Division of the Finance
Ministry has the power of overview the working of the plans and
PUBLIC POLICY 193
programmes of all ministries and departments while framing the

budget estimates for every department. Similarly, every depart¬
ment while sending its own demand for grants to the Finance
Ministry evaluates in the process its annual plans, programmes and
performance.
The organization and methods divisions in ministries also
often indirectly perform the task of policy evaluation.
Commissions : The Planning Commission, the Finance Com¬
missions, the Administrative Reforms Commissions and various ad
hoc commissions that are set up by the government from time to
time also play an important role in public policy evaluation by
presenting their detailed, researched reports on the consequences
and impact of particular government policies.
To sum up, in modern democratic political systems, public
policy making and evaluation are very complex processes. Many
participants may be involved, and many factors may affect their
outcomes. While analysing the policy process all these relevant
factors should be taken into account, so that all possible variables
are open to enquiry.
7
PUBLIC MANAGEMENT
The Concept of a Career Civil Service

Herman Finer defines the civil service as a “professional body
of officials, permanent, paid and skilled/
Gladden, “A civil servant may be defined a servant of t
Crown (not being the holder of a political or judicial ^^ce) who
is eniDloved in a civil capacity and whose remuneration is wholly
paid out^ of monies provided by Parliament.”* This
members of the armed forces and judicial services. The îvd service
constitutes the permanent executive in the modern state. .With the
increasing variety in the functions of the civil service new
category of employees (both technical and generalist tn character)
working under the public sector are being gradually added to the
categorv of civil servants everywhere. Finer has classified the
British 'Civil Service into three broad types—administrative,
technical and manipulative. The administrative officers help in
policy formulation and execution. The officers in the technical
category like doctors, engineers, economists and scientists help in
performing tasks of a technical and specialised nature, where
special knowledge and training is required. The third category of
officials merely implement and execute tasks and decisions handed
down to them by members of the civil service belonging to^ the
first iw'o categories. The major requirement of the civil service is
that it shall be “impartially selected, administratively competem,
politically neutral and imbued with the spirit of service to the
community.”'
Though traces of some sort of a rudimentary civil service were
to be found in ancient China, Egypt and India, the concept of
service as a career is of comparatively recent origin. England had
no permanent civil service until the middle of the nineteenth
1. E.N. Gladden, The Civil Service, Its Problems and Future, Staples,
London, 1948, p. 35.
2. ibid., p. 35.
PUBLIC management 195
century and the USA. until the end of that century. The prevalence
of the “patronage system” in England and “spoils system” in the
USA delayed the development of a public career system based on
merit for a long time.
Dr. White has stated that Richelieu in France, Henry VIII
and Elizabeth I in England, and the Great Elector in Prussia are
among the chief architects who reconstructed the concept of the
state, office, civil life, and of oermtnent officials out of the
debris of the feudal system.^ Dr. Finer elaborates the principles of
its origin thus:
The growth of some of the cardinal and least questioned
principles of modern civilization brought about the establish¬
ment and growth of a professional civil service, and the
realization of principles would have been impossible without
such a service. Some of those principles were the principles of
specialization and division of labour, the democratic idea of
‘career open to talents’ etc.^
Civil services are the chief instrument for implementation
of the will of the state as expressed through public policv They
are indispensable to the functioning of the modern state. With the
change in the philosophy of the state from lais^f'z-faire to social
welfare the modern state has taken unon itself multifarious tasks
which are performed by the civil service.
The basic task of the civil servants is to transform policies into
action. The higher echelons of the civil service also assist their
political superiors in policv-formulation bvexpert advice, assistance
. and information, where needed. With the diversification of the
nature of civil service personnel, civil servants of the technical
category engaged in various productive and public sector organisa¬
tions are rendering useful social and economic services to the
people.
The new tasks of the civil servants are therefore, comprehen¬
sive and include planning, control and guidance of the entire
economic as well as social activities .... The manner in
which work is done and its efficiency now directly impinge on
the lives of individual citizens. The welfare of the people will.
' ^ to an increasing extent, depend on the imagination and
/ sympathy and the efficiency with which work is understood
and done by the civil servants.^
3. L.D. While, The Civil Service in the Modern Stale, p. II.

4. Herman Finer. Theory and Practice of Modern Government.
and Co., New York, 1949, p. 712.
5. "Organization Theory and Civil Service Reform in Tublic Administration’’,
Journal of theRoyal Institute of Public Administration, Vol. 43, pp. 313-316.
Due to increasing significance and importance of the civil

service in modern society and the assumption of responsibility by
the state for the performance of various social and economic
functions, it has become all the more necessary to recruit persons
with special qualifications. Recruiting the right people of merit
and competence for the civil service has become a fundamental
imperative. Professionalization of the civil service became abso¬
lutely necessary to attract the best available talent to government
jobs and enable them to make a rewarding career of it. The
concept of career civil'service was defined by the Commission of
Inquiry on Public Service Personnel appointed in 1933 by the US
Social Science Research Council thus :
By this we mean that steps shall be taken to make public
employment a worthwhile life work, with entrance to the
service open and attractive to young men and women of capa¬
city and character, and with opportunity of advancement
through service and growth to posts of distinction and
honour.®
According to the Commission, the main characteristics of a
career civil service are:
(i) high prestige and status attached to government service;
(ii) appropriate recruitment procedures;
(iii) broad avenues for promotion and transfer of personnel;
(iv) clear pay scales; and
(v) an adequate retirement and pension system.
Willoughby defines career civil service as :
A system that offers equal opportunities to all citizens to
enter the government service, equal pay to all employees doing
work requiring the same degree of intelligence and capacity,
equal opportunities for advancement, equally favourable
conditions and equal participation in retirement allowances
and makes equal demands upon the employees.’
It is a system aimed at recruiting young men and women of talent
and ambition, with capacity for learning and growth, training them
in order to develop their potentialities for the service of the slate.
The main characteristics of the concept of career civil service
are : (a) permanence of tenure and stability of service, (b) equal
opportunity of competing for government service, (c) merit to be the
sole criteria of recruitment with due recognition to ability and
personal efficiency in a sound promotion system, (d) the extent of
6. W.F. Willouahby, principles of Public Administration, p. 208.

7. ibid., p. 208.
PUBLIC MANAGBMENt 197
territorial jurisdiction of public employees is fairly large. This not

only enlarges their scope of activity but also improves their avenues
of promotions; and (e) adequate steps are taken to provide in-
service training to the civil servants to keep them in touch
the latest trends and developments in administrative theory and
practice. According to Powell, two new provisions should be
included in any modern career system.
The first is the idea of planned upward progression, involving
both the identification of a career ladder and carefully execut¬
ed plans for the continuing growth and development of those
who are expected to climb it. The second new element is the
advance planning of staffing needs.
The system of a career civil service is applicable to all ranks
of administration from the highest to the lowest grades. It can be
usefully applied to all levels of government national, state and
even local government services. Professionalization of public
services have many advantages. In the words of Milton M.
Mandell ;
The advantages are teamwork and continuity in administra¬
tion and an etfeclive way of attracting the ablest candidates
to the public service.
It is a system of service, with recruitment on merit, security of
tenure and due recognition of service and merit through timely
promotions. It offers a respectable life career which relieves ian
employee from fear of want during service as well as after retrre-
ment (government service has pensionary benefits) while assu ing
him ample job satisfaction, and opportunities of self-advance¬
ment if he shows the necessary ability in work. This gives the
late a class of non-political permanent corps of loyal and industri-
sous officials who form the backbone of public administration.
Every public organisation constitutes its own service systems
comprising permanent civil service groups, whose size and functions
depend on the nature of the organisation. Most government
departments in all countries have employees who are normally
recruited at the lower grades, the senior positions being filled by
promotion from below. Modern civil service constitutes men and
women with both general and technical qualifications leading to the
oft publicised debate on generalists versus specialists (the bureau¬
crats versus the technocrats).
The concept of a career civil service has been accepted and
prevalent in India for a long time. Recruitment to the Indian
Civil Service is based on the principle of equal opportunity for all.
Recruitment at all levels is made through competitive examinations
open to all graduates from any discipline (arts, science, medicine
engineering, commerce and law). The entrance examination to the
198 PUBLIC ADMINISIRATION
Indian Administrative Services is meant to attract the very best

talent ol the country iriespective ol sex, caste, or creed. Candidates
aie recruited at an early age (Irom 21 to 26 years) and are given
exien&ive in-seivice irainiug in administrative thought and practice
to equip them lor their tasks. Promotions are based on the merit-
cum-seriioriiy principle ana ihe scales ol pay are revised to keep
pace with the rising price index. Pension schemes are fairly attrac¬
tive. Due to the large intake in these services, it has managed to
attract an overwhelming number ol young menând women in the
country, as is evident Irom the large numbers who take the civil
service examination every year.
Recruitment of Civil Service Personnel
Recruitment of personnel for the civil services is one of the
crucial tasks ol modern government and lies at the heart of the
problem ol personnel administration. The mam test of any machi¬
nery ol recruiimeni lies in its ability to recruit the right type of
persons fur the right jobs. The concept of a careej civil service
assumes that public service recruiinient would be^based on the
principle ol merit and equal opportunity for all. The recruitment
process should be able lo attract the best available talent among
the youth to the civil services. The increasing diversification of the
nature ol civil service lunctions and the growth of democratic and
equaliiarian principles have largely deiermined the normative
context of personnel recruitment in democratic countries.
J.D. Kingsley says;
Public recruitment may be defined as that process through
which suitable candidates are induced to compete for appoint¬
ments to the public service, it is thus an integral part of a
more inclusive process—selection—which also includes the
processes of examination and certification.
Pfiffner and Presthus observe,
Personnel recruitment for the second half of the twentieth
century will have to be geared to a nuclear physical world in
whicli the solutions ol human problems will demand the
utmost in human competence. The emphasis will be not only
on finding, but on bunding men who are capable of perform¬
ing the complex tasks ol co-ordinating institutions growing
even more complex.**
The first country to develop a scientific system of recruitment
was China where recruiimeni inrough competiiise examinations was
first iniroduced in ihe second century before Christ. In modern
times Prussia was the first to introduce a system of recruitment
gradually replacing the patronage’ system from 1857 onwards, in
8. Pfiffner and Presthus, Public Administration, p. 294.

, , 199
PUBLIC management
the United States, the ‘spoils system’ "j/inX' „tl

the ‘merit principle’ by the C.vil Service Act of 1883, In Ind.a,^^^
merit principle has been in existence since 1853, ssheii it
introduced during the British rule.
The process of recruitment and selection includes a number ot
different steps which are as follows :
I. Announcement of examinations, through newspapers,
journals and other media,
2 Holding of examinations fors testing or determining the
abilities of the recruits.
3. Certification is the process of sending for an appointment.
4. Selection is the act of choosing from eligible candidates.
5 AoDointment is made by the competent authorities of
seê^cted recruits. Appointrnent may be permanent,
temporary, provisional or probationary.
6. Placement refers to the putting of recruited persons in the
right jobs.
7. Orientation means induction into the service and a certain
amount of training for a particular job.
The recruitment process involves a number of problems. They
are as follows:
(a) Location of the recruiting authority;
(b) methods of recruitment;
(c) qualifications of the employees;
(d) methods of determining qualifications; and
(e) administrative machinery for determination of qualilica-
tions,
(a) location of the recruiting authority

The problem of location is of such fundamental in'PUf'u"“
that it is usually provided in the ,he rcvru“-
countries. Generally, there are two "’«!''°ds °f'orating
ing agency. In one system, the power is ve , , j policy
This effective system of recruitment is usually adopted P ^ V
making posts (e.g. chief executive) or in electing personnel
local administration (e.g. village panchayats).
Th»* nther svstem IS wlicrc the power of appointment is given
to a government organisation, fconstitutionally the recruiting
Doweris vested in the chief executive but in reality ‘‘utonon ous
bodies called Public Service Commissions function as the person!
recruiting agency on behalf of the government.
200 PtJBLIC ADHINISTHATION
(b) methods of recruitment

There are two main methods of recruitment, one is recruitment
from outside and the other is through departmental promotion.
The latter is one in which appointment to the higher posts in the
service is made only from within the service itself either through a
system of promotion or through restricted competitive examination^
It has been argued that the best method is to have direct recruif-
ment in the lower grades and recruitment through promotion in the
higher grades of service. Such a system will have the following
advantages:
(1) All employees are provided enough incentive to work
knowing that promotion is guaranteed by well defined
conditions of service. Higher posts will have the advant¬
age of the ability of experienced and senior experts.
(2) Gradual advancement through increased monetary benefits
is a good form o! compensation for those who may put
up with low salaries at the junior ievel.
(3) Besides monetary advantage, there is no guarantee in the
system of recruitment from without that it would be able
to secure elficient employees to senior positions. Most
governments would prefer ‘insiders’ to ‘outsiders’ in highly
responsible posts.
(4) In the system of recruitment from without, no system of
examination can be entirely foolproof or satisfactory in
discovering the best talent among the candidates. In the
promotion system, more weightagejs given to past
experience and the degree of responsibility previously
enjoyed by a person.
(5) This system reduces the expense and burden of the Public
Service Commissions by restricting the work of recruiting
and training new applicants to only the lower level posts.
The main delects in this system vis-a-vis the other (recruitment
Irom witlicui lor all posts) are that it narrows the area of selection,
(a mediocre may fill the post leaving out the more talented). It is
also discriminatory and violative ot the principle of equal opportu¬
nity to all. Direct recruitment ensures a continuous supply of fresh
talent and ability. This is particularly essential in technical and
professional fields where new' techniques and ideas continue to
emerge rapidly, in tune with the changing socio-economic condi¬
tions of the country.
Neither of the uvo methods of recruitment arc entirely satisfa¬
ctory. in all countries a combination of both systems is practised
to get the most desirable results.
(C) QUALIFICATIONS Of THE EMPLOYEES
One of the main problems in the recruitment system of modern

PUBLIC MANAGEMENT 201
civil service is the laying down of proper qualifications to suit the

needs of the diverse tasks of administration. Broadly there are
two types of qualifications required of public servants, general and
special^
General Qualifications
The modern state lays down certain general standards for
its employees. They relate to his civil status, domicile, sex and age.
Civil status : Since the growth of nation-stales it has become a
universal practice to recruit only citizens. Even when the services
of an alien are indispensable, the appointment is made only on a
short term basis.
Domicile : The domicile qualification is generally laid down
in public services in countries with federal systems. This qualifica¬
tion was first introduced in the USA to give due representation to
each federating unit in the national services. Several critics brand
it an undesirable and decidedly harmful practice impeding
efficiency and introducing provincialism and parochialism in
administration.
In India domicile rules were prevalent till 1957 and have been
discarded now.
Sex : Public service, until recently, was taboo for women in
most countries, a restriction which gradually disappeared with
spread of the influence of the doctrine of equality, and the increas¬
ing employment of women in all types of services. In India all
public services have been thrown open to women.
Age : In countries like Britain and India where the concept
of civil service as a career has been adopted, comparatively lower
age limits for clerical and semi-skilled jobs (between 16-20 years)
and for administrative and technical (21-26 years) have been
provided. But America which does not follow the government
service-as-a-career principle prefers to recruit trained and experienc¬
ed personnel in public service. Hence the age scale there varies
from 18 to 50 years.
Special Qualifications
Educational : In respect of educational qualifications, dilTcrcni
countries prescribe different patterns. The British system lays down
definite educational qualifications for entrants, with an emphasis on
-liberal education (classical and the humanities). In India every
university graduate can sit for the civil service competitive examina¬
tions and the subjects are so broad based as to include the widest
range of university subjects. The American system being influenced
by the doctrine of equality does not prescribe any educational
qualifications. Anybody who qualifies in the competitive examina¬
tion may enter the civil service.
202
Technical Experience : Technical experience is an additional
qualification often laid down for technical services, This is essential
to fill up technical posts in public administration by professionals
like doctors, engineers and lawyers.
Personal Qualifications : The public servant is required to
resourcefulness,
possess many personal qualifications like
tact and sincerity. Besides devotion to public duty, other desirable
qualifications are
fa) A flexible, but essentially scientific mode of thought,
characterised by a recognition of the need for co-ordina¬
tion.
(b) Familiarity with the subject-matter of organisation and
management.
(c) Facility at problem solving.
(d) A highly developed reading and writing ability.
(e) Ability to settle vexing situations through interpersonal
contact.®
(d) methods of determining qualifications
The following methods of determining qualifications have been

adopted in most countries today:
1. Personal judgement of the appointing authority.
2. Certificates of character, ability, and educational quali¬
fications.
3. Record of previous experience—educational and
occupational.
4. Examinations.
1. Personal Judgement of the Appointing Authority

Under this system, the recruiting authority lays down the
qualifications of the applicants. This being a highly arbitrary and
subjective system, it has mostly been discarded in deinocratic
countries, where this job has been left to the Public Service Commi¬
ssions However, this system can be followed when there is a
small number of posts to be filled and an appointing officer is by
qualification and experience the best person to lay down the
qualifications. At present few top positions of the civil service in
India and in some other countries are filled by this system. The
most desirable use of this method can be made if the recruiting
authority has to make the appointment from a panel of names
9. ibid., p. 296.
PUBLIC MANAGEMENT
203
prepared by the Public Service Commissions on the basis of com¬

petitive examinations.
2. Certificates of Character, Ability and Educational Qualifications

This method is often used to supplement other methods before
appointing a person to a public post. Character certification and
academic recommendations from responsible persons can be good
methods of judging a candidate's past record. However this
cannot be the sole basis of judging the overall fitness of a candidate
for a post, for character certificates may be subjective and not
always relevant to the requirements of the post.
3. Record of Pre\ious Experience
In this, the entire previous record of work, (both educational
and occupational) of the candidate is examined The USA has
evolved a scientific system of making records of the work and
experience of employees through what is known as Efficiency
Records’ or ‘Service Ratings’. This combined with the educational
record of a candidate can serve as a sound basis ot preliminary
selection as is usually done.
4. Examination
Civil Service Recruitment Examinations are meant to test not
only the general knowledge and mental ability of the candidates
but also some of their personal traits and service records.
There are four main types of personnel recruitment tests,
namely : (i) written examination, (ii) oral examination, (iii) per¬
formance demonstration, and (iv) evaluation of education and
experience.
Written Examination
Written tests may be either essay-type or objective type in

form. Essay type arc meant to examine the power and clarity of
expression and the standard of logical thinking of the candidate.
The objective type is usually employed to test the general know¬
ledge and speed of thinking of the candidate. Either or both types
are employed in civil service recruitment. Written tests fall under
the following main categories:‘‘’
(/) The ability tests : They may be either objective or essay
type in form. In both, the purpose is to assess the general mental
ability of the candidate, his memory, response to problems and
power of logic. Besides, other tests have been derived in the USA
to test the specific character traits of candidates.
10. A.R. Tyaii, Public Administration, p. 438-440.

They are:
(a) General intelligence was invented by Binet and
test
Simon of America in 1905. It is a device of measuring the mind
through such measures as Intelligence Scale and Pressey Series.
was devised by L.L. Thurstone. Unit

{b) Unit trait system
trait system is a process of identifying unit traits of intelligence,
for example, perception, space factor, memory, reasoning ability
and comprehension.
(c) Social intelligence test was also devised by Thurstone
and his group. It measures the quality of social intelligence,
that is, the quality of adaptability to all kinds of new situations and
ability to influence people.
{(1) Administrative ability test is known as the Gottshchold
test and it tests the administrative ability. Some of the qualities
tested are (a) ability to appraise people; (b) capacity to take
prompt decisions; and (c) social behaviour.
(e) Mechanical intelligence test is used to test the
ability of
mechanical performance needed for lower level skilled and semi¬
skilled grades c.g. clerks, stenographers, typists and machine
operators.
2. Apptitude tests : Various aptitude tests are extensively
used for recruitment in the defence and other technical services in
the UK and the USA which are meant to test the particular apti¬
tude of the students towards that job.
3. Achievement tests : The academic qualifications laid down
for recruitment to various services are referred to as achievement
tests, for example, in India the achievement test for taking the
Civil Service Examination is graduation.
4. Fersonality tests : Various kinds of complex personality tests
have been devised in .western countries to discover all possible
traits of human personality, such as the Laired Personal Inventory
was devised to measure emotion and temperament; Bern reuter
Flanagan Personality Inventory to test confidence and sociability;
and Alloport A.S. Test to test qualities of ascendance and submis¬
sion. These are highly complex psychiatric devices meant to test
hidden traits of human personality.
5. Oral interview : However, the commonest, least complex
and expensive method of personality test is the viva voce (also
called the oral interview.) This test is normally supplemented by
a written test. The interview is generally conducted by a board
of three to five experts consisting of members appointed by the
Civil Service Commissions. These tests can never be entirely free
from bias and subjectivity. They arc meant to test the candidate’s
alertness, intelligence, presence of mind and general personality.
(E) administrative machinery for DEIERMINING QUALIFICATIONS
The task of handling the recruitment of the civil service is such

an immensely lengthy, time-consuming and complex job that it
needs to be placed in the hands of an agency outside the operating
service to maintain standards of objectivity and neutrality in
personnel selection. Such a personnel recruiting agency, usual.y
called the Public or Civil Service Commission, is put in charge not
only of the recruitment and examination of public personnel but
is also entrusted with other duties related with personnel matters,
such as pay, leave, promotion, transfer and classification.
In recent years procedures of recruitment and training of
personnel have been the subject of serious debate and discussion
in many countries. In Britain the Fulton Committee was appointed
by the British government to review the entire range of problems
connected with personnel administration with special relevance to
recruitment and training. The Committee, in its report, pu ts c
in 1968. first initiated the debate on the ‘generalist specialist
controversy, making a strong advocacy for relating jobs to orga¬
nisational objectives and pleaded for increased professionalism in
the public services. The essence of the Fulton report was that the
days of the ‘amateur’ in administration are over and the concept
of a generalist administrative class is obsolete and insumcient to
meet the changing needs of the times. In India, the Administrative
Reforms Commission also made a vigorous pica for the gradual
infusion of specialists in the administrative services to meet the
technological challenge to our administration.
The Fulton report had a snowballing impact on the generalist
vj specialist debate with many administrators and academicians
vociferously taking one side or the other. The generalist s cause
was presented with great vigour and force by Frederick C. Mosher
who found the continuous swamping of the US civil services with
professionals and technocrats as a dangerous and harmful trend
for democratic administration. This view was also supported
by Paul Appleby who has stated that there is no single problem in
public administration equal to “the reconciliation of the increasing
dependence upon experts within an enduring democratic reality.
Both these writers view professionalism as a serious threat to the
two democratic ideals of public service, viz., recruitment on merit
(equal opportunity to all) with responsiveness to political direction.
The pro-generalist writers also assert that specialists can never
acquire the broadness of vision and outlook, so necessary in a
developing nation like India where the complexity of administra¬
tive problems calls for an administrator to be a planner, a manager
and an operator at the same time.
Both the views have many points of truth. But both the
approaches need not be mutually exclusive, a harmonious blend
of generalism and specialism may yield fruitful results. The
bureaucrat often lacks specialised knowledge on many matters

required for certain jobs, the technocrat may lack broad overview
on many matters of administration. The changing probiems and
socio-economic conditions today call for an administrator who not
only helps in policy formulation and execution but also acts as an
agent of social change where necessary.
Forms of Recruitment
There are three main forms of Civil Service Recruitment.

They are as follows:
1. Cadet System : The cadet system is followed in many
countries mainly for recruitment in the defence services. Under
this system recruitment is made at a young age, usually between
the ages of 16 and 20 years, followed by a long period of institu¬
tional training during which the cadets are given instruction on
courses in general education and specialized skills required for the
jobs.
2. General Mental Ability : The system which is followed
in India and many European countries lays stress on recruit¬
ing young men and women after graduation in the liberal arts
of basic sciences between the age group of 21 to 26 years. Under
this the government seeks to recruit candidates with broad educa¬
tional attainments and mental ability. It is based on the concept of
career civil service.
3. Expertise : The government recruits people with specific
qualifications, technical knowledge or experience suited for
the recruitments to various posts. The age-scale of recruitment
varies from 18 to 45 years. This system is followed in the USA
and in Canada to a certain extent.. In this open recruitment from
outside takes place at all levels of the hierarchy and government
service is not based on the concept of a career civil service. Eligible
candidates from non-governmental positions may also be recruited
to government posts, if required. This system has the same objec¬
tives as the ‘lateral entry system* under which a certain quota is
fixed for recruitment to the senior civil service posts from among
outsiders not belonging to the same service through competitive
selection. The ‘lateral entry system’ may be followed in recruitment
on the basis of general mental ability.
Recruitment System in India

In India recruitment system is essentially based on the British
pattern. Recruitment qualifications at the initial stage are not based
on any kind of specialized knowledge or experience. The method
of testing merit of the applicants is to assess the general knowledge
of the candidate on a variety of subjects. Entrance to civil services
is based on merit which is tested by competitive e.xaminations open
PUBLIC MANAGEMENT ' 1/1
to all citizens irrespective of religion, sex. caste or creed. Gradua¬

tion is the minimum qualification necessary to take these examina
tions Direct recruitment to the administrative and most of the
executive services is made on the basis of competitive examinations
based mainly on the following:
(a) a test of intellectual ability and scholastic attainments
through written examinations on subjects of the candi¬
date’s choice (optional papers);
fb) a written test common to all candidates, meant to test the
capLity for clear and logical thinking, memory, expres-
sion and general knowledge (compulsory papers), and
(c) an interview to assess a candidate’s personal qualities.
Recruitment by promotion is also made ^Com^
services. Following the recommendations of
mittpp the recruitment to the All-India and Central services
(Class-I) is made on the basis of a combined civil services examina¬
tion common to all the services in three stages ;
(i) Civil services preliminary examination (objective type) for
the selection of candidates for the main examination,
(ii) Civil services main examination (written);
(iii) Interview of those candidates who have qualified in the
written test at the final stage of recruitment.
Criticism
There are many critics of the method of recruitnrient to the
public services who have time and again pointed out the defects in
The system. Dr. Appleby comments "that the examining teehmûcs
are not up-to-date and conscious criteria not fully ^related to
modern knowledge about administrative qualifications. He also
remarks,
There is too little willingness to reeruit in 'n'/™ediate and
higher levels, too much reliance on promotion f™'"
with promotion limited too strictly to the single class tô
which a person was first appointed. There is too much un
willingness to recruit in stifficient numbers, even for picsu t
needs, and too little realization that future needs of far mo'c
serious dimensions cannot be met in the future except by
additional recruitment and training now.'2
The interview system has also often been criticised. A.D.
Gorwala observes, “a fifteen minute conversation with laymen
11. Paul H Appleby’s Report of a Survey of Public Administration in India

1953, p. 11.
12. Ibid., pp. 24-25.
howsoever wide experience they might be possessing, cannot take

the place of an expert psychological examination designed to give
a scientific insight into the candidate’s mental and emotional
make-up.*^ He also feels that “there is need for a great deal of
more contact between the Public Service Commissions and the
universities.”
The Administrative Reforms Commi<;sions have also in their
periodic reports pointed out the flaws in our recruitment policy
from time to time and called for an adoption of a more relevant
and imaginative policy in future.
Training
Training is the systematic imposition of skilled knowledge to
all categories of civil servants for their advancement and efficiency
in service. Training of civil servants has assumed special signi¬
ficance in the context of the recruitment policy in democracies
which is meant to test the general abilities of candidates yet are,
however, not quite enough to carry them through for the rest of
their career, once they are selectedJ With the gradual diversifica¬
tion and complexity of the functions and tasks of government,
occupants of public offices have to be trained for their jobs. The
practice of advanced countries has amply proved the effectiveness
and utility of such in-service training. To meet the challenges of
continuing socio*economic change, the administrator of today and
tomorrow has to be kept abreast of the latest developments in
administrative theory and technique to deal with all kinds of
situations. An indication of the growing importance of training is
the gradual proliferation of training programmes and institutions
to train civil servants in all countries. According to A.D. Gorwala
the general conception of training is a mixture of many elements.
In one sense, training means the imparting of knowledge of
facts and their inter-relations—knowledge essentially of specia¬
lised or professional nature .... In another sense training
involves the teaching of techniques which require the coordi¬
nated handling of tools and appliances and physical faculties
rather than of ideas .... In still another sense, training
entails the formation of mental and physical habit patterns to
ensure that the same stimuli would always produce the same
automatic responses; finally, training implies what the good
gardener does to the growing sapling ....
Training helps the recruit to acquire occupational skill and

knowledge and contribute his best tow'ards the objectives of the
organization. Training moulds and shapes the entrants to inter¬
nalise the organisational skills and character, and helps them to
adapt to new environments. As Nigro puts it, “The function of
13. A.D. Gorwala’s Report oo Public Administration, 1957, p. 63.

PUBLIC MANAQEMBNT 209
training is to help employees grow, not only from the standpoint

of mechanical efficiency but also in terms of the broad outlook
and perspective which public servants need.”'^ Training is neces¬
sary to equip civil servants for higher positions and greater
responsibilities where specialised knowledge and increased compe¬
tence may be needed. Training not only enhances the competence
and ability of civil servants but in the process contributes to
organisational efficiency and prestige. It also fosters a înt of
camaraderie and a sense of duty among the employees. Training
helps build integrity and morale in the public servants by develop¬
ing the requisite mental attitudes to questions of personal and
public conduct. The British Committee on the Training of Civil
Servants, in 1944, has outlined five main aims of training.
(1) attainment of precision and clarity in the transaction of
business;
(2) continuous adjustment to the changing socio economic
needs of our times;
(3) gain a broad overview of administration instead of a
narrow departmental vision;
(4) vocational training is needed to understand the nature of
present task and undertake new responsibilities; and
(5) enliven the nature of routine tasks by making them more
interesting.
According to Simon, three factors have given particular
urgency to training for government service in developing countries.
the need for innovation in administration to meet the demands
and challenges of our times; the rapid multiplication of govern¬
ment tasks and duties; and the acute shortaee of skilled manpower
in developing countries. Training is absolutely necessary to develop
personnel quality and resources in Third World countries.
Types of Training
Training can be of several types. Some types may be for indivi¬
duals, whereas other types may be for groups. There can be pre
or post-entry training, as well as training on and off the job. It can
be of a specialised or of a general nature. They are discussed
briefly as under:
Forma) training : This requires classroom lectures, seminars,
debates and discussions combined with tutorials and work projects.
It may be full-time or part-time, pre-entry or post-entry m nature.
It may be given at a particular venue during a specified period,
after which a degree or certificate may be awarded to the trainee.
14. Felix Nigro, P«W/c Administration-Readings and Documents, Rinehart

aad Cc.t New York, pp. 2$3-2d4.
210
Pre-entry training : Any educational qualification or training
which prepares a candidate for civil service, including education
imparted in schools and colleges is pre-entry training, as it aims
to prepare students for eventual public employment. The term
pre-entry training is however limited to referring to vocational or
specialised training./In India there is hardly any specific pre¬
entry training scheme in existence. In the United States a rather
wide pre-entry training scheme exists (for candidates selected tor
administrative and managerial positions) where students m the
course of their technical education undergo internship or
apprenticeship in selected organizations before taking up formal
employment.
Orientation training : The orientation training is the planned
and guided introduction of employees to departments and
environment of work. The new recruit is guided and onen^^^^
towards the work programme and to the diversity of factors
involved in a work situation.
Post-entry training : The post-entry training refers to the train¬
ing an employee gets in service. It may be formal
in^ structure and content. Lectures may be combined with work
experience.
Organization of Training
Establishment of a suitable machinery for organising training
is very vital for the continued efficiency of the civil services. The
different channels through which training can be imparted are as
follows • (i) Senior officers of various departments may themselves
undertake the responsibility of training juniors (it) Training may
be conducted in the origanization by outside institutes, (in)
Employees may be sent to outside institutions or universities to
get training. Both formal and informal training is necessary if the
employee is to specialise and keep an active interest in his job.
Techniques of Training
Many types of training techniques have been evolved in
various countries, mainly the USA. The more important among
these are : lecture method, syndicate method, case study method,
role play and managements games, and sensitivity training.*^
Lecture method : The lecture method is one of the commonest
and oldest methods of training in classroom teaching. However,
to make it more effective it should be supplemented with post-
lecture debates and discussions, seminars, conferences and other
a udio-visual methods.
Syndicate method : The syndicate method is now widely
15. A.R. Tyagi, Public Adminisiraiion, Principles and Practice, pp. 458-459.
followed in training institutes in various parts of the world. In

this method a topic under instruction is assigned to small groups
of trainees who are asked to conduct a thorough study of that
subject under the guidance of the teachers. Syndicates are of two
types—problem solving and knowledge gathering.
Case study method : Under the case study method an intensive
and in depth study of a particular subject is undertaken by
narrating the actual field experience of working with the problêm
to trainees by experienced persons. The case narrative is first
studied and then debated upon by the students with the teachers-
Incidence method : The incidence method is a problem solving
approach meant to develop decision-making skills in the trainees.
Students are given instruction on basic administrative facts and
problems. On the basis of these facts some problem areas are
identified and students are asked to write solution to theses pro¬
blems and defend their answers. This enables them to develop
reasoning and problem solving skills.
Role play and management games ; In this method trainees
are told to enact concrete roles related to their jobs as a
part of demonstrative training. Management games are also
similar in nature. After the playacting a debate takes place on
the character acting of each trainee in a discussion ot creative
criticism.
Sensitivity training : The sensitivity training is one of the latest
methods of attitude conditioning of civil servants to groom them
towards requisite modes of behaviour. Trainees are exposed to
groups who make them aware of their peculiar character traits
(if any), thus providing them an opportunity for self-analysis and
inprovement.
Training in India
Post-entry training of civil servants in India is the responsi¬
bility of central and state governments. This initial post-entry
training is imparted in two ways—institutional training (for ad¬
ministrative, policy, audit and accounts, and income tax services);
and (ii) training under the guidance of senior and experienced
officers (for Defence. Accounts, Customs, Postal Services etc.)
There are various central institutes of training for some of the
services like the Central Secretariat Training School which trains
new recruits to the Central Secretarial Service. Systematic facilities
for post-entry training do not exist for the Class II and sub¬
ordinate services. Here the emphasis is on on-the-job informal
training. However, some departments like the railways and posts
and telegraphs run staff colleges to train their staff.
Various administrative bodies, however, regularly conduct
refresher courses for public servants. The National Academy of
Administration conducts refresher courses for officers of the IAS
with ten to fifteen years service. The refresher course is meant to

impart specialised training in administrative thought and practice.
Refresher courses for senior civil servants are also organised by
the Indian Institute of Public Administration, New Delhi. The
training programmes conducted so far were on social welfare
administration, development administration, financial administra¬
tion, and problems of planning.
Young recruits to the Indian Civil, Police and Foreign
Services gel their initial on-probation training at the National
Academy in Mussorie before proceeding to other specialised
institutions to gel their particular service-oriented training. An
important consideration for introducing a common introductory
five-month course in Mussorie for all civil service recruits was to
enable them to have a knowledge of the political, constitutional,
economic and social context in which the administration functions,
besides acquainting themselves with the machinery of government
and the broad principles of public administration. A new pattern
of sandwich type of training was introduced for the IAS proba¬
tioners at the National Academy in July 1969. Being problem-
oriented the training is based largely on the experience and obser¬
vations of the probationary IAS officers in the field of district
administration during practical training in the states.
For top business and government executives, the Administra¬
tive Staff College. Hyderabad, provides a four-month course at
the college. The objective of the Staff College is the development
ofe.xecutive and managerial capacities of the administrators, both
in business and industry as well as in government. Training in
the Police Services is conducted at the Police Training College
for the IPS at Mount Abu. Similarly, many training schools have
been set up in several states to train recruits to the higher levels
of the state services.
It is thus obvious that in India, institutionalized training
programmes have greatly expanded in number, scope and nature.
Refresher and orientation courses, seminars, workshops and
conferences form the major techniques of in-service training of
civil servants. The central government grants study leave liberally
(particularly to the scientific, technical and administrative staff) to
enable them to undertake post-entry training in service.
Deficiencie'i
The major loophole in our training system of civil
servants is the lack of a sound and integrated policy on
employees' training. Training facilities are not equal in all
government departments nor are they coordinated in a unified
pattern. Lower level (Class II and subordinate services) employees
rarely get systematic post-entry training. Another disturbing fact
is that no class relationship exists between training and promotion,
hence many employees are not often encouraged to undertake
training. Flaws also exist in the content of the training courses.
which need to be modified in keeping with the advancement in

naodern administrative thought and practice as well as the
changing socio-economic climate of the administration. Training
of civil servants has been, till recently, a neglected aspect ol
personnel administration in India. It was only in 1968, a training
division was established in the Ministry of Home Afiairs to deal
with training policies and programmes of the Government of India
in the field of administration.
Training For Development Administrators in the Third World

Training is an action process, (a) by which capabilities ol the
personnel can be improved, (b) to meet the organisational needs
in terms of their knowledge, skills, and attitudes required in
performing organisational tasks and functions. Training may be
viewed in terms of two broad categories. First, the routine training
to administrators encompasses such tasks as record keeping, job
analysis, job auditing and evaluation, organisation and method,
office management, accounting, and time and motion studies. This
type of training is primarily directed to routine and operational
matters which are necessary for the continuous maintenance and
servicing of the administrative machinery. The other category
which we may call ‘development training’ is oriented to human
resource development required for undertaking and managing
government’s development activities. Thus developmental training
seems to require a new perspective and approach in formulating
training needs and methods.
New developmental tasks have put tremendous pressure upon
the existing administrative systems of Third World countries
everywhere. Conceptualisation of government as a catalyst of
social change and development makes it almost imperative to
redefine the role and function of civil servants in society.
Administrators will be required to engage themselves consciously
and directly in the task of bringing about social change and
development by initiating and implementing policies and decisions
aiming at change and development. One of the consequences of
such redefinition of the role of administrators will be to transform
the administrator from a desk-worker to a field worker. Public
officials now will have to assume such new roles as those of business
executives, dispensers of social services, executors of economic
policy, planners and industrial managers. Assumption of these new
roles demands a fundamental change in the outlook/oricntation.
knowledge, skills and attitudes of the civil servants.
Training Requirements
Knowledge : Development administrators in the Third World
16. Lulful Hoq Chowdhury, “Training for Development”. //. P.A , Vol.
XXVI. 1980, pp. 378083.
PUBLTC ADMINiSTRATiON
214
countries would have to initiate and operate development

activities under multiple pressures and obstacles emanating trom
society. It is, therefore, necessary that development administra¬
tors are aware of the political, social, cultural and economic
environmental constraints of the country in which they have to
function. They must be acquainted with the social and cultural
norms and values of the people they have to serve. Besides, the
development administrator must have an accurate understanding
of the general social structure, involving knowledge of sociological
and economic relationships and principles. In short, a thorough
study of the environmental setting in which he has to pertorm is
required.
Skills : For development administrators general skills,
usually provided through regular administrative training pro-
oramines, will not suffice. They would require skills m development
programme and project formulation, implementation and evalua¬
tion. They should have ability to shape new courses and strategies
as policy formulators. A pro-change policy formulator actively
engaged in formulating strategies and policies for making new
changes for development. The development administrator must
be good at immediate improvisation to become an effective
crisil manager/administrator. He would require the ability to
motivate others in accepting new changes and development. Also
the development administrator needs to be an interest broker
capable of choosing among competing interests and reconciling all
parlies to the outcome.
Attitudes/Values : In the new 'social service' and ‘development’
role the civil servants must formulate and implement development¬
al works not as routine duty, but as social service meant to
transform some aspect of national life. According to a thinker,
development administrators to be effective and successful in under¬
taking and managing development programmes must acquire the
attributes of an entrepreneur. An entrepreneur is one who is
creative and result-oriented and does not hesitate to take calculated
risks. It is essential that in training programmes due emphasis
and encouragement is given to creativity and innovation.
Planned national development needs a greater degree of
people's participation. The success of development programmes
like integrated rural development programme, family planning
programme, irrigation or rural works programme depends on
people’s acceptance, trust and confidence. Development
administrators must consider it a part of development policy to
make a consistent effort to educate and consult people and solicit
their participation in developmental tasks. Development must
be a cooperative endeavour of the people and their administrators.
Methods
Training methods would be as varied as the specific training
PtBtlC MANAGEMENT 215
requires. In the context of development administration which

requires fresh outlook and creative approach, case study method
may be useful as a training device. Case study method is one that
enhances a civil servant’s comprehension and competence through
the study of concrete cases. Lecture method coupled with debate
and conference method may be used for transmitting information.
Laboratory training (such as sensitivity training, T group training)
may be utilised for creating awareness of self and social processes.
Role playing has proved to be an elfective technique for promoting
attitudinal change.' Problem solving and decision making work¬
shops may be useful in increasing competence of civil servants in
solving problems and in making effective decisions. Field exercises
in the rural areas can also be a very useful training method.
The content and techniques of training in any country cannot
be static, but flexible and dynamic in character, changing according
to the socio-economic conditions of society and the needs and
aspirations of the people.
Promotion
A sound promotion system is of vital importance for the
continued efficiency of the public services. Promotion in the
words of Dr. White implies,
An appointment from a given position to a position of higher
grade, involving a change of duties to a more difficult type of
work and greater responsibility accompanied by change of
title and usually an increase in pay.‘*
Promotion is a reward to an employee which entails a change
in his position and status. The promoted rises to a higher rank in
the organizational hierarchy and pay scale which is often accom¬
panied by additional responsibilities in the new post.
A system of graded promotions is essential to help^ build
morale and efficiency in public services. Unless the civil service has
adequate promotional avenues, it will not be able to attract
ambitious and talented young men and women towards it ^san
attractive career. It may even frequently cause the more capable
job aspirants to prefer employment in private enterprises. It deters
employees from taking training courses ûd making other efforts
towards self-improvement. A proper promotion system helps in
retaining the services of the ablest amongst its employees and also
in giving them an opportunity to improve their capabilities and
qualifications. It is, thus, useful to the employees individually as
well as to the administration as a whole.
17. United Nations, Handbook of Training in (he Public Service, New York,
Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Public Administration
Branch, 1966.
18. L.D. White, Introduction to the Study of Public Administration, Macmillan,
New York, 1958, p. 400.
216 PUBLIC ADMimSTRATTON
But to improve the morale and efficiency of administration, a

promotion system must be based on the principles of equity and
fair play. Unjust prejudice, favouritism, corruption or bias on the
part of promoting officers by pushing up unqualified employees are
some hurdles m the way of establishment of a just and sound
promotion system.
Essentials of a Promotion System
W.F. Willoughby lays down the following conditions as a basis
of a promotion system:
1. Adoption of standard specifications setting forth the duties
and qualifications required for all promotions in the
government service.
2. The classification of these positions into district classes,
series, grades and services.
3. The inclusion of all positions (except those of a policy
making character; into this classification.
4. The adoption, so far as possible, of the principle of recruit¬
ment from within for filling up of higher posts.
5. The adoption of the principle of merit in determining the
selection ot employees for promotion.
6. The provision of adequate means for determining the
relative merits of employees eligible for promotion.*®
All types of civil services lay down certain eligibility criteria
for promotion to all grades. Generally, there are two main forms
of qualifications:
(a) Personal qualifications of the candidates, for example,
educational standard, professional training or experience,
or any specially laid down personal qualification, like
physical fitness, social and other qualities.
(b) Service status is another relevant factor for determining
eligibility for promotion. This refers to the range of
selection of candidates for promotion. There are posts for
which promotion is confined to a section or division or
department, whereas there are others to which employees
with requisite qualifications from other departments
may also be eligible.
Principles of Selection for Promotion
There are two main principles on which the eligibility criteria
for promotion can be fixed.
19. ibid., p. 274.

PUBLiC MANAGEMENT
1. The Seniority Principle : The seniority principle in govern¬

ment service is widely prevalent as a method of promotion in
most countries. According to Dr. Finer,
It is automatic, and avoids the need for making invidious
distinctions between one person and another, of placing the
young over the old. of measuring the responsibility for the
result of promotion.^®
It is greatly followed in public service everywhere since it is objec-
tive, easy to follow, and gives every one a chance. It greatly
eliminates chances of favouritism and corruption. It also reduces
unhealthy rivalry or bitterness in the organisation thereby promot¬
ing harmony and increased morale in the services.
However, this system also has its flaws. In the first place, it
does not necessarily lead to the selection of the best among those
available and eligible for promotion. It also leads to demoralisa¬
tion and complacency in service, among the more tainted officials.
This system, in fact, encourages only mediocrity The principle
may be successful for the lower posts but for the higher ones
special types of qualities may be required.
2. Merit Principle: The merit principle requires that merit
should be the sole basis of promotion. This ensures that the best
person is promoted to the higher post ‘based on specified criteria
alone.’ This would encourage hard work and efficiency, reward
talent and increase morale in the services.
Methods of Testing Merit
(i) Personal judgement of the head : It is an old and respected
principle that the departmental superior who is in close
with the employees and is in the best position to know their
administrative and personal qualities and potential as well as the
requirements of higher posts, must be the best judge for assessing
the eligibility of an employee’s promotion. This also helps the
departmental head to maintain discipline and authority in the
department.
Criticism
But there have been many serious objections to this. Firstly,
public organisations today are too vast and populous in nature
making it impossible for all departmental heads to keep a close
touch with their subordinates or to form an accurate opinion
of their merits and capacities. Secondly, this,system is greatly
subjective making it susceptible to all kinds of pressures and preju¬
dices. It often leads to unhealthy rivalry and causes considerable
ill-will among those who may miss out for promotion.
20. Herman Finer. Theory and Practice of Modern Government, London

Methueo, 1954. p. 849.
Safeguards
(a) The adoption of promotion boards constituting many
senior officials (instead of one departmental head) to assess the
progress record of any employee. In some countries» it is within
the purview of the Public Service Commissions to review all pro¬
motional cases at higher levels of the civil service and note all
irregularities which can be reported to Parliament.
(b) In some countries, there is a system of appeal under which
while the task of assessing the record of candidates for promotions
has been left to the head of the department, a right of appeal to an
agency outside the department has been given to the aggrieved
party.
(c) In order to make the reports of the departmental heads
more objective and systematic and to avoid as much subjectivity
as possible, the assessment is made according to the prescribed
forms which has specific categories like : (1) official conduct;
(2) knowledge of branch or department; (3) initiative; and (4) power
of taking responsibility. Grades like, ‘well qualified’ ‘highly quali¬
fied’; ‘not yet qualified’ are given. Reasons have to be assigned
for the reports marked ‘exceptionally well qualified’ or ‘not yet
qualified’ by the rating officer.
(ii) Promotional examination : Some countries have examina¬
tions for promotions to senior grades of service. This system is
generally followed at the lower levels of the public services.
Promotional examinations may be competitive or qualifying in
nature.
(iii) Efficiency rating : The system of efficiency rating originat¬
ed in the USA for scientifically assessing the service record of
public employees. It is based on two main factors, namely, the
classification of all governmental posts and the mechanical evalua¬
tion of workers’ qualities. It aims at assessing the different traits
with a scientific accuracy and at solving all problems of promotion¬
al assessment. There are three methods of Efficiency Rating which
are generally used separately or in combination.^* They are :
(a) Production records ; The production records are generally
used to assess work of a mechanical character such as those of
typists, stenographers and machine operators. Production records
when combined with records of a worker’s personal traits, (punc¬
tuality, hard work etc.) may give an adequate picture of a worker’s
abilities.
(b) The graphic rating scale system : Assessment is based on
certain categories or traits of an employee’s character such as
accuracy, industry, initiative, resourcefulness and dependability.
21. A.R. Tyagi, Public Ailnunisiruihn, Principles and Practice, pp. 502-504.
219
PUBLIC MAWAGEMENT
Each quality is graded into different classes like excel ent, very
good’, ‘satisfactory’, ‘unsatisfactory’. The entire scale gives a
clear picture of a worker’s ability and character.
(c) Personality inventory : The personality inventory includes
a broad list of trails of human character relevant to employmen .
From these the rating officer has to select only those items "hjeh
are relevant to the characteristics of the employee However the
efficiency rating system has often been
mechanical an attempt to categorise human
character can hardly be analysed so scientifically and systematically
and cannot be really open to laboratory experiment.
Performance Appraisal Process in India

Promotions to all high and middle government posts arc made
by the Union and State Governments, generally on the rvcom-
mendations of the heads of departments, and ^
and advice of the state or Union P“hhc Service Comm ssion (in
the case of the highest civil service posts).
which are filled up every six months, are the basis
In the confidential reports rating is done according to “lumns
marked ‘outstanding,’ ‘above average, average,
and ‘unsatisfactory’. Promotion in the public services m India s
based on the seniority and/or merit principle. For sekclion posts
(largely in class I and class II) the criterion of selection is merU
The officers considered for promotion are arranged ■» order ot
seniority, their number being limited to from three to five times the
number of vacancies available for promotion. In the case of "O"
selection posts (Class 111 and IV) categories, promotion's mude on
the seniority principle, unless anyone is otherwise rejected or con¬
sidered unfit. Generally, the basis of promotion has
at lower levels, scniority-cum-merit at the middle ranks and merit
at the senior grades of the civil service.
Suggestions for Improvement

(1) The system followed in the confidential reports on
employees’ performance should be remodelled to facilitate assess¬
ment of performance, personal qualities of workers and identifica¬
tion of the true potential of the candidates with as much objectivity
as possible.
(2) The system is now too heavily loaded in favour of seniority
rather than merit.
(3) Promotions should be linked to training and professional
expertise and should ensure opportunities for growth and develop¬
ment in career.
(4) To avoid any kind of subjectivity, promotion boards should
be established and take recourse to a system of appeals where
necessary. Qualifying and promotional examinations may be

introduced for positions in the middle levels of the civil service.
According to may critics of the promotion system, promotions
are made “within classes and often within cadres of a class. This
may secure the rights of the civil servants but makes the higher
public service more or less a closed shop.**
Elaborating this point. Dr. Appleby writes,
The relatively small number who are promoted over class
barriers is enough to enlarge the competition slightly, but it
leaves original membership in a very great special advantage
and competition from outside not highly significant.
This minimization of competition not only brings rigidity in
administration but is, in his opinion, “the basic deterrent to rapid
improvement of the administrative grasp of government responsi-
bilities.’’22
Budget
The word ‘budget* originally meant a bag, pouch or pocket
attached to a person. In public administration the term refers to
a financial document which is annually placed before the legislature,
by the executive, giving a complete statement regarding the
government revenues and expenditure of the past financial year
and an estimate of the same for the next financial year. There is
no unanimity among writers regarding the definition of the term
‘budget*. It has been defined differently by different authors of
public administration. The word has been used synonymously with
‘programming’ and ‘management*. However, most people agree that
the budget is the keystone of financial administration and the
various operations in the field of public finance are correlated
through the instrument of the budget.
A budget is a financial report of statement and proposals
which are periodically placed before the legislature for its approval
and sanction. A budget is a balanced estimate of expenditures
and receipts for a given period of time. In the hands of the
administrator the budget is a record of past performance, a
method of current control, and a projection of future plans. It
is a report of the entire financial operations of the government
of the past (for a given period) and gives us a glimpse into future
government fiscal policy. Budgeting aims to gather legislative
support for government proposals. It is an attempt to allocate
financial resources through political processes. It reflects an
organization’s goals and aspirations and its policies and proposals
to realize them. “The real significance of the budget lies,** states
Willoughby, “in providing for the orderly administration of
22. Appleby. Report of a Survey of Public Administration in India, p. 28.

PUBLIC MANAGEMENT
221
the financial affairs of a government.” The entire budgetary

process has been described by him in ihc following words.
An estimate is first made of the expenditures that will be
required, for the proper conduct of governmental affairs
during a fixed period, usually one year, together with propo¬
sals for raising the money to meet these expenditures. On
the basis of this estimate, revenue and appropriation acts
arc passed giving legal authority lor the action determined
upon. Following this, the operating services open revenue
and appropriation accounts corresponding to the items
of the revenue and appropriation acts, and proceed to expend
the money so voted. The data recorded in these accounts
are examined by the auditing and accounting department to
ensure their accuracy, to see that they correspond to the
real facts and represent a full compliance with all provisions
of law. The information furnished by these accounts is then
summarized and given publicity in the form ol reports.
Finally, on the basis of these data new estimates for the next
year are made and the circuit is begun again. In this chain
of operations the budget is the instrument through which
several operations are correlated, compared and examined at
one and the same time.*^
The budgetary system that evolved in England during the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, was viewed primarily as a
legal and accounting instrument, and the budget agency had the
main responsibility of consolidating money estimates of expenditure
needs from the various departments each year. The convcntiona
pattern of government budgeting serves the sole purpose of fiscal
accountability and is merely a document for parliamentary
control of the financial operations of the government. The entire
expenditure is presented through a scries of demands for grants^
Every ministry presents one demand for its own requirements and
separate demands for each of its subordinate organizations. The
Demands for Grants, thus follow the organizational pattern and
the details in each of these demands are on the basis of object-
wise classification, for instance, establishment charges, contingencies
equipment and materials. This type of budget is known as the
line-item budget with its focus on itemized classification ol
expenditure.
The line item budget is cfieclive from the viewpoint of public
accountability, but today a budget has several other objccti\es.
Viewed as an instrument of financial administration, budget is a
vital tool of management. As an operational instrument, it is
presented in the form of projects and programmes for which there
23. The Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences, Vols. Ill and IV, Nlaciriillan, 1968,
p. 185-192.
is managerial responsibility in terms of achievement and costs in

a given period. The government budget is also being used as an
instrument for the analysis of government policy in financial
administration. It can be used to review the pros and cons of the
fiscal policy of the government which has an impact on the
national economy as a whole. Through the budgetary process the
government can influence levels of taxation, expenditure and
capital investment consumption which practically affects all
segments of the national economy and economic behaviour of the
entire nation.
In developing countries which are committed to bring about
rapid socio-economic progress and development of their peoples,
the bureaucracy has by trial and error become the major instru¬
ment of implementation of public policy. Developmental goals
like improving the level of social services, health and education,
building infrastructure like roads, communication facilities,
electricity and market centres or raising production in agriculture
and industry incur much government expenditure. In the change-
oriented milieu of development administration, a system of rigid
checks and balances over financial administration may act as a
deterrent to increased government spending which is vitally
necessary to lay the foundations of a social welfare state. Too
much stress on economy and accountability may make the admini¬
stration tardy. Therefore, in the modern age, to suit the need
of massive public investment and expenditure there is need for
reforming (he traditional concepts of accountability based bud¬
geting. Elaborating the needs for reform in the budgetary system,
specially in developing countries, Thavaraj writes.
The need for result-oriented budgeting is more keenly felt in
all the developing countries where investable resources are
few. the backlog in development is considerable, entrepreneur-
ship is scarce and consequently the role of the government
is all pervading, embracing a wide variety of enterprises
ranging from the simplest of consumer goods to the most
complex capital goods industries and infrastructural facilities.
Planning and budgeting are, therefore, extremely important
to ensure economy, efficiency and effectiveness in the use of
resources .... Measurement of performance is an essential
aspect of result-oriented budgeting.-**
Most of the shortcomings of the line-item budget were sought
to be removed by the performance budget, a new concept in
financial administration which first originated and developed
in the USA. Since 1950, the US government has adopted the
24. M.J.K. Thavaraj, “Performance Budgeting in India” in Management in

Government, edited by B.C. Mathur and’others, Publications Division,
New Delhi, 1979. pp. 311-328;
performance budget. Several Third World countries in Asia,

Africa and Latin America have also incorporated the principle of
performance budgeting, partially if not totally, in their budgetary
systems.
Features of a Performance Budget
Performance budgeting is a financial document that seeks the
implementation and control of government programmes through
budget allocation. This is done by presenting government
operations in terms of programmes, activities and functions.
Through such a functional classification of governmental financial
operations, public policies are sought to be identified in the annual
budget in concrete physical terms so that a direct interaction
between inputs and outputs could be identified and slate perfor¬
mance reviewed through clearly identifiable cost overheads. In
traditional budgeting the objects of government expenditure,
purpose of the dilTerent proposed outlays, or linkages between
costs and performance cannot be clearly identified or assessed.
In performance budgeting, the focus is on the end rather than
the means. The main purpose is to clearly define the objects ot
governmental spending, the work to be performed and an estimat¬
ed cost of the performance. The concept of a programme
budget, which is also called a performance budget, sets in advance
the targets and the authorizations against which the performance
of the governmental departments can be assessed periodically.
It serves as a basis for efficiency and work measurement qualitati¬
vely and quantitatively. The performance of the past year
serves as a evaluation sheet for next year’s budgetary targets
and estimates. Performance budgeting shifts the emphasis from
the means of achievement to the acliievemeni itself, from what
the government buys and acquires, to the service it renders.
The difference between a line-item budget and a programme
budget has been aptly summarised in the following lines:
A line-item budget shows how many clerks will be hired,
how much travel money will be spent, how much will go for
printing or mimeographing, and what will be expended for
papers, typewriters, and stationery. The plans arc based on
these line-items; the controls are geared to these lines; the
information has to do with the things used, (n sharp contrast,
the programme budget starts with the work to be done, the
costs of various work units, the purpose of travel, the ends
to be served by printing or office supplies. The programme
plans arc in terms of the jobs to be accomplished; the
controls are related to responsible management, the informa¬
tion tells what work is being or will be done in relation to
what was authorised in the past.^’
25. Modern Management for the City of New York (Vol. I). Report of the
Mayor’s Committee on Management Survey, pp. 102-103.
Processes of Performance Budgeting

A performance Budget is prepared in functional categories,
such as agriculture, education, industry and health. Each functional
category is divided into ‘programmes’, for instance, health may
be divided into primary health, child health, and public health.
Each programme is sub-divided into activities which in turn, are
further divided into ‘projects’. Activity constitutes the collection
of similar types of work in a programme, the purpose of which
is to contribute to the achievement of the latter, for example,
training of primary rural health workers is an activity in the
public health programme. ‘Project’ entails any activity which
requires capital investment, such as building hospitals and health
clinics. There are four main steps or phases of performance
budgeting. They are: (i) compiling a functional classification of
all governmental activities in the manner discussed above; (ii)
evolving a system of fiscal management and cost reporting which
may be in accordance with the objectives of a programme budget;
(iii) developing accurate statistical weights and measures of
assessing government performance in terms of adequacy and unit
costs; and (iv) establishing in the budgetary processes, an objective
system of performance evaluation to provide periodic feedback to
executors of public policies.
The entire budgetary process of a programme budget entails
certain basic steps.
The first step is to indicate the organisational structure of the
agency and the objectives of that agency. The second step
is to draw up a financial requirements table. The table,
which seeks to make a tabular presentation of the budgetary
needs of the organisations, contains three basic elements:
(i) a programme and activity classification; (ii) object-wise
classification showing the same expenditure divided into broad
object-wise expenditure groupings, such as establishment
charges, travel, grants-in-aid, etc; and (iii) sources of financing
indicating the demand numbers and major heads under which
these outlays are included in the current appropriation
structure. The third step consists in providing an explanation
of the financial requirements. This needs to be done with
reference to each of the programmes included in the table.
The purpose of this explanation is to provide some indicators
that are capable of reflecting the performance aspects of the
organisation.^®
Merits of Performance Budgeting
*
Performance budgeting serves many useful purposes and
26. A. Prem Chand, Performance Budgeting, Academic Books, Bombay,

1969, p. 126,
fulfils many shortcomings of the line-item budget. It is becoming

increasingly popular as a tool of fiscal management and policy
in modern financial administration. In the first place it makes it
possible to establish identifiable linkages between policy and
performance, inputs and outputs, the physical and financial
aspects of governmental programmes and activities. Secondly, it
would improve upon the budgetary processes and related fiscal
policy-makingcoupfed with the analysis of actual governmental
performance. Thirdly, it would help to evolve a belter system
of financial accountability and legislative control. Fourthly, it
would facilitate the processes of audit of governmental operations.
Fifthly, it would make effective result-oriented assessment of the
long-term development policies of the government. Sixthly, it
would be the innovator of far-reaching reforms in financial
administration. Seventhly, it would help eliminate waste, and in¬
efficiency in the financial transactions of government, make budgets
direction oriented and more development motivated. Lastly, it
fixes responsibility very precisely besides giving a clear picture of
revenue and expenditure alternatives.
Limitations and Difficulties
The adoption of performance budgeting imposes a lot of
initial difficulties specially in countries where the traditional form
of budgeting has been continuing for a long time. The major
reasons for this are discussed as follows:
(a) The government performance is not always easily
quantifiable and often mav not have clearly visible results. In the
absence of quantitative performance units an attempt to correlate
plan programmes to budget heads often becomes a futile exercise,
for example, law and order activity is a government activity
whose ‘result’ or ‘performance’ cannot be very objectively
measured.
(b) The difficulty relates to the lack of cost-accounts. Many
assets of the government agencies cannot be accounted for in terms
of unit costs.
(c) A problem in adopting the performance budgetary
procedures is the arduous task of linking accounting heads with
development heads. The difficultv arises due to the fact that the
development heads such as agricultural production, education, and
health are spread at different places in the departmental organiza¬
tion forming different major heads of accounts, with the result
that it is very difficult to decipher the total expenditures on all
the schemes under a development head. Therefore, it is often
impossible to know what had been originally planned and their
costs.
Performance Budgeting In India
Id India, proposals in favour of performance budgeting
started originating in the mid-fifties. The Estimates Committee

discussed budgetary reforms in its twentieth report and recommend¬
ed the adoption of performance budgeting in India. ^ It reiterated
this recommendation again in its report in 1960.
^ôllowing the recommendations of the Administrative Reforms
Commission in 1968, strongly urging the central, hnd state
governments to adopfthis new form of budgeting, performance
budgets of four central ministries were prepared that yearV In
1977-78 about thirty^-two developmental departments in the central
government switched over to performafifce budgeting. Many state
governments have also now introduced performance budgeting in
selected departments.
f However, the system of performance budgeting in India
suffers from the same limitation discussed earlier (in the limitations
of performance budgeting). Problems have arisen in the setting
up of work units and in estimating costs. Regional diversities/
have resulted in different local precedents in costing procedures.
In the absence of universal norms and standards of performance
evaluation much of the benefits of this t>w of budgeting in terms
of efficiency and performance are lost, /^n India, the achievement
figures are often not quoted in concrete physical terms and the
technique of cost measurement has not been followed right down to
each cost centre/ Targets and estimates are yet to be explained
in terms of relevance and objectives as clearly as they should be.
To overcome these shortcomings a reorganization of the heads
of accounts to bring them in line with the heads of development
is first required.
reform in the accounting system is also called for. A
measure of rationalization of the administrative organisation of
government ministries and departments will also facilitate the
processes of performance budgeting. Lastly, a complete integration
of planning and budgeting is imperative for a greater degree of
success in the ‘performance* of programme budgeting in India/^
Coordination
Every organisation carries on its objectives with the help of
various persons engaged in fulfilling the different tasks of the
organisation. The diversity of tasks in the organisation necessitates
division of work in accordance with the principles of division of
labour. A government organization in every country is divided
into a number of departments, services and agencies, which are
further sub-divided into administrative units to facilitate work.
In order to see that these various units, agencies and departments
work in harmony with each other coordination becomes necessary.
In the words of White, “Coordination is the adjustment of the
functions of the parts to each other, and of the movement and
operation of parts in tune so that each can make its maximum
contribution to the product of the whole,*’ “Coordination”, savs

Mooney, “is the orderly arrangement of group effort, to provide
unity of action in the pursuit of a common purpose.”
Coordination is needed for three main reasons :
(1) To prevent overlapping, conflict and constant inter¬
departmental friction. Inter-departmental disputes arise when
two or more departments claim exclusive jurisdiction over a
given matter or when a dispute occurs over matters in which
a number of denartments have legitimate interest but give
contradictory decisions over it. Adoption of the uni-functional
system of classification for government departments has also led
to frequent frictions. Under this system, to build a house,
the planning department will clear the site, the commerce
department will supply material, the labour department will
provide labour, while the housing department will construct the
building. In such an arrangement the occurrence of inter-depart¬
mental disputes is scarcely surprising;
(2) To enable the employees to take a broad overview of
administration instead of a narrow departmental one: and
(3) To see that the right people and right resources are
available in the right quantity in the right circumstances at the
right time.
Coordination is a necessary precondition of all successful

management specially in government administration due to
multiplication of the tasks of government organisations and its
many agencies.
Coordination has both negative and positive connotations.
Negatively, coordination means the removal of conflicts and over¬
lapping in administration: positivelv it means the fostering of a
spirit of cooperation and camaraderie among the workers of an
organisation. Newman defines coordination thus:
The orderlv synchronization of efforts to provide the proper
amount, timing and directing of execution resulting in
harmonious and unified actions to a stated objective.^’
According to Terry,
Coordination is the adjustment of the parts of each other
and of the movement and operation of parts in time so that
each can make its maximum contribution to the product of
the whole.
27. W.H. Newman, Administrative Action, Prentice Hall Inc., New York,
1953, p. 403.
28. GjK.Tetry, Principles of Management, Kkh&Td D. Irwin Inc., Illinois,
J956, pp. 33-34.
228
To quote Mooney again,

Coordination is the first principle of organization and
includes within itself all other principles which are subordinate
to it and through which it operates.
Therefore, coordination entails the smooth and harmonious
working of all parts of an organization as a whole, without conflict
and overlapping to reach the desired goal in the minimum time with
the maximum economy and efficiency.
Coordination can be of two types : (a) internal or functional
which is concerned with the coordination of the activities of
individuals working in an organization; and (b) external or
structural which is concerned with coordinating the activities of
various units of an organization. Both types of coordination is
effected horizontally and perpendicularly. Horizontally, coordina¬
tion establishes interrelation between one worker and another,
beween one branch and another, between one section and another,
between one division and/or one department and another.
Perpendicularly, coordination is established between one employee
and his officer, between officer and his next superior and so on
and between one section and a branch, between a branch and a
division and so on. In the words of Appleby,
Hierarchy functions both perpendicularly and horizontally.
The horizontal relationship is between imits and a^ncies
commonly regarded as coordination in an effort to distinguish
between coordination effected between units responsible to a
single executive is coordination at the level of units, ad-
ministration at the level of the executive to whom they are
responsible, whereas he in turn participates in coordination
with other agencies at his level.
According to Graves, essential factors in coordination are:
(i) familiarity with the work of other agencies, (ii) informal
acquaintance, (iii) physical proximity, (iv) a specific objective, (v)
the desirability of a limited number of participants. Elbourne lays
down six essential elements in the mechanism of coordination in
a large organization : (1) coordinating personnel, (2) committees
and conferences, (3) instructions, (4) reports and returns,
(5) training, and (6) policy. Cooperation is the consequence of
coordination.
Coordination is an administwitive activity in which every
employee is sometimes or the other involved, directly or indirectly.
It is basically, a function of a general nature though it may be
fulfilled by an amateur or a technician while performing a
generalist role. Coordination may be on vertical or horizontal
lines. In public organisations authority is always commensurate
with responsibility. A rational balance between authority and
responsibility will help to preserve the functional equilibrium of an

employee in the organisation. Coordination involves exercise of
powers or authority by higher staff over the lower, and the proper
discharge of responsibility by the lower staff. Coordination builds
linkages across various levels of organization thereby affecting
functional equilibrium in the organization as a whole.
Dimock states:
Once the goals of the programme have been set, its plans and
policies determined, money provided, organization tailored to
the need, personnel assigned, directions given, delegations
determined and supervision provided for, then coordination
is the means of bringing all of these factors together in an
interlocking relationship, atid control is the technique whereby
all are checked and kept on the track toward the goals that
were set in the first place. Coordination is the active means
by which a blend is secured, control is the analytical method
by which the blend is regularly tested and evaluated. Thus
coordination and control close the circle in the administrative
process.
MacFarland suggests four ways of achieving effective
coordination. These are:
1. Clarifying authority and responsibility. This will reduce
overlapping and duplication ot work.
2. Checking and observation. It is also a control procedure
whereby the executive can compare between actual
activity and desired activity. Records and reports help
the executive to detect the spots where inter-relations of
the units are lacking.
3. Facilitating effective communication. Effective communi¬
cation processes help in clarifying authority and observing
the coordination which exists. The effective coordinating
devices here are the use of committees and group
decision-making techniques.
4. Coordination through leadership. Top administration
must assert its leadership role and without this nothing of
coordinative value will occur.^’
The degree of effectiveness of coordination can be judged by
the following criteria :
(1) It is timely and extends in a balanced fashion to all
parts of the organization, and operates horizontally as
well as vertically. Mary Parker Follett suggests: (a) It
29. Ortl'NZ'j Itzd, The Art of Administrailon, McGx^'N H\\\ Co., New York,
1951, p. 192.
must be a continuous process; and (b) it must be direct

between the persons immediately concerned;
(2) It must start at the outset of the activity.
Difficulties in Coordination
There may be many hindrances to interdepartmental coordina¬
tion. According to Gulick, some of these dithculties arise from
(i) the uncertainty of the future regarding human behaviour as an
individual and as a group» (ii) the lack of knowledge, experience,
wisdom and character among leaders and their confused and
coofliciing ideas and objectives, (iii) the lack of administrative skill
and technique, (iv) the vast number of variables involved and the
incomplete human knowledge, particularly, about men and life,
and (v) the lack of orderly methods regarding developing, consider¬
ing, perfecting, and adopting new ideas and programmes.^*^
Seckler Hudson has added four more factors, namely, “size
and complexity, personalities and political factors, the lack of
leaders with wisdom and knowledge pertaining to public admini¬
stration and the accelerated expansion of public administration of
international dimensions.”^* Jn short, the hindrances to coordina¬
tion are the rapid proliferation of government departments and
agencies, lack of delegation by the superior authority, and
ambiguity in defining the span of control.
Means of Coordination
Co-ordination has to be effected at the level of policy,
programmes as well as at the individual levels. There are both
formal and informal means of achieving co-ordination. They are
as follows :
(/)Planning ; To achieve success at efforts in co-ordination,
effective planning of policies, programmes and employee tasks is
essential beginning from the smallest to the biggest unit level. In
large organizations a well chalked out plan decided beforehand
will reveal the areas of overlapping, friction and duplication, in
India, the Planning Commission acts as the chief co-ordinating
agency.
(2) Sound principles of organization : An organization estab¬
lished on sound principles of structure and function is an effective
check against the evils that stem from a lack of co-ordination. An
organization characterized by clear lines of authority, adequate
powers, well understood allocation of function, absence of overlap¬
ping and duplication of effort and proper delegation of work in
30. Gulick and Vtmek^ Papers on the Science of Public Administration,

Columbia University Press. 1937, p. 40.
31. Seckler Hudson, Organisation and Management: Theory and Practice,
The American University Press, Washington, J957, p. 53,
POflUC MANAOEMBNt 231
itself reduces the necessities of co-ordination.^^
The Cabinet and Cabinet Secretariat

The task of co-ordination within the department is usually the
function of the departmental head but matters of inter-department¬
al co-ordination are generally referred to the Cabinet. The Cabinet
Secretariat in India which functions directly under the Prime
Minister, has been co-ordinating the activities of the various
ministries. It is entrusted with the task of genera! co-ordination
of important administrative measures of the Government of India,
which affect more than one ministry or when administrative
disputes arise betw'een the state and the central government. It is
also responsible for co-ordination of all economic and statistical
works of the Government of India.
Inter-departmental Committees •
Inter-departmental conflicts are resolved by inter-departmental
committees which may be composed of officials drawn from the
top or middle levels of the departments concerned.
Regional Councils
Often regional councils representing different field organiza¬
tions working in a particular region are instituted to co-ordinate
the activities of these field organizations. These councils may
serve a useful purpose by way of exchange of information and
interpretation of policy and programmes, for co-ordinating the
operations of services working in the same sphere. The Zonal
Councils in India serve the above purpose.
Agency
Staff officers and agencies may render all possible help to the
line department by way of information and advice to help them in
co-ordination and control of its activities. In India, stafl agencies
like the Civil Service Commissions, the O and M Division, and the
Central Purchasing Agency are useful agencies of co-ordination.
Other Channels of Co-ordination

In India there are numerous organizational devices to bring
about co-ordination. The Union Government and the Prime
Minister’s office are, above all, co-ordinating agencies. At the
district level the Collector is, above ail, a co-ordinator.
Co-ordination at the inter-organizational levels can be achiev¬
ed through such devices like the inter-departmental committees,
meetings and conferences among the officials of dilTerent
32. L.D. White, Introduction ’o the Study of Public Administration, p. 214.

departments and by the appointment of centralized staff, auxiliary

and financial agencies. Examples of these centralized agencies in
India are the joint committees of the inter-related departments
appointed from time to lime, the Public Works Department, the
Estate Office, the Directorate General of Supplies and Disposal, the
Union Public Service Commission, the Comptroller and Auditor
General of India, and the Ministry of Finance and its various
departments.
Co-ordination at the national level or at inter-state levels in
India is achieved through the Planning Commission, the National
Development Council, conferences and meetings, and Zonal
Councils. The Cabinet Secretariat, the Cabinet headed by the
Prime Minister and various Cabinet Committees effect major co¬
ordination between the Centre and the states. The conferences of
governors, chief ministers and ministers of different departments
also help in co-ordination.
Besides, certain other boards and institutions like the
University Grants Commission, the inter-university boards, the
Indian Historical Records Commission, are also agencies which
facilitate co-ordination. Lastly, the Finance Ministry in the
Government of India which acts as a great co-ordinator. The
Annual Budget itself is an essay in co-ordinating the resources,
expenditures and programmes of the government and it is the task
of this department to co-ordinate the claims and demands of the
different ministries to evolve a national budget.
In addition to the formal means mentioned above, informal
channels of communication like personal contacts, debates and dis¬
cussions between officials often help in reaching agreements and
smoolhening conflicts which are invaluable for administrative co¬
ordination.
Delegation
Delegation means the entrusting of one’s occupational
authority to another, usually a subordinate, to facilitate work in
the organization. The person to whom authority is delegated is
normally a lower ranking employee who is accountable for the
use of the delegated powers to the person who delegates them.
Delegation of authority is a common feature in all types of large
organizations. According to Mooney, delegation is the devolu¬
tion of authority by a superior person to his agent or subordinate,
subject to his supervision and control. This implies that legally
the delegated powers still rest with the principal, to be exercised in
practice by the subordinate or agent. Terry, however, disagrees
with Mooney’s interpretation of delegation. To him, “Delegation
means conferring authority from one executive or organization
unit to another.’’^^ Thus delegation does not necessarily imply
33. James D. Mooney, The Principles of Organisation, Harper and Row, New
York, 1947, p. 17.
233
PUBLIC MANAGEMENT
devolution from a higher to a lower authority. It can be vice

versa or between units equal in status.
Delegation does not mean the final transfer of po^cr and
responsibility to the delegated authority. The person
authority still retains the final power of supervision and consol
besides the powers to revoke his delegation
Delegation of authority means more than
to others in more or less detail. The essence °
confer discretion upon others, Thus f/e
specific problems within the framework of their . .
jure authority still belongs to the principal, but its
is permitted to the person or agent to ^hom au hon y is dele
gated. In organizational terms, therefore, delcg
a device for division of authority.
An administrative thinker M.P. ‘f “?gucs
of delegation is a mere myth head has
that delegation assumes that the , .j^n jo o func-
the exclusive right to all authority, and nnihoritv belongs
tional necessity. Miss Follett, however, says hk suncr or
to the job, and he who does it "lust have it wl ethe h^^^
wants it or not. This means that authority goes N^h ând
does not necessarily has to be delegated. c jhg
is not discretionary, but compulsory lo^r the nossible to
organization Without denying this, however, it is poss
Sdn that theê is a disLction between delegation^.wh.ch^
subject to supervision, and legally final '•’an * decentralized
decentralization in the following manner.

1 may define delegation as something lirnited to and by vvhat
is delegated. I distinguish it from ”d
decentralization as something that
plus other things which are not d'ticgatcd buUim mainly t^ ^
consequences of the process of *aw 'inthoritv under
decentralization of function, responsibility and authority unaer
our Constitution. There is also a decentralization «
and authority and of resources, under statute law, unde
various laws passed by Parliament from time to time.^^ When
speaking of delegation, Ido not l■„nrlion 'authority
particularly because such decentralised „M“„°hat
Ld responsibility do not ^ “““f.ôTSation
accountability which forms an essential feature of delegation
as such.
Need for Delegation
Delegation is a functional imperative for all types
tions In fact it is inevitable for any group function.ng which
necessitates division of work and authority. Delegation is one of

the main ways of division of authority. The extent of delegation
of authority, however, is inversely related to the size and diversity
of work in the organization. According to White, “Circumstances
of magnitude and volume, however, require some delegation of
authority, and the settlement of much business at the point where
it arises.’^The major advantages of delegation are the following:
1. Without delegating powers, where necessary, it would be
physically impossible for the head to carry on the entire tasks of
the organization himself. The chief executive or superior oflBcers
have to devote their time and energy to the most important
executive and managerial tasks. Much of the routine tasks are
performed by the lower staff who pass on the most important
business to the chief executive. Delegation takes much of the
weight of routine and unimportant work off the shoulders of the
chief executive. Effective leadership is made possible only through
the process of delegation. In the words of Mooney and Reiley,
The real leader. . . finds it easy to delegate authority and is

quick to do so whenever he perceives its necessity but he
remains very conscious of the fact that there is one thing he
cannot delegate, namely, his own authority and the responsi¬
bility which it includes.^'*
2. The avoidance of delay in administrative bottlenecks and

convenience of citizens require decisions at various field offices
rather than in a single headquarters establishmenU
3. In some cases proper adjustment of policy and programme
to local conditions requires discretionary field decisions.
4. One of the duties of a manager is to train and educate his
subordinates in the art of sharing responsibility and making deci¬
sions which is possible only through delegation,,' Delegation of
authority therefore has much educative valueTxhe subordinates
develop greater loyalty and a sense of identification with the
organization if they are made co-partners in the exercise of
authority. This is a great morale booster to employees and provi¬
des sufficient incentive to work hard. Proper delegation of
authority minimises delay, makes the organization more efficient,
economical and operational.
Forms of Delegation
According to the degree of authority delegated, delegation

may be (a) full or partial, (b) conditional or unconditional, (c)
formal or informal, and (d) direct or intermediate.
34. James D. Mooney and Alan C.KcW^y, Onward Industry, Harper and
Row, New York, 1931, pp. 38-39.
235
PUBLIC MANAGEMENT
(a) Delegation is full when complete authority is conferred on

the agent, for example, when a diplomatic representative^^
abroad with “full powers” to negotiate. U is partial
is required to get advice and guidance on crucial points from the
head office at home.
(b) Delegation is conditional when the action of a subordinate
is subject to confirmation and control by the principal, i^ onco
ditional when the subordinate is free to act without reservations.
(c) Delegation is formal when embodied in written rules, and
laws, it is informal when based on customs and conventions.
(d) Delegation is direct when no third person intervenes
between The two parties to delegation; it is
made through a third person Mooney
such delegation. They are: the election ^
the people through an electoral college
Pope by the congregation through the Council of Cardina s.
Hindrances to Delegation
Hindrances to delegation are of two types : (a) organizational,
and (b) personal.
Organizational hindrances are :
(i) Lack of well established organizational methods and
procedures.
(ii) Lack of means of co-ordination and communication.
(iii) Size and location of an organization—a widely spread out
organizational network necessitates delegation.
(iv) Lack of properly defined duties and sphere of authority.
Pfiffner gives the following human causes of failure to
delegate: . . , j i
(1) Persons who rise to position of hierarchical lea vrs up
have more than normal egotism.
(2) They are afraid that others will not
^ ^ decisions or carry them out in the desired manner.
(3) They fear that disloyal or subversive power centres will
develop among strong subordinates.
(4) Strong, vigorous, and highly motivated persons becoine
impatient with the slower pace and indecis.veness ot
subordinates.
(5) In public administration, political considerations often
make delegation difficult.
35. James D. Mooney, The Principles of Organhaiion, pp. 22-23.
I
236 PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION!
(6) The cultural heritage of man has been one of authori¬

tarian patriarchal leadership, thus, the practice of delega¬
tion is partly dependent on cultural change.
(7) The act of delegation requires an emotional maturity
which apparently is rare, even among successful persons.
(8) The symbols of leadership (those personal qualities and
traits which attract the attention of others) are inconsistent
with the philosophy of delegation. Those striving to
succeed must make themselves prominent.
(9) Persons who desire to delegate do not know how.
(10) They do not know how for, at least, two reasons :
(1) the science of organization and management is
immature; and
(2) their work experience has not taught them to delegate
because most organizations fail to practise
delegation.36
Due to the overwhelming need and importance of delegation
in modern day organizations, the abovementiooed hindrances have
to be removed and proper procedures and methods of work estab¬
lished to facilitate the processes of delegation. Every organization,
big and small, should have clearly defined procedures, responsibility
and hierarchically divided spheres of delegated authority to avoid
confusion and duplication of work.
Proper means of co-ordination and communication between
various levels of staff should also be established to facilitate the
processes of delegation in organizations.
As far as personal factors are concerned, not only training of
the subordinates but also of the senior administrators should be
made compulsory. The subordinates should be trained in the art
of proper use of discretionary authority and the higher levels of
administrative hierarchy in the habit of delegation.
Essentials of Delegation
1. Delegation should be regarded as a whole at every point
(including function, authority, power and responsibility).
2. Delegation must be sufficiently backed by resources; it
must carry the weight and power of decision and resources.
3. Recognition of the fact that decisions cannot be made
without the risk of error.
4. There should be mutual trust among the two parties
involved.
36. PfifTner and Presthus, Public Administration, p. 216.

237
PUBLIC MANAGEMENT
5. Delegation must be clear and equivocal.

6. A corollary of delegation is accountability.
General Principles of Delegation

1. Delegation should be written and specific.
2 Authority and responsibility for each position m the
organizational hierarchy should be clearly spelled out and delega¬
tion should be made to an ex-officio authority, not to an
individual.
3 Only that much of authority should be delegated as is
within the competence of subordinates to exercise safely.
4. Delegation should be properly planned and systematically
exercised.
5. A systematic reporting system should be established with
those to whom the authority has been delegated.
Herman and Zelda Roodman suggest three methods of delega¬
tion. These are :
1 Assi**nment review : The subordinate is asked to write a
precise summary of the task allocated, before he actually starts the
course of action to be followed.
2. Indirect participation : The superior periodically questions
the subordinates concerning the progress of the task to determine
the problem areas.
3 Written reports : Writing reports requires a special ability
on the part of subordinates to inform the management concerning
the results of their research in investigation of the problem.^
Limits of Delegation
1. The extent to which authority may be delegated is restrict¬
ed by constitution, laws and political institutions.
2. The ability and competence of staff at the lower level.
3.
The extent to which special programme requirements
necessitate centralization.
4. The nature of work and the size and extent of an oragani-
zatlon.
5. Degree and system of internal communication in the
organization.
6. The degree of co-ordination which is required throughout
the organization.
37. Herman and Zetda Roodman, Management by Communicaiion, Methuen

publications, Canada, 1973, p. 104.
There are also other limits to delegation. However, the follow¬

ing powers arc not usually delegated.
1. General financial supervision and the power to sanction
expenditure above a specified amount.
2. Appointment and rule making power in the organization.
3. Power to sanction new policies and plans and departures
from established policy or precedents.
The degree to which delegation is possible varies from case to
case depending upon the nature of the case, the circumstances and
the responsibilities involved. Retention of the above powers in
the hands of the head is necessary for effective control of an
organization.
An effective system of delegation is one in which:
1. The managers as well as the employees of an organization
understand the value and advantages of delegation.
2. The abilities and talents of employees at ail levels are
used in the right degree.
3. Achievement standards for jobs to be performed for
delegated authority are clearly laid down.
4. An adequate system of employee education and training
exists.
5. There is close co-operation between the manager and the
subordinate, the former helping the latter where required.
6. The worker is permitted maximum freedom to reach his
goals without interference but within the specified period.
On the recommendation of the O and M Division, the Central
Government has already taken to “delegation” in administration
as a matter of policy. The Finance Ministry’s control over expen¬
diture has been considerably reduced by the delegation of
financial powers to various ministries and departments. The
Administrative Reforms Commission has in its final report on
‘Delegation of Financial and Administrative Powers* recommended
that based on trust, the delegation of powers should be to the
‘maximum possible’ and not ‘minimum necessary’ and may be
subjected to periodic review to keep in tune with the changing
needs of administrative practice.
Decentralization
One of the major problems of modern administration is to
reconcile the compulsions of national integration, unified planning
and the need for a strong and effective defence that pull in the
direction of centralization, with the growing demand for regional
239
PUBLIC MANAGEMENT
autonomy and political commitment to take democracy to the

grassroots, which pull in the opposite direction. Other factors
which strengthen the case for centralization arc vastness of the
geographical area of many states, huge population and the
increasing scope of state activity, which often necessitates a great
degree of centralization and concentration of powers in the hands
of the central government. Centralization stands for concentration
of authority at, or near the top of the administrative hierarchy,
decentralization, on the other hand, means devolution of powers
from above, implying dispersal of power among a number of
subordinate officials or administrative units. Decentralization may
have different implications to different sets of people.
To an economist it means dispersal of industries; to advocates
of local authority it implies initiative, responsibility and
discretion to local bodies, and to an administrator it means
delegation of authority to regional and local officers. '
Decentralization should be distinguished from delegation.
Decentralization means the transfer of administrative authority
from the centre to the local agencies, who function autononriously
in the field. Delegation, on the contrary, implies devolution ot
authority by a person to his agent or subordinate subject to his
right of supervision and control. In brief, delegation is distribution
of power of functions and not authority and responsibility, which
is delegated only in decentralization.
Typea
Decentralized agencies can be of various types depending
upon their legal status, responsibilities, authority and accountabi¬
lity. Decentralization may be political or administrative. Political
decentralization implies the setting up of new levels of government
The creation of autonomous slates within the Indian Union and
of Panchayati Raj institutions within the states arc examples of
political decentralization. Administrative decentralization may be
vertical and territorial, or horizontal and functional. The former
implies the higher agency or authority establishing area administra¬
tions and entrusting them with autonomous power and functions.
Government departments, both at the Centre and States, have
their own administrative areas known as circles, zones and
districts vested with decision making authority within prescribed
limits. Territorial decentralization thus involves the problem of
relationship between the headquarters and numerous field agencies.
Functional decentralization signifies the central authority ceding
specified decision making functions to technical or professional
bodies or experts. Universities, All India Medical Council, Bar
38. P. Sharan. Modern Public Administraiion, Meenakshi Prakashan, Meerut,

1981, p. 437.
Association, University Grants Commission, Central Social Welfare

Board are examples of functional decentralization.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Decentralization

Decentralization has many advantages from the viewpoint
of providing service to the local people and developing progres¬
sive and responsible attitudes at all levels of the organizational
hierarchy. Since decentralization is the opposite of centralization,
the vices of the latter may be regarded as the virtues of the
former. The two main defects of centralization are:
(i) remoteness of control resulting from loss of contact with
local centres; and
(ii) top heavy management or overload of work at the Centre.
Besides, other advantages of decentralization are:
(1) It helps in the extension of popular control over a large
number of functions which may be delegated to the authorities at
field offices or at the lower levels.
(2) It facilitates the adjustment of national policies to the
distinctive features of socio-cultural and economic conditions and
characteristics.
f3) Dispersal of authority and devolution of real powers to
local units encourages speedy disposal of cases, reduces delays and
short circuits red-tape.
(4) Decentralization brings administration closer to the
people, thereby encouraging popular participation in administration
since public cooperation is solicited at all levels.
To the above points, we may add the following by Charles-
worth:^®
(i) It facilitates experiment, without committing the whole
enterprise to an untried course of action.
(ii) It encourages competition and comparative standards of
evaluation among several competing field units.
(iii) It helps develop initiative, responsibility and resource¬
fulness among both the local people and subordinate administrators
working in field offices.
Decentralization is, however, not free from operational
defects and difficulties. The positive arguments in favour of
centralization may be stated thus: (1). Adoption of a planned
economy has become a compulsion in most states developed or
developing. Integration has obvious advantages for planning.
39. J.C. Charlesworlh, Governmental Administration, Harper and Brothers,

New York, 1951, p. 207.
A countrywide plan prenared bv the Centre to be imr>lemented

in different states requires coordination and integration between
the Centre and the states. (2) Centralization reduces conflicts and
overlapping jurisdictions.
Operational difficulties in the wav of decentralization are:
fi) the influence of local pressure erouos upon decentralized units,
(ii) the difficultv of coordinating decentralised functions, fiii) the
problem of delimiting geographical jurisdictions, and fiv) decentra¬
lization, particularly in the present day world, has important
limitations since policy in regard to defence, foreign affairs,
communications and planning has to be formulated, integrated,
coordinated and executed by a strong national government in all
states.
Centralization and decentralization are not axiomatic principles
of administration which can be universally applied to all types of
administrations: thev have a contextual relevance. According to
James W. Fesler, there are four factors which are relevant in
opting for a centralized or decentralized system. These are
responsibility, administration, function, and external factors.
Since authority and responsibility go hand in hand in public

administration and as long as the central authority is held
ultimately responsible for any action, it is often unwilling and
reluctant to delegate discretionary authority to field offices.
Among the administrative factors, mentioned by Fesler. are “age
of the agency, stability of its policies and methods, competence
of its field personnel, pressure for speed and economy, and
administrative sophistication. The main functional factors rnay
be the variety of functions an agency performs, the technical
nature of functions, and the need for nationwide uniformity. It
is common experience that while certain types of functions like
defence, planning, communications etc. pull in the direction of
centralization, operating decisions can be easily decentralized at
the appropriate lowest units. Among the external factors may
be included the demand for popular participation in programmes
and the pressure of political parties for operationalizing the
concept of grassroots democracy and ‘planning from below’ in
many states.
Decentralization for Development
One of the oft-recurring debates in the developing countries
centres around the degree of control that central governments
can and should have over development planning and administra¬
tion. The centralization versus decentralization debate has been
more insistent in the wake of new shifts in the development
40. F.M. Marx, Elements of Public AdmMstrationt pp. 251-258.

242 PUBLIC ADMINISTRAIION
Strategy of Third World countries. Since the early fifties, the

general trend was towards centralized planning and development
efforts to achieve socio-economic goals. Central planning was
introduced in most developing countries in the 1950s as a means of
optimum utilisation of scarce national resources to achieve rapid
growth. Under tight central control capital intensive industrializa¬
tion policies, that were aimed at maximising gains in national
income, were advocated by economic development theorists during
the 50’s and 60’s. The benefits of such centralized planning and
industrialization, it was felt, would “trickle down” and spread
throughout the length and breadth of the developed societies,
alleviating poverty and pushing the countries into a stage of self-
sustaining economic growth. Central planning and administration
were considered necessary to guide and control the economy
and to unify and integrate the newly independent countries,
emerging from long periods of colonial rule. Moreover, central
control was implicit in the requirements of the international
assistance agencies which were providing large amounts of capital
during the 1950’s and 1960’s to these countries. These agencies gave
aid on the understanding that borrowers would undertake compre¬
hensive and long term plans for the investment of externa] capital.
However, by the end of the 1960’s there was widespread
disillusionment with centralized models of growth in developing
countries. Sluggish economic growth coupled with widespread
income and regional disparities were rampant in these societies.
Many development planners and administrators, therefore, started
questioning the very rationale behind these concepts of
development.
Governments of developing countries started giving much
more attention to providing for the basic needs of the poor and
underprivileged, to see that economic growth was coupled with
relative social equity. During the seventies many gevernments in
Asia, Latin America and Africa began experimenting not only
with new approaches to economic and social development, but
also with new political and administrative arrangements for
implementing development programmes and projects. The
increasing interest in decentralization arose from three converging
factors discussed earlier.
First, it emerged from disillusionment with the results of
highly centralized planning and control of development
activities during the 1950’s and I960’s. Second, it arose from
the implicit requirements in the growth—with equity policies
of the I970’s for new ways of managing social development
progrommes. Finally, it evolved from the growing realization
among policy analysts during the early 1980’s that as
societies become more complex and government activities
expand,, it would be increasingly difficult to plan and
243
PUBLIC MANAGEMENT
administer al! development activities effectively and efficiently

from the centre.***
Advocates of decentralization have offered a long list of reasons
for transferring more responsibility for development planning and
administration to local governments, voluntary organizations,
and regional authorities. Rondinelli has identified the variety of
arguments that have been made in favour of decentralization.
1 Decentralization can be a means of overcoming the severe
limitations of centrally controlled national planning by delegating
greater authority for development planning, and management,
to field officials, who are closer to the local people and their
problems. Tt will allow them to tailor development plans and
programmes to the needs of heterogeneous regions and groups.
2 Decentralization can cut through the enormous amount
of red-tape and rigid rules and regulations characteristic of
centralized planning and administration.
3. It will lead to closer citizen-administration contacts
leading to greater public participation in administration.
4. Decentralization could also allow better political and
administrative penetration of national policies into rernote areas,
where central government plans are often unknown or ignored or
undermined by local elite.
5. Greater representation for various religious, ethnic,
political or tribal groups in development decision making could
lead to greater equity in the allocation of government resources
and investments.
6. It would lead to the development of greater administrative
capacity among local governments and private institutions in the
regions and provinces.
7. Decentralization can lead to more flexible, innovative, and
creative administration. Regional, provincial or district adminis¬
trative units may have greater opportunities to test innovations
and to experiment with new policies and programmes in selected
areas without having to justify them for the whole country. If the
experiments fail, their impacts are limited to small iurisdictions, if
they succeed, they can be repeated in other areas also.
8. By reducing diseconomies of scale inherent in the over-
concentration of decision-making in the national capital, decentra¬
lization can increase the number of public goods and services—
and the efficiency with which they are delivered at lower cost.
41. Dennis A. Rondinelli and G. Shabbir Cheema, Decentralhation and

Development, Sage Publications, Beverly Hills, 1983, p. 10.
42. Ibid., pp. 14-16.
9. Decentralization allows local leaders to locate services and

facilities more effectively within their communities, to integrate
isolated or backward areas into regional economies, and to
monitor and evaluate the implementation of development projects
more effectively than can be done by central planning agencies.
10. It can increase political stability and national unity by
giving groups in different sections of the country the ability to
participate more directly in development decision making, thereby
increasing their “stake in maintaining the political system.”
Democratic Decentralization in India

The proposal for democratic decentralization in India was first
mooted in the report of Balwant Rai Mehta study team in 1957
recommending a three-tier system of rural local government,
called the Panchayati Raj, in India. The principal thrust of the
report was towards decentralization of democratic institutions in
an effort to shift decision centres closer to the people, to enable
their participation, and to put the bureaucracy under local popular
control. The uniqueness of Panchayati Raj institutions was to lie
in their development orientation in the specihc context of planned
economic change as also in their treating the elected representa¬
tives of the people as the motivating power and instrument behind
this development. Democratic decentralization implies people’s
right to initiate their own projects for local well-being and the
power to execute and operate them in an autonomous manner.
The term Panchayati Raj refers to a three-tier structure of rural
local self-government in each district. It calls for a transfer of
responsibility for much of rural development administration to
these local authorities. Each state in India was asked to evolve a
system of Panchayati Raj keeping in mind the principles laid down
by the Balwant Rai Mehta study team. Most of the slates have a
three-tier structure of the Gram Sabha and Gram Panchayat at the
village level, the Panchayat Samiti at the block level and Zila
Parishad at the district level.
In 1958, the National Development Council of the Govern¬
ment of India while endorsing the proposals for democratic decen¬
tralization stressed the following principles:
1. There should be a three-tier structure of local self-govern¬
ing bodies from village to district levels, with an organic link from
the lower to the higher ones.
2. There should be a genuine transfer of power and responsi¬
bility to these bodies.
3. Adequate financial resources should be transferred to these
bodies to enable them to discharge the responsibilities.
4. All development programmes at these levels should be
channelled through these bodies.
tUBLlc MANAGEMENT 245
5. The system evolved should be such as to facilitate further

deceutralization of power and responsibility in future.
The significance of these institutions lay in the fact that the
motive force for development was to come from the people them¬
selves, the state assisting with supplies, services and credit. The
cooperative principle was to be applied infinitely to solve all
problems of rural life.
Panchayati Raj is now operating in most of the stales in
India. However, the existing local institutions are not in a position
to show a satisfactory record due to limitations under which they
have been working. The varied administrative problems of demo¬
cratic decentralization may be summarised as follows:
1. Whether and to what extent should the ‘deliberative’, and
‘executive’ functions be combined in the hands ol the Panchayati
Raj bodies. If only policy making functions are entrusted to the
elected bodies, as in a parliamentary government, the irnportant
purpose of organising the community for effective action and
getting from the people maximum contribution in resources,
voluntary labour and enthusiasm, for the tasks of development
would not be achieved.
2. While imbibing some of the virtues of bureaucratic adminis¬
tration like impartiality, objectivity and non-political character,
the chances are that it will imbibe some of the weaknesses too ol
the existing administrative culture.
3. The role of the government functionaries will be allected.
Some of them will gradually get converted into employees of the
local authorities.
4. The problem of‘politicisation’, the high degree of illite¬
racy, caste and communal factions leave little scope for emergence
of healthy leadership in the Panchayati Raj bodies.
5. Problems of inter-relationships between the different levels
of government, the Village Panchayat, the Panchayat Samiti, the
Zila Parishad, district administration and state government will
arise from lime to time.
6. New technologies discovered have led critics to state that
the efficient use of modern technology cannot be ensured through
small administrative units, for instance, new varieties of wheat had
been discovered making way for what came to be known as the
‘green revolution’ in India. From then on a distinct technological
orientation began to be given to agriculture inducing the central
government to make direct inroads into agricultural planning and
development bypassing both the stale and local governments.
The present practice of the central government is to use its
own bureaucracy for the transfer of technology in rural areas, ot
administration of special rural oriented programmes, ignoring

popular institutions. This has been greatly welcomed by the
administrative elite who were in any case not kindly disposed
towards Panchayati Raj bodies which they felt, provided an oppor¬
tunity for grassroots politicians to interfere in the affairs of the
bureaucracy.
All these factors, have cumulatively resulted in a low-profile
Panchayati Kaj since the mid-sixiies. The Indian political system
had started displaying markedly centralizing tendencies from
around the same time the pace of which got further accelerated
since 1971 due to various reasons. This exactly was not the
climate under which Panchayati Raj could grow and flourish and
it is scarcely surprising that most Panchayati Raj bodies are now
languishing tor lack ot funds or sheer neglect.
Issues in Field-Headquarters Relalioosfaip

The term ‘headquarters’, refers to the centrally located chief
directing and supervising ofiice of government establishments in
contrast to regional or field oflices spread out in different areas of
the country. In the Indian administrative system, ‘headquarters
means the secretariat, and the term ‘field’ refers to attached and
subordinate offices. Though much of the important business of the
government is carried out in the headquarters, about seventy-five
per cent of the administrative work in all countries is actually
carried out in the numerous field offices under the various depart¬
ments of the national and state governments at the regional, state,
divisional, district and lower levels. For, it is in the field that taxes
are collected, laws are enforced and welfare services of the govern-
mcui are rendered to the people.
The vastness of the size and area of some modern stales, the
tremendous expansion ot the welfare functions of government,
improvement in the field ol transportation and communication
leading to greater headquarters-field contact, and the general trend
towards democratic and decentralized administration have all led to
the tremendous importance and expansion of field establishments
in every administration of the world.
There are two major issues involved in the headquarters-field
relationship : (i) territorial-functional dichotomy, and (ii) communi¬
cations and control.
Territorial'functional Dichotomy
The organizational pattern of field offices from the angle ot
supervision, direction and control can be of two types—temional
or functional. Willoughby has called them unitary or multiple. In
the territorial unitary type, the central headquarters establishes
regional territorial offices which are entrusted with supervisory
and discretionary administrative functions over the whole

area. The officer in charge of the regional office is the head
of the administrative hierarchy of the same office and heads of all
other specialized units at that level are his subordinates. He is
the main medium of communication between the headquarters and
the field office and owes responsibility to the central office alone
for all acts committed by the officials working under him. In the
multiple or functional form, the different divisions or branches of
the headquarters office have their corresponding field establish¬
ments at different regional levels and maintain direct contact with
them There is no coordinating or integrating officer or agency at
the area level, each service or agency is considered autonomous
in its own sphere, the line of authority running directly from it to
its headquarters counterpart. The main difference between the t\'o
systems is that while in the unitary system the head of the station
is “the general manager of the station in the fullest acceptance of
the term” ; in the multiple system, “the station is looked upon as
an assembly of units which are only loosely held together for
matters of general administration by the authority of the head of
the station.“‘*3
In the unitary system there is unity of command and it esta¬
blishes supremacy of generalists over specialists in administration.
Its main advantages are:
1. It is truly a decentralized system which lends to give maxi¬
mum powers to the field rather than concentrate authority at the
top.
2. It allows much flexibility in management of regional pro¬
blems and affairs to the area head who can make any modification
and procedural change suiting his area needs without affecting the
entire agency work.
3. It ensures sufficient independence and autonomy to each
division of the field office from its central counterpart allowing
initiative and responsibility to develop among field administrators.
4. It is very useful for departments whose functions are varied
in nature and scope.
A good example of the territorial unitary type of field organi¬
zation is the prefeclural system in France. As head of the depart¬
ment (the largest unit of local administration) and also as a central
government agent, the prefect has a dual role to play in adminis¬
trative affairs.
The various services in the field of a Department (Province)
are under the prefect and the various departments of the central
43. W.F. Willoughby, Principles of Public Administration, p. 139.

248 PUBLIC ADMINISTRAnON
government deal with them through that officer. In India, the

collector ol the district also exercises almost similar functions as
that ol a prefect in France.
In the functional or multiple system, each functional unit is
directly connected with its central counterpart, the station chief
being responsible only for the minimum establishment duties of
the suiion. It is a system of “dual command”, as under it area
functional experts or technical personnel take orders from both
the station oiticer and the functional counterparts at the central
office (headquarters). The main advantage of this system is that
technical operations in field offices come under the direct control
and direction of the central experts.
The pattern of central control over field offices has been
described by Luther Gulick who discovers three patterns of field
organipition, namely : (i) All fingers, (ii) Short arms, long fingers
and (jii) Long aims, short fingers. Under the first pattern the
headquarters office deals directly with the field stations without the
intervention ol any regional sub-divisions anywhere, in the second
type, there are geographical divisions, but they are located in the
headquarters office iisell and not in the field, for example, in the
External Affairs Ministry in India. It has no less than hundred
sections, administrative, territorial and technical. These are
grouped into a dozen divisions such as the American Division,
\Vesiern Division, Southern Division, Protocol Division and
External Publicity Division. Under the third pattern, there are
geographical divisions and sub-divisions, located in the field away
Ironi the headquarters, lor example, divisional and district offices
in the stales in India.
The pattern of headquarters-field relationship are of princi¬
pally ivs'O types. The first relates to a single governmental
programme wiih headquarters office in the capital, and a sub¬
structure in the field winch may include regional, stale and local
offices at one or more ol these levels or all of them in combination.
In the second type of arrangement a number of dilferent govern¬
ments at dillereni levels coordinately occupy themselves with a
particular type ol programme, as the case of public health for
example, in the first arrangement, relationships are vertical and
occur within the same Icderal agency. In the second, they are
both vertical and lateral because they occur in a line from the
central to related agencies ol difierent governments at different
levels (federal, stale and local) and also between federal field units
and agencies of other governments at the same level.
Field establishments arc to be found both in centralized and
decentralised administrative units. Under a centralised system the
field offices are merely executing agencies; and their internal
organisation as well as working are wholly controlled by the
central organisation. Under a decentralized system, the field
PUBLIC Management 249
oflRces work under a general grant of authority, and in most

matters their decisions are final, except in cases for which there is
provision for an appeal or review by the central office.
Communication and Control

Establishment of a system of good and effective headquarters-
field relationship depends to a great extent on smooth and
effective channels of communication between them. Very often
the non-fulfilment of tasks and functions entrusted to field agencies
is due to lack of understanding and effective communication
between the central and the field office. The communication often
takes a one way form, that is, from top to bottom in the form of
directives, orders and circulars.
Notings on files and office manuals are also other channels of
communication. In India there is very little feedback from below
(field offices to headquarters), a situation which needs to be
remedied. If proper performance of duties by the field officials
is to be ensured a moie adequate system of communication from
top to bottom and vice versa is to be encouraged.
Another issue of field-headquarters relationship which is of
importance is the need for an effective system of control over the
field establishments. There are three main methods of headquarters
control over field establishments.
1. Advance review ; Prior referring of matters to head¬
quarters for decision. Thus the central office gels full control
over all major decisions regarding budget, matters, and managerial
problems by the system of advance reviews.
2. Accounts and reporting ; One of the usual methods of
exercising control over subordinate offices is for the headquarters
to insist on receiving information from the field agencies in the
form of returns, reports and statistics relating to the progress of
field operations.
3. Audit and inspection : This is a very important method
of examining compliance with rules and regulations in financial
dealings to check unauthorized or any kind of excess or illegal
expenditure.
Periodic inspection by headquarters staff is meant to ensure
that the existing office rules, regulations and procedures arc
observed. Besides ensuring compliance with instructions, it
examines the legality of all administrative transactions in field
offices.
Measures to Strengthen Field-headquarters Relationship
For the smooth and effective functioning of field establish¬
ments and the removal of all major irritants in headquarters-field
relationships, the following prerequisites are required;

1. The powers, authority and responsibility of field officers
should be clearly delimited, and contingency powers
clearly defined, coupled with considerable autonomy
given in local matters to field offices.
2. Communication between headquarters and field offices
should be two-way, from top to bottom and vice-versa.
3. There should be an adequate system of training for field
personnel to make them more prepared for their tasks in
the field.
4. Periodic transfers from field to headquarters and vice
versa are imperative to inculcate a balanced outlook on
local requirements and national policies.
5. Formal inspections, submissions of periodic reviews and
reports should be supplemented by informal visits of
headquarters staff to build up rapport and camaraderie
between the headquarters and field.
Organisation of Field Offices in India

Where the implementation of the central government policies
require devolution of executive powers and the setting up of field
establishments for purposes of regulation, execution or control, a
ministry has under it subordinate field stations which are known
as attached and subordinate offices. The attached offices are
responsible for providing executive direction in the implementation
of policies and programmes of the ministry to which they are
affiliated. They also provide necessary technical information and
advice to the ministry on technical problems and issues arising
under their jurisdiction. The subordinate oflices function as field
establishments or as agencies responsible for the detailed execution
of government decisions. They normally function under the super¬
vision of an attached office, or directly under a ministry. The
pattern of important attached and subordinate offices working
under two major central government ministries are illustrated
below.
Ministry of Finance
The important attached offices of this ministry are : (i) Office
of the National Savings Commissioner, (ii) Indian Security Press,
(iii) Government of India Mints, (iv) Silver Refinery Project
Calcutta, and (v) Directorate of Inspection. The subordinate
offices of the ministry include : (i) Office of the Regional Director
of Companies, (ii) Offices of the Registrar of Companies at a
number of places, (iii) Collectors of Customs at ports, (iv) Col¬
lectors of Central Excise, and (v) Income Tax Department.
Ministries of Transport and Communication

Besides the main subordinate offices, that is, Meteorological
Department and Railway Inspectorate, the Department of Posts
and Telegraphs has a network of post and telegraph offices
spread through the length and breadth of the country. These
may be classified into : (a) regional offices, (b) head offices in big
cities, (c) branch offices, and (d) sub-branch offices.
At the state level there are field offices above the district
offices at the divisional or regional level under the various depart¬
ments such as police, education, health, and cooperative societies.
The most important field office at the district level is that of the
District Collector. The district officer system symbolizes the
concentration of central government powers in the regional
representative, making him the chief agent of coordination and
direction in the field and the main channel of communication
between technical field officials and headquarters staff.
8
ADMINISTRATION AND PEOPLE
Criteria of Successful Admioistration
The importance of public administration has been steadily

increasing with the gradual expansion of state activity in modern
times. Public administration is now an all encompassing factor
ot the daily life of the individual as well as the community, which
has seen the emergence of what has now been labelled the
“Administrative State”. The functions of public administration
have shown a universal trend of expansion everywhere, whether in
the capitalist United States, the communist Soviet Union or the
developing countries of the Third World. The early liberal notion
ot a/ewcz/a/r^ state which was to be responsible only for the
maintenance of law and order (i.e. philosophy of minimum state
intervention in the daily life of the individual and community) has
become totally outmoded and irrelevant today. The modern state
has undertaken the new role of accelerator of economic and social
change as well as the major responsibility for providing modern
amenities of life, education, health, improved means of transport
and wider opportunities for employment to its citizens.
The major factors which have led to the great expansion of

state functions arc, firstly, the rise of industrialization and the
resulting growth of urbanization; secondly, change in the political
philosophy of the state (from individualism to social welfarism);
thirdly, the two world wars and the resulting international
situation which has also tended to largely increase the functions
of the state. The fourth important factor is the vast incrca.se in
the population ot most of the countries which has immensely
complicated the problem of providing food, shelter and other
necessities of life to their citizens. This has led to the adoption
of planning on the part of many states to solve the ever growing
problems of administration. These factors taken together led to
the emergence of what is called the Great Society, which in turn
contributed to the establishment of ‘Big Government’ in almost
ADMINISTRATION AND PEOPLE 253
every advancing country. Big Government, in the words of

F.M. Marx requires a large apparatus to carry on its many
functions. Public administration, therefore, seeks to achieve new
and positive objectives. The fundamental principles of the welfare
slate have greatly transformed the work of public administration,
with the result that the older regulatory functions have become
much less prominent and the newly created departments for
rendering various social services as well as for pursuing develop¬
ment and research have assumed greater importance.
Gladden lays down three general characteristics of an efficient
system of public administration:
(1) It must be capable of meeting the functional aims for
which it has been brought into being.
(2) It must be able to meet the long term changes postulated
both by the alterations in the social environment and by
the general development of administrative technique.
(3) It must, while conforming to a centralized plan, be
capable of meeting the various special demands of the
separate departmental units.'
Apart from efficiency and integrity the administrator r eeds to
have a human approach to all problems and programmes that he
has to solve and implement. This implies that he must have the
spirit of service to the community which is absolutely essential in
democracies. Also (I) he should possess a broad outlook on
public affairs; (2) his only aim should be to help the public rather
than get bogged down with a rigid and mechanical implementation
of rules and regulations; (3) he should have the capacity to judge
upon relevant advice and take decisions promptly; and (4) when
a decision has been taken, the administrator should inspire and
motivate his staff at all ranks to execute it effectively. Fvery
successful administration should be result-oriented, speedy and
prompt in meeting the demands of the public. What is needed is
not a ‘procedure-oriented’ bureaucracy, but a more ‘performance
oriented’ one.
Today public administration relates to the whole of society and
the political economy. Thus assuming its overwhelming import¬
ance, the question may now be asked : What is the criteria of
successful administration ? What is the ideal administrator
supposed to do to achieve success in his job ? The answer depends
on the norms we laydown forjudging the success or measuring
the worth of any administrative system. The norms of an admini¬
strative system are both old and new. Traditional norms—
efficiency, economy, good management and public interest are well
1. E.N. Gladden, Th< CivU Service, Staples, London, 1956, pp. 123-124.
PUBLIC ADMINlSTRATfON
254
established measures of judging the success of any administrative

system. To these old ones can be added t socio-economic progress,
equality and justice. Inequality among men and nations has been
one of the most critical social, economic and political character¬
istic of our time. Widespread inequalities provide the breeding
ground for social fermentation, dissent and alienation. A public
administration which accelerates these problems or does nothing
to ameliorate them will be unpopular and shortsighted in
approach. A vigorous goal oriented and dynamic administration
catering to required social change corresponds to the present
climate. Fundamental to this concept of administration is the
premise that administration must be value-oriented and not value
neutral, since value neutrality is neither probable nor desirable in
existing class divided societies.
In most democratic countries the government represents the
people’s choice and administration becomes an instrument for
the welfare and service to the people. The twin pillars of
democracy are liberty and equality hence the measure of successful
administration is to be judged by the extent to which the admini¬
stration has served these goals.
The public administrators in all countries should accept their
role as servants of the public devoted to the realization of public
interests and general well being. Richard L. Chapman and
Frederic N. Cleveland state that:^
(i) The future administrator will be more of a moral leader,
mediator and coordinator than mere issuer of orders;
(ii) he will learn to be a tactician and politician as he will be
subject to vastly increased political pressures; and
(iii) he may be also called upon to act as an agent of change.
The future administrator has to know as much of manage¬
ment, economics and sociology as history, law and politics. The
increased complexity of social change and administrative arrang^
ments will make the tasks of the administration more difficult and
challenging. He will have to be innovative, adaptable, knowledge¬
able and perceptive in his assessment of men and situations in
order to achieve success in his operations.
To be effective in the eighties public organizations will need
to be increasingly more responsive. The key to responsiveness is
organizational adaptability to change. The processes of social,
economic and political change will continue to accelerate, making
2. Richard L. Chapman and Frederic N. Cleaveland, The Changing Character

of the Public Service and the Apministrator of the 1980’s in Public Adminis¬
tration", Readings in Institutions, Processes, Behaviour,"^.ohcTXT.
Golenbervvski, Rand McNally, Chicago, 1976, pp. 135-150.
it vitally important that organizations adapt. Organization leaders

must learn to anticipate social, economic and political change and
to capitalize on it. There will be conditions under which the
patterns of change will require organizational growth. But there
will be equally as many and perhaps more situations in which these
change processes will require organizational decline, cutback and
devolution. The good adminisrtrator in the eighties and beyond
will be effective at scanning the political, economic and social
horizons and leading the processes of adaptation to growth or
decline. Change is more likely to be the result of imaginative
policies and difficult economic, political and social choices than the
application of technological solutions.
f"' The effective public administrator will continue to be the
(“rational calculator” of different ways of implementing public
policies. He will have to learn to satisfy conflicting public demands
and understand the continual need of increasing public services
with fixed resources. Administrative success will come to be
measured by concrete success in implementation. This will require
the administrator to be fully involved in the processes of choice
making and planning. Good administrators will be planners, and
blend the processes of planning and administration. The Fulton
Committee for civil service reform set up in UK recommended
increasing professionalisation of the civil services to meet the
changing needs of the times. Administrators have to keep abreast
of the rapid changes in knowledge and technology and knowhow
to implement them in the changing socio-economic environment of
our times. With the increasing diversification of tasks of the civil
services, there is no room for the ‘amateur’ in administration now.
What is needed is a ‘specialist’ or a ‘professional’ civil servant who
has acquired the requisite professional training and is truly dedi¬
cated and ‘committed’ to the goals and objectives of his service.
Public administration in the current decades will have to face
a host of challenges, continuous loads and pressures that will put
its adaptability and performance capacity to a severe test. If man
is to survive in the face of nuclear threats, overpopulation, environ¬
mental pollution, rapid technological change coupled with increas¬
ing societal turbulence, public administration will have to learn to
decentralize, democratize and humanize itself, says Gerald Caiden.
Public administration in any case has to face continuous dilemmas
pulling it in opposite directions. Administration in modern society
has become an all pervasive affair through political direction,
'economic management, social engineering and increased burcau-
icratization. On the other hand, in modern administrative states
this has resulted in an opposite backlash in the growing demand
for decentralization, democratization, and increased public partici¬
pation in administration. Frustrated underprivileged groups in
every society display considerable loss of confidence in public
institutions, and create constant tensions in society by refusing to
assimilate. Both industrial and developing societies face social

tensions and upheavals in some form or the other.
In fact the current worldwide rise in social violence and turbu¬
lence may be one of the first symptoms of the organizational
societies to cope with social change and rising population
expectations induced by technological change. In every
modern state, it is the adaptive capacity of the administrative
culture which plays a key role in maintaining social harmony
and order in societies. Unless the administrative system is
geared to keep pace with cultural transformation, social dis¬
content, alienation and violence may ultimately lead to the
breakdown of the social fabric.^
Public administration, as Orion White points out, has to be
revamped with the confrontation between technological and social
imperatives to cope with the organizational demands of the
technological imperative, and to cope with the necessities of the
social imperatives.
The conventional image of the public administrator has been
adverse. Bureaucracy has been viewed as synonymous with red-
tape, rigidity, conservatism, ineptitude in dealing with change and
crisis, and conformist patterns of behaviour. Bureaucrats, in
general, have a tendency to suppress grievances, cover up mistakes,
and ridicule complaints. The new breed of administrators are
expected to be more innovative, aware of new administrative
techniques and more responsive to public demands. By recogniz¬
ing emerging problems, minimizing delay and formality, they have
to learn to act promptly and with precision. Administration
must be capable of quick improvisation and willingness to assume
new responsibilities.
To cope with current societal problems the modern bureaucrat
will have to acquire multiple roles, such as;^
(a) Crusading reformer, intent on transforming some aspect

of community life according to preconceived notions of
the ideal society.
(b) Proactive policy formulator, ready with possible strategies
to meet the unknown.
(c) Social change agent, ready to accept new ideals and to
push others into accepting them also.
(d) Crisis manager, slow to burn but quick to act, and brilliant
at immediate improvisation.
3. Gerald E. Caiden. Dynamics of Public Administration, pp. 290-291,

Rinehart, New York, 1971.
4. ibid.
PUBLIC MANAGEMENT
A countrywide plan preoarcd bv tbe Centre to be jmnlemented

in different states require? coordination and inteeration between
tbe Centre and the states. (2) Centralization reduces conflicts and
overlapping jurisdictions.
Operational difficulties in the wav of decentralization are:
(i) the influence of local pressure Erouns uoon decentralized units,
(ii) the difficulty of coordinating decentralised functions, (lu) the
problem of delimiting geographical iurisdictions. and (iv) decentra¬
lization, particularly in the present day world, has important
limitations since policy in regard to defence, foreip affiairs,
communications and planning has to be formulated, integrated
coordinated and executed by a strong national government in ail
states.
Centralization and decentralization are not axiomatic principles
of administration which can be universally applied to all types of
administrations: they have a contextual relevance. According to
James W. Fesler, there are four factors which are relevant in
opting for a centralized or decentralized svstenri. These
responsibility, administration, function, and external factors.
Since authority and responsibility go hand in hand in public

administration and as long as the central
ultimately responsible for any action, it is often
reluctant to deleaate discretionary authority to field
Among the administrative factors, mentioned bV are age
of the agency. Stability of its policies and methods, competence
of its field personnel, pressure for speed and economy, and
administrative sophistication. The mam ?echnTcil
be the variety of functions an agency performs, the technical
Lturc of functions, and the need for
is common experience that while certain types
defence planning, communications etc. pull in the direction of
centraliiaîon, operating decisions can be easily
the appropriate lowest units. Among the external factors may
be included the demand for popular participation in programmes
and the pressure of political parties for operationalizing the
concept of grassroots democracy and ‘planning from below in
many states.
Decentralization for Development
One of the oft-recurring debates in the developing countries
centres around the degree of control that central governments
can and should have over development planning and administra¬
tion. The centralization versus decentralization debate has been
more insistent in the wake of new shifts in the development
40. FM. Marx, Elements of Public Administration, pp. 251-258.

Strategy of Third World countries. Since the early fifties, the

general trend was towards centralized planning and development
elTorts to achieve socio-economic goals. Central planning was
introduced in most developing countries in the 1950s as a means of
optimum utilisation of scarce national resources to achieve rapid
growth. Under tight central control capital intensive industrializa¬
tion policies, that were aimed at maximising gains in national
income, were advocated by economic development theorists during
the 50 s and 60*s. The benefits of such centralized planning and
industrialization, it was felt, would “trickle down” and spread
throughout the length and breadth of the developed societies,
alleviating poverty and pushing the countries into a stage of self-
sustaining economic growth. Central planning and administration
were considered necessary to guide and control the economy
and to unify and integrate the newly independent countries,
emerging from long periods of colonial rule. Moreover, central
control was implicit in the requirements of the international
assistance agencies which w'ere providing large amounts of capital
during the 1950 s and I960’s to these countries. These agencies gave
aid on the understanding that borrowers would undertake compre¬
hensive and long term plans for the investment of external capital.
However, by the end of the 1960*s there was widespread

disillusionment with centralized models of growth in developing
countries. Slupish economic growth coupled with widespread
income and regional disparities were rampant in these societies.
Many development planners and administrators, therefore, started
questioning the very rationale behind these concepts of
development.
Governments of developing countries started giving much

more attention to providing for the basic needs of the poor and
underprivilped, to see that economic growth was coupled with
relative social equity. During the seventies many gevernments in
Asia, Latin America and Africa began experimenting not only
with new approaches to economic and social development, but
also with new political and administrative arrangements for
implementing development propammes and projects. The
increasing interest in decentralization arose from three converging
factors discussed earlier.
First, it emerpd from disillusionment with the results of

highly centralized planning and control of development
activities during the 1950'sand I960’s. Second, it arose from
the implicit requirements in the growth—with equity policies
of the 1970 s for new ways of managing social development
progrommes. Finally, it evolved from the growing realization
among policy analysts during the early 1980*s that as
societies become more complex and government activities
expand, it would be increasingly difficult to plan and
243
PUBLIC MANAGEMENT
administer all development activities effectively and efficiently

from the centre.^'
Advocates of decentralization have offered a long list of reasons
for transferring more responsibility for development planning and
administration to local governments, voluntary organizations
and regional authorities. RondineUi has identified
arguments that have been made in favour of decentralization.
1. Decentralization can be a means of overcoming the severe
limitations of centrally controlled national planning by delegating
greater authority for development planning, and management
to field officials,' who are closer to the local people and their
problems. It will allow them to tailor development plans and
programmes to the needs of heterogeneous regions and groups.
2 Decentralization can cut through the enormous amount
of red-tape and rigid rules and regulations characteristic of
centralized planning and administration.
3. It will lead to closer citizen-administration contacts
leading to greater public participation in administration.
4 Decentralization could also allow better political and
administrative penetration of national policies into
where central government plans are often unknown or ignored or
undermined by local elite.
5. Greater representation for various religious, ethnic
political or tribal groups in development decision making could
kad to greater equity in the allocation of government resources
and investments.
6. It would lead to the development of greater administrative
capacity among local governments and private institutions in the
regions and provinces.
7 Decentralization can lead to more flexible, innovative, and
creative administration. Regional, provincial or district adminis-
trative units may have greater opportunities to test mnovations
and to experiment with new policies and programmes in selected
areas without having to justify them for the whole country. If the
experiments fail, their impacts are limited to small lunsdictions, it
they succeed, they can be repeated in other areas also.
8. By reducing diseconomies of scale inherent in the over-
concentration of decision-making in the national capital, decentra¬
lization can increase the number of public goods and services
and the efficiency with which they are delivered at lower cost.
41. Dennis A. Rondinclll and G. Shabbir Cheema. Decentralhation and

Development, Sage Publications, Beverly Hills, 1983, p. 10.
42. (bid., pp. 14-16.
9. Decentralization allows local leaders to locate services and

facilities more elTectively within their communities, to integrate
isolated or backward areas into regional economies, and to
monitor and evaluate the implementation of development projects
more effectively than can be done by central planning agencies.
10. It can increase political stability and national unity by
giving groups in different sections of the country the ability to
participate more directly in development decision making, thereby
increasing their “stake in maintaining the political system.**
Democratic Decentralization in India

The proposal for democratic decentralization in India was first
mooted in the report of Balwant Rai Mehta study team in 1957
recommending a three-tier system of rural local government,
called the Panchayali Raj, in India. The principal thrust of the
report was towards decentralization of democratic institutions in
an effort to shift decision centres closer to the people, to enable
their participation, and to put the bureaucracy under local popular
control. The uniqueness of Panchayati Raj institutions was to lie
in their development orientation in the specific context of planned
economic change as also in their treating the elected representa¬
tives of the people as the motivating power and instrument behind
this development. Democratic decentralization implies people’s
right to initiate their own projects for local well-being and the
power to execute and operate them in an autonomous manner.
The term Panchayati Raj refers to a three-tier structure of rural
local self-government in each district. It calls for a transfer of
responsibility for much of rural development administration to
these local authorities. Each state in India was asked to evolve a
system of Panchayati Raj keeping in mind the principles laid down
by the Balwant Rai Mehta study team. Most of the states have a
three-tier structure of the Gram Sabha and Gram Panchayat at the
village level, the Panchayat Samiti at the block level and Zila
Parishad at the district level.
In 1958, the National Development Council of the Govern¬
ment of India while endorsing the proposals for democratic decen¬
tralization stressed the following principles:
1. There should be a three-tier structure of local self-govern¬
ing bodies from village to district levels, with an organic link from
the lower to the higher ones.
2. There should be a genuine transfer of power and responsi¬
bility to these bodies.
3. Adequate financial resources should be transferred to these
bodies to enable them to discharge the responsibilities.
4. All development programmes at these levels should be
channelled through these bodies.
FtJBL^C MANAGEMENt 145
5. The system evolved should be such as to facilitate further

deceotralization of power and responsibility in future.
The significance of these institutions lay in the fact that the
motive force for development was to come from the people them¬
selves, the state assisting with supplies, services and credit. The
cooperative principle was to be applied infinitely to solve all
problems of rural life.
Panchayati Raj is now operating in most of the states in
India. However, the existing local institutions are not in a position
to show a satisfactory record due to limitations under which they
have been working. The varied administrative problems of demo¬
cratic decentralization may be summarised as follows:
1. Whether and to what extent should the ‘deliberative’, and
‘executive’ functions be combined in the liands of the Panchayati
Raj bodies. If only policy making functions are entrusted to the
elected bodies, as in a parliamentary government, the important
purpose of organising the community for efTcclive action and
getting from the people maximum contribution in resources,
voluntary labour and enthusiasm, for the tasks of development
would not be achieved.
2. While imbibing some of the virtues ol bureaucratic adminis¬
tration like impartiality, objectivity and non-political character,
the chances arc that it will imbibe some of the weaknesses loo ot
the existing administrative culture.
3. The role of the government functionaries will be alVected.
Some of them will gradually get converted into employees of the
local authorities.
4. The problem of‘politicisation’, the high degree of illite¬
racy, caste and communal factions leave little scope for emergence
of healthy leadership in the Panchayati Raj bodies.
5. Problems of inter-relationships between the dilTerent levels
of government, the Village Panchayat, the Panchayat Samiti, the
Zila Parisbad, district administration and state government will
arise from time to time.
6. New technologies discovered have led critics to state that
the efficient use of modern technology cannot be ensured through
small administrative units, for instance, new varieties of wheat had
been discovered making way for what came to be known as the
‘green revolution’ in India. From then on a distinct technological
orientation began to be given to agriculture inducing the central
government to make direct inroads into agricultural planning and
development bypassing both the state and local governments.
The present practice of the central government is to use its
own bureaucracy for the transfer of technology in rural areas, or
administration of special rural oriented programmes, ignoring

popular insiiiuiioDS. This has been greatly welcomed by the
administrative elite who were in any case not kindly disposed
towards Panchayaii Raj bodies which they felt, provided an oppor¬
tunity for grassroots politicians to inieilere in the affairs of the
bureaucracy.
All these factors, have cumulatively resulted in a low-profile
Panchayati Kaj since the mid-sixties. The Indian political system
had started displaying markedly centralizing tendencies from
around the same time the pace of which got further accelerated
since 1971 due to various reasons. This exactly was not the
climate under which Panchayaii Raj could grow and flourish and
it IS scarcely surprising that most Panchayati Raj bodies are now
languishing lor lack ot funds or sheer neglect.
Issues in Field-Headquarters Relationship
The term ‘headquarters’, refers to the centrally located chief

directing and supervising office of government establishments in
contrast to regional or field offices spread out in different areas of
the country. In the Indian administrative system, ‘headquarters’
means the secretariat, and the term ‘field’ refers to attached and
subordinate offices. Though much of the important business of the
government is carried out in the headquarters, about seventy-five
per cent of the administrative work in all countries is actually
carried out in the numerous field oflBces under the various depart¬
ments of the national and state governments at the regional, state,
divisional, district and lower levels. For, it is in the field that taxes
are collected, laws are enforced and welfare services of the govern¬
ment are rendered to the people.
The vastness of the size and area of some modern states, the
tremendous expansion of the welfare functions of government,
improvement in the field of transportation and communication
leading to greater headquarters-field contact, and the general trend
towards democratic and decentralized administration have all led to
the tremendous importance and expansion of field establishments
in every administration of the world.
There are two major issues involved in the headquarters-field
relationship : (i) territorial-functional dichotomy, and (ii) communi¬
cations and control.
Territorial-Functional Dicho tomy

The organizational pattern of field offices from the angle of
supervision, direction and control can be of two types—territorial
or functional. Willoughby has called them unitary or multiple. In
the territorial unitary type, the central headquarters establishes
regional territorial offices which are entrusted with supervisory
and discretionary administrative functions over the whole

area. The officer in charge of the regional office is the head
of the administrative hierarchy of the same office and heads of all
other specialized units at that level are his subordinates. He is
the main medium of communication between the headquarters and
the field office and owes responsibility to the central office alone
for all acts committed by the officials working under him. In the
multiple or functional form, the different divisions or branches of
the headquarters office have their corresponding field establish¬
ments at different regional levels and maintain direct contact with
them. There is no coordinating or integrating officer or agency at
the area level, each service or agency is considered autonomous
in its own sphere, the line of authority running directly from it to
its headquarters counterpart. The main difference between the two
systems is that while in the unitary system the head of the station
is “the general manager of the station in the fullest acceptance of
the term” : in the multiple system, “the station is looked upon as
an assembly of units which are only loosely held together for
matters of general administration by the authority of the head of
the station.“^3
In the unitary system there is unity of command and it esta¬

blishes supremacy of generalists over specialists in administration.
Its main advantages are:
1. It is truly a decentralized system which lends to give maxi¬
mum powers to the field rather than concentrate authority at the
top.
2. It allows much flexibility in management of regional pro¬
blems and affairs to the area head who can make any modification
and procedural change suiting his area needs without affecting the
entire agency work.
3. It ensures sufficient independence and autonomy to each

division of the field office from its central counterpart allowing
initiative and responsibility to develop among field administrators.
4. It is very useful for departments whose functions are varied
in nature and scope.
A good example of the territorial unitary type of field organi¬

zation is the prefectural system in France. As head of the depart¬
ment (the largest unit of local administration) and also as a central
government agent, the prefect has a dual role to play in adminis¬
trative affairs.
The various services in the field of a Department (Province)

are under the prefect and the various departments of the central
43. W.F. "Wittou^hby, Principles of Public Adminisiraiion, p. 139.

248 public administration
government deal with them through that officer. Jn India, the

collector ol the district also exercises almost similar functions as
that ol a prefect in France.
In the functional or multiple system, each functional unit is
directly connected with its central counterpart, the station chief
being responsible only for the minimum establishment duties of
the station. It is a system of “dual command”, as under it area
functional experts or technical personnel take orders from both
the station officer and the functional counterparts at the central
office (headquarters). The main advantage of this system is that
technical operations in held offices come under the direct control
and direction ol the central experts.
The pattern of central control over field offices has been
described by Luther Gulick who discovers three patterns of field
organization, namely : (i) All fingers, (ii) Short arms, long fingers
and (ni) Long arms, short fingers. Under the first pattern the
headquarters office deals directly with the field stations without the
intervention ol any regional sub-divisions anywhere. In the second
type, there are geographical divisions, but they are located in the
headquarters oflice iisell and not in the held, for example, in the
External Aflairs Ministry in India. It has no less than hundred
sections, administrative, territorial and technical. These are
grouped into a dozen divisions such as the American Division,
Western Division, Southern Division, Protocol Division and
External Publicity Division. Under the third pattern, there are
geographical divisions and sub-divisions, located in the field away
Ironi the headquarters, lor example, divisional and district offices
in the states in India.
The pattern of headquarters-field relationship are of princi¬
pally two types. The first relates to a single governmental
programme wiih headquarters office in the capital, and a sub¬
structure in the field which may include regional, stale and local
offices at one or more ol these levels or ail of them in combination.
In the second type of arrangement a number of different govern¬
ments at different levels coordinately occupy themselves with a
particular type ot programme, as the case of public health for
example. In the first arrangement, relationships are vertical and
occur within the same federal agency. In the second, they are
both vertical and lateral because they occur in a line from the
central to related agencies of different governments at different
levels (federal, slate and local) and also between federal field units
and agencies of other governments at the same level.
Field establishments arc to be found both in centralized and
decentralised administrative units. Under a centralised system the
field offices are merely executing agencies; and their internal
organisation as well as working are wholly controlled by the
central organisation. Under a decentralized system, the field
249
PUBLIC MANAGEMENT
rôn: S
provision for an appeal or review by the eentral offiee.
Communication and Control
directives, orders and circulars.
Notings on files fôm Mow
sroTri. tisit'iM
«io. r~
top to bottom and vice versa is to be encouraged. . . ^
Another issue of field-headquarters relationship
control over field establishments.
Srewlm. W tl.. T , , ,
exercising control over subordinate oH^ces^
field operations.
!s5SS5riSXS«:?S:
expenditure.
offices.
Measures to SirengUien Field-heaJquarUrs ReluUonship
relationships, the following prerequisites are required:

1. The powers, authority and responsibility of field officers
should be clearly delimited, and contingency powers
clearly defined, coupled with considerable autonomy
given in local matters to field offices.
2. Communication between headquarters and field offices
should be two-way, from top to bottom and vice-versa.
3. There should be an adequate system of training for field
personnel to make them more prepared for their tasks in
the field.
4. Periodic transfers from field to headquarters and vice
versa are imperative to inculcate a balanced outlook on
local requirements and national policies.
5. Formal inspections, submissions of periodic reviews and
reports should be supplemented by informal visits of
headquarters staff to build up rapport and camaraderie
between the headquarters and field.
Organisation of Field Offices in India
Where the implementation of the central government policies

require devolution of executive powers and the setting up of field
establishments for purposes of regulation, execution or control, a
ministry has under it subordinate field stations which are known
as attached and subordinate offices. The attached offices are
responsible for providing executive direction in the implementation
of policies and programmes of the ministry to which they are
affiliated. They also provide necessary technical information and
advice to the ministry on technical problems and issues arising
under their jurisdiction. The subordinate oflices function as field
establishments or as agencies responsible for the detailed execution
of government decisions. They normally function under the super¬
vision of an attached office, or directly under a ministry. The
pattern of important attached and subordinate offices working
under two major central government ministries are illustrated
below.
Ministry of Finance
The important attached offices of this ministry are : (i) Office

of the National Savings Commissioner, (ii) Indian Security Press,
(iii) Government of India Mints, (iv) Silver Refinery Project
Calcutta, and (v) Directorate of Inspection. The subordinate
offices of the ministry include ; (i) Office of the Regional Director
of Companies, (ii) Offices of the Registrar of Companies at a
number of places, (iii) Collectors of Customs at ports, (iv) Col¬
lectors of Central Excise, and (v) Income Tax Department.
251
PUBLIC MANAGEMENT
Ministries of Transport and Comimmication

Besides the main subordinate offices, that is.
Department and Railway Inspectorate, the
and Telegraphs has a network of post and telegraph offices
spread through the length and breadth of the country. These
i^ây be classffied into : (a) regional offices, (b) ê^ offices in big
cities, (c) branch offices, and (d) sub-branch offices.
At the state level there are field offices above the district
offices at the divisional or regional level under the various depart
Ss such L police, education, health, and cooperative societ es.
The mo^t important field office at the district level is that of the
d1fccUo°nffi"th^ 'the main Snel of communication

between technical field officials and headquarters staff.
8
Criteria of Successful Admioistration
[I The importance of public administration has been steadily

■ ^ increasing with the gradual expansion of state activity in modern
times. Public administration is now an all encompassing factor
i ol the daily life of the individual as well as the community, which
has seen the emergence of what has now been labelled the
“Administrative State”. The functions of public administration
have shown a universal trend of expansion everywhere, whether in
the capitalist United States, the communist Soviet Union or the
developing countries of the Third World. The early liberal notion
of a/e/wez/fl/re state which was to be responsible only for the
maintenance of law and order (i.e, philosophy of minimum state
intervention in the daily life of the individual and community) has
become totally outmoded and irrelevant today. The modern state
has undertaken the new role of accelerator of economic and social
change as well as the major responsibility for providing modern
amenities of life, education, health, improved means of transport
and wider opportunities for employment to its citizens.
The major factors which have led to the great expansion of

stale functions are, firstly, the rise of industrialization and the
resulting growth of urbanization; secondly, change in the political
philosophy of the state (from individualism to social welfarism);
thirdly, the two world wars and the resulting international
situation which has also tended to largely increase the functions
of the state. The fourth important factor is the vast increase in
the population of most of the countries which has immensely
complicated the problem of providing food, shelter and other
necessities of life to their citizens. This has led to the adoption
of planning on the part of many states to solve the ever growing
problems of administration. These factors taken together led to
the emergence of what is called the Great Society, which in turn
contributed to the establishment of ‘Big Government’ in almost
every advancing country. Big Government, in the words of

F.M. Marx requires a large apparatus to carry on its many
functions. Public administration, therefore, seeks to achieve new
and positive objectives. The fundamental principles of the welfare
state have greatly transformed the work of public administration,
with the result that the older regulatory functions have become
much less prominent and the newly created departments for
rendering various social services as well as for pursuing de\e!op-
ment and research have assumed greater importance.
Gladden lays down three general characteristics of an efficient
system of public administration:
(1) It must be capable of meeting the functional aims for
which it has been brought into being.
(2) It must be able to meet the long term changes postulated
both by the alterations in the social environment and by
the general development of administrative technique.
(3) It must, while conforming to a centralized plan, be
capable of meeting the various special demands of the
separate departmental units.‘
Apart from efficiency and integrity the administrator needs to
have a human approach to all problems and programmes that he
has to solve and implement. This implies that he must have tlie
spirit of service to the community which is absolutely essential in
democracies. Also (1) he should possess a broad outlook on
public affairs; (2) his only aim should be to help the public rather
than get bogged down with a rigid and mechanical implementation
of rules and regulations; (3) he should have the capacity to judge
upon relevant advice and take decisions promptly; and (4) when
a decision has been taken, the administrator should inspire and
motivate his staff at all ranks to execute it effectively. Every
successful administration should be result-oriented, speedy and
prompt in meeting the demands of the public. What is needed is
not a ‘procedure-oriented’ bureaucracy, but a more ‘performance
oriented’ one.
Today public administration relates to the whole of society and
the political economy. Thus assuming its overwhelming import¬
ance, the question may now be asked : What is the criteria of
successful administration ? What is the ideal administrator
supposed to do to achieve success in his job ? The answer depends
on the norms wc lay down for judging the success or measuring
the worth of any administrative system. The norms of an admini¬
strative system are both old and new. Traditional norms—
efficiency, economy, good management and public interest are well
1. E-N. Gladden, The Civil Service, Staples, London, 1956, pp. 123-124.
254
established measures of judging the success of any administrative

system. To these old ones can be added : socio-economic process,
equality and justice. Inequality among men and nations has been
one of the most critical social, economic and political character¬
istic of our time. Widespread inequalities provide the Deeding
ground for social fermentation, dissent and alienation. A pu^blic
administration which accelerates these problems or does nothing
to ameliorate them will be unpopular and shortsighted m
approach. A vigorous goal oriented and dynamic administration
catering to required social change corresponds to the present
climate. Fundamental to this concept of administration is the
premise that administration must be value-oriented and not value
neutral, since value neutrality is neither probable nor desirable in
existing class divided societies.
In most democratic countries the government^ represents the
people’s choice and administration becomes an instrument for
the welfare and service to the people. The twin pillars of
democracy are liberty and equality hence the measure of successtul
administration is to be judged by the extent to which the admini¬
stration has served these goals.
The public administrators in all countries should accept their
.role as servants of the public devoted to the realization of public
interests and general well being. Richard L. Chapman and
Frederic N. Cleveland state that;-
(i) The future administrator will be more of a moral leader,
mediator and coordinator than mere issuer of orders;
(ii) he will learn to be a tactician and politician as he will be
subject to vastly increased political pressures; and
(iii) he may be also called upon to act as an agent of change.
The future administrator has to know as much

ment, economics and sociology; as history, law and politics, ihe
increased complexity of social change and administrative arrang^
ments will make the tasks of the administration more difficu t and
challenging. He will have to be innovative, adaptable, knowledge¬
able and perceptive in his assessment of men and situations in
order to achieve success in his operations.
To be effective in the eighties public organizations will need
to be increasingly more responsive. The key to responsiveness is
organizational adaptability to change. The processes of social,
economic and political change will continue to accelerate, making
2. Richard L. Chapman and Frederic N. Cleaveland, The Changing

of the Public Service and the Apministrator of the 1980 s m
tration”, Readings in Institutions, Processes, Behaviour, eattca by Rooen i.
Golenberwski, Rand McNally, Chicago, 1976, pp. 135-150.
it vitally important that organizations adapt. Organization leaders

must learn to anticipate social, economic and political change and
to capitalize on it. There will be conditions under which the
patterns of change will require organizational growth. But there
will be equally as many and perhaps more situations in which these
change processes will require organizational decline, cutback and
devolution. The good adminisrtrator in the eighties and beyond
will be effective at scanning the political, economic and social
horizons and leading the processes of adaptation to growth or
decline. Change is more likely to be the result of imaginative
policies and difficult economic, political and social choices than the
application of technological solutions.
The effective public administrator will continue to be the
■//“rational calculator” of different ways of implementing public
// policies. He will have to learn to satisfy conflicting public demands
/ and understand the continual need of increasing public services
/ with fixed resources. Administrative success will come to be
measured by concrete success in implementation. This will require
the administrator to be fully involved in the processes of choice
making and planning. Good administrators will be planners, and
blend the processes of planning and administration. The Fulton
Committee for civil service reform set up in UK recommended
increasing professionalisation of the civil services to meet the
changing needs of the times. Administrators have to keep abreast
of the rapid changes in knowledge and technology and knowhow
to implement them in the changing socio-economic environment of
our times. With the increasing diversification of tasks of the civil
services, there is no room for the ‘amateur’ in administration now.
What is needed is a ‘specialist’ or a ‘professional’ civil servant who
has acquired the requisite professional training and is truly dedi¬
cated and ‘committed’ to the goals and objectives of his service.
Public administration in the current decades will have to face
a host of challenges, continuous loads and pressures that will put
\ iits adaptability and performance capacity to a severe test. If man
IS to survive in the face of nuclear threats, overpopulation, environ¬
mental pollution, rapid technological change coupled with increas*
ng societal turbulence, public administration will have to learn to
Icccntralize, democratize and humanize itself, says Gerald Caiden
j *ublic administration in any case has to face continuous dilemmas
)u)ling it in opposite directions. Administration in modern society
las become an all pervasive affair through political direction,
economic management, social engineering and increased bureau¬
cratization. On the other hand, in modern administrative states
this has resulted in an opposite backlash in the growing demand
for decentralization, democratization, and increased public partici¬
pation in administration. Frustrated underprivileged groups in
every society display considerable loss of confidence in public
institutions, and create constant tensions in society by refusing to
assimilate. Both industrial and developing societies face social

tensions and upheavals in some form or the other.
In fact the current worldwide rise in social violence and turbu¬

lence may be one of the first symptoms of the organizational
societies to cope with social change and rising population
expectations induced by technological change. In every
modern stale, it is the adaptive capacity of the administrative
culture which plays a key role in maintaining social harmony
and order in societies. Unless the administrative system is
geared to keep pace with cultural transformation, social dis¬
content, alienation and violence may ultimately lead to the
breakdown of the social fabric.^
Public administration, as Orion White points out, has to be
revamped with the confrontation between technological and social
imperatives to cope with the organizational demands of the
technological imperative, and to cope with the necessities of the
social imperatives.
The conventional image of the public administrator has been
adverse. Bureaucracy has been viewed as synonymous with red-
tape, rigidity, conservatism, ineptitude in dealing with change and
crisis, and confôrmist patterns of behaviour. Bureaucrats, in
general, have a tendency to suppress grievances, cover up mistakes,
and ridicule complaints. The new breed of administrators are
expected to be more innovative, aware of new administrative
techniques and more responsive to public demands. By recogniz¬
ing emerging problems, minimizing delay and formality, they have
to learn to act promptly and with precision. Administration
must be capable of quick improvisation and willingness to assume
new responsibilities.
To cope with current societal problems the modern bureaucrat
will have to acquire multiple roles, such as:^
(a) Crusading reformer, intent on transforming some aspect

of community life according to preconceived notions of
the ideal society.
(b) Proactive policy formulator, ready with possible strategies
to meet the unknown.
(c) Social change agent, ready to accept new ideals and to
push others into accepting them also.
(d) Crisis manager, slow to burn but quick to act, and brilliant
at immediate improvisation.
3, Gerald E. Caiden, Dynamics of Public Administration, pp. 290-291,

Rinehart, New York, 1971.
4. ibid.
(e) Dynamic programme manager, able to shape new courses

and adapt on-going arrangements.
(f) Humanitarian employer, treating staff with respect and
meting out even-handed justice.
(g) Political campaigner, responsive to public needs and
champion of public causes.
(h) Competent administrator, ensuring effective performance
with minimum political embarrassment.
(i) Interest broker choosing among competing interests and
reconciling all parties to the outcome.
(j) Public relations expert, adept at building up support and
showing his area to advantage.
(k) Speedy decision maker, prepared to assume responsibility
and clear instructions.
(l) Constructive thinker, not easily lead astray by others who
would want to make up his mind for him.
(m) Optimistic leader, not easily discouraged in adversity, but
able to command attention and stimulate subordinates.
Obviously, to expect every bureaucrat to be so versatile is to
be unrealistic perhaps, and expect the unattainable. However, the
attempt should be to approximate as closely as possible the ideal in
practice. The ideal best serves as a pointer to which education,
training and recruitment systems for bureaucrats should aim. In
practice every administrator will perform as best as he can given
the socio-economic, cultural, environmental and operational con¬
straints at any given period of time.
Variables for successful administration are identified below:
(a) Recognize new solutions rather than modify old ones.
(b) Reformulate problems in new terms to elicit new responses
and initiatives.
(c) Turn crisis to advantage; use deviation and conflict
in problem solving to generate self-transformation with
minimum alienation.
(d) Deal with uncertainty and fluidity and absorb change,
instability and interdependence.
(e) Tolerate deviation, conflict, and confrontation without
over-reading or loosing sense of proportion.
(f) Mobilize resources to meet problems and engage in
inter-disciplinary problem-solving.
5. ibid., p. 297.
(g) Encourage error-correction, initiative and creativity, and

learn from mistakes.
(h) Learn from experience and uncertainty.
(i) Remain human and humane under stress.
It is within this framework of universal norms that the
administrator of today should try to operate in future in the
environment of any administrative system at any given period of
time.
The importance of public administration in the modern age is
universally recognized, but there is no general agreement on the
ends it is supposed to serve in all societies. In the context of the
developing countries of the Third World, a new perspective of
administration known as ‘development administration’ has been
evolved catering to the changing needs and socio-cultural context
of administration in these slates. The twin goals of development
administration are nation-building and progress. It involves the
establishment of an administrative machinery to plan the mobili¬
zation of all available resources to raise the standard of living of
the people. The rapid transformation of developing societies to¬
wards progress and development in all spheres of life needs
extensive governmental intervention. Public administration must
become more change oriented, dynamic and involved. In short,
there is need for debureaucratisation of attitudes of the public
personnel in these countries. With the great advancement of
science and invention of new managerial techniques the problem
of administration has become so complex that despite the adop¬
tion of right policies, wrong administrative steps may lead to so¬
cietal breakdown or considerable chaos and disruption. Therefore,
in the words of Fayol, the pursuit of greater knowledge of public
administration becomes the essential element in modern times.
While Paul Pigors contends that the main purpose of administra¬
tion is to preserve the status quo in society, Brooks Adams regards
administration as a chief agent of social change. There is no limit
to the service which the slate is called upon to perform. The
increase in the variety, number and complexity of functions that
have to be performed by the modern state, often results in an
‘administrative lag’ in many countries specially those of the Third
World. A serious imbalance often develops between aspirations
and performance which may constitute a major obstacle to
national development. The task of every successful administration
should be to continually try to bridge the gap between aspirations
and performance and develop the administrative capacity to imple¬
ment its programmes of economic and social progress. Therefore,
in conclusion, to quote Charles Beard,
The future of civilized government and even, I think, of civili¬
zation itself, rests upon our ability to develop a service and
ADMtNISTRATION AND PEOPLE 259
philosophy and a practice of administration competent to dis¬

charge the public functions of civilized society.
AttaiDiDg Democratic and Socialistic Goals
The two ends of public administration in most welfare states
of modern times, are the widespread democratisation of adminis¬
tration and the achievement of progressive social equity. Every
philosophy of administration has to take into consideration the
political, social and cultural milieu in which it functions. For the
citizens of a great part of the western world headed by the US A
and England the political environment is democratic. In India
both democracy and socialism have been adopted as the twin
objectives of the Constitution and state policy.
There is a general school of thinking that administration being
a universal prerequisite of all states, its methods and techniques of
functioning are also the same everywhere. Experience has, how¬
ever, contradicted this tenor of argument. The spirit and temper
of public administration is deeply infl 'enccd by the type of
government which operates it. In autocratic governments adminis¬
tration tends to become despotic. Similarly, the first requirement
of a democratic government is a democratic administration. A
democratic government by itself is no guarantee to democratic
administration. It often happens that the political system
is democratic, but administration due to its past political
and administrative culture may not he truly democratic in the
spirit of its functioning. India is a classic example of the above
statement. After independence a democratic system of govern¬
ment was adopted but there is the repeated complaint that
the administration still retains its historical and colonial authori¬
tarian legacies in character and style of functioning. Experience
has also shown that even where administrative posts are elective
(e.g. in the USSR) administration is no less bureaucratic. Whether
an administration is more democratic or bureaucratic in nature can
be measured from its behaviour pattern towards the citizens and
with its own members. In his famous book. Democratic Administra¬
tion, Ordway Tead discusses the essential features of a democratic
public administration in the following manner.
In the first place in a democratic administration people must
be guaranteed the maximum opportunities for participation in the
making and implementation of public policies. One way of
guaranteeing this is through a vigorous system of decentralization
of authority by local self-government institutions such as village
panchayats. and municipalities. Other ways of soliciting people’s
participation are by attaching advisory committees and boards,
comprising representatives of enlightened citizens and interested
groups of persons, with the administrative departments at manage¬
rial levels, and second, by seeking tlie affected citizens* parti¬
cipation in the actual implementation of the administration's
programmes, as is done in the community development adminis¬

tration in India. The Government of India has been making very
liberal use of the advisory and consultative bodies at all (central,
state and district) levels of administration. The association of such
bodies enables the administrators to appreciate the people’s view¬
point and is also a good means of seeking the willing cooperation
of all affected parties in policy implementation.
Political direction and accountability is one of the chief
features of a democratic administration. According to this concept,
the civil servants should work according to the will of the political
executive, that is, the ministers who are representatives of the
people, who are in turn responsible to the Parliament for their
actions. Further, in most democratic governments, the actions of
administration are subject to judicial review. In a written consti¬
tution like India’s the civil servants are bound to act within the
framework of laws and the constitution. In the constitution, there
are built in judicial safeguards against the use of arbitrary
authority of administration. The need for judicial control has
become all the more imperative because of the tremendous growth
of administrative law and adjudication which have greatly expand¬
ed the powers of the bureaucracy.
Democratic administration should be open in more senses

than one. The policies of the government must be open to public
criticism. The government should have enough respect for public
opinion and public liberties, such as the freedom of press, and the
right of association and demonstration. The administration should
be responsive to popular criticism and opinion and should make
every effort to express the public will. An efficient system of public
relations must be developed at all levels of administration for the
quick and effective redressal of citizens* grievances. It must also
be open in the sense of maintaining and representing as wide a
section of the population as possible and must not operate in the
interest of the ruler or of any particular group or class. If adminis¬
tration is to function democratically social barriers of caste, class,
regionalism, provincialism or linguism must not be allowed to
create obstacles in the path of its free and fair functioning. It
must be recruited from a wide social strata. Democratic adminis¬
tration is in reality a cooperative enterprise in which the
governmental agencies, professional and other citizen groups
cooperatively endeavour for the attainment of public welfare. In
developed democratic countries, people’s participation in adminis¬
tration is very well organized; voluntary associations play an
important role and public administration is truly a cooperative
enterprise. However, in developing countries of the Third World,
where civic consciousness is quite undeveloped and voluntary
associations are still in a formative stage, the main burden of
administrative work falls on the bureaucracy, which in most
countries still tends to be authoritarian and paternalistic in its

attitude and manner of working.
Democratic administration also means a particular style of
functioning in the intern:'! matters of the organization. In demo¬
cratic administration the stress is not only on the importance
of relations between the civil servants and citizens but also on the
relations of the civil servants/■///c’/'Public administration like
the functioning of any large organization may acquire a callous
impersonality in relation to its own members where individual
employee becomes a mere cog in a huge machine. It is the duly of
every employee in public organizations, whether he is in a high or
a low position, to treat a fellow employee as an equal partner in a
joint enterprise. The managerial heads in government organiza¬
tions should have the dynamic force of leadership to motivate the
employees more by their power of persuasion than in any imposed
manner. All matters of dispute between the management and the
employees should be sorted out by mutual consultation and nego¬
tiations which do not in any way hurl the self-esteem, and
sentiments of the employees. In the UK and other democratic
countries of the West there arc regular joint representative
committees and negotiating machinery in each department and
agency of the government. In India they are called StalT Councils.
Finally, since it has now been universally recognised that the
twin pillars of democracy are liberty and equality, the purpose of
democratic administration should be to serve both these ends. In
order to achieve these twin objectives in countries like India, it
became imperative to adopt the goal of a social welfare state
dedicated to achieving social equity through planning and demo¬
cratic socialism. The basic objective of socialism is to achieve
rapid improvement in the living standards of the people through as
much equitable distribution of goods and services as possible.
Socialism is a necessary concomitant of political democracy.
Liberty also means freedom from want and equality of opportunity
in every sphere for its true realisation. In India, economic
planning became a necessity to achieve socialistic goals. The
impact of the socialistic policies of the government cun be felt in
three ways: (i) the assumption by the state of developmental and
social welfare functions, (ii) the expansion in the scope and range
of administrative operations both old and new. and (iii) the felt
need for the greater association of the people with, and their
participation in the administrative process, to facilitate speedy and
effective implementation of the plans.
Critics often point out the difficulties in trying to achieve
socialism through democratic methods They tend to maintain that
the very concept of planning is authentic to democracy; since
in a planned society, many liberties may have to be curbed and
freedoms of citizens restricted in the greater interest of public
262 PtJBLIC ADMINISTRATION
welfare. It is true that some rights of a few may have to be curbed

to enable the underprivileged many to enjoy the fruits of liberty
and to ensure a more equalitarian distribution of goods and
services. Sccialism and planning involve a certain measure of
centralization and increase in the sphere of state powers. However,
every effort should be made to make the administration more
socialistically controlled and accountable to the public through
greater degree of decentralization at all levels.
Another widely held notion is that too much emphasis on
people's participation in politics and socialization of means of
production leads to ineflSciency and bureaucratization. No doubt,
there is an element of truth in this assertion but this ma.y only
happen in the early stages of democratization and socialization of
administration. Democracy and socialism will have to grow roots
in a country to be able to work harmoniously together in the long
run.
Democracy and socialism are the worthy goals towards which
all administrations, specially those of the developing nations which
are still evolving an administrative culture, must strive. The
concept of development administration which is dynamic and goal-
oriented needs to be a part of the administrative ethic of all new
and developing nations—the twin values of development being
nation-building and socio-economic progress. Democracy needs
decentralization and popular participation, whereas socialism
requires centralization, planning and control. A harmonious blend
of both can only be the task of every successful administration.
People's Participation In India

The need and desirability of mass participation in the political
processes of society has been widely proclaimed, time and again,
by different writers and philosophers, as divergent in their views as
Aristotle and Marx. The entire theory and practice of democratic
politics rests on the workability of the notion of an active citizen
involvement in the holding and sharing of power and responsibili¬
ties of government and public office. The concept of public
participation was first operational in ancient Greece where
democracy as a form of government originated. In the direct
democracies of ancient Greece all important decisions were taken
by popular assemblies and the citizens were active participants in
the affairs of state. Since then the meaning and content of demo¬
cracy has both widened and narrow'ed with the changing nature
and role of state. The connotation of democracy has now widened
to include with the political a social and economic content as
well.
Liberty and equality are now the twin goals of a democratic
state. Increase in the size and population of modern states has made
administration and people 263
the operation of direct democracies impossible. Modern democra¬

cies now operate on the principle of indirect public participation
through representative institutions.
In the modern era of the‘administrative slate’ many writers
have voiced their concern over the problem of responsiveness ot
the administrative state to the norms of democratic procedures.
To safeguard individual rights and liberties against bureaucratic or
arbitrary abuse an increase in people’s vigilance and participatmn
in politics is necessary. Modern states should show ‘ concern for
individual people in the criteria used in making decisions; as an
effort to assign each person’s need equal weight in policy delibera¬
tions and as an effort to make as broad as feasible the opportunities
for people to participate in the decisions that affect them.
Political scientists are unanimously agreed on the fact that the
main utility of extensive public participation in politics is to
ensure that the vested interests of the privileged do not prevail
over the interests of the majority. To safeguard against such
possibilities adequate measures of public accountability and venti¬
lation of public grievances should exist besides avenues of citizen
participation in politics.
Rapid socio-economic development is one of the key goals of
most governments, specially developing countries where the
administration is involved in the economy in various ways The
government tries to achieve its socio*cconomic objectives through
the instrument of public bureaucracy which becomes one ot
the chief agents of societal change and transformation m these
societies The main problem of administration in developing
societies is to reconcile an authoritarian colonial administrative
legacy based on a notion of passive political participation to the
needs and demands of a goal oriented administration which needs
active public cooperation and support to fulfil mam targets ot
developmental plans and programmes of the government. With-
out such a support even a well conceived plan of development is
likely to fail Development administration is administration for the
socio-economic development of the people, by the people and for
the people. Their active cooperation and participation in the plan¬
ning and implementation processes is vital for its success.
Citizen participation may be used both for support by an
agency and as a control device by the law makers. Participation
has both a broad and a narrow connotation. In a broad sense, it
implies giving every citizen an opportunity to actively participate
in constructive public work (without belonging to any governing
or managing bodies), besides the franchise, in a democracy. In a
narrow sense, participation would refer to a specific action by
6. Ira Sharkansky, Public AdniMuraiion, Policy Making in Covernmenl

Agencies, p. 217.
264 PtJBLIC ADMINISTRATION
which the citizen registers his involvement in public affairs to

achieve a particular objective.
Participation may be direct or indirect, formal or informal; it
may be political, social or administrative in nature. The effective¬
ness of mobilized or institutionalised citizen participation in public
administration depends on three factors:
(a) with what degree of seriousness the participant body or

agency asserts itself;
(b) whether public administration consults the body; and
(c) whether public administration delegates certain functions
to that body.
Citizens’ participation in administration may take many
forms. It refers to all those activities which show the citizen’s
involvement in the processes of administration, that is, participa¬
tion in policy formulation and programme planning, implementa¬
tion and evaluation of policies and programmes meant for
development of particular target groups. In developing societies
the traditional definition of people’s participation (active citizen
involvement in the decision making process) often becomes
irrelevant due to lack of time, initiative, and resources of the
citizen who fails to show the necessary enthusiasm or cooperation
towards governmental programmes meant for his benefit. There¬
fore, in these countries participatory activities by the citizens have
to be solicited by the government. The state not only plays the
key role in attempts at socio-economic transformation and moder¬
nization but also in promoting, what is called institutional
participation.
Citizen participation demands certain preconditions, of these,
perhaps, the most important are enlightened political leaders,
conscientious civil servants and an informed and cooperative
general public. Knowledge of mutual problems and difficulties on
the part of both officials and citizens is a vital input for successful
participation. Participation at all levels—both rural and urban is
also necessary for speedy development.
Problems of People's Participation
The degree and extent of people’s participation in the admini¬

stration of developing countries like India is greatly conditioned
by the basic nature and operational peculiarities of administration
during the colonial period, when maintenance of law and order,
and revenue-raising were the prime considerations of administration.
The administrative apparatus and functions were then, to a great
extent, autonomous and unaccountable to the public. Public
participation neither existed nor was solicited by the government.
In the authoritarian and inegalitarian political and administrative
culture in which colonial administration functioned, the benefits

of administration accrued mostly to the upper and the privileged
classes of society. In terms of methods of operation administration
was essentially coercive, formal and procedural.
After independence with the adoption of the goals of a social
welfare state, the key responsibility for rapid socio-economic
progress and modernization was undertaken by the state which
sought to implement them with the help of public bureaucracy.
With the beginning of the process of planned development in
India the planners and administrators have repeatedly stressed
the need to involve the masses and solicit their cooperation in
the tremendous challenge of development administration. To
shake free the inertia of the masses who had hitherto been only
used to being passive recipients of government aid the government
sought to create an institutional infrastructure to promote
popular participation. Panchayati Raj and community development
programmes were introduced mainly to solicit popular participa¬
tion in the development administration of the government. The
community development programme was a method of soliciting
community participation to assist the government authorities in
improving the economic, social and cultural life of the people in
the rural areas.
They include encouraging the village people to become self-
reliant, responsible citizens, capable of participating in socio¬
economic development and nation building bv proper
utilization of the scarce resources, adoption of modern
agricultural methods and practices. Utilizing the free time of
the villagers in useful community work; extending the princi¬
ple of cooperation to make the rural families credit-worthy ;
launching a multipronged attack on hunger, disease, squalor,
ignorance and idleness and upgrading the social status of the
village teachers and associating them in development
programme.’
In short, the essence of the concept of rural development is

the all round development of the village community with the
efforts of the people themselves. Panchayati Raj system was intro¬
duced to operationalize the concept of democratic decentralization
and devolution of real power and responsibility to the local masses
for the development ol their areas. The need for citizen participa¬
tion in the plan formulation and implementation processes have
also been repeatedly stated in the objectives of India's Five Year
P Ians, the recurring theme of which is to bring about the social,
economic and political development of the Indian masses with the
active inspiration, participation and involvement of the masses
themselves in the development programmes.
7. Tarlok Singh, India's Developmeni Experience, Macmillan, Delhi, 1974.

Means of Citizen Participation

Low literacy levels, lack of awareness, inertia, poverty and
general apathy of the people obviously restrict mass participation
in the policy formulation process in India. The citizen can, at best,
participate in the outlining of directions and policy objectives only
indirectly by (a) electing his representatives to panchayat bodies at
the village, block and district levels, to state legislatures, and
Parliament; (b) participation by enlightened citizens in seminars,
studies and discussions promoted by political parties, pressure
groups, youth forums, universities, voluntary associations, press,
planning bodies, and government machinery; and (c) by articula¬
tion of the needs and demands of people before policy makers and
planners through political parties and other institutions.
Citizen viewpoints are also articulated by various agencies
such as political parties, pressure groups, press and voluntary
associations. Institutional participation refers to the participation
of citizens in policy making in government of administrative
agencies such as central and state legislatures, Panchayati Raj
bodies etc.*
Extensive empirical studies on the nature and degree of
citizens’ participation in India have revealed that the colonial
legacy, social diversity, poverty and illiteracy and the peculiarity
of the political process combine to greatly restrict popular parti¬
cipation in the public administration in India. The colonial legacy
of limited government by an administrative elite stands in the way
of the administrators* soliciting extensive public cooperation.
Decision-making on all major issues of public policy is monopo¬
lised by a small politico-administrative elite in India. The social
structure is characterised by numerous cleavages along religious,
ethnic, linguistic and class lines. Widespread poverty and illiteracy
facilitate the dominance of powerful socio-economic groups in
society who monopolise the fruits of development and progress.
With the genera! passivity and subservience of the masses, it is
scarcely surprising that the bureaucracy has become a privileged
minority who refuse to share any decision-making power with the
people. Community development programmes failed to generate
the necessary enthusiasm and rural initiative, and donations in cash
and kind were not as forthcoming as was required to make the
movement a success. It turned out to be more of a ‘government’s
programme’ instead of ‘people’s programme*. The system of
democratic decentralization introduced in India did not really
devolve power on the masses. The composition of Panchayati Raj
bodies merely reflected existing caste and class divisions in rural
society besides being subject to political pressures which rendered
8. For a detailed discussion on the various methods of citizen participation

see Noorjahan Bava, People's Participation in the Development
Aihninistration in India, Uppal, New Delhi, 1984, pp. 55-60.
them ineffective to a great extent. Planning did not eradicate

widespread poverty, inequality and unemployment. The fruits of
development did not reach the target groups (the rural and
urban poor, landless farmers, small artisans, tribals and backward
castes) who neither participated in the development programmes
nor benefited from them.
The major components of citizen perceptions of administration
which are generally considered essential for widespread public
participation in development administration are :
1. adequate citizen knowledge of administrative norms and
practices;
2. genuine public support for the goals, policies and pro¬
grammes of the government;
3. positive evaluation of the job performance of governmental
officials by the public,
4. perceptions of the administrative system as sensitive and
responsive to the public;
5. belief in the integrity and honesty of the administrative
cadre, rather than a tendency to view it as corrupt or corruptible;
6. perception of administrators as committed to egalitarian
goals and practices;
7. feelings of efficacy and optimism about citizen action in
the political system generally and in the administrative sub-system
particularly; and
8. motivational orientations emphasizing cooperative action
with administrative officials in the implementation of developmental
goals.
All these components arc essential for the evolution of a
balanced citizen-administration relationship, that is, to prevent the
dominance or subservience of administration as well as to minimize
the ignorance, apathy or helplessness of citizens. Unfortunately,
in the present Indian context the major components of this rela¬
tionship are conspicuous by their absence, which in fact is proving
to be the main hurdle in widespread and effective public participa¬
tion in the public administration in India.
Based on extensive field survey Eldersveld, Jagannadham and
Barnabas came out with the following research findings on citizen-
administration relations:
The attitudes of Indian citizens tow’ards their government and
its administrative officials particularly, is a complex and para¬
doxical mosaic of support and hostility, of consensus and
critique. From 75 per cent to 90 per cent view governmental
268 PUBLIC administration
jobs as prestigious, 90 per cent feel that health and commu¬

nity development programmes are worthwhile, and less than
50 per cent (20 per cent rural) are critical of the job perfor¬
mance of Central Government officials. On the other hand,
the majority feel that 50 per cent or more of the officials are
corrupt, large proportions (60 per cent urban, 32 percent
rural) say their dealings with officials are unsatisfactory, and
the majority sense that their probabilities of gaining access to
officials and being successful in processing their complaints
with them arc low. Over 50 per cent feel officials in certain
agencies are not fair, that the citizen can do little by himself,
and from 60 per cent to 75 per cent feel that political pull is
important in getting administration action.’
Other studies on citizen-administration relations have revealed
various reasons for general mistrust and lack of faith of the public
in administration. The reasons for this are : (a) corruption, and un¬
helpful attitude of the bureaucrats, (b) inordinate delay in getting
the wheels of the administrative machinery in motion, (c) citizens’
ignorance about procedures and formal rules, and (d) discrimina¬
tion between the rich and the poor; the rich having easy access to
administration, and the general tendency of officials to avoid the
poor and underplay their needs and interests.
The Indian administrative system has no doubt established
a wide network in both rural and urban areas but apparently it
still has a very limited impact on the life of citizens whose enthu¬
siasm and cooperation towards it has not been forthcoming.
Citizens would have been more involved in the planning, moder¬
nization and development processes, if they had felt their demands
and expectations are in the process of realization. But in the
existing milieu of slow pace of development and failure of rising
expectations, it is small wonder that the people are turning increa¬
singly hostile, critical and cynical and a tide of‘revolution of
rising functions’ has taken over. Although the chief defects of
administration which atTcct the citizen directly are delays in
implementation and diffusion of responsibilities rather than faulty
planning or incorrect policy-making, in the ultimate analysis the
quantity and quality of people’s involvement in the socio-economic
development in India is set by the elites in all walks of life, parti¬
cularly the political and administrative.
Citizens become what their leaders make them to be, and
adminstration operates under two forces : leader’s direction
from above and citizen’s understanding and cooperation from
below. Administration is a trustee subject to the watchful eye
y Samuel J. Eldcrsvcld, V. Jagannadham. A.P. Barnabas. The Citizen and

the Administrator in a Developing Democracy, New Delhi, 1968, Indian
Insiituie of Public Administration.
and the guiding hand of people inside and people below. The
emohasis on the public and the administration's relations with
it arc as important for analysis of bureaucracy as the new
techniques for improvement of organizational efnciency.
In conclusion,
People’s participation in the development process means active
cooperation and involvement of the general masses and the
targeted public in the various interfaces of the decision-making
process in development administration. This calls for their
active interests, enthusiasm and co-operation in planning,
implementation and evaluation of development programmes
at all levels, particularly at the grassroot level. Public parti¬
cipation must become a mass movement. for, it is not only
a means to development but in itself a development goal.
Public participation is integral to the very process of develop¬
ment particularly the development of a developing democracy
like India It calls for both political and administrative
decentralization. The Panchayati Raj institutions were esta¬
blished as institutions of grassroot democracy and of derno-
cratic development. In the recent past the system has
lost its old moorings, its ethos and elan. The need of the
hour is to revive and rejuvenate the Panchayati Raj
bodies by holding elections to them at stated intervals by
devolving adequate resources and power to these local
government institutions, by according adequate representation
in such bodies to members of weaker sections such as women,
scheduled castes and scheduled tribes by compulsory reserva¬
tion of scats, nomination or cooption as in Gujarat, by
eradicating poverty through structural changes in society in¬
cluding more effective implementation of land reforms,
increasing production and productivity through modernization,
science and technology, generation of employment opportu¬
nities and providing a purposeful relevant education to our
children and adults and inculcating national unity.
Public Accountabilily *
One of the norms of democratic administration is that power
should be commensurate with responsibility and the holders of
public office should be accountable to the people for the exercise
of authority. This is considered an effective safeguard against the
misuse of power and abuse of public authority. Various forms
and measures of public accountability of administration have been
devised in all democratic stated, including India.
10. V. Jagannadham, “Administration and (he Citizen”, The Indian Journal

of Public Administration, 17 (1971), p. 616.
11. Uoor'iahan Bava, People's Participation In Development Administration in
India, pp. 194-195.
According to L.D. White,public accountability consists of

the “sum tota4 of the constitutional, statutory, administrative and
judicial rules and precedents and the established practices by
means of which public officials may be held accountable for their
official action.** In other words, public accountability refers to
the liability of government servants to give a satisfactory account of
the use of official power or discretionary authority to the people. This
IS considered a check against arbitrary use of authority. Various
formal and objective methods and procedures, (legislative,
executive and judicial) have been gradually evolving to ensure the
public servant’s accountability and responsiveness to the public will
in democracies.
With the ever increasing functions and importance of public

administration in modern welfare states the issue of public
accountability has assumed great importance. The civil servants
not only implement policy but in a large measure are actively res¬
ponsible for their initiation and formulation. In Third World
countries where the bureaucracy becomes the chief agent of social
and economic change and progress, they have to be given a wide
range of discretionary authority to perform their functions. No
clear norms and precedents exist and in many situations bureau-
crats are largely left to themselves to take decisions. In the
authoritarian administrative culture which pervades many of the
Third World countries an effective system of public control over
administration is a growing imperative to curb all kinds of
authoritarian tendencies.
A successful system of administrative control should strike a
balance between the effective use of public authority and the
democratic rights of the people.
The extent and range of public accountability varies according

to the constitutional framework of the country. In direct demo¬
cracies like Switzerland, the control of the people over administra¬
tion is far more direct and effective than in indirect democracies.
In communist countries like the Soviet Union and China, public
accountability, in effect, means accountability of the administration
to the communist party. In indirect democracies, the major
agencies which exert control over administration are the legislature,
executive and the judiciary. In the cabinet form of government,’
as in England and India, legislative control is more effective than
in the presidential form.
In modern democracies people exercise control over the

administration through their elected representatives in the legisla¬
ture. It is the legislature which lays down the policy and sets the
administrative wheels in motion. It chalks out the nature and
12. L.D. White, Introduction to the Study of Public Administration, p. 495.

scope of administrative action, determines the number of admini¬

strative personnel, besides sanctioning requisite funds for tlie
implementation of government policies. The control of the
legislature does not end here. It also continues to supervise, direct
and control the implementation of administration.
In parliamentary forms of government, it is the political
executive, the minister, who is accountable to the legislature for
the administrative acts of the departmental heads. The public
officials are not personally answerable to parliament for their
official acts though they may have to appear before parliamentary
committees to defend certain legislative proposals.
In India, the principal methods of legislative control are of
three types, that is, control over (i) policy, (ii) departmental acts,
and (iii) hnances.
The various methods of e.xcrcising such control are:
Debates and Discussions
The parliament may exercise control through various debates
and discussions which provide an opportunity for the review ot
governmental policies and their implementation. The more notable
occasions for discussion among these are during the president’s
inaugural speech to both houses of parliament, the budget speech
of the finance minister or during the introduction of new legisla¬
tive proposals.
There arc also some other occasions, when various aspects of
administration are put up for legislative comment or criticism.
Resolutions or Motions
The legislature has the power to pass resolutions on any
matter or move motions to censure a particular minister or the
government as a whole. The most important motions are call-
attention motion, adjournment motion, privilege motion and the
no-confidence motion. A resolution is only meant to be recom¬
mendatory whereas censure motions, if passed, make it compulsory
for the government to resign.
^Questions
In a parliamentary form of government, legislative questions
become the most continuous and vocal method of the people’s
representatives to exercise their scrutiny over the acts of omission
and commission of the government. During the question hour in
parliament any member can ask any question seeking information
on any matter. The minister concerned, replies to these questions
with the aid of the bureaucrats and secretaries in his department.
If the answer given to a question does not satisfy the questioner,
supplementary questions can also be asked to which ministers
are expected to give satisfactory replies. The main purpose of the

question hour is to ventilate public grievances and to draw the
attention of the people towards various facilities of the government.
Since the questions may cover any field or branch of administra¬
tion, the public officials are constantly alert, conscientious and
responsible for their official acts.
Budgetary Control
In every democratic country, the legislature controls the nation’s
purse-strings. No money can be spent by the executive without
legislative sanction. The budget proposals are extensively debated
in parliament before being voted upon. With the ruling party
enjoying a majority in parliament, in parliamentary democracies
the demand for grants can neither be rejected nor reduced, but
provides an opportunity for a general review of public policy. It
is also the duty of the parliament to see that the money sanctioned
has been spent economically and in accordance with the guidelines
laid down by it. This requires proper audit of governmental
expenditure which is the duty of the Comptroller and Auditor
General of India. The Auditor General while auditing the
governmental expenditure examines whether the money spent had
legislative sanction and whether it was spent for the purpose for
which sanction was made. It also examines governmental
expenditure from the principles of economy and financial propriety.
Parliamentary Committees
Modern parliaments are so overburdened with work that
they neither have the time nor technical expertise or knowledge to
go into the details of the working of various administrative
agencies and governmental departments. Thus the parliamentary
committee system was evolved to act as a watchdog on public
administration and governmental functioning. Some of the
important committees of Parliament in India are : Public Accounts
Committee, Estimates Committee, Committee on Public Under¬
takings, Committee on Subordinate Legislation and so on.
The Public Accounts Committee examines the report of the
Auditor-General regarding the propriety of expenditure incurred
by government departments. The Estimates Committee examines
the budgetary estimates sent by different ministries to suggest
economies in expenditure.
The Public Undertakings Committee is responsible for
scrutinizing the reports and accounts of the public sector under¬
takings in India to see whether they are being managed in
accordance with sound business principles.
The main purpose of the Committee on Subordinate Legisla¬
tion is to exercise a necessary check over delegated legislation
which is a typical legislative outgrowth of modern parliamentary
procedure, the courts have a right to pronounce on the legality of

his action.
With the increase in power, number and functions of adminis¬
trative bodies the rights of citizens are also protected by the quasi-
judicial tribunals which exist in most democratic countries.
Judicial Remedies for Lawsuits Against Government and Officials

Judicial intervention can be in the form of suing the govern¬
ment itself or the public official concerned against whom any
citizen may want a redressal of his grievance. The position
regarding the suability of the government and public officials differs
in the countries following the system of Rule of Law from those
following the Administrative Law. The Rule of Law system
prevails in England, the USA and mqst Commonwealth countries
including India. The Administrative Law system is practised in
France and some countries of Europe.
The Rule of Law system establishes that the public officials are
subject to the ordinary laws of the land and cannot seek official
protection for acts performed in their official capacity for which
they are personally liable or suable in courts. However, there are
always certain high officials who enjoy legal immunity for official
acts in all countries like the British Monarch, the American
President, the President of India and Governors of Indian States.
The suability of the state in India is governed by Article 300 of the
Constitution, which clearly states that the state is suable for con¬
tracts. that is, trading functions and is not suable for the tortuous
acts of its officials. In practice, however, the state is often held
responsible for the illegal acts of its public officials.
On the other hand, in the countries where the system of
Administrative Law prevails, the state is liable and suable for all
illegal acts of its officials. The errant officials in these countries
are tried not in ordinary courts but in the administrative courts
which have the powers to award damages from the public funds
to the aggrieved parties.
Extraordinary Judicial Remedies in India

The courts in India have also been constitutionally provided
with a number of writs which may be used by them to protect
citizens' rights against arbitrary violation by the Government or
public officials.
Habeas corpus : Habeas corpus, which literally means “to
produce the body of” is a prerogative writ meant to provide
immediate relief from arbitrary confinement or restraint and is
issued for the vindication of the individual right to personal liberty
by scrutinizing the legality of the confinement by the court. It is an
obligatory power of the courts to issue this writ if there is a prima
278 Public administration
facie case for supposing that the person detained is unlawfully

deprived of his right to liberty. The writ will normally be issued
if the court feels satisfied that the detention has not been made in
accordance with the procedure established by law (Article 21 and
22) and the person detained has not been produced before the
magistrate, within twenty-four hours of his arrest. However, the
Preventive Detention Act in India, restricts the overall merit of this
writ to a great extent. But even this Act has been hedged in with
certain safeguards to prevent its arbitrary use. A person cannot
be detained for a period of more than three months unless the
cause of detention is investigated by an advisory board consisting
of persons of the status of a judge of a High Court within that
period and the board has upheld the cause of such detention.
Mandamus : The writ of mandamus is a command issued by
a common law court of competent jurisdiction directing any
person, corporation or inferior court requiring him or them to do
some particular thing specified therein which concerns to this or
their office and is in the nature of public duty. This writ cannot
be claimed, as a matter of right and its issuance is entirely optional
and discretionary by the courts. It is a writ issued to a public
official to perform an official duly which he has failed to do.
Normally, the writ is not issued, unless there is an alternative
remedy which is self-sufficient, beneficial and effective.
Prohibition : Prohibition is a judicial writ issued by a higher
to a lower court for preventing it from usurping jurisdiction which
it has not been legally vested with. The writ thus commands the
lower court not to exercise its power and authority over a matter
which is not in its sphere of jurisdiction. This writ can be claimed
as a matter of right and can be issued only against judicial and
quasi-judicial tribunals.
Certiorari: The writ of certiorari means the direction of a
superior court to an inferior court for transferring the records of
proceedings of a case pending with it for the purpose of determin¬
ing the legality of the proceedings and for giving more satisfactory
efleci to them than could be done in the inferior court concerned.
The writ can be made available to adjudicate upon the validity of
judicial decisions.
This writ usually upholds or nullifies the judgement of the
inferior court.
Quo warranto: The literal meaning of the word “quo
warranto” means “what warranty or authority”. The writ of quo
warranto is issued by the court to enquire into the legality of the
claim which a parly asserts to a permanent public office or
franchise and to remove him from the post if his claim is found to
be illegal. The burden ot proof to prove his claim lies on the
respondent.
It is now clear that the writs discussed above arc in the nature
of judicial control over judicial as well as administrative acts. The
Supreme Court in India has been empowered under the Constitu¬
tion to issue directions, writs and orders in the nature of habeas
corpus, mandamus, prohibition, quo warranto and certiorari for
the enforcement of the fundamental rights of the Indian citizens
and the High Courts have been empowered within their jurisdiction
to issue directions, orders or writs for the enforcement of funda¬
mental rights and for any other purpose. Thus, it would be
observed that the po^êrs of High Courts are wider to the extent
that besides issuing writs they can also issue other directions and
orders as may be found necessary not only for the enforcement of
fundamental rights but also for any other purpose.
Limitation of Judicial Control

Judicial remedies are no doubt a great bulwark of individual
rights and liberties but they are also hedged in with certain limita¬
tions which often restrict their general usefulness. Firstly, all
administrative actions are not subject to judicial control. Secondly,
even within their sphere of jurisdiction, the judiciary cannot
intervene on its own but can intervene only on the request of
injured parlies who may or may not choosê to seek judicial redress.
A large fraction of cases of administrative excesses do not even
come before the courts because the judicial process being slow,
cumbersome and expensive many do not like to take advantage of
judicial remedies even though they may be aware of them.
Corruption
The problem of administrative corruption is perhaps as old as
administration itself, but the problem of public accountability is as
old as the theory and practice of democratic administration. The
enormous expansion of the governmental bureaucracy, both in size
and range, touching on all aspects of the citizen's life, has brought
the problem of elfective public checks and control on public
administration to the forefront. The adoption of the goals of a
social welfare state in almost all developing countries has resulted
in an extension of bureaucracy in size and number. The expansion
of governmental tasks results in the multiplication of the volume of
work where administrative power and discretion are vested at
different levels of the governmental hierarchy. And where there is
power and discretion, there is always the possibility of abuse, more
so when the power and discretion have to be exercised in the “con¬
text of scarcity and controls and pressure to spend public money,
as in India”, says Mohit Bhaltacharya.
The Law Commission had pointed out in its fourteenth report
that there is a vast sphere of administrative action in India in which
the bureaucracy can exercise discretionary authority without being
accountable to citizens in any way in case of abuse of authority.
^80 PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Statutory powers have been given to all types of bureaucrats with

ample scope for harassment, corruption and indulgence in malprac¬
tices by the errant few who may choose to do so. The increase
in the scope and direction of governmeDtal powers has been
accompanied by an increase in the volume of legislation and
executive orders in their extension to new areas.
Besides an increase in discretionary powers and delegated

legislation, there has also been a phenomenal rise in the amount of
administrative adjudication. The number of administrative
tribunals has rapidly multiplied. As ‘dispensers of justice* admini¬
strative tribunals have many plus points like speedy disposal of
cases, freedom from the bounds of purely technical rules and
consequent ability to give effect to legislatively expressed policy.
Judgements of these tribunals are not ordinarily open to review by
law courts except on procedural grounds like excess of jurisdic¬
tion and bias or error.
AH the above problems—executive discretion, delegated legis¬
lation and administrative adjudication—are vitally connected with
the problem of public accountability of administration. The
problem of administrative malpractices is universal, though of more
pressing importance in countries like India, with its history of
colonial rule, and an unresponsive, authoritarian administrative
culture. In the democracies of the West, there are many informal
agencies of public control over administration like political parties,
pressure groups, press and public opinion which by their vigilance
and initiative can manage to exert a powerful influence and act as
a check against administrative excesses.
Due to widespread illiteracy, ignorance of bureaucratic norms

and procedures and retrogressive colonial legacies these informal
agencies are very weak in India.
Administrative malpractices may take many forms. Numerous
are the forms of corruption and abuse of authority in India. The
Central Vigilance Commission has identified the following modes of
corruption:
1. Misappropriation of public money and stores.

2. Possession of disproportionate assets.
3. Abuse of official position/powers.
4. Acceptance of illegal gratification in recruitments, post¬
ings, transfers and promotions.
5. Acceptance of gifts.
6. Misuse of imported and allotted quotas by various firms
with the connivance of public servants.
7. Moral turpitude.
8. Unauthorized occupation and subletting of government

quarters,
9. Under-assessment of income tax and estate duty for
pecuniary gain.
10. Showing favours to contractors and firms.
11. Claiming of false travelling allowance and house rent.
12. Purchase of immovable property without prior permission

or intimation.
13. Misuse of government employees for personal work.
14. Production of forged certificates of age or birth or
community.
15. Acceptance of substandard stores/works.
16. Borrowing money from contractors/firms having official
dealings with officers.
17. Incurring pecuniary obligations ol persons with whom the
public servants have official dealings.
18. Causing loss to government by negligence or otherwise.
19. Irregularities in the reservation of seats by rail and by
air.
20. Non-delivery of money orders, insured covers, and value
payable pracels.
21. Irregularity in grant of import and export licences.
22. Irregularity in the grant of telephone connections.
23. Misuse of advances sanctioned for purchase of scooters
and cars.
24. Abnormal delay in settlement of compensation claims to
displaced persons.
25. Wrong assessment of claims of displaced persons.
26. Cheating in connection with the sale and purchase of plots
for residential purposes.*^
Institutional Devices to Combat Administrative Excesses

Administrative Courts : The French system of administrative
courts to deal with disputes between the administration and
individual citizens is a unique device that has also been adopted
16. A. Awaslhi and S. Maheshwari, Public Adniinisiraiioii, Lakshmi Narain

Agarwal, Agra, 1984, pp. 417-418.
by Other countries like Greece, Belgium and Turkey. A distinc-

tion is made between acts which a government servant performs in
his personal and those in his official capacity. For the latter type
of acts he can be sued in the administrative courts. The members
of the courts are civil servants with thorough knowledge of the
administrative processes. The administrative courts exercise general
supervision over administration and possess ultimate authority over
all disciplinary matters concering civil servants.
The operational procedure of these courts is very simple. The

plaintiff has to submit two copies of complaints, a copy of the
contested decision, and an abstract of the legal arguments or
factual details in support of the case. The court makes prelimi¬
nary inquiries and invites the administrator concerned to justify
his decision or action. The court can then take action on two
grounds. It can either annul the administrative act or decision on
grounds of legality or can recognise the existence of a fundamental
or legal right which the administration has violated and ensure
appropriate redress. Decisions in these courts are taken as
promptly as possible and are much less expensive than in the
ordinary courts. The gradual spread of this French institution to
many other countries is a growing proof of its efficacy and popu¬
larity as a device for prompt redressal of citizen grievances.
The Procurator : The procurator system which originated in
the USSR has now spread to many other countries of East
Europe like Hungary, Poland and Czechoslovakia. It is an impor¬
tant institution for redressing citizens* grievances and ensuring
observance of legality at all levels of the administration. The
procurator is in charge of multiple functions including the pro¬
secution for crimes, supervision over legality in the activity of the
investigating agencies, judicial sentences and judgements, and
legality of the execution of sentences. However, its most significant
function is that of ‘general supervision’, a tw’o-fold task consisting
of supervision over :
(a) conformity of the subordinate, legislation of ministries

and other governmental agencies with various higher laws
and decrees; and
(b) the strict implementation of laws by officials and citizens.
Article 113 of the Russian Constitution gives a general
mandate to the Procurator’s Office to prevent Soviet
governmental bodies from exceeding their powers. An
individual citizen has the right to make a complaint to
the procurator. Where available administrative or judicial
procedure is yet to be made use of by the complainant,
the procurator may take either of the following steps:
(i) It may advise the complainant to avail of the ordinary
administrative or judicial channel.
(ii) It may itself initiate administrative or judicial

proceedings in cases where the procurator has been
given necessary authorisation.
(iii) It may take action on the subject of the complaint
and directly address the organ against which the
complaint has been made. The action by the pro¬
curator can take the form of a “protest” or “pro¬
posal” to rectify the violation of law or an initiation
of proceedings against errant officials. It has been
found to be a useful and effective device for redressal
of citizens’ grievances in the socialist countries.
The Ombudsman : A typical Scandinavian institution for

redressing citizens’ grievances, which has aroused worldwide
interest, is the institution of Ombudsman, it has been adopted
in North European countries such as Finland and Norway.
Although the political systems of these countries may vary, they
have a common interest in the democratization of public adminis¬
tration and finding ways and means for establishing an efl'ective
system of public accountability and control over the administrative
apparatus at all levels. The Ombudsman is established as an
instrument of parliament for the supervision and control of the
administration. He, however, functions independently (a consti¬
tutional post) of the government and parliament in the perform¬
ance of his duties. Parliament is, how'cver, entitled to define and
demarcate its sphere of authority. Ombudsman, a Swedish word,
stands for an officer appointed by the legislature to handle com¬
plaints against administrative and judicial action. The investiga¬
tions of the Ombudsman are conducted informally. In investigat¬
ing complaints, the Ombudsman has free access to all the files of
the administration and can demand explanations from the officials
or authorities concerned.
In his capacity as Commissioner of Parliament the Ombuds¬
man supervises the observance of law and statutes. He can
investigate all cases of administrative malpracliccs and improper
use of authority. He investigates complaints against administra¬
tive decisions or actions as well as complaints of official high-hand¬
edness, inefficiency or negligence. His work is carried out in the
following ways :
J. Proposals for reform of administrative procedures and
operations.
2. Directions or orders suggesting punitive action to be taken
against officials.
3. Notification or report in case of giving notification or

reporting upon defects in existing legislation to the
minister concerned or to the houses of parliament.
The Ombudsman system has gained widespread popularity

primarily because it is a speedy and cheap method of handling
appeals against administrative decisions. It is not only an instru¬
ment for supervising the administration, but also an instrument
for protection of citizens’ rights. The prestige that traditionally
goes with the office and the objectivity and competence of the
Ombudsman have contributed to the legitimization of the institu¬
tion and its worldwide acceptance.
The Indian Response

In India the need for institutional devices to deal with cases
of administrative corruption and citizens* grievances have been
recommended from time to time by committees and commissions
to bring about new forms of public accountability of administra¬
tion. The Santhanam Committee on Prevention of Corruption
(J964) thought it necessary to devise adequate methods of control
over exercise of discretion by different categories of government
servants. As a sequel to the Santhanam Committee Report, vigil¬
ance commissions were set up at the Centre in 1964, and in the
various states later. Vigilance cells have been created in several
government departments and public sector undertakings.
The Central Vigilance Commission is headed by the Central

Vigilance Commissioner appointed by the President of India. The
Commission receives complaints directly from aggrieved persons.
Other sources of information about corruption and malpractices
are the press reports, audit reports and allegations made by mem¬
bers of Parliament. On receiving complaints, the commission
may ask
(i) the concerned ministry/department to inquire into them;
(ii) the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) to make an

inquiry; and
(iii) the CBI director to register a case and conduct an investi¬

gation. Prosecution, however, depends on the approval
of the appropriate sanctioning authority.
The jurisdiction of the Commission is presently limited to

complaints against gazetted officers and officers of equivalent
status.
The Administrative Reforms Commission set up in 1966 took

up on priority basis the matter of redressing citizens’ grievances.
The Commission felt that the e.xisting institutions to deal with this
problem were inadequate and found the institution of Ombudsman
a sine qua non of democratic functioning and (as) an essential
prerequisite of the progress and prosperity on which the fulfilment
of our democracy depends.
»
The Lokpal Bill in India

On August 12,1985, the Minister for Parliamentary Affairs
disclosed the Government’s intention to bring forward legislation
providing for the appointment of a Lokpal to handle corruption
cases against top public servants. The measure is designed to
cleanse public life by ending corruption in high places. This is the
fourth time that legislation for creating an Ombudsman-type insti¬
tution has been taken up since the introduction of the first measure
for this purpose in 1968.
The main features of the Lokpal Bill arc : Complaints alleg¬
ing offences under the Prevention of Corruption Act or Chapter
IX of the Indian Penal Code (offences relating to public servants)
will be inquired into by the Lokpal. Complaints can only be
against (i) a Union Minister (except the Prime Minister) including
a Deputy Minister or a Parliamentary Secretary; Chief Minister of
a State and Union Territory. Every complaint will be accompanied
by an affidavit and a se,curity deposit of Rs. 1,000. The Lokpal
will be appointed in consultation with the Chief Justice of India.
He will be either a serving or a retired Supreme Court Judge or a
person eligible to be appointed a Supreme Court Judge.
The Lokpal can dismiss a complaint if it is frivolous or

pertains to an alleged offence committed five years prior to the
date of complaint. After inquiry, the Lokpal will submit his
report to the Prime Minister, in the case of Union Ministers, and
to the Chief Minister where the complaint is against his ministers.
Action on the report is to be taken within three months of its
submission and the Lokpal has to be informed about it. If the
Lokpal is not satisfied with the action taken, he can submit a
special report. The Lokpal is also to give an annual report on
his functions. These reports are to be placed before the Parlia¬
ment. Either the special report or the extract of an annual report
concerning a complaint against a Chief Minister is to be placed
before the legislature of the State or the Union Territory concerned.
The public prosecutor will file a complaint before the competent
court when any person insults or interferes with the work of the
Lokpal. If false evidence is given before him or the Lokpal
finds that the complaint is malicious, the Lok Pal can convict and
sentence the accused person.
The President, the Vice-President, the Prime Minister, the

Lok Sabha Speaker and all members of parliament are kept out of
the purview of the Bill. Leaders of all groups represented in both
the Rajya Sabha and the Lok Sabha felt that the Prime Minister
should not be excluded.
In view of the subsequent controversy, the Union Government
changed its plans at the last minute and agreed on August 28 to
} ’
y
the suggestion to refer the Bill to a Joint Select Com mittee of the
two Houses of Parliament.
This is the fourth time in nineteen years that the Bill has been
referred to a Joint Select Committee. On each of the three
occasions, in 1966, 1971 and 1977, the House of the People or the
Lok Sabha, was dissolved before the Committee could report to
the two Houses.
The committee will comprise 45 members—30 from the Lok
Sabha and 15 from the Rajya Sabha. The Speaker, Mr. Balram
Jakhar, said the Bill required greater consideration and that both
the Government and the Opposition were agreed that it should be
referred to a Joint Select Committee. The Bill is under the
consideration of the committee.
The measure is, of course, to be welcomed as another major
step to check corruption. Whether the Lokpal would be an
effective functionary and whether the vast-ranging, deep-rooted
corruption would be checked or minimised remains to be seen.
There are several imponderables.
To sum up, the institutional devices of public accountability
and for redressing citizens’ grievances in India are many and
varied (legislative, administrative and judicial). Several institutions
at the central, state and local levels exist for this purpose but they
merely touch the tip of the iceberg of administrative corruption.
Dissatisfaction with governmental functioning and behaviour of
employees is widespread. It is against the background of bureau¬
cratic ineRiciency and general illiteracy and apathy of the masses
at large that the usefulness of Ombudsman or any other grievance
handling machinery should be considered. The Ombudsman type
of institution presupposes a fair measure of administrative efficiency
so that most cases of citizens are attended to promptly, first by the
regular machineries such as administrative agencies and then the
judiciary. But where the normal functioning of the administrative
machinery is inertia-ridden and corrupt, the Ombudsman is likely
to be swamped with overwork. As the Administrative Reforms
Commission has pointed out,
The setting up of these authorities is not the complete answer
to the problem of redress of citizens’ grievances. They only
provide the ultimate setup for such redress as has not been
available through the normal departmental governmental
machinery and do not absolve the department from fulfilling
its obligations to the citizen for administering its affairs
without generating, as far as possible, any legitimate sense of
grievance.
In the ultimate analysis, it has been pointed out that an
efficient and clean system of administration is the by-product of a
similar political and administrative culture. In a democratic system,

administrative leadership belongs to the politicians who are the
representatives of the people. In the present Indian environment
of falling standards of political morality, and administrative corrup¬
tion, institutional devices to check administrative malpractices will
not really grow and flourish because they cannot become inde¬
pendent of the overwhelming bureaucratic apparatus of the
government and the overpowering political forces at work around
them.
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
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290
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INDEX
Accountabilily, public, 269 Audit process, 192

Adams, Brook, 258 Australia, 22
Administration: administrative activi¬
ties, 91; administrative agencies, Balwant Rai Mehta study, 244
184, 192; administrative courts, 281- Bar Association, 239-240
282; administrative officers, 194; Barnabas, 267
administrative reforms commission, Barnard, Chester, 8, 14, 58
85, 205, 208, 226, 284, 286; Barnard Simon Equilibrium model, 15
'administrative state’, 29, 252, 263; Barnett, Doak, 162, 163
administrative system, 87-89, 280- Bavelas, Alex, 53
281-interaction between economic Beard. Charles, 7, 258
systems, 87-90; administrators. 92, Behaviouralism: approach, 14-16;
93, 144, 180, 190, 255, administra¬ modern, 14
tors: training for development Belgium, 13, 282
administrators in the third world, Bennis, Warren, 15, 60
213-215; criteria of successful Bhambhri, C.P., 15. 70, 71. 139
administration, 252-259; western Bhattacharya, Mohit, 279
conception of administration, 171- 'Big Government’, 252
172 Binet, 204
Africa, 22. 30, 223, 242 Boards, 110; composition of. and
Agencies, 184, 192, 266; line, staff and Commissions, 112-13
auxiliary agencies, 98-102 Bolsheviks, 76
"Agraria,” 30 Brandies, Loius D-, 44
Agraria-Transilia-lndustria Model, 19 Britain (British Administration; Rule),
Agrarian Societies, structural features 13, 22-25,71, 72, 104, 106, 184, 205;
of, 96 British Bureaucratic system 68;
All India Medical Council, 239 British Committee on the Training
Almond, Gabriel, 18, 26 of Civil Servants (1944), 209; British
America {see also USA), 13, 20, 22, imperialism, 24, 69; British Indian
81, 186; American Political Science Civil Service, 71
Association, 6 Brown, Radcliffe, 18
Appleby, Paul. 41, 80, 145, 174, 205, Budget. 220-226; Budget Accounting'
207, 220, 228 Actof (1921)(USA), 134; Budgetary
Apter, David, 18 control, 272; Budgetary system, 274;
Argyris, Chris, 15, 53 performance budgeting, 223-226
Aristotle, 3, 262 Bureaucracy, 19. 22, 27-28, 31, 32,
Asia, 22, 30, 223, 242 34. 35, 67, 69. 70, 82. 86, 89. 137,
2P2 PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
140-43, 154-57. 158, 165-67. 168, Civil Service Act of (1833), 199
169, 171, 173, 256, 274; Bureaucracy Civil Service Commissions, 115, 204,
and politics, 143-146; Bureaucratic 231
neutrality, 86; Bureaucratic Theory, Civil Service personnel: methods of
56-61; functions of. 29-30; funda¬ Recruitment, 200; Performance
mental characteristic of, 57-58; appraisal process in India, 219-220;
Public Bureaucracies, 27; Weberian Promotion. 215-219; Recruitment
model, 61-64 of. 198-207; Recruitment Examina¬
Bureaucrat, medern, role of, 256-257 tions. 203-205; Recruitment forms,
Bureaux and corporations, 129-30 206; Civil Service personnel
Qualifications. 200-203, 205; Train¬
Cabinet, 1S8. 232; Cabinet Com¬ ing, 208-215
mittees, 232; Cabinet Secretariat, Citizen-adminisiratien relationship,
231, 232 267
Cadre System (Cliina), 165-66; trends Citizens participation in administra¬
m the. 165*166 tion. 2'2-269; components of, 267;
Caiden, Gerald, 255 in policy making, 187; means of,
Canada, 22 266-69
Cartwright, D., 53 Classical: Comparison between
Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI), Human Relation theory and, 53-54:
284 Classical theory, 48-51
Central Social Welfare Board. 240 Cleveland, Frederic N., 254
Centralization, 238. 239. 241 CofTcc Board, 91
Chapman. Richard L., 254 Coleman, J.S., 75
Charlesworth, 240 Colonial administration, 265; Indian,
Chatursedi, T.N., 141 24
China, 81. I59-I71. 183. 186. 194. 198. Colonial Societies, challenges in. 22
270; Administrative model. 167-171; Coloniali'^m. 22, 23. 32, 67
China. 159-171; Administrative Con>niisslons, 110-118. 192; Comnus-
structure, 160-163; Commissions in. sion of inquiry on public Seivice
117-118; Comparison between the Personnel (1933) (US), 196; Com¬
Chinese Administrative and the mission on Economy and efficiency
Western Administrative models, under President Taft, 47; Composi¬
167-171; Conception. 172. 173; tion of Boards and 112-113; Com¬
Development of the Chinese missions in Soviet Union (USSR),
Bureaucracy. 165-167; Interlocking 117; Constitutional Conintissions,
stiucture of the Government aitd 112; Independent Regulatory Com¬
party. 163-65; Public Fntcrpriscs in. missions, 113*117; Statutory Com¬
128-30; Statr agencies in. 135; mission, 112-113
Western Administrative models. 167- Committee on Public undertakings,
272
171
Churchman. C. West, 17 Committee on Subordinate Legisla¬
Civil Ser\ants, 194, 195, 282; relation¬ tion, 272
ship of minister and, 83-87 Communication, 77, 249; Develop¬
Civil Service, 83-87. 138, 140, 167; ment, 265; network, basic. 28
characteristics of a career, 196-197; Congress. 115, 126
concept of a career, 194-198 Cooks, Paul, 159
ifjDEX 293
Coordination, 226-232 Dror, Yehezkcl, 189

Corporations; Bureaux and, 129-130; Drucker, Peter, 8
Corporation Control Act (1915) “Dual” control, system of, 129
(USA). 127
'Corruption, 32, 67, 71, 279-284 East India Company, 24
Easton, David, 174
'Courts, 184-185
Ecological approach, 20-22
Crozicr, Michael, 15
Culture, 76, 77, 78; interaction with Economic systems, 87-90; Economic
traditional- structure and. 72-78; development, 34; Economic dimen¬
Political culture, 176-178 sion, 37; Economic welfare 25;
Czechoslovakia, 282 interaction between administrative
systems. 87-90
Egypt, 22, 194
Dahl, Robert, 8. 21
Eisenstadt, 26
Davies, Ernest, 121
Eldersveld, 267
Davis, Keith, 53
Elector, Great. 195
Decentralization for Development,
Elizabeth. 195
238- 246; Advantages and Disadvan¬
England (see also Britain). 76. 194,
tages, 240-41; Democratic decentra¬
195. 221, 259. 270. 274, 277
lization in India, 240-246; Types,
Environment, 93
239- 240
Equality, 261,262
Deficiency Act (1936) (USA), 127
Estimates committee. 272
Definition, 1-3
Etzioni, Amital, 181
Delegation, 232; Essentials, 236-37;
Elzioni’s model, 182
forms of, 234-35; Hindrance to,
Europe. 4. 13. 22. 29. 282; Western,
235-36; Limits of, 237-238; Need
26
for, 233; principles of, 237
Evolution, 3
Democracy, 64. (>9, 70, 123, 145, 261,
Executive, 183-184; Executive control
262. 270
of public administration, 273-275
Democratic administration (system),
259-262, 269. 287
‘'Democratic Centralism”. 161 Fainsod, 35
Departments, 102-110; Bases of Fayol, Henri, 7, 41, 48, 49
departmental organization, 104-105; Federal Budget and Accounting Act
types of, 105-106 (I921).6
Developed societies, 97 Fcsler, James W., 116, 241
Developing administration, 96 Field-Headquarters relationship: issues
Developing Countries, 20, 21. 36, 72, in, 246-250; measures to strengthen,
87. 88.89.119. 183, 22 *, 242; situa¬ 249- 250
tion in, 81-83 Field ofllces in India, organisation of,
Development administration, 3^, 61* 250- 251
64, 95. 140-43. 145. 146, 263; Finance Commission. 91
Administrators, 213-215; Concept, Finer, Herman, 194, 195, 237
36; features of, 34-38 Finland, 283
Diamant, 26 Follet, Mary Parker. 7, 48. 229. 233
Dickson, William, J., 51, 53 Formal Organisation, 54-56; diflcrcnce
Dimock, Marshall, 2, 12, 174, 229 between informal organisution and,
294 PUBLIC ADMINISTKATION
54-56 Hoover Commission Task Force, 116

‘Formalism’, 67 Hoxie, Robert, 47
France, 13, 22, 186,195, 247 Hudson, Seckler, 176, 230
Friedrich, 36 Human development, 33
Fulton Committee, 250, 255; Fulton Human relations, 15, 56; Human rela¬
report, 205 tions movement, 14; Human Rela¬
tions School of organisation, 51, 53;
Gandhi, Mahatma, 76, 78 Human relations Theory, 51-53—
Germany, 13 comparison between classical and,
Ghildyal, 64 53-54
Gladden, E.N., 194. 253, 274 Hungary, 282
Gorwala. A D., 119, 207, 208
Gottshchold, 204 ‘Incrementalism*, 181
Gouldncr, 58 Independent regulatory commission,
Government companies, 120-121 113-117; functions of, 114-117
Government Public Corporation, India. 24, 25. 106, 112, 119, 136, 186,
Characteristic of. 122 194, 230; Administrative system, 68,
Gram Panchayat, 244 137-38; India: Bureaucracy in, 140,
Gram Sabha, 244 141, 143-146; India: Cabinet Com¬
Graves, 112, 228 mittees, 131; India, Cabinet
Great Britain (see also Britain, Secretariat, 130-31; India: Central
England), 83, 185-186 Government Services, 138; Civil
Great Depression, 7 Services in India, 138; Civil Service
Great Economic Depression, 121 personnel: Recruitment System in
Great Society, 252 India, 206-207; India, Democratic
Great War, 121 decentralization in India, 244;
Greece, 22. 262, 282 Indian Administrative Services
Growth, 3 (IAS), 138, 139, 198; India: Indian
Gujarat, 269 Bureaucracy and Development
Gulick, Luther, 7, 14, 48. 50, 91, 103. Administration, 140-43; Indian
230, 248 Civil Service (ICS), 25, 69, 136, 137,
Guofeng, Hua, 164 138. 139, 197; Indian Culture, 76-77;
Indian Historial Records Commis¬
Haldane Committee, 105 sion, 232; Indian Institute of Public
Hawthorne experiment, 48, 52; Haw¬ Administration. 212; Indian situa¬
thorne studies, 51 tion, 69-72; India, Organisation of
Heady, Fcrrel, 66 field oflicesin, 250-51; India, People's
Henry VIII, 195 Participation in, 262-269; India
Hewart, Lord, 59 Performance Budgeting in, 225;
Hierarchy, 57 ndia. Planning Commission, 131-
Hindus, 78 32; India, Policy formulating in,
Historical Legacies: interaction with 187-189; India, Public corporation
political legacies and. 65-69 in. 123-25; Socio-Economic Back¬
Holland, 22 ground, I39-I40; India, Staff
Honey Report on Higher Education Agencies in, 130-33
for Public Service (1967) (USA), 10 Industrialization, 26, 89; Industrial
295
INDEX
development, 24; Industrial Policy Line, Staff and Auxiliary Agencies,

Resolution of (1956), U9; Industrial 98-102
Revolution, 44; Industrial Societies, Lloyd,59
Challenges in, 26-30 Lok Pal, 285; Lok Pall Bill in India,
“Industria", 30 285-86
Informal Organisation, difference be¬ Luther, 7
tween formal and, 54-56
Institution building, 33 Mac Farland, 229
Making in a political, 182-183
Institutional Approach, 13-14
Malinowski, 18
Inter-departmental committees, 231
Management, 119-20; Scientific. 43-48
Inter-University Boards, 232
Mandell, Milton M., 197
Manpower planning, 33
Jagannadham, 140, 267
Mao, 168, 171
Jakhar, Bairam, 286
Maoist ideal, 167, 170
Japan, 76
Marini. Frank, 11
John Gaus, 20, 99
Marx, F.M , 1,90, 253, 262
Joint Select Committee, 286
Marxism, 157
Joint stock company. 41-43; features
Marxist-Leninist conception, 155
of, 42-43
Marxist theory, 154, 157
Judiciary, 188-189: Judicial control,
Maslow, A.H., 53
275-276, 279; Judicial intervention,
Mathur. Kuldeep. 15
scope of, 276-77; Judicial Remedies,
Mayo, Elton, 51
277; Judicial remedies in
Meaning, 1
Merton, Robert K , 15, 18, 53, 59, 62
Middle East, 30
3
Miller, 18
Khcra, S.S., 233 Ministers, relationship of civil
Kingsley, J.D., servants, 83-87
Kothari. Shanii. 15 Ministers of Crown (Transfer of func¬
JCothari Committee, 207 tions) Act (1946), 102
Minnowbrook Conference (1968)
Labour, 46; division of. 57
(USA), 10
Laski, 59
Modernisation, 73
Latin America, 30, 223, 242
Montgomery, 35
Legal Approach, 13 Mooney, J.D., 48, 49, 227, 228, 232,
Lxgislalive control. 271-272; Debates
234, 235
and discussion, 271; limitation of.
Mosher, Frederick, 205
272; Questions. 271-272; Resolutions
or motions, 272
National Academy of Administration,
Legislatures, 182-183, 188, 192
Lenin, 47, 151 211
National Development Council, 232,
Leninism. 157
Lewisohn, Sam, 47, 48 244
Liberty, 261,262 National People’s Congress (NPC)
Lilliputian administration, 105 (China), 161
Llndblom, Charles, 179, 180, 18) National Security Act of (1947), 134
296
National Security Council, 134 Political legacies : interaction with

Natural Resources, 17S • historical legacies and, 65-69
New Deal Programme, 7, 274 Political neutrality, 84-85
'New Public Administration’, 10 Political parties, 186
Nigro, F.A., 2 Political system, impact of, 79-81
North-East Frontier Agency (NEFA), Politics, Bureaucracy and, 143-146
104 ‘Politicisation’, 245
North Europe, 283 Portugal, 22
Norway, 283 Portuguese 24
Poverty, 77, 266, 267
Ombudsman, 283-284, 286 Powell, 197
Preventive Detention Act in India,
POSDCORB (Planning. Organising, 278
Staffing. Directing. Coordinating, Prevention of Corruption Act, 285
Pressure Groups, 185
Reporting and Budgeting), 7, 50,
Preslhus, Robert, 15, 60, 198
91
Private Administration, 39; difference
between Public Administration and,
Palombara, La, 27. 67
39-41
Panandikar, Pai. 15, 36, 142
Prussia. 4
Panchayati Raj, 24 5, 249, 265. 266;
Public Accountability, 269-271
Panchayati Rai Institution. -39,
Public Accounts Committee, 272
269; Panchayat Samiti, 244. 245
Public Civil Service Commission, 205
Parliamentary Committee, 272
Public Co-operation (cooperation of
Parsons. Talcott, 18
the people), 21, 33, 38,
People's participation, 262-269; com¬
Public corporation Acts, 125
ponents of, 267; means of citizen
Public corporations, 101,121-127
participation, 266-269; Problems of.
Public Enterprises, 118-123, 127-28
264-265
PfifTner, J.M., I, 2. 90, 99. 100, 198, Public policy, evaluation of, 190-93
Public Service Commission. 11, 199,
225
202. 208, 218
Pliiladelphia Conference on the
Public Services, 188
Theory and Practice of Public
Public Undertaking Committee. 272
Administration (1967) (USA), 10
Pigors, Paul, 258 Puritans. 76
Planning Commission, 1S8, 232 Pyc. Lucian, 23, 35, 67
Pluralism. 158, 159
Poland, 282 Ramspeck Act (1940) (PSA). 127
Policy ntakers : The ofiicial policy Rationalism, 181
makers, 179, 180, 182-187, 190 Recruitment, 274-75
Policy Making (formation), 92, 93, Regional Councils, 231
187-189, 245, 274; analysis, 189-190; Reiley, A.C.. 7, 48. 49, 234
citizen participation in. 187; Con¬ Rice, 18
ceptual approaches to, 179-182; Richelieu, 195
factors determining. 175-182; need Riggs. Fred. 10, 18. 19, 21, 30, 32,
for Policy Evaluation, 189-193 34,46, 61.67, 68.94, 95, 96, 97
political culture. 176 Riggsian Model An Ecological
297
INDEX
Structural functional approach, 18

Approach, 94-97
Subramaniam, S.V., 139
Riggsian terms, 72
Systems approach, 16-18
Robson, Prof., 122
Roethlisberger, F.J., 51, 5?
Rome, 22 Taft Commission Report In USA, 6
Rondinelli. 243 Tariff Commission. 91
Roodman, Zelda, 237 Taylor. F.W., 5, 44. 45, 46. 47, 48
Roosevelt, Franklin D., 123, 276 Taylorian principle, 45,51-52
Roy, Ramashray, 15 Taylorism, 47, 48
Rudolph, Susannc, 59 Tead, Ordway, 259
Russia, 76, 81,83. 282-83 Terry, 227, 232
Thavaraj, 222
Samurai, 76 Third World. 12. 21.22. 30, 37, 65,
^ Sanihanam committee on Prevention 66, 72, 73. 74. 75. 141. 209, 223,
of Corruption (1964), 284 242, 258, 270; Socio-economic
Saylcs, Leonard, 53 challenges in. 30-34; Third world.
“Scalar Principles”, 49 Training for development adminis¬
Scientific Management, 43-48; major trators in the. 213-215
principles of, 44-45; Movement. 5 Thurstonc, L.L., 204
Scope, 1 Traditional structure •. interaction
Self, Peter. 79, 81, 84 with culture and, 72-78
Sharkansky, Ira, 29, 46, 91 Trist. 60
Sheldon, Oliver, 47 Trivedi, R-K. 139
Shelton, R., 48 Truman, President, 126
Simon, Herbert, 2, 8, 10, 14, 15, 17, Turkey. 282
50, 58. 204, 209
Smith, Gordon, 157, 158
United Kingdom (see also Britain,
Social systems, 26, 95
England, Great Britain). 106-107,
Socio-economic challenges in third
113, 155, 255, 261; Staff Agencies
world, 30-34
in. 133; Public corporations,
Socio-economic condition, 178
Socio-economic development, 263 125- 126
USA (United States) (see also
Socialism, 261, 262
AnKrica), 4. 5, 6, 7, 12, 13, 20, 26,
Soviet Union (see also USSR), 47,
47. 51, 102, 104, 107, 112, 115, 116,
107-109, 140, 167, 168, 187, 270;
155. 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 195,
Bureaucracy, 154-57; Commissions
199, 205, 210. 218. 222, 252. 259,
in, 117; Notable features and trends
of administration, 150-54; some 274, 277; Public coiporation in,
models of Soviet administration, 126- 27; Staff agencies in, 133-34
157-159; Public Enterprises in, USSR (see also Ri.ssia, Soviet
127-28; Soviet model of Administra¬ Union), 259, 282; Staff Agencies in,
tion, 146-159 134-35
Spain, 22 Unemployment, 77
Union Public Service ( ommission,
Staff Agencies, 130-135
Stamp, John, 40 138, 139, 232
State Council, powers and functions University Grants Commission, 232,
of the (China), 162 240
Universities, 239 West, 12, 34, 140, 155, 156, 170, 280;
Urbanization, 89 Western conception of administra¬
Urwick, L.F., 7. 41. 4S tion. 171-172
Urwick. Syndall, 50 White. L.D., 2. 6. 13. 14, 50. 54. 99.
101, 195, 215, 226, 234.270, 275
Vigilance Cell, 284 White, Orian, 256
Village Panchayat, 245 Whyte, Martin King, 171, 173
Willoughby. W.F.. 7, 99,106,220
Waldo. 72 Wilson, Woodrow, 2, 5, 6, 7, 47, 70
Weber, Max, 56-57, 58, 59, 61, 62, Workers, 47, 48, 52, 54; and manage¬
155, 173 ment, 45
Weberian ideal, 173; Weberian Model.
15, 27. 58. 59, 60, 61-64, 154-157.
Xiaoping, Deng, 164
167, 168, 170; Weberian view, 157
Weidner, 35
Welfare administration (Services), Zila Parishad, 244, 245
24 Zonal Council, 231, 232

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PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

An Introduction to Concepts and Theories

STERLING PUBLISHERS PRIVATE LTD

The present reformulation of undergraduate course in Public

a storehouse of dry facts but is an all prevasive affair, a continuous

■^Organisation and development

3. ADMINISTRATION. POLITY AND SOCIETY

.^^PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN INDIA. SOVIET

7. PUBLIC MANAGEMENT 194

8. ADMINISTRATION AND PEOPLE 252

Select Bibliography 288

Meaning and Scope

I- F.M. Marx (ed.), Elemems of Public Adimnisiraiion, Prcniice-Ha!l of

3. L.D. White, Introduction to the Study of Public Administrotion, Macmillan

public administration. Public administration operates within a

Evolution and Growth

7. John J. Corson and Joseph P. Harris,/’«/>//(• Administration in Modfrn

“Only when governments could be differentiated from other

Modern public administration was first taught as a part of

.c functions public administration

throuah scientific investigations into governmental functioning and

The evolution of public administration as an academic

The second stage of evolution is marked by the tendency to

'''■ .'./mmirrornca. New York, Macmillan.

which was ihe task of scholars to discover and advocate. W.F.

late 1920’s carried out by a group of scholars at the Hawthorne

Dahl’s'2 essay identified three important problems in the

GrowcIJ, Collier and Macmillan,

I'ublic Administration : Three Problems”,

for help from newly independent states.” In the transference of

(a) the interpenetration of politics and administration at

F W. R\sgsT/ie Ecolopy of P„hlic Ad/nmisiration, Asia Publishing

(iv) Publication of Toward a new Tublic Adminislraiion: The

Robert T. Gobmbiewski. Public Adminisiraiion As a Deve lopitig Discipline,

it truly inter-disciplinary in nature. Organizational dynamics also

Approaches ; Past and Present

Since 1887 tliere have been different approaches to the study

on the belief that knowledge of history is absolutely essential for

administration dichotomy and their efforts were channelized

1. Its literature is descriptive, rather than prescriptive, with

16. Herbert Simon, Admmh,ra,ive Behaviour. Macmillan. New York. 1987.

5. It is chiefly though not exclusively concerned with

In short, the behaviouralisls sought to adopt an integrated and

17. Robert Presihus, “Behavionr and Bureaucr.ncy in M;iny Culuircs*’.

The behavioural approach has been criticised for being of

All human organisations are open sub-systems engaged in

sub-systems receive inputs in the form of human and material

1. The total objectives of the system and the measures of

motivation, behaviour and relationships determine both the

22. E.J. Miller and A.K. K\cq, Systems Tavistock Publica¬

they are a part.”^^

23. Ramesh K. Arora, Comparalive Public Ailrniuis/ration, Associated

Ecological Approach : Various scholars and administrators

25. J.M. G&us, Reflections of Public Administration. University of Alabama

are nation-building and socio-economic progress. Administration

26. Fred W. Riggs, Administration in Developinfi Countries, Houghton

Challenges in Colonial Societies

/nicniiUiothil EncyclopacJia of Social Sciences, Vol. 3, Macmillan, 1968,

system of administration in their colonics for safeguarding and

It is of profound significance that the overriding stress in all