Question 4: On early computers where every byte of data read or written was directly handled by the

CPU without the use of Direct Memory Access (DMA), several implications arise for multiprogramming:

1. Limited Multitasking: Multiprogramming involves running multiple programs concurrently.

Without DMA, when a program needs to read or write data from/to memory or I/O devices, the
CPU must perform these tasks itself. This can lead to significant delays and inefficiencies, making
it challenging to efficiently switch between multiple programs. As a result, the degree of
multitasking that can be achieved is limited.

2. Lower Throughput: The absence of DMA means that the CPU spends a considerable amount of
time handling data transfers to and from memory and I/O devices. This reduces the overall
throughput of the system, as the CPU is frequently occupied with these low-level data transfer
operations, leaving less time for actual program execution.

3. Increased Overhead: The CPU's direct involvement in data transfers introduces additional
overhead. Context switches between programs become more expensive as the CPU has to
manage not only the program's state but also the ongoing data transfer operations, leading to
slower context-switching times.

4. Resource Contentions: With the CPU directly managing data transfers, resource contentions
may arise. When multiple programs compete for CPU time and access to memory or I/O devices,
conflicts can occur, leading to performance bottlenecks and potential deadlocks.

5. Complex Scheduling: Efficient scheduling of programs in a multiprogramming environment

becomes more complex. The scheduler must take into account the CPU's involvement in data
transfers and prioritize programs accordingly to minimize waiting times and maximize CPU
utilization.

6. Limited Scalability: The lack of DMA limits the scalability of multiprogramming systems. As the
number of concurrently executing programs increases, the CPU's direct involvement in data
transfers can lead to diminishing returns and reduced system efficiency.

Question 5:
Timesharing, which involves multiple users or processes sharing a single computer system, was not
widespread on second-generation computers for several reasons:

1. Limited Hardware Resources: Second-generation computers, which were primarily developed

during the late 1950s and 1960s, had significantly more computing power and memory than
their first-generation predecessors, but they were still limited in terms of processing speed and
memory capacity. These limitations made it challenging to support the simultaneous execution
of multiple user processes, as each process required a portion of the available resources.

2. Expensive Hardware: Second-generation computers were expensive to build and maintain.

Timesharing systems required specialized hardware and software to manage user interactions
and provide fair and responsive access to the computer's resources. These additional costs
made it impractical for many organizations to implement timesharing.

3. Complexity: Developing timesharing systems was technically complex and required advanced
software development skills. During the second-generation era, computer programming was still
 evolving, and the necessary software infrastructure for timesharing was not as mature or readily
available as it would become in later generations.

4. Lack of Demand: Many early computer users were primarily interested in batch processing,
where jobs were submitted to the computer, processed sequentially, and results were delivered
at a later time. The concept of interactive computing and timesharing was not as widely
recognized or demanded during this era.

5. Security Concerns: Timesharing systems required strict security measures to ensure that users
could not access each other's data or interfere with one another's processes. Developing and
implementing robust security mechanisms was a significant challenge during the second-
generation computer era.

6. Inefficient Multitasking: Early timesharing systems relied on simple round-robin scheduling

algorithms, which were not as efficient as modern multitasking algorithms. This inefficiency
limited the number of users that could be effectively supported in a timesharing environment.

7. Resource Contentions: The limited resources of second-generation computers, such as memory

and I/O devices, could easily lead to resource contentions among multiple users, causing delays
and performance bottlenecks.

Question 6: The idea of a "family of computers" introduced with the IBM System/360 mainframes in the
1960s is not dead; it has evolved and continues to be relevant in modern computing. While the specific
System/360 mainframes have long been replaced by more advanced and diversified computing
platforms, the concept of a family of computers has endured and evolved in several ways:

1. Diversified Product Lines: Many computer manufacturers, including IBM, have continued to
offer a range of computing products tailored to different needs. These product lines often
include mainframes, midrange systems, and smaller-scale servers, catering to various levels of
computing requirements.

2. Scalability: The concept of scalability is inherent in the family of computers idea. Modern
computer systems are designed with scalability in mind, allowing organizations to start with
smaller configurations and expand their computing resources as their needs grow. This
scalability is seen in server farms, cloud computing infrastructure, and clustered systems.

3. Compatibility and Interoperability: The family of computers concept also involves ensuring
compatibility and interoperability between different members of the family. Today, this is
achieved through standardized hardware interfaces, operating systems, and software solutions
that allow organizations to integrate diverse computing resources seamlessly.

4. Specialization: Within a family of computers, there is often specialization to cater to specific

tasks or industries. For example, some members of the family may be optimized for data
analytics, while others are tailored for high-performance computing or cloud-based services.

5. Virtualization and Cloud: Virtualization technologies and cloud computing have further
extended the family of computers concept. Through virtualization, organizations can run
multiple virtual machines on a single physical server, effectively creating a family of virtual
 computers within a single physical infrastructure. Cloud providers also offer diverse computing
services to meet various demands.

6. Heterogeneous Computing: With advancements in technology, a family of computers can now

include a mix of different processor architectures, such as x86, ARM, and GPUs, to address
various workloads efficiently.

Question 7: To determine the video RAM needed for different display configurations and calculate the
cost at 1980 prices and current prices, we'll consider the following scenarios:

1. 25 line × 80 row character monochrome text screen:

 Each character cell requires 1 byte (assuming one byte per character in ASCII encoding).

 With 25 lines and 80 columns, there are a total of 25 * 80 = 2000 character cells.

 So, the required video RAM for this text screen would be 2000 bytes.

2. 1024 × 768 pixel 24-bit color bitmap:

 Each pixel in a 24-bit color bitmap (TrueColor) requires 3 bytes (8 bits for each of Red,
Green, and Blue color channels).

 With a resolution of 1024 × 768 pixels, there are a total of 1024 * 768 = 786,432 pixels.

 Therefore, the required video RAM for this color bitmap would be 786,432 pixels * 3
bytes/pixel = 2,359,296 bytes (approximately 2.25 MB).

Now, let's calculate the cost of this RAM at 1980 prices and compare it to current prices:

At 1980 Prices ($5/KB):

1. For the monochrome text screen (2000 bytes): 2000 bytes * $5/KB = $10.

2. For the 24-bit color bitmap (2,359,296 bytes): 2,359,296 bytes * $5/KB = $11,796 (approximately
$11,800).

Current Prices (2022 prices vary widely):

1. The cost of RAM has significantly decreased over the years. As of 2022, RAM prices vary
depending on the type and capacity of the RAM module. However, you can expect the cost per
GB to be in the range of $5 to $20 or even lower for consumer-grade RAM.

 For the monochrome text screen (2000 bytes): Negligible cost.

 For the 24-bit color bitmap (2.25 MB): The cost would be very low, likely just a few cents
or less.

Question 8:

a) Disable all interrupts.

Question 9: Personal computer operating systems (PC OS) and mainframe operating systems (MOS)
serve different computing environments and have distinct characteristics. Here are some key differences
between them:

1. Hardware Scale:

 PC OS: Designed for individual or small-scale computing devices such as desktops,

laptops, and tablets. Hardware resources are relatively limited compared to
mainframes.

 MOS: Designed for large-scale, high-performance computing environments with

powerful and scalable hardware, often comprising multiple processors and extensive
memory.

2. User Base:

 PC OS: Targeted at individual users, home users, and small to medium-sized businesses.

 MOS: Used by large enterprises, government organizations, and institutions for mission-
critical and data-intensive applications.

3. Resource Management:

 PC OS: Primarily focused on managing resources for a single user or a small group of
users, with less emphasis on resource sharing and allocation.

 MOS: Emphasizes resource sharing, efficient allocation, and workload management to

support multiple concurrent users and applications.

4. Security:

 PC OS: Security measures are typically designed to protect individual user data and
privacy, with basic security features like firewalls and antivirus software.

 MOS: Requires robust security mechanisms to safeguard sensitive enterprise data and
maintain regulatory compliance. Security features often include access controls,
encryption, and audit trails.

5. Workload Types:

 PC OS: Geared towards general-purpose computing, personal productivity, and

entertainment applications.

 MOS: Supports specialized and resource-intensive workloads, including transaction

processing, database management, scientific calculations, and batch processing.

6. Management Tools:

 PC OS: Provides basic system management tools suitable for individual users or small IT
departments.
  MOS: Offers advanced system management tools for administrators to control
hardware, allocate resources, monitor performance, and maintain system integrity.

7. Scaling and Redundancy:

 PC OS: Scaling up a personal computer typically involves replacing or upgrading

hardware components. Redundancy is limited.

 MOS: Designed for horizontal and vertical scalability, often featuring redundancy,
failover, and clustering options to ensure high availability and reliability.

8. Software Ecosystem:

 PC OS: Has a diverse software ecosystem with a wide range of applications, including
commercial and consumer software.

 MOS: Typically relies on specialized software tailored for mainframe environments, such
as enterprise-level database management systems and transaction processing monitors.

9. Licensing and Cost:

 PC OS: Licensing models often involve individual or per-device licenses, with costs that
vary depending on usage and features.

 MOS: Typically involves complex pricing models based on factors like the number of
processors, memory capacity, and software features. Costs can be substantial.

Question 10: To calculate the number of instructions per second that a computer with a pipeline of four
stages can execute, we need to consider the pipeline's throughput.

Each stage of the pipeline takes 1 nanosecond (1 ns) to complete its work. In an ideal situation, where
there are no pipeline hazards and the pipeline is continuously fed with instructions, the throughput can
be calculated as:

Throughput (instructions per second) = 1 / (Time per stage)

In this case, the time per stage is 1 ns, so:

Throughput = 1 / (1 ns) = 1 / (1 * 10^-9 s) = 1 * 10^9 instructions per second

Therefore, the computer can execute 1 billion instructions per second.

Question 11:
To calculate the time it would take to electronically scan the entire manuscript for spelling errors at each
level of memory, we'll consider the given access times and the size of the manuscript.

The manuscript has:

 700 pages

 Each page has 50 lines

 Each line has 80 characters

So, the total number of characters in the manuscript is: 700 pages * 50 lines * 80 characters = 2,800,000
characters

Let's calculate the time it would take to scan this text for each level of memory:

1. Registers (Access Time: 1 ns per character):

 Total time = Total characters * Access time per character

 Total time = 2,800,000 characters * 1 ns/character = 2,800,000 ns = 2.8 milliseconds

2. Cache (Access Time: 10 ns per character):

 Total time = Total characters * Access time per character

 Total time = 2,800,000 characters * 10 ns/character = 28,000,000 ns = 28 milliseconds

3. Main Memory (Access Time: 100 ns per character):

 Total time = Total characters * Access time per character

 Total time = 2,800,000 characters * 100 ns/character = 280,000,000 ns = 280

milliseconds

4. Solid-State Drive (SSD) or Disk (Access Time: 1,000 ns per block of 1024 characters):

 Total time = Total characters / Characters per block * Access time per block

 Total time = (2,800,000 characters / 1024 characters/block) * 1,000 ns/block =

2,734,375 ns = 2.734 seconds

5. Tape (Access Time: Time to start of data + subsequent access at disk speed):

 Assuming the access time to the start of data is similar to disk (1,000 ns per block):

 Total time = Time to start of data + (Total characters / Characters per block * Access
time per block)

 Total time = 1,000 ns + (2,800,000 characters / 1024 characters/block) * 1,000 ns/block

= 3,734,375 ns = 3.734 seconds

So, the time it would take to electronically scan the entire manuscript varies significantly depending on
the level of memory:

 Registers: 2.8 milliseconds

 Cache: 28 milliseconds

 Main Memory: 280 milliseconds

 SSD/Disk: 2.734 seconds

 Tape: 3.734 seconds

Question 12:
 1. Logical Equivalence:

 Comparing the incoming virtual address directly to the limit register checks if the virtual
address exceeds the allowed address range without requiring the addition of the base
address.

 Adding the virtual address to the base register before comparison checks whether the
virtual address, after being translated to a physical address, exceeds the allowed
physical address range.

These two methods are not logically equivalent because the second method effectively tests for a
different condition. The first method ensures that the virtual address is within the allowed virtual
address range, while the second method checks if the translated physical address is within the allowed
physical address range. In a virtual memory system with address translation, the two ranges may not be
the same.

2. Performance Equivalence:

 Comparing the incoming virtual address directly to the limit register is typically faster
because it does not involve an addition operation.

 Adding the virtual address to the base register before comparison requires an additional
arithmetic operation, which can introduce a slight performance overhead.

In terms of performance, the first method is generally more efficient because it performs the check
directly on the virtual address without any additional computation. The second method involves an
unnecessary arithmetic operation, which could lead to slightly slower memory access times.

Question 13:
In the case of writing to a disk, whether the caller should be blocked awaiting the completion of the disk
transfer depends on the specific I/O operation model used by the operating system. There are two
common models: synchronous I/O and asynchronous I/O. Let's discuss both scenarios:

1. Synchronous I/O:

 In a synchronous I/O model, the caller (user program) is typically blocked while the write
operation is in progress, and it remains blocked until the operation is completed.

 When the user program makes a write system call, control is transferred to the
operating system, which then calls the appropriate driver to start the disk write
operation.

 The driver initiates the disk write and waits for the write to complete. During this time,
the user program is blocked and cannot continue its execution.

 Once the disk write is finished, the driver notifies the operating system, which then
unblocks the user program. The user program can resume execution after the write
operation has successfully completed.

2. Asynchronous I/O:
  In an asynchronous I/O model, the caller (user program) is not necessarily blocked while
the write operation is in progress. Instead, the user program can continue its execution
while the I/O operation proceeds in the background.

 When the user program makes an asynchronous write system call, control is transferred
to the operating system, which starts the disk write operation but does not block the
user program.

 The driver initiates the disk write and then returns control to the user program
immediately, allowing it to continue executing other tasks or performing I/O operations.

 The user program can periodically check the status of the asynchronous write operation
to determine if it has completed. This can be done using callback functions, polling, or
other mechanisms.

 Once the disk write is finished, the driver or operating system notifies the user program
that the operation has completed.

Question 14: The key difference between a trap and an interrupt lies in their origin and purpose within a
computer system:

1. Interrupt:

 An interrupt is an asynchronous event that can be triggered by external hardware

devices or by internal conditions within the CPU.

 Interrupts are typically used to notify the CPU about external events that require
immediate attention, such as I/O completion, hardware errors, or timer expiration.

 When an interrupt occurs, the CPU stops executing its current program or instruction
and transfers control to an interrupt service routine (ISR) or interrupt handler that
handles the specific interrupt event.

 Interrupts are often used for tasks that need to be handled quickly and may involve
changing the flow of execution or context switching between different processes or
tasks.

 Interrupts can be either maskable (can be enabled or disabled by the CPU) or non-
maskable (cannot be disabled and require immediate attention).

2. Trap:

 A trap, also known as a software interrupt or exception, is a synchronous event that is

intentionally triggered by a running program or the operating system through a software
instruction or system call.

 Traps are used for various purposes, such as handling errors, invoking system services
(e.g., system calls), and implementing debugging mechanisms.
 When a trap occurs, it is typically initiated by the execution of a specific software
instruction or event within a program, causing the CPU to transfer control to a
predefined trap handler or exception handler.

 Traps are often used to handle events that are part of normal program execution or
require specific actions to be taken, such as transitioning between user mode and kernel
mode in operating systems.

 Traps are always synchronous and are initiated by the program or operating system
intentionally.