NEONATAL PROCEDURES

PROF. DR. SABRY GHANEM

Professor Of Pediatrics And Neonatology, Faculty Of Medicine Al-Zahar University

1
Preface

The idea for this book to provide practical guidance rather than rigid rules
and regulations. These have been written to provide practical advice.
I hope this will provide enough detail to inform medical staff at all levels
and act as an aide-memoire to those with more experience in the specialty.
Dr. Sabry Ghanem

2
Acknowledgements

I am grateful to my consultant, colleagues, nursing staff, at the Al-Hussein

Hospital, who have contributed to the guidelines which formed the original
idea for this book.

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Content
Item Page
1. Arterial catheterization, peripheral 5
2. Bladder aspiration (suprapubic urine collection) 8
3. Bladder catheterization 12
4. Central venous catheter insertion 15
5. Endotracheal intubation 20
6. Exchange transfusion 25
7. Gastric intubation 32
8. Heelstick (capillary blood sampling) 35
9. Intraosseous infusion 38
10. Lumbar puncture 42
11. Paracentesis (abdominal) 45
12. Pericardiocentesis 48
13. Thoracentesis 51
14. Thoracotomy tube placement 53
15. Umbilical artery catheterization 58
16. Umbilical venous catheterization 63
17. Venipuncture (phlebotomy)Venous access 68
18. Venous Access 70
19. References 74

4
 ARTERIAL CATHETERIZATION, PERIPHERAL

Indications
 Measurement of blood gases for PaO2 tension
 Direct, continuous measurement of arterial BP
 Facilitate frequent blood sampling
Equipment
Equipment includes:
 23- to 27-gauge scalp vein needle or a 23- to 25-gauge venipuncture
needle,
 1- or 3-mL syringe, povidone-iodine
 Alcohol swabs,
 4x4 gauze pad,
 Gloves, and 1:1000 heparin

Contraindications
 Skin infection at site
 Preexisting circulatory insufficiency in distribution of artery or
inadequate collaterals
 Uncorrected coagulopathy
Special considerations
■ Candidate arteries

A. The radial artery is the most frequently used puncture site.

Alternative sites are the posterior tibial artery or the dorsalis pedis.
Use of femoral arteries should be reserved for emergency situations.
Brachial arteries should not be used because there is minimal
collateral circulation and a risk of median nerve damage.
Temporal arteries should not be used because of the high risk of
neurologic complications.
B. Check for collateral circulation and patency of the ulnar artery by
means of the Allen test.

5
  First, elevate the arm and simultaneously occlude the radial and
ulnar arteries at the wrist;
 Rub the palm to cause blanching.
 Release pressure on the ulnar artery.
 If normal color returns in the palm in 10 s, adequate collateral
circulation from the ulnar artery is present.
 If normal color does not return for 15 s or longer or does not return
at all, the collateral circulation is poor and it is best not to use the
radial artery in this arm.

■ Technique
 Avoid wrist hyperextension
 Transillumination extremely useful
 Prepare flush of heparinized (1 unit/1 cc) normal saline in 1-cc
syringe
 Insert 22 or 24G angiocatheter at 30°degree angle very slowly,
observing for flashback Figure (1)

Figure (1) Technique of arterial puncture in the neonate

6
Figure (2) When placing an indwelling arterial catheter, the wrist should be
secured as shown.
The catheter assembly is introduced at a 30°- to 45°-degree angle.

■ Precautions
 Leave tips of digits exposed to detect ischemia
 Use minimal (0.5–1.5 mL/h) infusion rates
 Ensure normal arterial waveform, easy blood withdrawal
 Avoid large or rapid withdrawal of blood or bolus injections of
infusate
 Do not infuse hypertonic/irritating solutions or blood products

Complications

 Ischemia if collateral circulation inadequate

 Frequency: rare
 Management: remove catheter immediately; insert no other
vascular catheters in affected extremity

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 Vasospasm, thromboembolism, air embolism
 Frequency: uncommon
 Prevention: minimize infusion rate, avoid large or rapid
withdrawals/infusions, avoid hypertonic/irritating solutions &
blood products
 Management: controversial; usually self-limited; remove if
dampening of wave form or difficulty in withdrawing blood is
not resolved with repositioning or if thromboembolism
suspected

 Infection: sepsis, cellulites, abscess

 Frequency: rare
 Prevention: attention to aseptic technique; prophylactic
antibiotic ineffective
 Management: catheter removal, antibiotics if necessary

 Hemorrhage due to catheter accident or coagulopathy

 Frequency: rare
 Management: local hemostasis; platelets, coagulation factors
if deficient

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 Bladder Aspiration (Suprapubic Urine Collection)

Indications

Bladder aspiration is performed to obtain urine for culture when a less

invasive technique is not possible.

Equipment

 Sterile gloves,
 Povidone-iodine solution,
 A 23- or 25-gauge 1-in needle with a 3-mL syringe attached,
 4x4 gauze pads,
 Gloves,
 Sterile container.

Procedure

A. Be certain that voiding has not occurred within the previous hour so
that there will be enough urine in the bladder to make collection
worthwhile.

B. An assistant should hold the infant's legs in the frog-leg position.

C. Locate the site of bladder puncture, which is 1-2 cm above the pubic
symphysis, in the midline position of the lower abdomen.

D. Put on sterile gloves, and clean the skin at the puncture site with
antiseptic solution three times.

E. Palpate the pubic symphysis. Insert the needle 1-2 cm above the
pubic symphysis at a 90-degree angle (Figure 3)

F. Advance the needle while aspirating at the same time. Do not

advance the needle once urine is seen in the syringe. Do not advance

9
 the needle more than 1 in. This precaution helps prevent perforation
of the posterior wall of the bladder.

G. Withdraw the needle, and maintain pressure over the site of

puncture.

H. Place a sterile cap on the syringe or transfer the specimen to a sterile

urine cup, and submit the specimen to the laboratory.

Complications

A. Bleeding.
 Microscopic hematuria may occur after bladder aspiration but is
usually transient and rarely causes concern.
 Hemorrhage may occur if there is a bleeding disorder. The platelet
count should be checked before aspiration is performed; if low, the
procedure should not be performed.

B. Infection.
Infection is not likely to occur if strict sterile technique is used.

C. Perforation of the bowel

With careful identification of the landmarks described previously,
this complication is rare. If the bowel is perforated (indicated by the
aspiration of bowel contents), close observation is recommended,
and intravenous antibiotics should be considered.

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Figure (3). Technique of suprapubic bladder aspiration

11
 Bladder Catheterization

Indications
 When a urine specimen is needed and a clean-catch specimen
cannot be obtained
 Monitor urinary output,
 Relieve urinary retention,
 Obtain a cystogram or voiding cystourethrogram.
 Obtain a bladder residual.

Equipment
 Sterile gloves,
 Cotton balls, povidone-iodine solution,
 Sterile drapes,
 Lubricant,
 Sterile collection bottle
 Urethral catheters (No. 3.5 French umbilical artery catheter for
infants weighing 1000 g; No. 5 French feeding tube for infants
weighing 1000-1800 g; No. 8 French feeding tube for infants
weighing 1800 g).
Procedure
A. Males
1. Place the infant supine, with the thighs abducted (frog-leg
position).
2. Cleanse the penis with povidone-iodine solution, starting with
the meatus and moving in a proximal direction.
3. Put on sterile gloves, and drape the area with sterile towels.
4. Place the tip of the catheter in sterile lubricant.
5. Hold the penis approximately perpendicular to the body to
straighten the penile urethra and help prevent false passage.
Advance the catheter until urine appears. A slight resistance
may be felt as the catheter passes the external sphincter, and
steady, gentle pressure is usually needed to advance past this
area. Never force the catheter (Figure 4).
6. Collect the urine specimen.

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 B. Females
1. Place the infant supine, with the thighs abducted (frog-leg
position).
2. Separate the labia, and cleanse the area around the meatus
with povidone-iodine solution. Use anterior-to-posterior
strokes to prevent fecal contamination.
3. Put on sterile gloves, and drape sterile towels around the labia.
4. Spread the labia with two fingers. (Figure 5) for landmarks
used in the catheterization of the bladder in females. Lubricate
the catheter, and advance it in the urethra until urine appears.
Tape the catheter to the leg if it is to remain in position.

Complications
A. Infection.
Strict sterile technique is necessary to help prevent infection. "In-and-
out" catheterization carries a small risk of urinary tract infection. The
longer a catheter is left in place, the greater is the chance of infection.
Infections that can occur include sepsis, cystitis, pyelonephritis,
urethritis, and epididymitis.

B. Trauma to the urethra ("false passage") or the bladder.

Trauma to the urethra or the bladder is more common in males.
It can be prevented by adequately lubricating the catheter and
stretching the penis to straighten the urethra.
The catheter should never be forced if resistance is felt. Perforation
of the bladder or urethra can occur.

C. Hematuria.
Hematuria is usually transient but may require irrigation with normal
saline solution.

D. Urethral stricture.
Stricture is more common in males. It is usually caused by a catheter
that is too large or by prolonged or traumatic catheterization. In
males, taping the catheter to the anterior abdominal wall will help
decrease the pressure on the posterior urethra.

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 Figure (4) Bladder catheterization in the male

Figure (5) Landmarks used in catheterization of the bladder in females

14
 CENTRAL VENOUS CATHETER INSERTION

Indications
 To administer IV solutions with high osmolality (e.g., hypertonic
glucose, parenteral nutrition solution)
 To secure access for critical medications (e.g., ionotropes, PGE1)
Contraindications
Absolute
 Unstable vital signs
 Infection of skin at site of insertion
 Arterial insufficiency of extremity
Relative
 Ongoing bacteremia
Special considerations

Site preparation and insertion

 Percutaneous central venous line insertion is a sterile procedure,
optimally requiring 2 persons scrubbed & third non-scrubbed
assistant
 70% isopropyl alcohol preferable to 10% povidone-iodine solution for
site preparation
 Choice of venous site: antecubital > scalp > axillary > saphenous >
external jugular > femoral
 Prepare hemostatic cotton “ball” to stop bleeding
 Do not remove tourniquet until catheter advanced into vein 2–3 cm
beyond needle tip
 If catheter meets resistance, gentle massage along vein with sterile
cotton-tipped swab may help to advance
 Position of catheter tip in superior or inferior vena cava; confirm by
X-ray
 Do not to cut catheter to length; coil excess outside of skin & fix with
steri-strips

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  If catheter tip directed retrograde into a vein, it may flip into the
central vein by blood flow; recheck x-ray in 12–24 hr

Figure (5): Technique for insertion of the introducer needle into the vein.

Figure (6): The catheter is inserted through the introducer needle with
forceps.

Figure (7): The catheter is stabilized while withdrawing the needle.

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Figure (8): Technique for separating the introducer needle by removing the
needle clip.

Figure (9): Technique for removing the needle wing assembly.

Site maintenance
 Insertion point should remain visible; do not obscure insertion site
with dressing
 Cover site with clear occlusive dressing (e.g., Tegadermor OpSite)
 Dressing should not be circumferential
 If small cotton or gauze piece used to tamp bleeding, remove in 24
hours & redress site
 Site redressing should be routine (weekly suggested) & PRN if
occlusive dressing is loose or site contamination

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Anti-infection measures
 Incidence of percutaneous central venous line infection reduced by
minimizing catheter entry, standardizing access (multiple ports, inline
flushes, etc.) & by ensuring line is entered only under sterile
conditions
 3-way stopcocks should not be used on percutaneous central venous
lines
 Establish & follow protocols to maintain hand hygiene, hub
disinfection, hub-port integrity, & for percutaneous central venous
line insertion & maintenance
 Insert & use percutaneous central venous lines only when necessary;
remove as soon as no longer essential
Complications
 Infection: sepsis-bacteremia, cellulitis, septic thrombophlebitis,
endocarditis
 Frequency: common; may be related to catheter duration
 Management: remove catheter, provide appropriate antibiotic
treatment
 Thrombosis, occlusion
 Frequency: more often with low infusion rates through small
bore catheters
 Prevention: heparin, 1 unit/mL in infusate
 Management: catheter removal
 Catheter leak
 Frequency: infrequent
 Prevention: depends on quality of catheter care
 Management: some catheters have repairable tubing, but repair
increases risk of bacteremia; removal/replacement of catheter
preferable
 Bleeding
 Frequency: rare with appropriate hemostatic technique; usually
not significant

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 Management: temporarily tamp insertion site; blood-soaked
gauze piece may be risk for infection; remove when bleeding
stops

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 ENDOTRACHEAL INTUBATION

Indications
 Mechanical ventilation
 Relieve upper airway obstruction
 Direct endotracheal suctioning
 Exogenous surfactant administration
Contraindications
 None
Equipment

Equipment includes:
 Correct endotracheal tube
o ➣ <28 wk, <1 kg – 2.5
o ➣ 28–34 wk, 1–2 kg – 3.0
o ➣ 34–38 wk, 2–3 kg – 3.5
o ➣ >38 wk, >3 kg – 3.5–4.0
 Pediatric laryngoscope handle with a blade
o No. 00 blade for infants weighing 1000 g,
o No. 0 blade for infants weighing 1000-3000 g,
o No. 1 Miller blade for infants weighing 3000 g;
 Straight blades are preferred over curved blades,
 Bag-and-mask apparatus,
 Endotracheal tube adapter
 Oxygen source with tubing, a suction apparatus,
 Tape,
 Scissors
 Stylet (optional),
 Gloves
 Tincture of benzoin.

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Procedure
A. The endotracheal tube should be precut to eliminate dead space (cut
to 15 cm).
B.
 Be certain that the light source on the laryngoscope is working
before beginning the procedure
 A bag-and-mask apparatus with 100% oxygen should be available at
the bedside.
 Place the stylet in the endotracheal tube.
 Be sure the tip of the stylet does not protrude out of the end of the
endotracheal tube.

C. Place the infant in the "sniffing position". Hyperextension of the

neck in infants may cause the trachea to collapse.

D. Cautiously suction the oropharynx as needed to make the landmarks

clearly visible.

E. Monitor the infant's heart rate and color.

F. Hold the laryngoscope with your left hand. Insert the scope into the
right side of the mouth, and sweep the tongue to the left side.

G. Advance the blade a few millimeters, passing it beneath the

epiglottis.

H. Lift the blade vertically to elevate the epiglottis and visualize the
glottis (Figure10).

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 Figure (10): Endotracheal intubation in the neonate.

Note:

I. To better visualize the vocal cords, an assistant may place gentle

external pressure on the thyroid cartilage.

J. Pass the endotracheal tube along the right side of the mouth and
down past the vocal cords during inspiration. It is best to advance the
tube only 2-2.5 cm into the trachea to avoid placement in the right
main stem bronchus. It may be helpful to tape the tube at the lip
when the tube has been advanced 7 cm in a 1-kg infant, 8 cm in a 2-
kg infant, 9 cm in a 3-kg infant, or 10 cm in a 4-kg infant. The stylet
should be removed gently while the tube is held in position.

K. Confirm placement clinically

 Equal breath sounds over both lung fields, absent over
stomach
 Chest rise with each positive-pressure ventilation
 No gastric distention
 H2O vapor in ETT with expiration
L. Paint the skin with tincture of benzoin. Tape the tube securely in
place.

M. Obtain a chest x-ray film to confirm proper placement of the tube.

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Complications
 Hypoxia, hypoventilation, bradycardia (due to prolonged intubation
attempt, inadvertent mainstem bronchus or esophageal intubation),
apnea, vagal reflex, ETT obstruction, accidental dislodgement of ETT
from trachea
 Frequency: most common complications
 Prevention: provide free flow O2 during intubation, limit
duration of attempt, allow recovery between attempts, verify
position by direct visualization & auscultation; adequate ETT
fixation; if cyanosis or bradycardia persists, extubate & place a
new ETT.
 Management: interrupt attempt or extubate, remove ETT;
provide mask & bag positive-pressure ventilation with O2

 Atelectasis/pneumothorax due to main stem bronchus intubation,

usually right
 Prevention: verify position by auscultation, x-ray; record depth
of insertion at naris or upper lip regularly
 Withdraw ETT appropriate distance

 Hypopharyngeal or tracheal laceration/penetration

 Frequency: very rare, mostly in premature infants; possible
complications – subcutaneous emphysema, mediastinitis,
vocal cord injury
 Prevention: proper positioning of head & neck; always
maintain visualization of tip of tube, avoid excessive pressure
in advancing; if intubating orally with stylet, be sure stylet is
within the ETT & the tip is not beyond the tip of the ETT
 Management: NPO for 10 days, usually heals spontaneously

 Subglottic stenosis
 Frequency: 1–5% of intubated infants; risk factors: tight-fitting
ETT, repeated intubation, poor ETT fixation, prolonged
intubation
 Prevention: proper site ETT, secure ETT fixation, extubate ASAP
23
  Management: ENT consultation if airway compromised;
tracheostomy may be required.
 Deformation
 Naris
 Palate (grooved)
 Defective dentition

 Infection: tracheobronchitis, pneumonia, otitis media

 Frequency: uncommon
 Prevention/management: strictly aseptic approach to ETT
insertion, care/antibiotics for infection
 Post-extubation atelectasis: post-extubation nasal continuous
positive airway pressure, especially after nasotracheal intubation &
with extreme prematurity.

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 Exchange Transfusion

Exchange transfusions are a technique used most often to maintain serum

bilirubin at levels below neurotoxicity.
The level of bilirubin at which to begin an exchange transfusion is currently

Indications

■ Double volume
 Urgent reduction of serum bilirubin level to reduce risk of kernicterus
(most common indication);
 Removal of infant’s sensitized RBC & circulating antibodies in severe
alloimmune hemolytic anemia (rarely required)
 Alloimmune thrombocytopenia to remove circulating antibodies
(rarely required)
 Removal of drugs, toxins (e.g., amino acids, ammonia with inborn
errors of metabolism) if peritoneal dialysis is not effective
 Severe sepsis (efficacy unproven)
o Remove bacterial toxins
o Provide antibody
 Severe fluid or electrolyte imbalance (eg, hyperkalemia,
hypernatremia, or fluid overload).
 Severe anemia

■ Partial
 Reduce Hct with polycythemia
 Increase Hct with severe anemia without concurrent hypovolemia

Contraindications
■ Related to umbilical vein catheterization (see UMBILICAL VEIN
CATHETERIZATION)
■ Related to umbilical artery catheterization (see UMBILICAL ARTERY
CATHETERIZATION)
■ Severely unstable cardiopulmonary status

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Equipment

A. Radiant warmer.

B. Equipment for respiratory support and resuscitation (eg, oxygen or a

suctioning device). This equipment and medications used in
resuscitation should be immediately available.

C. Equipment for monitoring the heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory

rate, temperature, PaO2, PaCO2, and SaO2.

D. Equipment for umbilical artery and umbilical vein catheterization.

E. Disposable exchange transfusion tray.

F. Nasogastric tube for evacuating the stomach before beginning the

transfusion.

G. A temperature-controlled device must be used for warming of the

blood before and during the transfusion. The device should have an
internal disposable coil and connectors to the donor blood bag and
the exchange transfusion circuit. The blood should be warmed to a
temperature of 37° C.

H. An assistant to help maintain a sterile field, monitor and assess the

infant, and record the procedure and exchanged volumes.

Blood transfusion

A. Blood typing and cross-matching

1. Infants with Rh incompatibility. The blood must be type O, Rh-
negative, low-titer anti-A, anti-B blood. It must be cross-matched
with the mother's plasma and RBCs.
2. Infants with ABO incompatibility. The blood must be type O, Rh-
low-titer anti-A, anti-B blood. It must be cross-matched with both
the infant's and mother's blood.

26
 3. Hyperbilirubinemia, metabolic imbalance, or hemolysis not caused
by isoimmune disorders. The blood must be cross-matched against
the infant's plasma and RBCs.

B. Freshness and preservation of blood. In newborn infants, it is

preferable to use blood or plasma that has been collected in citrate
phosphate dextrose (CPD). The blood should be 72 h old. These two
factors will ensure that the blood pH is 7.0. For disorders associated
with hydrops fetalis or fetal asphyxia, it is best to use blood that is 24
h old.

C. Hematocrit (Hct). Most blood banks can reconstitute a unit of blood

to a desired Hct of 50-70%. The blood should be agitated periodically
during the transfusion to maintain a constant Hct.

D. Potassium levels in donor blood. Potassium levels in the donor blood

should be determined if the infant is asphyxiated or in shock and
renal impairment is suspected. If potassium levels are 7 mEq/L,
consider using a unit of blood that has been collected more recently
or a unit of washed RBCs.

E. Temperature of the blood. Warming of blood is especially important

in low birth weight and sick newborn infants.

Procedure

A. Simple 2-volume exchange transfusion is used for uncomplicated

hyperbilirubinemia.

1. The normal blood volume in a full-term newborn infant is 80 mL/kg.

In an infant weighing 2 kg, the volume would be 160 mL. Twice this
volume of blood is exchanged in a 2-volume transfusion. Therefore,
the amount of blood needed for a 2-kg infant would be 320 mL. Low
birth weight and the blood volume of extremely premature
newborns (which may be up to 95 mL/kg) should be taken into
account when calculating exchange volumes.

27
2. Allow adequate time for blood typing and cross-matching at the
blood bank. The infant's bilirubin level will increase during this time,
and this increase must be taken into account when ordering the
blood.

3. Perform the transfusion in an intensive care setting. Place the infant

in the supine position. Restraints must be snug but not tight. A
nasogastric tube should be passed to evacuate the stomach and
should be left in place to maintain gastric decompression and
prevent regurgitation and aspiration of gastric juices.

4. Scrub and put on a sterile gown and gloves.

5. Perform umbilical vein catheterization and confirm the position by

x-ray film. If an isovolumetric exchange is to be performed, then an
umbilical artery catheter must also be placed and confirmed by x-ray
film.

6. Have the unit of blood prepared.

a. Check the blood types of the donor and the infant.
b. Check the temperature of the blood and warming procedures.
c. Check the Hct. The blood should be agitated regularly to
maintain a constant Hct.

7. Attach the bag of blood to the tubing and stopcocks according to

the directions on the transfusion tray. The orientation of the
stopcocks for infusion and withdrawal must be double-checked by
the assistant.

8. Establish the volume of each aliquot (Table 21-1).

B. Isovolumetric 2-volume exchange transfusion. Isovolumetric 2-

volume exchange transfusion is performed using a double setup, with
infusion via the umbilical vein and withdrawal via the umbilical
artery. This method is preferred when volume shifts during simple
exchange might cause or aggravate myocardial insufficiency (eg,

28
 hydrops fetalis). Two operators are usually needed: one to perform
the infusion and the other to handle the withdrawal.
1. Perform steps 1-6 as in simple 2-volume exchange transfusion.
In addition, perform umbilical artery catheterization.
2. Attach the unit of blood to the tubing and stopcocks attached
to the umbilical vein catheter. If the catheter is to be left in
place after the exchange transfusion (usually to monitor
central venous pressure), it should be placed above the
diaphragm, with placement confirmed by chest x-ray film.
3. The tubing and the stopcocks of the second setup are
attached to the umbilical artery catheter and to a sterile plastic
bag for discarding the exchanged blood.
4. If isovolumetric exchange is being performed because of
cardiac failure, the central venous pressure can be determined
via the umbilical vein catheter; it should be placed above the
diaphragm in the inferior vena cava.

C. Partial exchange transfusion. A partial exchange transfusion is

performed in the same manner as 2- volume exchange transfusion. If
a partial exchange is for polycythemia (using normal saline or
another blood product) or for anemia (packed RBCs), the following
formula can be used to determine the volume of the transfusion.

D. Isovolumetric partial exchange transfusion with packed RBCs is the

best procedure in cases of severe hydrops fetalis.

E. Ancillary procedures

1. Laboratory studies. Blood should be obtained for laboratory

studies before and after exchange transfusion.
a) Blood chemistry studies include total calcium,
sodium, potassium, chloride, pH, PaCO2, acid base
status, bicarbonate, and serum glucose.
b) Hematologic studies include hemoglobin, Hct,
platelet count, white blood cell count, and
differential count. Blood for retyping and cross-
matching after exchange is often requested by the

29
 blood bank to verify typing and re-cross-matching
and for study of transfusion reaction, if needed.
c) Blood culture is recommended after exchange
transfusion (controversial).

2. Administration of calcium gluconate. The citrate buffer binds

calcium and transiently lowers ionized calcium levels.
Treatment of suspected hypocalcemia in patients receiving
transfusions is controversial. Some physicians routinely
administer 1-2 mL of 10% calcium gluconate by slow infusion
after 100-200 mL of exchange donor blood. Others maintain
that this treatment has no therapeutic effect unless
hypocalcemia is documented by electrocardiogram showing a
change in the QT interval.

3. Phototherapy. Begin or resume phototherapy after exchange

transfusion for disorders involving a high bilirubin level.

4. Monitoring of serum bilirubin levels. Continue to monitor

serum bilirubin levels after transfusion at 2, 4, and 6 h and
then at 6-h intervals. A rebound of bilirubin levels is to be
expected 2-4 h after the transfusion.

5. Remedication. Patients receiving antibiotics or anticonvulsants

will need to be remedicated. Unless the cardiac status is
deteriorating or serum digoxin levels are too low, patients
receiving digoxin should not be remedicated. The percentage
of lost medications is extremely variable. As little as 2.4% of
digoxin is lost, but up to 32.4% of theophylline may be lost
during a 2 volume exchange transfusion. Determination of
drug levels after exchange transfusion is advisable.

6. Antibiotic prophylaxis after the transfusion should be

considered on an individual basis. Infection is uncommon but is
the most frequent complication.

30
Complications

A. Infection. Bacteremia (usually caused by a Staphylococcus organism),

hepatitis, CMV infection, malaria, and AIDS have been reported.

B. Vascular complications. Clot or air embolism, arterio-spasm of the

lower limbs, thrombosis, and infarction of major organs may occur.
C. Coagulopathies. Coagulopathies may result from thrombocytopenia

after a 2-volume exchange transfusion.

D. Electrolyte abnormalities. Hyperkalemia and hypocalcemia can

occur.

E. Hypoglycemia. Hypoglycemia is especially likely in infants of diabetic

mothers and in those with erythroblastosis fetalis. Because of islet
cell hyperplasia and hyperinsulinism, rebound hypoglycemia may
result in these infants in response to the concentrated glucose (300
mg/dL) contained in CPD donor blood.

F. Metabolic acidosis. Metabolic acidosis from stored donor blood

(secondary to the acid load) occurs less often in CPD blood.

G. Metabolic alkalosis. Metabolic alkalosis may occur as a result of

delayed clearing of citrate preservative from the donated blood by
the liver.

H. Necrotizing enterocolitis. An increased incidence of necrotizing

enterocolitis after exchange transfusion has been suggested. For this
reason, the umbilical vein catheter should be removed after the
procedure unless central venous pressure monitoring is required.
Also, we recommend that feedings be delayed for at least 24 h to
observe the infant for the possibility of postexchange ileus.

31
 Gastric Intubation

Indications

A. Enteric feeding
1. High respiratory rate.
If the respiratory rate is 60 breaths/min to decrease the risk of
aspiration pneumonia (controversial).
2. Neurologic disease.
If neurologic disease impairs the sucking reflex or the infant's
ability to feed, enteric feeding is needed.
3. Premature infants.
Many premature infants with immature sucking and swallow
mechanisms tire before they can take in enough calories with
normal feeding to maintain growth.
B. Gastric decompression.
Gastric decompression may be required in infants with necrotizing
enterocolitis, bowel obstruction, or ileus.
C. Administration of medications.
D. Analysis of gastric contents.

Equipment
 Infant feeding tube (No. 5 for those weighing 1000 g or No.8 for
those weighing 1000 g),
 Stethoscope,
 Sterile water (to lubricate the tube),
 Syringe (5-10 mL),
 2-in adhesive tape,
 Gloves,
 Suctioning equipment.

Procedure
A. Monitor the patient's heart rate and respiratory function throughout
this procedure.

B. Place the infant in the supine position, with the head of the bed
elevated.

32
 C. The length of tubing needed is determined by measuring the distance
from the nose to the xiphoid process. Mark the length on the tube.
See Table (1) for guidelines on insertion length in infants weighing
less than 1500 g.

D. Moisten the end of the tube with sterile water.

E. The tube can be placed in one of two positions.

a. Nasal insertion. Flex the neck, push the nose up, and insert the
tube, directing it straight back. Advance the tube the desired
distance.
b. Oral insertion. Push the tongue down with a tongue depressor
and pass the tube into the oropharynx. Slowly advance the
tube the desired distance.

F. Continue to observe the infant for respiratory distress or

bradycardia.

G. Determine the location of the tube. One method is to inject air into
the tube with a syringe and listen for a rush of air in the stomach.
palpating the tube in the abdomen or aspirating the contents to
determine the acidity by pH tape. If feedings are to be initiated, the
position should also be verified by plain x-ray.

H. Aspirate the gastric contents.

I. Secure the tube to the face with benzoin and 2-in tape.

Complications
A. Apnea and bradycardia. Apnea and bradycardia are usually mediated
by a vagal response and will usually resolve without specific
treatment.

B. Perforation of the esophagus, posterior pharynx, stomach, or

duodenum. The tube should never be forced during insertion.
33
 C. Hypoxia. Always have bag-and-mask ventilation with 100% oxygen
available to treat this problem.

D. Aspiration. Aspiration can occur if feeding has been initiated in a

tube that is accidentally inserted into the lung or if the
gastrointestinal tract is not passing the feedings out of the stomach.
Periodically check the residual volumes in the stomach to prevent
overdistention and aspiration

Table (1): Guidelines for minimum orogastric tube insertion in very low
birth weight infants

Weight (g) Insertion length (cm)

< 750 13
750-999 15
1000-1249 16
1250-1500 17

34
 Heelstick (Capillary Blood Sampling)

Indications
This is the most common procedure done in neonatal intensive care
nurseries.
A. Collection of blood samples
B. Capillary blood gas sampling.
C. Blood cultures
D. Newborn metabolic screen

Equipment

Equipment includes:
1- A sterile lancet (a 2-mm lancet if the infant weighs 1500 g or if only a
small amount of blood is needed, a 4-mm lancet in larger infants or if
more blood is required).
2- Alcohol swabs, 4x4 sterile, gauze pads,
3- A capillary tube
4- A warm wash cloth, and gloves,

Procedure

A. Wrap the foot in a warm washcloth and then in a diaper for 5 min.
temperature should not exceed 40° C.

B. Choose the area of puncture (Figure11). Do not use the center of the
heel because this area is associated with an increased incidence of
osteomyelitis.

C. Wipe the area with an alcohol swab, and let it dry. If the area is wet
with alcohol,

D. Encircle the heel with the palm of your hand and index finger (see
Figure 11).

E. Make a quick, deep (2.5-mm) puncture with a lancet. Wipe off the
first drop of blood. Gently squeeze the heel, and place the collection

35
 tube at the site of the puncture. The tube should automatically fill by
capillary action. It may be necessary to gently "pump" the heel to
continue the blood flow. Allow enough time for capillary refill of the
heel. Avoid excessive squeezing, which may cause hemolysis and give
inaccurate results. Seal the end of the tube with clay.

F. Maintain pressure on the puncture site with a dry sterile gauze pad
until the bleeding stops. A 4x4 gauze pad can be wrapped around the
heel and left on to provide hemostasis.

Figure (11): Heelstick (Capillary Blood Sampling)

Complications

A. Cellulitis.
Cellulitis risk can be minimized with the proper use of sterile technique.
A culture of tissue from the affected area should be obtained and the
use of broad-spectrum antibiotics considered.

B. Osteomyelitis.
This complication usually occurs in the calcaneus bone. Avoid the center
area of the heel, and do not make the puncture opening too deep. If
osteomyelitis occurs, tissue should be obtained for culture, and broad-
spectrum antibiotics should be started until a specific organism is
identified.
36
C. Scarring of the heel.
Scarring occurs when there have been multiple punctures in the same
area. If extensive scarring is present, consider another technique of
blood collection, such as central venous sampling.

D. Pain.
Pain caused by routine heel sticks in premature infants can cause
marked declines in hemoglobin oxygen saturation as measured by pulse
oximetry. Oral sucrose can be used for pain reduction.

E. Calcified nodules.
These usually disappear by 30 months of age.

F. Inaccurate results. Falsely elevated Dextrostix, potassium, hematocrit,

and inaccurate blood gas values can occur with heelstick sampling.

37
 INTRAOSSEOUS INFUSION

Indications

Intraosseous infusion can be used for emergency vascular access (for

administrationof fluids and medications) when other methods of vascular
access have been attempted and have failed.

Many agents have been infused by this technique in the literature,

including IV solutions (eg, Ringer's lactate or normal saline), blood and
blood products, and a wide variety of medications.

Materials required
 Povidone-iodine solution,
 4x4 sterile gauze pads
 Syringe,
 Sterile towels,
 Gloves
 18-gauge disposable iliac bone marrow aspiration needle (preferred)
or an 18- to 20-gauge short spinal needle with a stylet, a short (18-20
gauge) hypodermic needle, or a butterfly (16-19 gauge) needle,
 Sterile drape,
 Syringe with saline flush.

Procedure

The proximal tibia is the preferred site and is described here (Figure 12).
Other sites are the distal tibia and the distal femur.

A. Restrain the patient's lower leg.

B. Place a small sandbag or IV bag behind the knee for support.

C. Select the area in the midline on the flat surface of the anterior tibia,
1-3 cm below the tibial tuberosity.

38
 D. Clean the area with povidone-iodine solution. Sterile drapes can be
placed around the area.

E. Insert the needle at an angle of 10-15 degrees toward the foot to

avoid the growth plate.

F. Advance the needle until a lack of resistance is felt (usually no more

than 1 cm is necessary), at which point entry into the marrow space
should have occurred.

G. Remove the stylet. (Note: At this point, aspiration of bone marrow

for laboratory studies can be done, if needed. Bone marrow aspirates
can be sent for blood chemistry values, carbon dioxide level, pH,
hemoglobin level, culture and sensitivity, and blood type and cross-
match.) Secure the needle to the skin with tape to prevent it from
dislodging.

H. Attach the needle to IV fluids. Hypertonic and alkaline solutions

should be diluted 1:2 with normal saline.

I. Withdraw the needle, and apply pressure over the puncture site.

J. To avoid the risk of infectious complications, this method of vascular

access should optimally be used for 2 h.

Complications

A. Fluid infiltration of subcutaneous tissue (most common).

B. Subperiosteal infiltration of fluid.
C. Localized cellulitis.
D. Formation of subcutaneous abscesses.
E. Clotting of bone marrow, resulting in loss of vascular access.
F. Osteomyelitis (rare).
G. Fracture of the bone. X-ray film confirmation of the needle should be
done to confirm position and rule out fracture.
H. Compartment syndrome.

39
 I. Blasts in the peripheral blood. Blasts in the peripheral blood have
been noted after intraosseous infusions in two patients who have no
malignant, infectious, or infiltrative disease of the bone marrow.
J. Sepsis. Minimized by the use of sterile technique.

TABLE (2): AGENTS ADMINISTERED BYTHE INTRAOSSEOUS ROUTE

REPORTED IN THE LITERATURE

Fluids
Crystalloids (normalsaline, lactated Ringer's solution, others)
Anesthetic agents
Glucose (dilute if possible when using dextrose 50%)
Blood and blood products Atropine

Medications
Antibiotics
Calcium gluconate
Contrast material
Dexamethasone
Diazepam
Diazoxide
Dobutamine
Dopamine
Ephedrine
Epinephrine
Heparin
Insulin
Isoproterenol
Lidocaine
Morphine
Phenytoin
Sodiumbicarbonate (diluteif possible)

40
 Figure (12): Technique of intraosseous infusion.

(A) Anterior view of sites on the tibia and the fibula.

(B) Sagittal view.
(C) Cross-section through the tibia.

41
 LUMBAR PUNCTURE

Indications

 Obtain CSF for diagnostic purposes

 Temporary management of communicating hydrocephalus
 Measurement of CSF pressure (rare)

Contraindications

 Increased intracranial pressure

 Cardiopulmonary instability
 Platelet count <50,000 or coagulopathy
 Skin infection at puncture site
 Lumbosacral anomalies

Equipments

 Lumbar puncture kit (usually contains 3 sterile specimen tubes

 Sterile drapes,
 Sterile gauze,
 20- to 22-gauge
 1-in spinal needle with stylet,
 1% lidocaine
 Gloves
 Povidoneiodine

Special considerations

 Monitor vital signs (consider oximetry as well), airway

 Position
 Lateral decubitus, spine flexed
 Sitting, spine flexed (less respiratory compromise)
 Always use needle with stylet

42
  Puncture site: midline at vertebral interspace just above (L3-L4) or
below (L4-L5) plane of iliac crests; direct needle slightly cephalad
 Often no clear sensation of puncturing dura mater: remove stylet
frequently, checking for CSF
 Depth of needle insertion (cm) estimated as 0.03 x body length (cm)
 CSF volume removed
 Diagnostic: 0.5–1 mL in each of 4 tubes
 Tube 1: For Gram's stain, culture, and sensitivity testing.
 Tube 2: For glucose and protein levels.
 Tube 3: For cell count and differential.
 Tube 4: Is optional and can be sent for rapid antigen
tests for specific pathogens such as group B
streptococcus.
 Hydrocephalus: until flow ceases, but usually not >10 min

Complications

 Contamination of CSF specimen with blood: correction of WBC for

RBCs not valid
 Frequency: most common complication
 Prevention: advance needle in small increments, withdraw
stylet to check for CSF
 Management: repeat LP in 12–24 h
 Respiratory compromise
 Frequency: common
 Prevention: avoid neck flexion, excessive spinal flexion,
cardiopulmonary monitoring
 Management: ABC

 Infection: meningitis due to concomitant bacteremia; abscess;

osteomyelitis
 Frequency: very rare
 Prevention: strict aseptic technique, avoid penetration of
infected skin
 Brain stem herniation
 Frequency: very rare

43
  Prevention: rule out increased intracranial pressure
 Bleeding, hematoma (spinal epidural; spinal or intracranial, subdural
or subarachnoid)
 Frequency: rare
 Prevention/management: correction of clotting factor deficits,
correction of thrombocytopenia if <50,000/mm3
 Spinal cord/nerve injury if needle inserted above L2
 Acquired spinal cord epidermoid tumor formation
 Frequency: very rare
 Prevention: always use stylet

Figure (13): Positioning and landmarks used for lumbar puncture. The iliac
crest (dotted line) marks the approximate level of L4.

44
 Paracentesis (Abdominal)

Indications

A. To obtain peritoneal fluid for diagnostic tests of ascites.

B. As a therapeutic procedure, of peritoneal fluid.

Equipment

 Sterile drapes,
 Sterile gloves,
 Povidone-iodine solution,
 Sterile gauze pads,
 Sterile tubes for fluid, a 10-mL syringe
 A 22- or 24-gauge catheter-over-needle assembly (22-gauge for
infants weighing 2000 g, 24-gauge for infants weighing 2000 g).

Procedure

A. The infant should be supine with both legs restrained. To restrict all
movements of the legs, a diaper can be wrapped around the legs and
secured in place.

B. Choose the site for paracentesis. The area between the umbilicus
and the pubic bone is not generally used in neonates because of the
danger of perforating the bladder or bowel wall. The sites most
frequently used are the right and left flanks. A good rule is to draw a
horizontal line passing through the umbilicus and select a site
between this line and the inguinal ligament Figure (14).

C. Prepare the area with povidone-iodine in a circular fashion, starting

at the puncture site.

D. Put on sterile gloves, and drape the area.

E. Insert the needle at the selected site. A "Z-track" technique is usually

used to prevent persistent leakage of fluid after the tap. Insert the

45
 needle perpendicular to the skin. When the needle is just under the
skin, move it 0.5 cm before puncturing the abdominal wall.

F. Advance the needle, aspirating until fluid appears in the barrel of the
syringe. Then remove the needle and aspirate the contents slowly
with the catheter.
It may be necessary to reposition the catheter to obtain an adequate
amount of fluid. Once the necessary amount of fluid is taken (usually
3- 5 mL for specific tests or enough to aid ventilation), remove the
catheter.

If too much fluid is removed or if it is removed too rapidly,

hypotension may result.

G. Cover the site with a sterile gauze pad until leakage has stopped.

Complications

A. Hypotension. Hypotension is caused by removing too much fluid or

removing fluid too rapidly. To minimize this possibility, take only the
amount needed for studies or what is needed to improve ventilation.
Always remove fluid slowly.

B. Infection. The risk of peritonitis is minimized by using strict sterile

technique.

C. Perforation of the intestine. To help prevent perforation, use the

shortest needle possible and take careful note of landmarks. If
perforation occurs, broad-spectrum antibiotics may be indicated with
close observation for signs of infection.

D. Perforation of the bladder. Perforation of the bladder is normally

self-limited and requires no specific treatment.

E. Persistent fluid leak. The Z-track technique usually prevents the

problem of persistent leakage of fluid. Persistent fluid leaks may have
to be bagged to quantify the volume.

46
Figure (14): Recommended sites for abdominal paracentesis.

47
 Pericardiocentesis

Indications

A. Treatment of cardiac tamponade caused by pneumopericardium or

pericardial effusion.
B. To obtain pericardial fluid for diagnostic studies in infants with
pericardial effusion.

Equipment

 Povidone-iodine solution,
 Sterile gloves and gown,
 A 22- or 24-gauge 1-in catheter-over-needle assembly
 Sterile drapes
 10-mL syringe
 Connecting tube,
 Underwater seal for use if the catheter is to be left indwelling.

Procedure

It is best if the procedure is done with the help of echocardiography. This

will help guide one on insertion and depth of the needle to decrease the
incidence of complications.

A. Prepare the area (xiphoid and precordium) with antiseptic solution.

Put on the sterile gloves and gown.

B. Drape the area, leaving the xiphoid and a 2-cm circular area around it
exposed.

C. Prepare the needle by attaching the syringe to it. If you want to leave
an indwelling catheter, a 3- way stopcock and tubing should be
attached to the needle in addition to the syringe.

48
 D. Identify the area where the needle is to be inserted. The area most
commonly used is ~0.5 cm to the left of and just below the infant's
xiphoid Figure (15).

E. Insert the needle at about a 30-degree angle, aiming toward the

midclavicular line on the left (see Figure (15).

F. Apply constant suction on the syringe while advancing the needle.

G. Once air or fluid is obtained (depending on which is to be evacuated),

remove the needle from the catheter. Withdraw the necessary
amount of air or fluid, that is, enough to relieve symptoms or to
obtain sufficient fluid for laboratory studies.

H. If an indwelling catheter is to be left in place, secure it with tape and

attach the tubing to continuous suction.

I. Obtain a chest x-ray film to confirm the position of the catheter and
the effectiveness of drainage.

Complications

A. Puncturing the heart.

Avoid this complication by advancing the needle only far enough to
obtain fluid or air.
Another technique to avoid puncturing the heart is to attach the
electrocardiogram (ECG) anterior chest lead to the needle with an
alligator clip.
If changes are seen on the ECG (eg, ectopic beats, changes in the ST
segment, or an increase in the QRS voltage), the needle has
contacted the myocardium and should be withdrawn. Avoid leaving a
metal needle indwelling for continuous drainage. Most needle
perforations will heal spontaneously.

B. Pneumothorax or hemothorax. This can occur if landmarks are not

used and "blind" punctures are done. If this complication has
occurred, a chest tube on the affected side is usually needed.
49
C. Infection. Strict sterile technique will minimize the risk of infection.

Figure (15): Recommended sites for pericardiocentesis.

50
 THORACENTESIS

Indications

 Emergent evacuation of tension pneumothorax pending definitive

treatment with thoracotomy tube insertion
 Obtain pleural fluid for diagnosis

Contraindications

 No emergent indication for evacuation of pneumothorax

Special considerations

 18- to 20-gauge angiocatheter

 Insertion site
 Pneumothorax
- Over top of 5th or 6th rib in midclavicular line
- Direct catheter cephalad at 45-degree angle to plane of
chest until pleural space entered, then decrease to 15
degrees, advance cannula as stylet withdrawn
 Diagnostic tap of pleural fluid
- Over top of 6th or 7th rib between anterior &
midaxillary lines, below pectoralis major muscle & breast
tissue
- Direct catheter posteriorly

 Avoid excessive depth of insertion

 Connect 20-mL syringe via 3-way stopcock, aspirate
 Cover puncture site with petroleum gauze & dressing after catheter
removal

51
Complications

 Iatrogenic pneumothorax if care not taken to limit time catheter

open to atmosphere or puncture site not appropriately sealed after
catheter removal

 Punctured lung
 Frequency: depends on the operator skill
 Prevention: appropriate angle, depth of insertion
 Management: usually none required

 Bleeding
 Frequency: rare; usually significant only w/ coagulopathy
 Prevention
- Appropriate insertion site, depth
- Enter pleural space over top of rib
- Correct coagulation factors
 Management:
- Local pressure
- Drain hemothorax if present

52
 THORACOTOMY TUBE PLACEMENT

Indications

 Evacuation of air (pneumothorax) or fluid (hemothorax, chylothorax,

pleural effusion or empyema) from pleural space

Contraindications

 Absolute: none
 Relative: bleeding diathesis

Equipment

Prepackaged chest tube trays typically consist of:

 Sterile towels,
 4x4 gauze pads,
 3-0 silk suture,
 Curved hemostats,
 No. 15 or No. 11 scalpel,
 Scissors,
 Needle holder,
 Antiseptic solution,
 Antibiotic ointment,
 1% lidocaine,
 3-mL syringe,
 25-gauge needle.
 The chest tube should be :
o
o
 Sterile gloves,
 Mask, hat, and gown,
 Suction-drainage system are also needed.

53
Procedure

A. The site of chest tube insertion is determined by examining the

antero-posterior and cross-table lateral or lateral decubitus chest
films.
Air collects in the uppermost areas of the chest, and fluid in the most
dependent areas.
For air collections, place the tube anteriorly.
For fluid collections, place the tube posteriorly and laterally.
Transillumination of the chest may help detect pneumothorax.

B. Position the patient so that the site of insertion is accessible. The

most common position is supine, with the arm at a 90 angle on the
affected side.
C. Select the appropriate site Figure (16):.
For anterior placement, the site should be the second or third
intercostal space at the mid-clavicular line.

For posterior placement, use the fourth, fifth, or sixth intercostal

space at the anterior axillary line.
The nipple is a landmark for the fourth intercostals space.

Figure (16): Recommended sites for chest tube insertion in the neonate. 2
ICS and 4 ICS (second and fourth intercostal space.)

54
D. Put on a sterile gown, mask, hat, and gloves.
Cleanse the area of insertion with povidone-iodine solution, and
drape.

E. Infiltrate the area superficially with 0.125-0.25 mL of 1.0% lidocaine

and then down to the rib.
Infiltrate into the intercostal muscles and along the parietal pleura.
Make a small incision (approximately the width of the tube, usually
0.75 cm) in the skin over the rib just below the intercostal space
where the tube is to be inserted. Figure (17 A).

F. Insert a closed, curved hemostat into the incision, and spread the
tissues down to the rib. Using the tip of the hemostat, puncture the
pleura just above the rib and spread gently. Figure (17B).

G. When the pleura has been penetrated, a rush of air will often be
heard.

H. Insert the chest tube through the opened hemostat Figure (17C).
Be certain that the side holes of the tube are within the pleural cavity.
The presence of moisture in the tube usually confirms proper
placement in the intrapleural cavity.
The chest tube should be inserted 2-3 cm for a small preterm infant
and 3-4 cm for a term infant.

Figure (17): Procedures of chest tube insertion.

55
(A) Level of skin incision and thoracic wall entry site in relation to the rib
and the neurovascular bundle.
(B) Opened hemostat, through which the chest tube is inserted.
(C) The chest tube is then secured to the skin with silk sutures.

I. Hold the tube steady first and then allow an assistant to connect the
tube to a water-seal vacuum drainage system

Five to 10 cm of suction pressure is usually used. Start at the lower

level of suction and increase as needed if the pneumo+
+
thorax or effusion does not resolve.

J. Secure the chest tube with 3.0 silk sutures and silk tape (Figure (17C).
Close the skin opening with sutures if necessary.

K. Obtain a chest x-ray film to verify placement and check for residual
fluid or pneumothorax.

Complications

 Pulmonary laceration
 Frequency: depends on operator skill
 Prevention
- If thoracentesis performed prior to thoracotomy, allow
some air/fluid to remain in pleural space
- Do not insert hemostat >1 cminto pleural space
 Bleeding
 Frequency: rare; usually significant only with coagulopathy
 Prevention
- Appropriate insertion site, depth
- Enter pleural space over top of rib
- Correct coagulation abnormalities
 Management
- Blood replacement as needed
- Drain hemothorax if present

56
 Diaphragm, liver/spleen puncture
 Frequency: very rare; depends on operator skill
 Prevention: appropriate insertion site, depth
 Mgt: usually self-limited; surgical repair if laceration significant

 Infection (cellulitis, empyema)

 Frequency: rare
 Prevention: strict aseptic technique
 Mgt: antibiotics, drainage as needed

 Fluid/electrolyte imbalance, hypoproteinemia

 Prevention: appropriate replacement of chest tube fluid
drainage

 Damage to breast tissue

 Prevention: appropriate insertion site

57
 UMBILICAL ARTERY CATHETERIZATION

Indications

 Measurement of blood gases for O2 tension or content

 Continuous measurement of arterial BP
 Cardiac catheterization
 Resuscitation (umbilical venous line better choice)
 Exchange transfusion (to withdraw blood)
 Infusion of maintenance glucose-electrolyte solution or meds (not
ideal; usually not sole indication)
 Facilitate frequent blood sampling

Contraindications

 Omphalitis
 Omphalocele
 Peritonitis
 Evidence of local vascular compromise in lower extremity or buttocks
 Necrotizing enterocolitis (no proven cause/effect relationship)

Equipment

 22- or 24-gauge needle with a 1-in catheter encasement

 A 24- 500 g.
 Adhesive tape,
 Sterile drapes,
 Povidone-iodine
 Alcohol swabs,
 Gloves,
 Antiseptic ointment,
 Needle holder,
 Suture scissors,
 4-0 or 5-0 silk sutures,
58
  0.25 normal saline solution
 1- or 3-mL syringe with heparinized saline solution (1 unit of
heparin/mL saline)

Special considerations

 Use size 3.5 Fr for VLBW infants & 5 Fr for larger infants
 Position
 High position: level of thoracic vertebra 6–10 (preferred)
 Low position: level of lumbar vertebra 3–4
 Insertion distance to T6–T10 (cm) = 2.5 cm/kg × birth wt (kg) + 9.7
cm+ length of cord remaining (cm)
 Must confirm position of catheter by x-ray
 If repositioning required, catheter may be withdrawn, but should
never be advanced
 Infusate should contain 0.5–1 units of heparin per mL
 Umbilical artery catheter may remain in situ for 7–10 days, but
should be removed as soon as indication for insertion no longer
exists

Complications

 Malpositioned catheter
 Frequency: Common
 Management: Reposition it (should never be advanced)
 Vascular complications: arterial perforation, vasospasm,
thromboembolism, air embolism, ischemia of bowel/buttock/lower
extremity, hypertension
 Frequency: catheter thrombi (most asymptomatic), vasospasm
common; others uncommon
 Prevention: Avoid hyperosmolar (e.g., NaHCO3, glucose,
parenteral nutrition), irritating (i.e., Ca), rapid infusions
 Management:
- If vasospasm suspected, warm contralateral extremity
for 5– 10 min with warm soak; if problem does not
resolve, remove catheter
59
 - Remove catheter if waveform dampens, blood cannot
be withdrawn, or any of above complications are
suspected

 Hemorrhage due to catheter accident

 Frequency: rare
 Management: local hemostasis

 Sepsis/cellulitis/omphalitis/septic emboli
 Frequency: rare
 Prevention: strict aseptic technique (prophylactic antibiotics
ineffective)
 Management: catheter removal, antibiotic therapy

Figure (18): (A)The umbilical cord should be amputated, leaving a 1-cm

stump. (B) Identification of the umbilical cord vessels. (C and D) A forceps is
used to gently dilate the umbilical artery.

60
 Figure (19): The umbilical artery catheter positions.

Figure (19): The umbilical artery catheter can be placed in one of two
positions. The low catheter is placed below the level of L3 to avoid the renal
and mesenteric vessels. The high catheter is placed between the thoracic
vertebrae from T6 to T9. The graph is used as a guide to help determine the
catheter length for each position. The low line corresponds to the aortic
bifurcation in the graph, whereas a high line corresponds to the diaphragm.
To determine catheter length, measure (in centimeters) a perpendicular
line from the top of the shoulder to the umbilicus. This determines the
shoulder-umbilical length. Plot this number on the graph to determine the
proper catheter length for the umbilical artery catheter. It is helpful to add
the length of the umbilical stump to the catheter
length. (Based on data from Dunn PM: Localization of the umbilical catheter
by postmortem measurement. Arch Dis Child 1966;41:69.)

61
The umbilical artery catheter is secured with silk tape, which is attached to
the base of the cord (through the Wharton's jelly, not the skin or vessels).
Figure (20).

Figure (20): The umbilical artery catheter fixation

Figure (21): Important landmarks, related vessels, and the path of the
umbilical artery. The internal iliac artery is also called the hypogastric
artery.

62
 UMBILICAL VENOUS CATHETERIZATION

Indications

 Administration of resuscitation drugs

 Central venous access
 Infusion of hypertonic solutions
 Administration of critical drugs (e.g., PGE1, ionotropes)
 Delivery of blood & blood products, except platelets
 Measurement of central venous pressure
 Double volume exchange transfusion

Contraindications

 Omphalitis
 Omphalocele
 Peritonitis

Equipment

 22- or 24-gauge needle with a 1-in catheter encasement

 A 24-
 Adhesive tape,
 Sterile drapes,
 Povidone-iodine
 Alcohol swabs,
 Gloves,
 Antiseptic ointment,
 Needle holder,
 Suture scissors,
 4-0 or 5-0 silk sutures,
 0.25 normal saline solution
 1- or 3-mL syringe with heparinized saline solution (1 unit of
heparin/mL saline)

63
Special considerations

 Use size 3.5 Fr for VLBW infants, 5 Fr for larger infants

 Position catheter tip 1 cm above diaphragm on lateral CXR, but never
within the heart

Figure (22): Umbilical vein catheterization.

(A) The umbilical stump is held upright before thecatheter is inserted.
(B) The catheter is passed into the umbilical vein.

 Depth of insertion (cm) = 1.5 cm/kg × birth wt (kg) + 5.6 cm + length

of cord remaining (cm)
To determine the specific length of catheter needed, see Figure (23).

"low catheterization," the tip of the catheter lies below the level of
L3 or L4. In low positioning has been associated with more episodes
of vasospasm of the lower extremities.
"high catheterization," the tip lies above the diaphragm at the level
of T6-T9. High positioning is associated with hypertension and an
increased risk of intraventricular hemorrhage. High positioning is also
associated with a lower incidence of blanching and cyanosis of the
extremities.

The length of catheter needed can be obtained from the umbilical

catheter measurements. (figure (23). A rapid method for
determining the length needed for low catheterization is to measure
64
 two thirds of the distance from the umbilicus to the mid-portion of
the clavicle.

Figure (23): Determination of length of umbilical venous catheter.

 Must confirm catheter position by x-ray. Figure (24)

Figure (24): X-ray position of umbilical venous.

65
  If repositioning required, catheter may be withdrawn, but never
advanced
 Never open umbilical vein catheter to atmosphere
 Infusate should contain 0.5–1 units of heparin/mL
 Umbilical vein catheter may remain in situ for 7–14 days, but no
longer than clinically indicated

Complications

 Vessel perforation
 Frequency: rare
 Prevention: do not force if catheter does not advance easily

 Infection: sepsis, cellulitis, septic emboli, omphalitis, endocarditis

 Frequency: sepsis common; others less common
 Prevention: aseptic technique, minimize interruption of line
(risk/benefit does not justify prophylactic antibiotic)
 Management:remove catheter, antibiotic therapy
Note: Staphylococcus epidermidis bacteremia may be treated
without removal; if bacteremia persists >2 days, remove the line

 Air embolism
 Frequency: rare
 Management:never open umbilical vein catheter to
atmosphere

 Thromboembolism: pulmonary, paradoxical, portal vein (w/ resulting

portal hypertension
 Frequency: rare
 Management:remove catheter; other controversial

 Catheter malposition: myocardial perforation with tamponade,

arrhythmias, segmental pulm hemorrhagic infarction, hydrothorax,
hepatic necrosis, necrotizing enterocolitis; all potentially lethal
 Frequency: uncommon

66
 X-ray verification of proper positioning, then note & monitor
depth of insertion
 Management:urgent specific therapy of complication may be
required (e.g., pericardiocentesis, thoracentesis); remove
catheter

67
 VENIPUNCTURE (PHLEBOTOMY)

Indications

A. To obtain a blood sample for analysis or culture. Venipuncture

typically allows a larger volume of blood to be collected and is the
method of choice for obtaining blood cultures.)
B. Administer medications.

Materials required

 A 23- or 25-gauge scalp vein needle,

 Alcohol
 Povidone-iodine swabs,
 Specimen containers (eg, a red-topped tube),
 Tourniquet or rubber band (for the scalp),
 4x4 sterile gauze pads,
 Syringe

Procedure

A. Have an assistant restrain the infant.

B. Decide which vein to use (to help with vein selection,

C. If an assistant is not available, restrain the specific area selected for

venipuncture. For example, tape the extremity on an armboard.

D. "Tourniquet" the extremity to occlude the vein. Use a rubber band

(for the head), a tourniquet, or an assistant's hand to encircle the
area proximal to the vein.

E. Prepare the site with antiseptic solution.

F. With the bevel up, puncture the skin, and then direct the needle into
the vein at a 45 angle.
68
 G. Once blood enters the tubing, attach the syringe and collect the
blood slowly (or administer the medication).

H. Remove the tourniquet.

I. Remove the needle, and apply gentle pressure on the area until
hemostasis has occurred. If blood has been collected, distribute it to
the appropriate containers to send to the laboratory.

Complications

A. Infection is a rare complication that can be minimized by using sterile

technique.

B. Venous thrombosis is often unavoidable, especially when multiple

punctures are performed on the same vein.

C. Hematoma or hemorrhage is avoided by applying pressure to the

site long enough after the needle is removed to ensure hemostasis.

69
 Venous Access

Indications

A. Administration of intravenous (IV) medications and fluids.

B. Administration of parenteral nutrition.

Materials required

 An armboard,
 Adhesive tape,
 Tourniquet,
 Alcohol swabs,
 Normal saline forflush (1/2 normal saline if there is concern about
hypernatremia),
 Povidone-iodine ointment,
 Needle (a 23- or 25-gauge scalp vein needle or a 22- to 24-gauge
catheter-over-needle).
 Use at least a 24- gauge needle for blood transfusion.

Procedure

A. Scalp vein needle

1. Select the vein to use. Veins that can be used in the neonate are
discussed next (Figure 25).
It is useful to select the Y region of the vein, where two veins join
together. The needle can be inserted in the crotch of the veins.
a. Scalp. Supratrochlear, superficial temporal, or posterior
auricular vein.
b. Back of the hand. Dorsal arch vein.
c. Forearm. Median antebrachial or accessory cephalic vein.
d. Foot. Dorsal arch vein.
e. Antecubital fossa. Basilic or cubital vein.
f. Ankle. Greater saphenous vein.

2. Shave the area if a scalp vein is to be used.

70
 3. Restrain the extremity on an armboard, or have an assistant help
hold the extremity or the head.
4. Apply a tourniquet proximal to the puncture site. If a scalp vein is to
be used, a rubber band can be placed around the head, just above
the eyebrows.
5. Clean the area with alcohol swabs.
6. Fill the tubing with flush. Detach the syringe from the needle.
7. Grasp the plastic wings and, using your free index finger, pull the
skin taut to help stabilize the vein.
8. Insert the needle through the skin and advance ~0.5 cm before entry
into the side of the vessel. Alternatively, the vessel can be entered
directly after puncture of the skin, but this often results in the
vessel's being punctured "through and through" (Figure 26).
9. Advance the needle until blood appears in the tubing.
10. Gently inject some of the flush to ensure patency and proper
positioning of the needle.
11. Connect the IV tubing and fluid, and tape the needle into position.

B. Catheter-over-needle assembly

1. Follow steps 1-5 just presented, as for the scalp vein needle.
2. Fill the needle and the hub with flush via syringe; then remove the
syringe.
3. Pull the skin taut to stabilize the vein.
4. Puncture the skin; then enter the side of the vein in a separate
motion. Alternately, the skin and the vein can be entered in one
motion.
5. Carefully advance the needle until blood appears in the hub.
6. Withdraw the needle while advancing the catheter.
7. Remove the tourniquet, and gently inject some normal saline into
the catheter to verify patency and position.
8. Connect the IV tubing and fluid, and tape securely in place.

Complications

A. Infection. The risk of infection can be minimized by using sterile

technique, including antiseptic preparation.

71
B. Phlebitis. The risk of phlebitis is increased the longer a catheter is left
in place, especially if left in 72 h.

C. Vasospasm. Vasospasm rarely occurs when veins are accessed and

usually resolves spontaneously.

D. Hematoma. Hematoma at the site can often be managed effectively

by gentle manual pressure.

E. Embolus air or clot. Never allow the end of the catheter to be open
to the air, and make sure that the IV catheter is flushed free of air
bubbles before it is connected.

F. Infiltration of subcutaneous tissue. IV solution may leak out into the

subcutaneous tissue as a result of improper catheter placement or
damage to the vessel. To help prevent this, confirm

Figure (25): Frequently used sites for venous access in the neonate.

72
 Figure (26): Techniques for entering the vein.

Two techniques for entering the vein for IV access in the neonate.
(A) Direct puncture.
(B) Side entry.

Placement of the catheter with the flush solution before the catheter is
connected to the IV solution.
Infiltration often means that the catheter needs to be removed. Avoid
hyperosmolar solutions for peripheral infusion.

73
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Avery's Diseases of the Newborn: 11th edition - Elsevier Health

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