Defining and Measuring Academic Success

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Deﬁning and Measuring Academic Success
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Volume 20, Number 5, March 2015 ISSN 1531-7714
Defining and Measuring Academic Success

Travis T. York, Valdosta State University
Charles Gibson & Susan Rankin, The Pennsylvania State University
Despite, and perhaps because of its amorphous nature, the term ‘academic success’ is one of the
most widely used constructs in educational research and assessment within higher education. This
paper conducts an analytic literature review to examine the use and operationalization of the term in
multiple academic fields. Dominant definitions of the term are conceptually evaluated using Astin’s
I-E-O model resulting in the proposition of a revised definition and new conceptual model of
academic success. Measurements of academic success found throughout the literature are presented
in accordance with the presented model of academic success. These measurements are provided
with details in a user-friendly table (Appendix B). Results also indicate that grades and GPA are the
most commonly used measure of academic success. Finally, recommendations are given for future
research and practice to increase effective assessment of academic success.
Our discussion leaves open, for the moment, the Terenzini (1989) argues that primary tenet of good
definition of success other than to imply that without assessment is to clearly articulate what it is you are
learning there is no success and, at a minimum, attempting to measure. We contend the term academic
success implies successful learning in the classroom. success currently functions as an amorphous construct
(Tinto & Pusser, 2006, p.8) that broadly incorporates a broad range of educational
outcomes from degree attainment to moral
It is not surprising researchers hesitate to
development.
define what constitutes student success. The term has
been applied with increasing frequency as a catchall Ambiguity associated with the definition of
phrase encompassing numerous student outcomes. academic success is partially attributed to its inherently
The term ‘academic success’ is only slightly narrower perspectival nature. Varying constituents view success,
with the nuanced descriptor ‘academic’ intended to and thereby academic success, differently. For
limit the term’s application to the attainment of example, while the chair of an English department may
outcomes specific to educational experiences. The not consider utilizing alumni’s career promotion
proliferation of studies concerned with identifying histories as an indicator of academic success, a director
constructs that promote academic success is likely of career services almost certainly would. In this
connected to the overall assessment movement and example, the faculty member may argue academic
increasing pressures for institutions to evidence student success refers specifically to the acquisition of specific
learning and development. Assessing the psychological knowledge and skills demonstrated through
and psychosocial processes of learning and completion of courses. The administrator may in turn
development have always been complex; however, argue academic success refers to ability for graduates to
such measurement is made increasingly difficult when obtain and advance in occupations within, or related to,
the outcome of interest is unclearly defined. In fact, their degree fields. Both arguments are valid within the
Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, Vol 20, No 5 Page 2
York, Gibson & Rankin, Academic Success
current amorphous construction of academic success academic work such as course grades or GPA. Student
and the necessary application of the term within the learning is included to capture outcomes related to
contexts of departmental goals for students. This specific institution or program learning outcomes,
broad application of the term limits the ability of including cognitive and affective skills. Finally,
educators and administrators to clearly examine persistence and retention are included as a measure of
academic success and thereby prioritize actions students’ academic progress. These terms represent a
intended to increase institutional effectiveness. In similar idea from two perspectives: persistence refers to
other words, when all things are student success, how degree completion, which could occur at multiple
do educational professionals make tough decisions institutions, and retention refers to an institution
about where to invest scarce fiscal, human, and retaining students during their academic careers, for
temporal resources? instance from first to second year. These three pieces
constitute a basic model fraught with complications,
Astin’s (1991) Inputs-Environments-Outcomes (I-
for instance student learning in a course should be
E-O) Model serves as the theoretical framework for
our study. The origins of the model come from Astin’s mirrored in that course grade and thereby the
attainment of course credits which lead to degree
examination of a graduate program’s ability to produce
PhDs. Astin questioned to what extent a program’s completion. So what then is academic success? Our
outputs were a condition of the quality of its inputs. purpose in this project is to add to this discussion
Early explorations convinced Astin that accurate through an analytical review of the literature.
assessment required correctly parsing student inputs,
the educational environment students experienced, and
student outcomes. Pascarella and Terenzini (2005)
further clarify Astin’s framework saying:
According to this model, college outcomes are
viewed as functions of three sets of elements: inputs,
the demographic characteristics, family backgrounds
and academic and social experiences that students
bring to college; environment, the full range of people,
programs, policies, cultures, and experiences that
students encounter in college, whether on or off Figure 1. Conceptual Framework for Examining
campus; and outcomes, students’ characteristics, Academic Success
knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, beliefs, and
behaviors as they exist after college. (p. 53) Purpose
The I-E-O model serves as a theoretical The purpose of this analytic literature review is to
framework for this study because it provides us with a define “academic success” and examine its
way to clearly identify academic success as an outcome measurement in educational research. Through our
and, therein, create a focused definition of academic initial literature review we found that Kuh, Kinzie,
success unclouded by aspects more accurately defined Buckley, Bridges, & Hayek (2006) released an
as inputs or environment. expansive literature review, What Matters to Student
An initial conceptual framework (Figure 1), based Success, that offered an overly broad definition of
on Astin’s I-E-O model and our preliminary review of academic success. Given this seminal work, we seek to
higher education literature, is included here to (1) explore the definition of academic success in the
demonstrate the changes that occurred to our own literature to both evaluate and critique Kuh et al.’s
conception of the term as our study was being definition, and (2) examine how academic success has
conducted. This initial framework of academic success been operationalized within educational research,
is comprised of academic achievement; acquisition of specifically in light of Kuh et al.’s work.
knowledge, skills, and competencies; and, persistence
and retention. We included academic achievement as
an outcome that captures the quality of students’
Methods and behavioral sciences to ensure the quality and

breadth of the literature search.
Literature Search
Analytic Process
Our literature search began with an initial
examination of higher education literature utilizing the During the literature search, documents were
Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC), compiled and annotated with textual citations with
EBSCOhost, and Google Scholar databases and the special attention towards to items: (1) how the
search term ‘academic success’. These searches author(s) defined academic success; and, (2) what
yielded several research articles largely within the field measurements were used to operationalize academic
of higher education. In an effort to examine broader success for any empiric studies. The literature review
perspectives, we then expanded our search to explore continued until saturation (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007) of
the fields of sociology, psychology, career assessment, definition and measurement was reached. Saturation is
and K-12 education because of their common a somewhat subjective research term, often used in
participation in aspects of educational research. qualitative research to describe the point during data
collection where emergence of divergent perspectives
As an initial foray into these additional academic ceases. We sought to operationalize saturation of our
fields we utilized key word searchers in ERIC, data (literature) through the incorporation of various
EBSCOhost, and JSTOR databases with two foci: First, academic fields and by following citation trees. Once
attention was given to author identified key words to saturation was met in our data collection process, it
expand the breadth of our searches. This attention was clear Kuh et al.’s (2006) report reflected a
included expanding our search from ‘academic success’ comprehensive portrayal of the various definitions of
to also include the terms like ‘academic achievement’, academic success represented in the research literature.
‘student success’, and ‘student learning’. Second, this Consequently, our focus was concentrated upon an
examination led to several outcomes related to investigation of the accuracy of Kuh et al.’s definition
academic success such as GPA, critical thinking, self- and an analysis of how academic success has been
efficacy, cognitive development, and non-cognitive measured in educational research prior to and in light
development. In an effort to increase the validity of of the comprehensive definition presented by Kuh et
our data, only peer-reviewed articles and sponsored al.
reports were collected from these searches. These foci
provided a broad range of articles examining student A grounded theory approach was utilized in
success from a variety of perspectives. designing the coding structure used to analyze the
definition of academic success (Charmaz, 2006; Glaser,
We utilized the Web of Science Citation Index to 1992). This approach permitted us to first use open
identify the most highly cited peer-reviewed articles coding to allow for emergent definitions of academic
(relative to their year of publication) among the works success. Next, categorical coding was employed to
secured through our initial literature searchers. Next, establish themes across open codes for comparison
we used the reference lists of the most highly cited and contrast across the definitions (Maxwell, 2005).
works to identify other relevant literature. In effect, This coding system can be characterized as bottom-up,
the Web of Science Citation Index provided a measure or moving from a specific to more broad structure. In
of depth to the keyword search process by providing coding for the measurement of academic success, we
other relevant literature from the citations of the utilized a top-down coding system, where
literature found in the first two rounds of literature measurements were first coded into broad categories
searches. As a result, articles were gathered from over such as ‘grades’, ‘critical thinking’, and ‘affective
20 peer-reviewed academic journals including Harvard outcomes’. These broad categories were then more
Educational Review, Journal of Career Assessment, Journal of narrowly coded as specific methods and instrument
College Student Development, Journal of Educational types. Due to its categorical nature coding was
Psychology, Journal of Higher Education, Practical Assessment, performed by the primary investigator; however, the
Research, & Evaluation, and Research in Higher Education. process involved constant team consultation and a peer
Finally, we sought the expertise of the Assistant Head audit to increase trustworthiness.
of Library Learning Services for The Pennsylvania
State University Libraries who specializes in education
Limitations Evaluation of Kuh et al.’s definition. The stated

purpose of Kuh et al.’s (2006) report was to synthesize
The limitations of this study primarily pertain to relevant literature and provide a broad definition of
our literature review. While we took many steps to student success. The report aptly recognizes that
thoroughly widen the scope of literature to include students do not come to their college experiences as
multiple fields and have sought to provide a thorough blank slates and therefore some are better prepared to
review of the ways academic success are defined and succeed academically than others. However, at the
measured in the literature, due to this topic’s same time there are experiences, pedagogies, and
proliferation, there may be literature not included in contexts that can, and do, have measurable effects on
our review. In part, this is due to the truly exhaustive students’ academic success. In light of the report’s
review of the literature related to student success found purpose, the authors synthesize a definition of student
in Kuh et al.’s (2006) report, which drew on over 900 success based upon the literature as:
pieces of literature. As such, the limitations of our
literature search are diminished by the exhaustive …student success is defined as academic achievement,
inclusion of literature in this seminal report. engagement in educationally purposeful activities,
satisfaction, acquisition of desired knowledge, skills and
Findings & Discussion competencies, persistence, attainment of educational
In light of the seminal work found in our initial outcomes, and post-college performance. (p. 5)
literature review, we have focused our examination, To be literal, this definition is specifically for
and subsequent findings, to advance educational ‘student success’; however, based upon the literature
research with three contributions. First, we provide an reviewed we have found the terms ‘student success’
exploration of literature in multiple academic fields and ‘academic success’ used interchangeably. For
beyond those synthesized by Kuh et al.’s (2006) review example, in a study on community college distance
to question the consistency of Kuh et al.’s definition. education Yen & Liu speak broadly about students’
Second, we offer a theoretical and conceptual critique success yet measure this term solely using final course
of Kuh et al.’s definition in an attempt to provide a grade—clearly an academic outcome variables (2009).
revised definition and model of academic success that
Initial coding analysis of these definitions
is not only representative of the literature but also is
produced 19 open codes for the definition of academic
theoretically grounded for appropriate use in
success (e.g., academic achievement, perception of
educational research. Third, we provide a
learning environment, academic self-efficacy, etc.).
comprehensive review of the various instruments used
These 19 open codes were then recoded to comprise
to operationalize and measure various aspects of
eight definitional categories: academic achievement;
academic success. This third objective is presented in
engagement; satisfaction; acquisition of knowledge,
an easily accessible format for practitioners and
skills, and competencies; persistence and retention;
researchers to draw from and add to (Appendix B).
attainment of learning objectives; career success;
Defining Academic Success perception of learning environment; and academic self-
concept. Finally, categories were coded for key
In the following sections the findings of our concepts where each of the seven of the nine
review examining the definitions of academic success
categories fit almost verbatim into Kuh et al.’s (2006)
found in the literature are presented. We begin this definition. Academic self-concept was placed into
presentation with an evaluation of Kuh et al.’s (2006)
acquisition of attainment of educational objective as it
definition of academic success in relation to the was referenced in relation to a course or program
literature examined in this study. Based upon the outcome. Perception of learning environment was
results of this evaluation, the following section encapsulated by the broader term satisfaction. Table
provides a critique of that definition grounded within
A1 (located in Appendix A) contains a comprehensive
the findings of this study its theoretical framework.
Finally, we present refined definition and revised
conceptual model of academic success resulting from
the study’s findings.
list of articles investigated along with the definition1 of Associates, 2010). While these distinctions are subtle,
academic success presented in the article. they are necessary. The view of student engagement as
student involvement would conceptually fall into
Based upon the results of our analysis of
definitions of academic success used in the literature, experience, and therefore may not be an appropriate
we find Kuh et al.’s (2006) definition of success addition to the definition of academic success. In
contrast, viewing student engagement as psychological
inclusive of the multitude of nuanced definitions
desire or motivation to participate in learning could be
present on academic success. This is evidenced by the
conceptualized as an outcome. In our review of the
emergent themes present in the literature review and by
literature however, the development of interest in
the definition excerpts (Table A1). By its very nature
learning or interest in a specific field (or major) is
and purpose, Kuh et al.’s definition of success is very
broad. This has resulted in an inclusive—yet still usually specifically stated as such. For example,
Harackiewicz et al. (2002) examined whether student
amorphous—definition lacking clarity and
engagement in an introductory psychology course
operationalization. A theoretical critique of Kuh et
al.’s definition is therefore needed to advance and indicated subsequent level of student interest in
pursuing psychology as the major field of study.
expand the term’s use and viability.
Moreover, even if student engagement were used to
A critique. In our introduction we identified describe a psychological outcome, we suggest it is not a
Astin’s (1991) I-E-O model as the theoretical congruent aspect of academic success but rather a
underpinnings of this study. Astin’s model has served mediating variable for the other six aspects of academic
as a foundation for countless studies related to college success in Kuh’s definition.
student outcomes and, perhaps most notably, as the
basis for Terenzini & Reason’s (2005) conceptual A revised definition and model. It is with this
framework for studying college impacts. Terenzini & critique in mind that we present an amended definition
and conceptual model of academic success (Figure 2).
Reason argue that sound conceptual models must
Based on our findings we define academic success as
disentangle pre-college characteristics and experiences,
inclusive of academic achievement, attainment of
college experiences, and outcomes. Kuh et al.’s
learning objectives, acquisition of desired skills and
definition of academic success includes seven distinct-
competencies, satisfaction, persistence, and post-
while somewhat overlapping- parts: academic
achievement, engagement in educationally purposeful college performance.
activities, satisfaction, acquisition of desired
knowledge, skills and competencies, persistence,
attainment of learning outcomes, and post-college
performance. A theoretical critique of this definition
would require that each part align conceptually. Since
academic success is itself an outcome, each subsequent
construct used in its definition should also be
outcomes. Six of the seven aspects of Kuh et al.’s
definition are conceptually aligned with academic
success as an outcome construct. The exception is
“engagement in educationally purposeful activities.”
Engagement, specifically, student engagement is a
term typically used to refer to one of two concepts, (1)
students’ psychological investment or willingness to
invest time in educational behaviors (Chapman, 2003),
or (2) a more general reference to student involvement
in educational activities (Kuh, Kinzie, Schuh, Whitt, &
Figure 2. York, Gibson, & Rankin Revised Conceptual
1 Specific textual references are included in Table A1 if Model of Academic Success
provided by the author(s), otherwise a paraphrasing of the
definition is provided.
We include academic achievement for its obvious Hutchinson, 1993; Choi, 2005; DeFreitas, 2012; Dennis
depiction of students’ academic performance and for et al., 2005; Finn & Rock, 1997; Gore, 2006;
its intended representation of academic ability. We Harackiewicz et al. 2002; Pace, 1984; Tracey, Allen &
also include the attainment of learning objectives and Robbins, 2012; Tracey & Sedlacek, 1985; Trueman &
the acquisition of desired skills and competencies Hartley, 1996; Zajacova et al., 2005).
within our model as separate arms of academic success
Conversely, we argue attaining learning objectives
because of the ways in which they are spoken about in
and acquiring desired skills differ only in semantics.
the literature; however, in our effort to theoretically
While literature on academic success speaks of the
critique the term academic success we find a significant
accomplishment of learning objectives as categorically
amount of overlap between these three “spokes” of
separate, we find the term ‘learning objective’ is
our model. We argue academic achievement should be promulgated in assessment literature and to simply
a direct result of attaining learning objectives and
mean the stated goals of an educational course or
acquiring desired skills and competencies. However,
program which includes the acquisition of content
we find a conceptual reason to separate academic knowledge, domain knowledge, skills, and
achievement as it captures only a students’
competencies (Banta, Lund, Black, & Oblander, 1996).
performance ability and not necessarily their learning. We conclude that learning objectives are only slightly
In a very real sense, academic achievement is a broader in scope. For instance, a particular course may
threshold assessment—it captures a student’s ability to state increased community engagement as an intended
meet performance criteria. In this way, grades are
learning objective and, by its strictest definition, one
intended to measure learning or knowledge; in other
may argue this learning objective is not a skill or
words, they are proxy measurements intended to
competency, but a disposition. In the literature we find
capture attainment of learning objectives and
many studies separate these ideas-especially as they
acquisition of skills and competencies. We find it speak about the way these things are measured, which
conceptually helpful to separate academic achievement will be discussed in greater detail in the following
from the attainment of learning objectives and section. Therefore, we have kept these items as
acquisition of skills and competencies because its separate “spokes” and instead offer the caveat that we
nature as a proxy and because it is almost always
find very little theoretical distinction among them.
referenced in an aggregate form (grade in a course or
GPA). Similar to academic achievement, satisfaction is
included as an additional proxy component of our
Choi (2005) describes successful completion of model of academic success. While satisfaction is
course activities by students as ultimately improving certainly important to a variety of institutional
students’ academic achievement. While it is true in this
constituents, we argue it is not a component of
instance Choi uses the term ‘success’ to refer to academic success and rather an outcome capturing
completion of course assignments and the term perceptions of institutional fit, climate, or students’
‘academic achievement’ to describe GPA, both terms
goal achievement. In turn, these important contextual
refer to traditional measures of academic student
aspects of students’ wellbeing greatly impact their
success (i.e. grades and GPA). Parker, Summerfeldt,
ability to succeed academically; in fact, Beghetto (2004)
Hogan & Majeski (2004) use the terms ‘academic
argues that student motivation provides perhaps the
achievement’ and ‘academic success’ interchangeably. greatest contribution to students’ academic success.
At one point, the goal of their study is described as
Concordantly, satisfaction is an outcome variable that
“examining the relationship between emotional
provides a measurement for contextual elements often
intelligence and academic achievement” (p. 163). At
seen as necessary to the learning environment and
another point, the goal of the study is described as
prerequisites for academic success.
attempting to predict “academic success from
emotional intelligence variables” (p. 163). Like Choi The overwhelming majority of students indicate
(2005), Parker et al. (2004) defined success as academic degree completion is a final goal of their educational
achievement (GPA). Indeed, the bulk of the literature journey (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). We include
reviewed focused on academic achievement when persistence over retention because persistence
defining or measuring academic success (Bunce, & corresponds to students’ continued progression in an
academic degree despite institutional transfers or
stopping out. In this respect, we also argue persistence Unsurprisingly, we found that academic
can and should capture individual students’ academic performance in the form of academic achievement,
goals across multiple programs of study and in various accomplishment of learning objectives, and acquisition
institutional contexts. Persistence is therefore included of skills and competencies were the most frequently
in our model of academic success to capture the focus, measured aspects of academic success. Moreover,
drive, and forward progression needed by students to academic achievement was measured most frequently
complete a program of study. Finally, our model of all. Academic achievement is almost entirely
includes career success (also known as “post-college measured with grades (by course or assignment) and
career performance”). As mentioned in our GPA. This is unsurprising since grades and GPA
introduction, the definition of academic success often measures are by far the most readily available
expands depending on the goals of specific institutional assessments for institutions. The accomplishment of
constituents. We argue since vocational training is a learning objectives and the acquisition of skills and
prominent outcome in American higher education, it is competencies can be measured at the course, program,
appropriate for our model of academic success to and institutional level. Assignments and course
include post-college career performance. evaluations are the primary means of measuring these
Measuring Academic Success things at the course level. Programmatic evaluation
usually occurs by some sort of curricular capstone or in
In the following section we present the findings some fields by an independent professional entity; such
of our examination of how academic success is as teaching or engineering accreditation. As noted
operationalized in the literature. Instruments found in before, there is considerable overlap between the
the literature that empirically measured the tenets of measurement of attaining learning objectives and the
academic success offered in our model are discussed acquisition of skills and competencies. Figure 3 offers
and summarized in Table B1 (located in Appendix B). our model for academic success with the addition of
These instruments are examined in light of our several instruments that correspond to the respective
conceptual model of academic success and a discussion spoke we believe the instrument is designed to capture.
is offered regarding their validity. Next, we include a In the case of attaining learning objectives we included
discussion of how academic success has been instruments designed to capture knowledge and
operationalized in light of Kuh’s report. We conclude cognitive skills. As for the acquisition of skills and
with a discussion concerning the primary ways competencies, we included instruments that intend to
academic success has been operationalized throughout capture affective development.
the literature compared with the model of academic As Figure 3 indicates, we found two primary
success that we have presented. measurements for persistence: retention between
To our knowledge, there is no complete particular years of college—most commonly between
presentation of empiric instruments available to the first and second years, and degree attainment rates.
educational researchers seeking to measure various The literature suggests satisfaction was often captured
aspects of academic success despite being perhaps the either by course evaluation or through larger nationally
most researched outcome in education. Table B1 available institutional surveys such as Cooperative
contains a list of the instruments seeking to measure Institutional Research Program’s (CIRP) The
various aspects of academic success found in our Freshman Survey (TFS) or the National Survey of
comprehensive review of the literature. These Student Engagement (NSSE) (Harackiewicz, Barron,
instruments are organized according to the categories Tauer, & Elliot, 2002; Lizzio, Wilson, & Simons, 2002).
of academic success presented in our model. Many of These institutional studies often contain several
the instruments seek to measure multiple outcomes subscales utilized in a variety of institutional
and are listed as such. Where available, we have also assessment efforts. Several of these subscales could be
sought to provide authorship, access, validity, and utilized to capture various parts of our academic
reliability information or sources for the instruments. success model. For instance, TFS contains an
We encourage continued expansion of our inexhaustive academic skills scale in addition to a satisfaction scale.
list. Finally we found career success was used as a
measurement of academic success in two distinct ways:
Grades GPA
Job
Attainment Career
Satisfaction
Academic CSEQ
Rates
Achievement
Turnover NSSE
Intentions
(Proxy)
Career Satisfaction
Salary Success (Proxy)
CIRP
Advancement Occupational
Expectations Status ACADEMIC
ETS
Proficiency
SUCCESS Hope
Scale
Profile Acquisition of
Attainment of
Skills &
Learning PSI
Competencie
LSAT Outcomes
s
Course NCQ-R
NCQ
GRE Persistence SRLS
Eval
Graduation
Retention
Rates
Figure 3. York, Gibson, & Rankin Operationalized Model of Academic Success
extrinsic and intrinsic (Ng, Eby, Dorensen, & Fel

Feldman, Thus far, we have offered a survey of academic
2
2005). Extrinsic measures of career success include success measurements present throughout the
things like job attainment rates and promotion literature. This information has been presented in
histories. For example, in a study examining university accordance with our conceptual model; however,
characteristics and early job outcomes Colarelli, Dean
Dean, taking a broad look at the measurements used also
and Kronstans, (1991) operationalizedd career success offers some interesting
ing insights. Table 1 includes the
via annual performance ratings provided by aggregate frequencies of the categories of measures
supervisors. Intrinsic measures of career success utilized across the empiric literature. As we have
include measures of career satisfaction or professional previously mentioned, GPA tops the list as most often
goal attainment. Fralick (1993) provides an excellent used measurement of academic success accounting at
example of intrinsic measures in a study where success 54.8% makingg academic achievement the most
was measured via participants’ perception of having commonly assessed aspect of academic success within
had the opportunity to develop potential, realize the empiric pieces we reviewed. Studies utilizing
ambitions, enhance career options, and increase self self- measures of critical thinking and retention were the
satisfaction. Between these two, we found studies next most prevalent at 19.4%, and academic skills and
more often focused on extrinsic measurements
measurements— engagement measures
sures come in third at 16.1%. It is
perhaps because of their clearer operationalization. interesting to note that two of the three most utilized
measures, GPA and retention, involve data that is the
2
most readily available to institutions; therefore, their
Much of the information
rmation we provide in this article on
career has been greatly informed by colleagues on our research prevalence may be due convenience and accessibility
team who have been working in tandem with us on defining over a narrow conceptions of aspects of academic
career success. For more information please see Eury, Merson, success.
Minetto, & Rankin (In Progress).
• First, research has indicated that grades and GPA

Table 1. Types of Outcomes Measured as are not always accurate measures of learning or
‘Academic Success’ growth in cognitive capabilities (Arum & Roksa,
Total n=31 % (n) 2011; Young, 1990)-an issue of validity. Validity
Academic GPA 54.8 (17) of this measure is imperative for postsecondary
Achievement Grades 12.9 (4) professionals not only because of increased public
Extrinsic 9.7 (3) scrutiny around the “true” value of education but
Career Success also because students’ learning is central to
Intrinsic 6.5 (2)
Overall College institutional missions. Educational research and
9.7 (3) assessment narrowly focused on only one aspect
Experience
Satisfaction of academic success’s construct—an indication of
Course
Experience
3.2 (1) our study—create a limitation to the current body
Degree of literature and our understanding of what
Completion Rate
3.2 (1) contributes to student success.
Persistence
Retention 19.4 (6) • Second, a narrow operationalization of academic
Critical Thinking 19.4 (6) success within educational research and
Acquisition of
skills and
Academic Skills 16.1 (5) assessment is statistically inconsistent as grading
competencies Affective approaches differ greatly within and between
Outcomes
12.9 (4)
institutions resulting in unreliable measurements.
Attainment Engagement 16.1 (5) Inaccurate assessment of student growth and
Learning Institutional learning may contribute to the inability to review
Objectives 12.9 (4)
Objectives the construct between institutions.
Note: Articles that used multiple measures were counted in • Third, educational researchers’ use of the term
each category. The percentages give are calculated as the ‘academic success’ when their work is actually
number of articles that utilized the category of measure out of
the total number of articles examined. only examining a narrow portion of that concept
may result in findings and conclusions that are not
generalizable. Finally, narrow and perspectival
Conclusion and Recommendations conceptions of the construct of academic success
may decrease cohesion amongst institutional
In summary, our review has provided two primary
constituents regarding institutional priorities.
conclusions regarding the definition and measurement
of the term ‘academic success’. First, the definition of These challenges are not new to educational
academic success is necessarily complex and broad; research. We offer that our model will assist in
however, it is often misused within educational mitigating these challenges. The complexity of the
research to encapsulate all generally accepted desired construct of academic success is addressed our model
outcomes. Our review suggests a theoretically and responds to the growing diversity of students’
grounded definition of academic success that is made postsecondary purposes and goals. Specific
up of six components: academic achievement, recommendations are specified below.
satisfaction, acquisition of skills and competencies, Strengths and Limitations
persistence, attainment of learning objectives, and
career success. Second, we found incongruence in the Beyond the previously discussed limitations of the
literature between how academic success was defined literature search, it is important to note the limitations
and how it was measured. These findings suggest that and strengths of the review. The primary limitation of
despite reports that have advocated for more detailed the review is that we construct the definition of
views of the term (Kuh et al., 2006), the bulk of academic success based upon the ways that educational
published researcher continues to narrowly measure scholars define and operationalize the term within the
academic success as academic achievement; more literature. This constructivist method does not include
specifically, operationalized as grades and/or GPA. the voices of students, parents, or labor market leaders;
This is problematic for researchers and practitioners except as they are captured by academic literature. A
for three reasons: strength of the review is that it not only considered the
ways that scholars defined academic success, but it also in particular subscales, we have complied in Appendix
compared these constructs with the ways in which they B. While this list is not exhaustive, we offer the list as
were enacted through measurement. Another strength a starting point to aid in the creation of research and
of the review is that it considers the impact of past assessment that more accurately reflects the student
literature seeking to clarify the concept of academic experience. We encourage researchers and
success upon the work of the field. practitioners to add to the list as new measures are
created. Where possible we have provided published
Implications for Practice and Future Research
information about the measures’ validity and reliability.
We offer three implications for practice and future It should also be noted that none of the authors of this
research. First, we encourage future practitioners and article are in any way affiliated with any of these
researchers to expand their definition of academic measures. Our anecdotal consultations with
success beyond that of academic achievement. For assessment professionals have suggested that many
practitioners and researchers engaged in assessing the well-formed subscales are not taken advantage of in
educational efficacy of programs or interventions, we this work. For example, the academic skills subscale
suggest an approach that evaluates specific growth of developed by the Higher Education Research Institute
cognitive ability and/or acquisition of skills or learning or the Collegiate Learning Assessment (CLA) might be
outcomes. We also encourage the consideration of helpful when attempting measure acquisition of skills
participants’ aspirations or educational goals within the and competencies. Many of the measures included
design. Similarly, we encourage postsecondary have subscales that can be used to more accurately
institutional assessments that include post-college capture academic success.
measures beyond the common measurements of
persistence and satisfaction. These added measures References
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Appendix A
This table contains the specific textual references contained in the literature we reviewed beyond Kuh et al.’s (2006)
exhaustive review. If the piece did not contain a specific textual definition of academic success, a paraphrasing of the term’s
definition is provided.
Table A1. Literature Foundation of the Definition of Academic Success in the York, Gibson, & Rankin
Model of Academic Success
Reference Theme Definition
Åge (2007) Acquisition of Skills and Academic success is related to several factors like academic achievement,
Competencies, Academic course experience, and student's perception of the learning environment.
Achievement
Arum et al. (2011) Acquisition of Skills and Student Performance, as measured by increases in CLA (academic rigor).
Competencies
Astin et al. (2000) Acquisition of Skills and Academic success if referred to as "academic performance" (p. ii).
Competencies, Academic "Service participation shows significant positive effects on...academic
Achievement performance (GPA, writing skills, critical thinking skills)..." (p. ii).
Bunce, & Hutchinson Academic Achievement Grades. Course completion/grades were the outcomes measured and
(1993) identified with academic success.
Choi (2005) Academic Achievement Term Grades. "Academic performance in the study was measured by
composite points earned in a course" (p. 197). "Academic performance
(cumulative GPA)" (p. 199).
Colarelli et al. (1991) Career Success Early job outcomes: job offers, employment status, job performance, and
job satisfaction & organizational commitment. The authors suggest GPA
is a predictor of job outcomes.
Cole et al. (2009) Engagement "A model of first-year engagement therefore should recognize the inputs
as being both trait-like or stable (gender, race, SES) and situational (for
example, high school engagement, college expectations, academic
motivation). This parsing of inputs into two types is an important first
step before using these variables as controls or covariates in any analysis"
(p. 59).
DeFreitas (2012) Academic Achievement GPA. "Hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to analyze the
main study hypotheses with GPA as the dependent variable (see Table 3)"
(p. 114).
Dennis et al. (2005) Academic Achievement GPA. Stated the following about academic success: "With reference to
college students, academic success is a function of both personal
characteristics such as mental ability, academic skills, motivation, and
goals, and the characteristics of the environment, which can be
conceptualized as a system of nested interdependent structures (Muuss,
1996). Although the environment includes many systems of influence,
Bronfenbrenner (1989; Bronfenbrenner & Morris) has recently focused
on proximal processes that involve patterns of interaction between the
person and the immediate environment. Face-to-face interaction with, and
support from, family members and peers are among the most common
and important proximal processes for adolescents and young adults and
play an important role in academic outcomes (Muuss)" (p. 224).
Finn & Rock (1997) Academic Achievement Academic Success defined as students with high grades, test scores and
persistence levels (all of these variables constitute what the authors call
academic resilience (i.e. academic success).
Fralick (1993) Career Success "To these students, success means having the opportunity to develop
potential, realize ambitions, enhance career options, and increase self-
satisfaction" (p. 29)…"It should be emphasized that success was defined
as the student's subjective judgment about college achievement rather
than more traditional institutionally defined measures of college success.
Galyon et al. (2011) Acquisition of Skills and "This study examined the relationship of academic self-efficacy to
Competencies engagement in class discussion and performance on major course exams
among students (N = 165) in an undergraduate human development
course. Cluster analysis was used to identify three levels of academic self-
efficacy: high (n = 34), medium (n = 91), and low (n = 40). Results
indicated that high, medium, and low academic self-efficacy all
significantly predicted levels of student participation and exam
performance, but the directionality of group placement on the academic
measures was different for students at the high self-efficacy level versus
those at the low and mid self-efficacy levels" (p. 1).
Gore (2006) Academic Achievement "Academic performance (GPA) and institutional persistence (retention)
data were obtained across the first 2 years of college. Data from the
second study come from a large ongoing national study of the SRI. For
this study, we obtained students’ ASC scores and their college academic
performance and persistence during the first 2 years of college" (p. 97).
Gurin et al. (2002) Attainment of Learning This article is looking at the impact of diversity upon learning outcomes.
Outcomes, Acquisition Learning outcomes are defined as including: active thinking skills,
of Skills and intellectual engagement and motivation, and a variety of academic skills.
Competencies SAT scores and Grades were specifically NOT used and reasoning is
given on page 13. "In the CIRP, intellectual engagement included self-
rated aspirations for postgraduate education, the drive to achieve,
intellectual self-confidence, and the importance placed on original writing

and creating artistic works. The other learning outcome in the CIRP,
academic skills, included self-rated academic ability, writing ability, and
listening ability, as well as self-reported change in general knowledge,
analytic and problem-solving skills, ability to think critically, writing skills,
and foreign language skills" (p. 11-12).
Harackiewicz et al. Academic Achievement Broad definition: Grades, GPA and they believe another important
(2002) indicator of success in education is the development of interest in a topic
or discipline, and that a broader definition of success requires
consideration of a wider range of predictors "We examined outcome
measures of success in the short term (the first semester at college) by
assessing interest in psychology, enjoyment of the class, final grade in the
course, and overall GPA for the semester. We examined outcome
measures of success in the long term (over the course of students’ entire
undergraduate careers) by assessing continued interest in psychology (the
number of additional psychology credits taken), grades in subsequent
psychology of additional psychology credits taken), grades in subsequent
psychology classes, and overall GPA. We also examined whether students
majored in psychology, another important indicator of continued interest
in psychology" (p. 563)
Heckert & Wallis Career Success "Overall, students felt that their education would be useful in preparing
(1998) them for a career in their field, competing for employment opportunities,
and finding satisfying employment" (par. 16).
Jacobi (1991) Persistence Academic success is roughly defined as degree completion; referred to as
academic achievement. "The links between mentoring and undergraduate
academic success require a consideration of both the dynamics of the
mentoring relationship and the dynamics of undergraduate achievement."
(p. 523).
Lizzio et al. (2002) Attainment of Learning Article connects academic success with increased learning outcomes. This
Outcomes, Acquisition article looks at academic success in two ways: hard (academic
of Skills and achievement), and soft (satisfaction, development of key skills). Academic
Competencies, Achievement—academic achievement was represented by calculating,
Satisfaction using university academic records, students’ grade point average (GPA),
measured on a scale from 1 (low) to 7 (high), from the commencement of
their degree to the point at which the survey was conducted" (p. 34).
Ng et al. (2005) Career Success "Among the many determinants of career success, individuals’ human
capital (e.g. education and work experience) has been shown to be
robustly and consistently related to salary level, number of promotions,
number of job offers, and number of developmental opportunities
(Howard, 1986; Ng, Eby, Sorensen, & Feldman, 2005;
Sicherman & Galor, 1990)" (p. 207).
Nora et al. (1996) Persistence Persistence. "The student's reenrollment status
(persistence/nonpersistence) was accessed during the beginning of the
second academic year" (p. 431). "Persistence was a dichotomous
dependent measure of student persistence. The variable was derived from
institutional records that reflected the number of hours the student was
enrolled for Fall 1993 (or the beginning of the second year in college)" (p.
438).
Pace (1984) Academic Achievement Instrument is designed to assess the quality of students' effort and the
attainment of college-related goals.
Parker et al. (2004) Acquisition of Skills and "When EQ-i:Short variables were compared in groups who had achieved
Competencies very different levels of academic success (highly successful students who
achieved a first-year dimensions of emotional intelligence. Results are
discussed in the context of the importance of emotional university GPA
of 80% or better versus relatively unsuccessful and social competency
during the transition from high school to university" (p. 163).
Pascarella & Acquisition of Skills and Academic success is a measure of a student's academic and intellectual
Terrenzini (1980) Competencies development. "Extent of academic integration is deter- mined primarily by
the student's academic performance and his or her level of intellectual
development" (p. 62).

Pascarella et al. (2011) Acquisition of Skills and Critical Thinking. This study is an attempt to replicate the Arum & Roksa
Competencies (2011) study for validation based upon student learning in the area of
critical thinking. This study concludes Arum & Roksa’s conclusions are
confirmed in this replication, though the authors offer caution regarding
the acquisition of content knowledge.
Plant et al. (2005) Acquisition of Skills and Academic success is associated with high academic achievement "The
Competencies total amount of time that students report studying has often been
examined as a potential predictor of success in school. It might seem that
the more time that students spend studying, the better grades they should
receive. Although students should increase their personal knowledge and
skills by increasing the amount of time that they spend on relevant study
activities, the relationship between the amount of study and achievement
across students is less clear. Indeed researchers have consistently found a
weak or unreliable relationship between the weekly amount of reported
study time and grade point average (GPA) for college students (Allen,
Lerner, & Hinrichsen, 1972; Beer & Beer, 1992; Gortner Lahmers &
Zulauf, 2000; Hinrichsen, 1972; Michaels & Miethe, 1989; Schuman,
Walsh, Olson, & Etheridge, 1985; Wagstaff & Mahmoudi, 1976)" (p. 97)
Pritchard & Wilson Persistence Completion of a college degree (p.18)
(2003)
Snyder et al. (2002) Academic Achievement GPA. "As expected, Hope Scale scores provided reliable predictions
about college students’ academic performances over the course of their
undergraduate careers. All three hypotheses were supported, with higher
Hope Scale scores reliably predicting higher cumulative GPAs, a higher
likelihood of graduating from college, and a lower likelihood of being
dismissed because of poor grades" (p. 823).
Tinto & Pusser Academic Achievement "Our discussion leaves open...the definition of success other than to imply
(2006) that without learning there is no success and, at a minimum, success
implies successful learning in the classroom. By extension it argues that
one way of understanding student success as it may be influenced by
institutional action is to see it as being constructed from success in one
class at a time, one upon another, in ways that lead over time to academic
progress" (p. 8).
Tracey & Sedlacek Academic Achievement In the first article, the NCQ is related to student success through
(1985) predictive ability for GPA (controlling for SAT) and persistence. Make an
argument that academic success is more than just academic ability.
Tracey & Sedlacek Academic Achievement Same as above
(1989)
Tracey et al. (2012) Academic Achievement, There were nine different indices of academic success examined in this
Persistence study relating both to grade point average and persistence.
Trueman & Hartley Academic Achievement Grades. Called academic performance. "In this particular case we
(1996) compared the mean scores of the three groups of students on the three
measures of academic performance namely, the course-work marks, the
examination scores, and the combination of these two sets of measures"
(p. 207-208).
Zajacova et al. (2005) Academic Achievement First-year cumulative GPA, number of earned credits, and enrollment at
the start of the second year. "We estimated structural equation models to
assess the relative importance of stress and self-efficacy in predicting three
academic performance outcomes: first-year college GPA, the number of
accumulated credits, and college retention after the first year. The results
suggest that academic self-efficacy is a more robust and consistent
predictor than stress of academic success" (p. 677).
Appendix B
This table includes a growing collection of assessment instruments that can be utilized to measure academic success.
Instruments are organized and presented by the six “nodes” of our model of academic success. This list is by no means
exhaustive and we encourage others to contribute to this resource.
Table B2. Instruments used to Measure Various Aspects of York, Gibson, & Rankin Model of Academic Success
References Name Method Description
Academic Achievement
GPA Overall or Major GPA
Grades Course or Assignment Grades
Acquisition of Skills and Competencies
Educational Testing ETS Proficiency The ETS Proficiency Profile (EPP) assesses general The ETS Proficiency Profile (EPP)
Service ( Profile education skills such as critical thinking, reading, assesses general education skills such
http://www.ets.org/ (formerly the writing, and mathematics and is administered to as critical thinking, reading, writing,
proficiencyprofile/ab MAPP- Measure freshman, sophomores, and upperclassman. and mathematics and is administered
out) of Academic to freshman, sophomores, and
Proficiency upperclassman. The test can be used
Progress) to assess students and program
performance for accreditation and
institutional improvement and to
compare with other institutions.
www.aacc.nche.edu/newsevents/Ev
ents/convention2/virtualtotebag/D
ocuments/ets1.pdf .
OAMI; Matlock, Michigan Large-scale survey. Although its major emphasis is on Examines impact on students of the
Gurin & Wade- Student Study racial and ethnic diversity, the study is also concerned University of Michigan's
Golden (2000) (MSS) with the students' reactions to issues related to gender commitment to foster campus
and sexual orientation. The survey includes an active diversity efforts and educational
thinking subscale (7-Items). excellence.
ACT Collegiate The CAAP Critical Thinking Test measures students' Examines students’ argumentation
(www.act.org/caap/t Assessment of skills in clarifying, analyzing, evaluating, and extending skills.
est/thinking.html) Academic arguments. The CAAP Critical Thinking Test is a 32-
Proficiency- item, 40-minute test.
Critical
Thinking
(CAAP-CT)
Insight Assessment California The CCTDI measures the "willing" dimension in the The California Critical Thinking
(www.insightassessme Critical expression "willing and able" to think critically. The Disposition Inventory (CCTDI) is a
nt.com/Products/Cri Thinking CCTDI includes the following scales: Truth-seeking tool for surveying the dispositional
tical-Thinking- Dispositions Scale, Open-Mindedness Scale, Analyticity Scale, aspects of critical thinking.
Attributes- Inventory Systematicity Scale, Critical Thinking Self-Confidence
Tests/California- (CCTDI) Scale, Inquisitiveness Scale, Maturity of Judgment
Critical-Thinking- Scale, and CCTDI Score Scale.
Disposition-
Inventory-(CCTDI))
Insight Assessment California The CCTST provides an objective measure of critical CCTST questions engage the test-
www.insightassessme Critical thinking skills. The CCTST is a family of tests- taker's reasoning skills. Different
nt.com/Products/Cri Thinking Skills different versions for different age levels or questions progressively invite test-
tical-Thinking-Skills- Test (CCTST) professional fields and includes the following scales: takers to analyze or to interpret
Tests/California- Total Score, Analysis, Inference, Evaluation, information presented in text, charts,
Critical-Thinking- Deduction, Induction, Interpretation, and Explanation. or images; to draw accurate and
Skills-Test-CCTST warranted inferences; to evaluate
inferences and explain why they
represent strong reasoning or weak
reasoning; or to explain why a given
evaluation of an inference is strong
or weak.
Ennis & Millman Cornell Critical The instrument includes 52 multiple-choice items that The Cornell Critical Thinking Test
(1985) Thinking Test have sections on induction, credibility, prediction and (CCTT) is available in two levels.
(CCTT-Z) experimental planning, fallacies (especially Level Z is aimed at college students
equivocation), deduction, definition, and assumption and adults (Level X is aimed at
identification. Grades 4-14).
Heppner & Peterrson Problem Solving The PSI consists of 32 items (6-point ratings) and The PSI was designed to assess how
(1982) Inventory (PSI) three subscales: Problem-solving Confidence, well individuals make decisions,
Approach Avoidance Style, and Personal Control. specifically problem-solving abilities.
Gadzella, Hogan, Watson-Glaser The examinee is asked to evaluate reading passages The Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking
Masten, Stacks, Critical that include problems, statements, arguments, and Appraisal (WGCTA) is an
Stephens & Thinking interpretations. The original version of the test (which assessment tool designed to measure
Zascavage (2006); Appraisal has two alternate versions- WGCTA-A and WGCTA- an individual's critical thinking skills.
Watson & Glaser (WGCTA) B) is comprised of 80 items and can be completed in
(1980) 60 minutes. The short form ( WGCTA-S) is comprised
of 40 items and can be completed in 45 minutes.
CAT Critical The instrument includes a broad range of institutions, The CAT Instrument is a unique tool
http://www.tntech.e Thinking faculty, and students across the country and is designed to assess and promote the
du/cat/home/ Assessment comprised of short answer essay questions. improvement of critical thinking and
Test (CAT) real-world problem solving skills.
Bar-On (2004) Emotional The EQ-i is a self-report measure designed to measure The Emotional Quotient Inventory
Quotient a number of constructs related to EI. The EQ-i (EQ-i), EQ-360 and EQ-i: YV were
Inventory (EQI) consists of 133 items and takes approximately 30 developed to assess the Bar-On
minutes to complete. It gives an overall EQ score as model of emotional-social
well as scores for five composite scales and 15 intelligence.
subscales (Bar-On, 2006).
Tracey & Sedlacek Non Cognitive Factor structure of the non-cognitive questionnaire- Non-Cognitive Questionnaire-
(1989) Questionnaire- revised across samples of black and white college Revised (NCQ-R)
Revised (NCQ- students. Educational and Psychological Measurement,
R) 49: 637-648.
Snyder, Harris, Hope Scale The adult hope scale contains 12 items. Four items Participants respond to each item
Anderson, holleran, measure pathways thinking, four items measure agency using a 8-point scale ranging from
Irving, Sigmon et al. thinking, and four items are fillers. The adult hope definitely false to definitely true and
(1991) scale (AHS) measures Snyder's cognitive model of the scale takes only a few minutes to
hope which defines hope as "a positive motivational complete. See Snyder (2002) for a
state that is based on an interactively derived sense of review of hope theory and research.
successful (a) agency (goal-directed energy), and (b)
pathways (planning to meet goals)" (Snyder, Irving, &
Anderson, 1991, p. 287).
Moore (1988) Measurement of The MID is a validated essay-format instrument Attempts to examine students’
Intellectual designed to reflect respondents' underlying cognitive underlying cognitive structures.
Development structures relative to positions two to five on the Perry
(MID) scale (Moore, 1988). The MID is a conservative
indicator (Moore, 1998).
Attainment of Learning Outcomes

Educational Testing Graduate The GRE revised General Test measures verbal The GRE is “the most widely
Services Record reasoning, quantitative reasoning, critical thinking and accepted graduate admissions test
(http://www.ets.org/ Examination analytical writing skills. worldwide” (ETS, 2012).
gre) (GRE)
Law School Law School The test consists of five 35-minute sections of The Law School Admission Test
Admission Council ( Admission Test multiple-choice questions. Four of the five sections (LSAT) is a half-day, standardized
http://www.lsac.org/ (LSAT) contribute to the test taker's score. The un-scored test. It provides a standard measure
jd/lsat/about-the- section, commonly referred to as the variable section, of acquired reading and verbal
lsat.asp) typically is used to pretest new test questions or to pre- reasoning skills that law schools can
equate new test forms. The placement of this section use as one of several factors in
will vary. A 35-minute writing sample is administered assessing applicants.
at the end of the test.
Association of Medical College Scores are reported in Physical Sciences, Verbal The Medical College Admission
American Medical Admission Test Reasoning, Writing Sample, and Biological Sciences. Test® (MCAT®) is a standardized,
Colleges (MCAT) multiple-choice examination
(https://www.aamc.o designed to assess the examinee's
rg/students/applying problem solving, critical thinking,
/mcat/) writing skills, and knowledge of
science concepts and principles
prerequisite to the study of medicine.
Collegiate Learning Collegiate An institution's average score on the CLA measures The Collegiate Learning Assessment
Assessment Learning correlates highly with the institution's average SAT (CLA) is a test of reasoning and
(http://www.collegiat Assessment score (r = 0.90)[1]. "CLA scores reflect a holistic communication skills, usually
elearningassessment.o (CLA) assessment of the higher order skills of critical aggregated at the institutional level to
rg) thinking, analytic reasoning, written communication, determine how the institution as a
and problem solving" (CLA Tech Report). The whole contributes to student
assessment consists of open-ended questions, is development. It focuses on the
administered to students online, and controls for value-added of attending the
incoming academic ability. institution through assessing
performance tasks and analytic
writing tasks covering critical
thinking, analytic reasoning, written
communication, and problem
solving.
ACT Collegiate CAAP offers six independent 40-minute test modules. The Collegiate Assessment of
(www.act.org/caap) Assessment of Institutions may select those modules that best reflect Academic Proficiency (CAAP) is a
Academic their mission and the goals and curricula of their standardized, nationally normed
Proficiency general education programs. (Reading, Writing Skills, assessment program from ACT that
(CAAP) Writing Essay, Mathematics, Science, Critical enables postsecondary institutions to
Thinking).For the multiple-choice test modules, a assess, evaluate, and enhance student
standard score is reported on a scale that ranges from learning outcomes and general
40 (low) to 80 (high), with a mean of 60 and a standard education program outcomes.
deviation of approximately 5. For the Writing Essay
Test, ACT developed a modified holistic scoring
system that ranges from 1 to 6 in increments of .5.
Each score reflects a student's ability to perform the
writing task defined in a prompt—in a timed, first-
draft composition.
Engagement in Educationally Purposeful Activities
French & Oakes Institutional Large-scale survey. Comprised of 30 items that are The Institutional Integration Scale
(2004); Pascarela & Integration used to construct five subscales: Peer-Group (IIS; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1980),
Terenzini (1980) Scale (IIS) Interactions (7-Items); Interactions with Faculty (5- based on Tinto’s (1975) theoretical
Items); Faculty Concern for Student Development and framework, was developed to assess
Teaching (5-Items); Academic and Intellectual students' self-reported levels of
Development (7-Items); and, Institutional and Goal academic and social integration.
Commitment (6-Items).
Satisfaction
HERI Cooperative Large-scale survey. CIRP has several survey CIRP examines the effects of the
(www.heri.ucla.edu ) Institutional instruments, including The Freshman Survey (TFS), college experience.
Research Your First College Year (YFCY) & the College Senior
Program (CIRP) Survey (CSS). These surveys generally connect
academic, civic, and diversity outcomes with
comprehensive sets of pre-college and college
experiences to measure the impact. Academic Skills
Construct: 3-Items
Pace (1984); Williams College Student Quality of effort is a key dimension for understanding (CSEQ) assesses the quality of effort
(2007); Williams & Experience student satisfaction, persistence, and the effects of students expend in using institutional
Holmes (2007) Questionnaire attending college. The more students engage in resources and opportunities provided
(CSEQ) educational activities, the more they benefit in their for their learning and development.
learning and development.
McInnis, Griggin, Course Respondents asked to agree or disagree (on a five point The CEQ seeks to determine how
James & Coates Experience scale) with 25 statements related to their perceptions of students who have just completed
(2000); Ramsden Questionnaire the quality of their overall course. The results are their undergraduate degree perceive
(1991) (CEQ) reported course by course for every university and the overall quality of their education
have been widely used to support internal quality by course.
assurance processes. The questionnaire items have
been grouped into four scales concerned with teaching
(‘good teaching’, ‘clear goals’, ‘appropriate assessment’,
‘appropriate workload’); a scale concerning, the
acquisition of generic skills for the workforce; and a
single item on the acquisition of generic skills for the
workforce; and a single item on satisfaction with the
quality of the course overall.
Kuh, & Associates National Survey Documents including research paper using NSSE data, Student engagement represents two
(2006) of Student nation-wide reports, and instrument reliability and critical features of collegiate quality.
Engagement validity are available online at www.nsse.iub.edu. The first is the amount of time and
(NSSE) effort students put into their studies
and other educationally purposeful
activities. The second is how the
institution deploys its resources and
organizes the curriculum and other
learning opportunities to get students
to participate in activities that
decades of research studies show are
linked to student learning.
Self-Efficacy
Bandura (1989) Multidimension Large scale survey. The MSPSE is a 57-item self- Attempts to capture students’ self-
al Scales of reported measure with nine subscales. Each subscale efficacy.
Perceived Self- comprises items rated on a 7-point Likert scale (1 =
Efficacy not well at all, 3 = not too well, 5 = pretty well. 7 =
(MSPSE) very well). Larger student scores indicate higher levels
of self-efficacy beliefs. Internal consistency reliability
(alphas ranging from .63 to .87 with an overall
coefficient of .92) has been reported with a college-
aged sample (Bryant & Fuqua, 1997).
Solberg, O'Brien, College Self- 20 Item instrument consisting of three subscales. The Attempts to capture students’ self-
Villareal, Kennel, Efficacy subscales were found to have strong internal efficacy.
Davis et al. (1993) Inventory consistency and demonstrated good convergent and
(CSEI) discriminant validity.
Originally Locke & Academic Self Academic self-efficacy was measured by the College Attempts to capture students’ self-
Wood; Adapted by Efficacy Academic Self-Efficacy Scale (CASES; Owen & efficacy.
Choi (2005) Froman, 1988) with a 7-item Likert style subscale.
ACT (2012) Student The SRI is composed of 108 items that form ten Examines psychosocial factors
Readiness scales: Academic Discipline, Academic Self- associated with academic success and
Inventory (SRI) Confidence, Commitment to College, Communication college student retention.
Skills, Steadiness, General Determination, Goal
Striving, Social Activity, Social Connection, and Study
Skills.
Bandura (1998); Self-Regulated Part of the MSPSE, the Self-Regulated Learning scale Attempts to capture students’ ability
Bryant & Fuqua Learning Scale includes 11 items (7-point Likert scale: 1 = not well at to engage in self-regulated learning.
(1997) (SRL) all, 3 = not too well, 5 = pretty well. 7 = very well).
This measurement attempts to capture 8 dimensions:
positive self-concept; realistic self-appraisal,
understanding of and an ability to deal with racism,
preference for long range goals over more immediate
short-term needs, support of others for academic
plans, successful leadership experience, demonstrated
community service, and academic interest and
familiarity.
Citation:
York, Travis T., Gibson, Charles, & Rankin, Susan. (2015). Defining and Measuring Academic Success.
Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 20(5). Available online: http://pareonline.net/getvn.asp?v=20&n=5
Corresponding Author:
Travis York
Valdosta State University
Higher Education Leadership
1500 N. Patterson St.
Valdosta, GA 31602 USA
email: ttyork [at] valdosta.edu
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Deﬁning and Measuring Academic Success

Article · March 2015

Travis York Charles E. Gibson III

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Defining and Measuring Academic Success

Methods and behavioral sciences to ensure the quality and

Limitations Evaluation of Kuh et al.’s definition. The stated

Figure 3. York, Gibson, & Rankin Operationalized Model of Academic Success

extrinsic and intrinsic (Ng, Eby, Dorensen, & Fel

• First, research has indicated that grades and GPA

intellectual self-confidence, and the importance placed on original writing

development" (p. 62).

Attainment of Learning Outcomes

email: ttyork [at] valdosta.edu

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