UNIT II

DECISION STATEMENTS:-
The if statement:-
‘C’ uses the keyword if to execute a set of command lines or one command line when the logical
condition is true. It has only one option. The sets of command lines are executed only when the logical
condition is true.
Syntax:-
if(test expression)
{
statement_block;
}
statement_x;
The statement_block may be a single statement (or) group of statements. If the test expression is true, the
statement_block will be executed; otherwise the statement_block will be skipped and the execution will
jump to the statement_x;
Flow chart of simple if:-

Entry

test True
expression
?
Statement block
False

Statement - X

Next statement
Example:- Write a program to check whether the entered number is less than 10? If yes, display the
same.
#include <stdio.h> #include <conio.h> getch();
void main() }
{ Output:-
int a; Enter number3
The given number is less
clrscr(); than 10
printf(“\n Enter number”);
scanf(“%d”,&a);
if(a<10)
printf(“\n the given number is less
than 10”);

1
if else statement:-
The if block statements execute only when the condition in ‘if’ is true. When the condition is false,
program control executes the next statement which appears after the if statement. The if-else statement
takes care of the true and false conditions. It has two blocks. One block is for ‘if’ and it is executed when
the condition is true. The other block is of else and it is executed when the condition is false. The else
statement cannot be used without if. No multiple else statements are allowed with one if.
Syntax:-
if(test expression)
{
True block statements;
}
else
{
False block statements;
}
statement-x;
If the test expression is true, then the true block statements are executed, otherwise the false block
statements are executed. In either case, true block or false block will be executed.
Flowchart:-
Entry

True False
test
expression
?
True-block False-block
statement statement

Statement - X

Example:- Write a program to find whether the given number is even or odd.

#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h> else
void main() {
{ printf(“%d is an odd number”,n);
int n; }
printf(“\n Enter number”); getch();
scanf(“%d”,&n); }
if(n%2==0) Output:-
{ Enter number 6
printf(“ %d is an even number”,n); 6 is an even number.
}

2
Nested if…….else:-
In this statement, a number of logical conditions are checked for executing various statements. If any
logical condition is true the compiler executes the block followed by if condition, otherwise it skips and
executes the else block. In the if-else statement the else block is executed by default after failure of
condition. In order to execute the else block depending upon certain condition we can add, repetitively, if
statements in else block. This kind of nesting will be unlimited.
Syntax:_
if(test condition1)
{
if(test condition2)
{
statement-1;
}
else
{
statement-2;
}
}
else
{
if(test condition3)
{
statement-3;
}
else
{
statement-4;
}
}
statement-x;
If the test condition-1 is false, then it check test condition-3, if it is true then it executes statement-3
otherwise it executes statement-4. If the test condition-1 is true, then it check test condition-2, if it is true
then it executes statement-1; otherwise the statement-2 will be executed and then the control is
transferred to the statement-x.

3
 Flowchart:-
Entry

False test True

condition-
1

False test True False test True

conditio condition-
n-3 2
Statement - 3 Statement - 2 Statement - 1
Statement - 4

Statement - X

Next Statement
X

Example:- Write a program to find Maximum of three numbers using nested if

#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
int x,y,z,max;
clrscr();
printf(“\n Enter three numbers”);
scanf(“%d %d %d”,&x,&y,&z);
if(x>y)
{
if(x>z)
{
max=x;
}
else
{
max=z;
}
}
else
4
 {
if(y>z)
{
max=y;
}
else
{
max=z;
}
}
printf(“\n Maximum number is %d”,max);
getch();
}
Output:-
Enter three numbers5
7
3
Maximum number is 7

if-else-if ladder:-
In this kind of statement, a number of logical conditions are checked for executing various statements.
Here, if the first logical condition is true the compiler executes the block followed by first if condition,
otherwise it skips that block and checks for next logical condition followed by else-if, if the condition is
true the block of statements followed by that if condition is executed. The process is continued until a
true condition is occurred or an else block is occurred. If all if conditions become false it executes the
else block. In the if-else-if ladder statement the else block we may or may not have the else block.
Syntax:-
if(condition-1)
{
statement-1;
}
else if(condition-2)
{
statement-2;
}
else if(condition-3)
{
statement-3;
}
.
.
.

5
 else if(condition-n)
{
statement-n;
}
else
{
default-statement;
}
statement-x;

The conditions are evaluated from top to bottom. As soon as true condition is found, the statement
associated with it is executed and the control is transferred to statement x. When all else conditions
become false, then the final else containing the default-statement will be executed.
Flowchart:-

Entry

True False
Condition
-1

True False
Statement - 1 Condition
-2

True False
Statement - 2 Condition
-3

True False
Statement - 3 Condition
-n

Statement - n
Default
Statement

Statement - X

Next Statement
X

6
Example:- Write a program to read three integers and display the largest of three numbers using else if
ladder

#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h> else
void main() {
{ max=c;
int a,b,c,max; }
clrscr(); printf(“\nThe largest number
printf(“\n Enter three numbers”); is%d”,max);
scanf(“%d %d %d”,&a,&b,&c); getch();
if((a>b)&&(a>c)) }
{ Output:-
max=a; Enter three numbers 6
}
else if((b>a)&&(b>c)) 3
{ 7
max=b; The largest number is 7
}

break:-

The keyword break allows the programmers to terminate the loop. The break statement skips from the
loop or block in which it is defined. The control then automatically goes to the first statement after the
loop or block. The break statement can be associated with all conditional statements. We can also use
break statements in the nested loops. If we use break statement in the innermost loop then the control of
the program is terminated only from the innermost loop.

Example:-
Write a program to print number from 1 to 50 and terminate when the value is more than 25.
Source Code:-
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
int i;
clrscr();
for(i=1;i<=50;i++)
{
if(i>25)
{
break;
}
printf(“\t %d”,i);
}
getch();
}
7
Output:-
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 24

continue:-
The continue statement is exactly opposite of the break statement. The continue statement is used for
continuing the next iteration of the loop statements. When it occurs in the loop it does not terminate, but
it skips the statements after this statement. It is useful when we want to continue the program without
executing any part of the program.
Example:-
Write a program to print the even numbers from 2 to 50 by missing 8, 18, 28 number.
Source Code:-
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
int i;
clrscr();
for(i=2;i<=50;i=i+2)
{
if(i==8||i==18||i==28)
{
continue;
}
printf(“\t %d”,i);
}
getch();
}
Output:-
2 4 6 10 12 14 16 20 22 24 26 30 32 34
36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50

Difference between break and continue:-

S.N break continue
o
1 Exits from current block or loop Loop takes the next iteration
2 Control passes to the next statement Control passes at the beginning of the loop
3 Terminates the loop Never terminates the program

goto:-
This statement does not require any condition. This is an unconditional control jump. This statement
passes control anywhere in the program i.e., control is transferred to another part of the program without
testing any condition.

Syntax:-
goto label;

where, label name must start with any character. Here, the label is the position where the control is to be
transferred.
8
Example:-
Write a program to find whether the given number is even or odd. Use goto statement.
Source Code:-
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
int n;
clrscr();
printf(“\n Enter n value”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
if(n%2==0)
{
goto even;
}
else
{
goto odd;
}
even:
printf(“\n %d is even number”,n);
odd:
printf(“\n %d is odd number”,n);
getch();
}
Output:-
Enter n value78
78 is even number.

switch statement:-
When one of the many alternatives is to be selected, using if statements can increase the complexity as
the number of alternatives increase. ‘C’ has a built in multi way decision statement known as a switch.
The switch statement tests the value of a given variable against a list of case values and when a match is
found, a block of statements associated with that case is executed. The general form of switch statement
is shown below:
switch(expression)
{
case value1:
block1;
break;
case value2:
block2;
break;
………………..
………………..
default:

9
 defaultblock;
break;
}
statement-x;

The expression is an integer expression or characters. value-1, value-2 ….. are constants and are known
as case lables. block-1, block-2 …. are block of statement lists which may contain zero or more
statements.
When the switch is executed, the value of the expression is successfully compared against the values
value-1, value-2, ….
If a case is found whose value matches with the value of the expression, then the block of statements that
follow the case are executed.
Flow Chart:-
Entry

Switch
expressi

Expression = value-1
Block 1

Expression = value-2
Block 2

(no match) default Default

Block

Statement -X

The break statement at the end of each block signal the end of a particular case and causes an exit from
the switch statement, transferring the control to the statement-x following the switch.The default is an
optional case. When present, it will be executed if the value of the expression does not match with any of
the case values. If not present, no action takes place if all the matches fail and the control goes to the
statement-x.

Advantages of switch:-
1. The switch control structure is having more readability than using if control structures.
2. The switch control structure is used mainly in menu driven programs.
3. In the switch control structures if the given expression matches with value 1 then the statements in
that case are executed and control comes to the first statement after the switch control structure due to
the presence of break statement.
10
4. If the given expression does not matches with value1 then it goes for checking value 2 and .….. value
n.
5. If no switch case is matched with the given expression then automatically statements in the default
case are executed and control comes out of the switch case.
6. The expression must be an integer expression or character expression which yields either integer
value or char value.

Programs:-

Ex1:Write a program to read a Ex3:Write a program to read a

number and print its corresponding character and prints ovel or not
week day. main()//INPUT IS CHARACTER
main()//INPUT IS INTEGER {
{ char ch;
int day; printf(“Enter alphabet:\n”);
printf(“Enter number of week day:\n”); scanf(“%c”,&ch);
scanf(“%d”,&day); switch(ch)
switch(day) {
{ case ‘a’: printf(“ovel”);break;
case 1: printf(“MONDAY”); break; case ‘e’: printf(“ovel”);break;
case 2: printf(“TUESDAY”);break; case ‘i’: printf(“ovel”);break;
case 3: printf(“WEDNESDAY”);break; case ‘o’: printf(“ovel”)break;
case 4: printf(“THURSDAY”);break; case ‘u’: printf(“ovel”);break;
case 5: printf(“FRIDAY”);break; default: printf(“consonent\n”);
case 6: printf(“SATURDAY”);break; }
case 7: printf(“SUNDAY”);break; }output:Enter alphabet:z
default: printf(“Invalid Week day\n”);
} consonent

}output: Enter number of the week day 3

WEDNESDAY

Nested switch case:-

The C supports nested switch statements. The inner switch can be a part of an outer switch. The inner and
outer switch case constants may be the same. No conflicts arise even if they are the same.
Program:-
Write a program to detect if the entered number is even or odd. Use nested switch() case statements.
Source Code:-
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
int x,y;
clrscr();
printf(“\n Enter number”);
11
 scanf(“%d”,&x);
switch(x)
{
case 0: printf(“\n Number is even”);
break;
case 1: printf(“\n Number is odd”);
break;
default: y=x%2;
switch(y)
{
case 0: printf(“\n Number is even”);
break;
default: printf(“\n Number is odd”);
}
}
getch();
}

Switch case and Nested ifs:-

The differences between switch case and nested if.

S.No Switch case Nested if

1 The switch can only test for equality i.e., The if can evaluate relational or logical
only constant values are applicable. expressions.
2 No two case statements have identical Same conditions may be repeated for the
constants in the same switch. number of times.
3 Character constants are automatically Character constants are automatically
converted to integers. converted to integers.
4 In switch case statement nested if can be In nested if statement switch case can be
used used.

Loop Control:-

Loops:-
A loop is defined as a block of statements which are repeatedly executed for certain number of times.
There are three types of loop control elements. They are:
Initialization expression:- It sets initial value for the loop counter before the statements within the loop
body start to execute.
Test Expression:- It tests the condition to determine whether to execute the loop or not.
Update expression:- It increments or decrements the loop counter values such that after appropriate
iterations, test condition will result false and loop will be terminated.

There are two types of loop statements available.

1. Entry controlled loop
12
 2. Exit controlled loop
1. Entry controlled loop:-
These loops which check the test condition at the entry level itself, if the test conditions are not
satisfied, then the body of the loop will not executed. The entry controlled loops are also known as
pre test loops.
The example of entry controlled loop are while, for.
2. Exit controlled loop:-
In the exit controlled loop, the test is performed at the end of the body of the loop and therefore the
body is executed unconditionally for the first time. The exit controlled loops are also known as post
test loops.
The example of exit controlled loop is do-while.

while loop:-
The while loop is best suited to repeat a statement or a set of statements as long as some condition is
satisfied. The general form of while loop is:
while(test condition)
{
statement-block;
}
statement-x;
The test condition is indicated at the top and it tests the value of the expression before processing the
body of the loop. The test condition may be any expression. The loop statements will be executed till the
condition is true, i.e., the test condition is evaluated and if the condition is true, then the body of the loop
is executed. When the condition becomes false the execution will be out of the loop.

Flow chart of while loop: Initialization

Test false
condition

True

Statement_block

Steps of while loops:-

1. The test condition is evaluated and if it is true, the body of the loop is executed.
2. On execution of the body, test condition is repetitively checked and if it is true the body is executed.
3. The process of execution of the body will be continued till the test condition becomes true.
4. The control is transferred out of the loop if test condition fails.

13
Here, the block of the loop may contain either a single statement or a number of statements. The same
block can be repeated. The braces are needed only if the body of the loop contains more than one
statement.
Example:-
Write a program to print 1 to 10 numbers using while loop.
Source Code:-
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
int i=1;
clrscr();
while(i<=10)
{
printf(“\t %d”,i);
i++;
}
getch();
}
Output:-
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

do- while statement:-

The structure of do-while loop is similar to the while loop. The difference is that in case of do-while loop,
the expression is evaluated after the body of loop is executed. In case of while loop, the expression is
evaluated before executing body of loop.
The general form of do-while loop is:
do
{
statement-block;
}
while(test condition);
The syntax starts with the keyword do. The keyword is followed by a block of one or more statements,
which are expected to be executed repeatedly, enclosed within a pair of braces. The set of statements
form the body of the loop. The body of the loop are then followed by another keyword while, which is
then followed by a test condition enclosed within a pair of parentheses.

Comparison of the while and do-while loop:-

S.No while loop do while loop
1 Condition is specified at the top. Condition is mentioned at the bottom.
2 Body statements are executed when Body statements execute even when the
condition is satisfied condition is false.
3 No brackets for a single statement Brackets are essential even when a
single statement exits.
4 It is an entry controlled loop It is an exit controlled loop.
5 If the condition is false, body of the Whether the condition is true or false,
loop will not executed. body of the loop will be executed at
least once.

14
Execution sequence affected by do-while construct:-
1. The statements in the body of the loop get executed once and then the control goes to the conditional-
expression.
2. The conditional-expression is evaluated first.
3. If it evaluates to true then the body of the loop is re-entered.
4. After the statements in the body of the loop get executed for the second time, the control goes back to
the conditional-expression.
5. Once again the conditional-expression is evaluated. If it evaluates to true, again the body of the loop
gets executed.
6. This process is repeated as long as the test expression evaluates to true.
7. Once the condition evaluates to false, the loop is exited and the control goes to the next statement
after the loop.

Flow chart:-
Initialization

Body of the loop

Test
true condition

False
Example:-
Write a program to print 1 to 10 numbers using do-while loop.
Source Code:-
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
int i=1;
clrscr();
do
{
printf(“\t %d”,i);
i++;
} while(i<=10);
getch();
}
Output:-
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

for loop:-
15
The for loop is most common in major programming languages. However, the for loop in C language is
very flexible and very powerful. Generally, the for loop is used to repeat the execution of a statement for
some fixed number of times.
Syntax:-

for(initialization;conditional-expression;increment)
{
statement-block;
}
statement-x;

The general form of the looping construct starts with the keyword for. The keyword is followed by the
three fundamental things to construct a loop, initialization, conditional-expression and increment all in
one place, separated by semicolons and enclosed within a pair of parentheses.

Execution sequence effected by for loop is as follows:-

1. Initialization statement is executed.
2. Test Conditional is evaluated.
3. If the conditional-expression evaluates to true, the statements in the body of the loop would get
executed.
4. Control goes to the increment statement; the increment statement is executed, which changes the
value of the loop variable.
5. Test Conditional is again evaluated.
6. If it evaluates to true, again the statements in the body of the loop would get executed.
7. Control once again goes back to the increment statement, which increments the looping variable.
8. The sequence is repeated as long as the conditional-expression evaluates to true.
9. Once the conditional expression evaluates to false, the loop is exited and the control is transferred to
the next statement after the loop.
Flow chart ‘for’ loop
Initialization

False
Test
conditio
true

Statement_block

Example:-
Write a program to print 1 to 10 numbers using for loop.
Source Code:-
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
int i;
clrscr();

16
 for(i=1;i<=10;i++)
{
printf(“\t %d”,i);
i++;
}
getch();
}
Output:-
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Nested for loop:-

In the nested for loop, the statement part of the loop contains another for statement.
Syntax:-
for(initialization;conditional-expression1;increment) //OUTER LOOP
{
for(initialization;conditional-expression2;increment) //INNER LOOP
{
Body of inner loop;
}
}
We can also use loop within loops. In nested for loops one or more for statements are included in the
body of the loop.
Example:-
Write a program to print the format
1
1 2
1 2 3
1 2 3 4
Source Code:-
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
int n,i,j;
printf(“\n Enter n value”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
{
for(j=1;j<=i;j++)
{
printf(“\n %d”,j);
}
printf(“\n”);
}
getch();

17
}

Output:-
Enter n value 3
1
1 2
1 2 3

18
 ARRAYS

The fundamental data types, namely char, int, float, double. ‘C’ supports a derived data type known as
array to process large amounts of data.

An array is defined to be a collection of logically related data items of same type, stored in contiguous
memory location, sharing a common name but separated by subscripts values.

An array is a homogenous collection of data items which represent the same data types.

Declaration of an array:-
Declaration of a one dimensional array can be done with data type first, followed by the variable name
and at last the size is enclosed in square brackets.
Syntax: - datatype arrayname [arraysize];
Example:- int a[5];
It tells the complier that ‘a’ is an integer type of an array and can store five integers. The complier
reserves 2 bytes of memory for each integer array element, i.e., 10 bytes are reserved for storing five
integers in the memory.
Examples:- char ch[10];
float d[10];
long n[5];

Array Initialization:-
The syntax for array initialization
datatype arrayname[arraysize]={list of values};
The values in the list are separated by commas.
Example:-
1. int a[6]={1,2,3,4,5,6};
Here, six elements are stored in an array ‘a’. The array elements are stored sequentially in separate
locations. Reading of the array elements begins from ‘0’.
a[0] a[1] a[2] a[3] a[4] a[5]

1 2 3 4 5 6

2. int a[6]={1,2,3};
If there are only three values are passed to the array of size 6, the rest of them are filled with zeros.
a[0] a[1] a[2] a[3] a[4] a[5]

1 2 3 4 5 6

19
The initialization can be done at the complier time or dynamically at the run time.

Array terminology:-
Size: - Number of elements or capacity to store elements in an array is called its size. It is always
mentioned in brackets [ ].
Type: - Types refer to data type. It decides which type of element is stored in the array. It also instructs
the compiler to reserve memory according to data type.
Base: - The address of the first element (0th) is a base address. The array name itself stores address of the
first element.
Index: - the array name is used to refer to the array element. For example, a[x], a is array name and x is
index. The value of x begins from 0 to onwards depending on the size of the array. The index value is
always an integer value.
Range: - Index of an array i.e. , value of x varies from lower bound to upper bound while writing or
reading elements from an array. For example in a[100] the range of index is 0 to 99.
Word: - It indicates the space required for an element. In each memory location, computer can store a
data piece. The space occupation varies from machine to machine. If the size of element is more than
word (one byte) then it occupies two successive memory locations. The variables of data type int, float,
long need more than one byte in memory.

Characteristics of an array:-
1. The declaration int a[5] is nothing but creation of five variables of integer types in memory. Instead
of declaring five variables for five values, the programmer can define them in an array.
2. All the elements of an array share the same name, and they are distinguished from one another with
the help of the element number.
3. The element number in an array plays a major role for calling each element.
4. Any particular element of an array can be modified separately without disturbing the other elements.
int a[5]={1,2,3,4,5};
If a programmer needs to replace 5 with 10, then it need not require changing all other number
except 5. To carry out this task the statement a[4]=10 can be used. Here, other four elements are not
disturbed.
5. Any element of an array a[ ] can be assigned/equated to another ordinary variable or array variable of
its type.
Example:-
b=a[2];
a[2]=a[3];
a. In the statement b=a[2] or vice versa, the value of a[2] is assigned to ‘b’, where ‘b’ is an integer.
b. In the statement a[2]=a[3] or vice versa, the value of a[2] is assigned to a[3], where both the
elements are of the same array.
6. Array elements are stored in contagious memory locations.
7. Once the array is declared, its lowest boundary cannot be changed but upper boundary can be
expanded. The array name itself is a constant pointer and we cannot modify it. Therefore, the lowest
20
 boundary of an array cannot be expanded. In other words, even if the boundary exceeds than
specified, nothing happens. The complier throws no errors.
8. We know that an array name itself is a pointer. Though it is a pointer, it does not need ‘*’ operator.
The brackets [ ] automatically denote that the variable is a pointer.
9. All the elements of an array share the same name, and they are distinguished from one another with
the help of the element number.
10. The amount of memory required for an array depends upon the data type and the number of
elements.
11. The operation such as insertion, deletion of an element can be done with the list but cannot be done
with an array. Once an array is created we cannot remove or insert memory location. An element can
be deleted, replaced but the memory location remains as it is.
12. When an array is declared and not initialized, it contains garbage values. If we declared an array as
static, all elements are initialized to zero. However, the values of static type data persist and remain
in the memory as long as program executes. To overcome this problem, initialize first element of an
array with zero or any number. Remaining all elements are automatically initialized to zero, provided
the initialization is done in the declaration statement of an array.

One dimensional array:-

The general form of declaring a one dimensional array is
datatype arrayname[arraysize];
Where arrayname is the name of the array.
size is the number of elements that an arrayname contains.
Example:-
int a[100];
The individual elements of an array can be referenced by means of its subscript (or index). In ‘C’
subscript starts from ‘0’ (zero). That is, if we declare an array of size n, then we can refer the elements
from 0 to (n-1)th element. The elements of an integer array a[5] are stored in continuous memory
locations. It is assumed that the starting memory location is 2000. Each integer element requires 2 bytes.

Element a[0] a[1] a[2] a[3] a[4]

Address 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008

Example:-
char name[10]=”WELL DONE”;

‘W’ ‘E’ ‘L’ ‘L’ ‘’ ‘D’ ‘O’ ‘N’ ‘E’ ‘\0’

When the compiler sees a character string, it terminates with an additional null character.
Initialization of arrays:-
datatype arrayname[arraysize]={list of values};
The values in the list are separated by commas.
Examples: -
21
int a[3]={1,2,3};
char name[5]={‘J’,’O’,’H’,’N’,’\0’};
If int a[5]={10,20}, the number of initializes may be less than the declared size. In such cases, the
remaining elements are initialized to zero, if the array type in numeric and NULL if the type of char.
Program:-
Write a program to read n values from the keyboard and print that n values.
Source Code:-
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
int n,i,a[30];
clrscr();
printf(“\n Enter n value”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf(“\n Enter element”);
scanf(“%d”,&a[i]);
}
printf(“\n The elements are”);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf(“\t %d”,a[i]);
}
getch();
}
Output:-
Enter n value5
Enter element4
Enter element3
Enter element8
Enter element1
Enter element23
The elements are 4 3 8 1 23

Operations with arrays:-

The operations performed with arrays are
1. Deletion
2. Insertion
3. Searching
4. Merging
5. Sorting
22
1. Deletion:-
This operation involves deleting specified elements from an array.
Example:-
Write a program to delete an element from an array.
Source Code:-
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
int n,i,a[30],x,c=0,pos;
clrscr();
printf(“\n Enter n value”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf(“\n Enter element”);
scanf(“%d”,&a[i]);
}
printf(“\n The elements before deletion are”);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf(“\t %d”,a[i]);
}
printf(“\n Enter the element to be deleted”);
scanf(“%d”,&x);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
if(x==a[i])
{
c=1;
pos=i;
break;
}
}
for(i=pos;i<n;i++)
{
a[i]=a[i+1];
}
n=n-1;
if(c==0)
{
printf(“\n Given number is not in an array”);
}
23
 printf(“\n The elements after deletion are”);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf(“\t %d”,a[i]);
}
getch();
}
Output:-
Enter n value5
Enter element4
Enter element3
Enter element8
Enter element1
Enter element23
The elements before deletion are 4 3 8 1 23
Enter element to be deleted8
The elements after deletion are 4 3 1 23
2. Insertion:-
This operation is used to insert an element at a specified position in an array.
Example:-
Write a program to insert an element into an array.
Source Code:-
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
int n,i,a[20],x,pos;
clrscr();
printf(“\n Enter n value”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf(“\n Enter element”);
scanf(“%d”,&a[i]);
}
printf(“\n The elements before insertion are”);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf(“\t %d”,a[i]);
}
printf(“\n Enter the element to be inserted”);
scanf(“%d”,&x);
printf(“\n Enter the position the element to be inserted”);
24
 scanf(“%d”,&pos);
for(i=n-1;i>=pos;i--)
{
a[i+1]=a[i];
}
a[pos]=x;
n=n+1;
printf(“\n The elements after insertion are”);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf(“\t %d”,a[i]);
}
getch();
}
Output:-
Enter n value5
Enter element4
Enter element3
Enter element8
Enter element1
Enter element23
The elements before insertion are 4 3 8 1 23
Enter element to be inserted6
Enter the position the element to be inserted2
The elements after insertion are 4 3 6 8 1 23
3. Searching:-
Finding a value in a list of values is known as searching. An array element can be searched. The
process of seeking specific elements in an array is called searching. They are different searching
techniques, among them few are sequential search and binary search.
Example:-
Write a program to search a value in a array sequentially.(linear serach).
Source Code:-
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
int n,i,a[30],x,c=0;
clrscr();
printf(“\n Enter n value”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf(“\n Enter element”);
25
 scanf(“%d”,&a[i]);
}
printf(“\n The elements are”);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf(“\t %d”,a[i]);
}
printf(“\n Enter the element to be searched”);
scanf(“%d”,&x);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
if(x==a[i])
{
c=1;
printf(“\n Element found”);
}
}
if(c==0)
{
printf(“\n Element not found”);
}
getch();
}
Output:-
Enter n value5
Enter element4
Enter element3
Enter element8
Enter element1
Enter element23
The elements are 4 3 8 1 23
Enter element to be searched8
Element found
4. Merging:-
Merging of two arrays is an important operation with an array. The elements of two arrays are merged
into a single one. The easier way of merging two arrays is first copy all elements of one array into
third copy and then copy all elements of the second array into the third one.
Example:-
Write a program to merge two arrays into third one.
Source Code:-
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
26
{
int n,i,a[10],m,b[10],c[20];
clrscr();
printf(“\n Enter n value”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf(“\n Enter element”);
scanf(“%d”,&a[i]);
}
printf(“\n The first array elements are”);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf(“\t %d”,a[i]);
}
printf(“\n Enter m value”);
scanf(“%d”,&m);
for(i=0;i<m;i++)
{
printf(“\n Enter element”);
scanf(“%d”,&b[i]);
}
printf(“\n The second array elements are”);
for(i=0;i<m;i++)
{
printf(“\t %d”,b[i]);
}
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
c[i]=a[i];
}
for(i=0;i<m;i++)
{
c[i+n]=b[i];
}
printf(“\n The merged array is”);
for(i=0;i<n+m;i++)
{
printf(“\t %d”,c[i]);
}
getch();
}
Output:-
27
 Enter n value5
Enter element4
Enter element3
Enter element8
Enter element1
Enter element23
The first array elements are 4 3 8 1 23
Enter m value 6
Enter element9
Enter element2
Enter element7
Enter element5
Enter element10
Enter element6
The second array elements are 9 2 7 5 10 6
The merged array is 4 3 8 1 23 9 2 7 5 10 6
5. Sorting:-
Arranging elements in a specific order either in ascending or in descending order is known sorting.
Example:-
Write a program to sort the elements using bubble sort.
Source Code:-
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
int a[30],n,i,j,temp;
clrscr();
printf(“\n Enter n value”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf(“\n Enter element”);
scanf(“%d”,&a[i]);
}
printf(“\n The elements before sorting are”);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf(“\t %d”,a[i]);
}
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<n-i;j++)
{
28
 if(a[j]>a[j+1])
{
temp=a[j];
a[j]=a[j+1];
a[j+1]=temp;
}
}
}
printf(“\n The elements after sorting are”);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf(“\t %d”,a[i]);
}
getch();
}
Output:-
Enter n value5
Enter element4
Enter element3
Enter element8
Enter element1
Enter element23
The elements before sorting are 4 3 23 1 8
The elements after sorting are 1 3 4 8 23

Predefined streams:-
The predefined streams are
1. stdin()
2. stdout()
3. stderr()
When C program is executed a few ‘files’ are automatically opened by the system for use by the
program. Constant FILE pointers recognize these files. Streams stdin, stdout and stderr are defined in the
standard I/O include files.
i. stdin:- The file pointer stdin identifies the standard input text and it is associated with the terminal.
All standard I/O functions perform input and do not take a FILE pointer as an argument and get their
input from stdin.
ii. stdout:- Similarly, it is used for outputting the text. It is a standard output stream.
iii. stderr:- It is an output stream in the text mode. It is a standard error stream.

2-D arrays and operations:-

Two dimensional arrays are also known as double dimensional arrays. Double dimensional arrays are
used to solve problems of matrices.
Declaration of double dimensional array is
29
 datatype arrayname[n][m];
Where n specifies no:of rows
m specifies no:of columns.
Example:- int a[2][3];
In the above statement, array a is defined with two rows and three columns.

[0] [0] [0][2]

[0] [1]

[1] [1] [[1]

[0] [1] [2]
In the memory, the array ‘a’ is occupied with 12 bytes of memory and
memory is occupied sequentially like one dimensional array. Two dimensional array can be seen as a
collection of single dimensional array is an array of arrays.
Example:- a[3][3]

Column0 Column1 Column2

Row0 a[0][0] a[0][1] a[0][2]

Row1 a[1][0] a[1][1] a[1][2]

Row2 a[2][0] a[2][1] a[2][2]

a[0][0] is base address.

Example:-
Write a program to read values into 2- dimensional arrays and print them.
Source Code:-
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
int n,m,a[10][10],i,j;
clrscr();
printf(“\n Enter no:of rows”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
printf(“\n Enter no:of columns”);
scanf(“%d”,&m);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<m;j++)
{
printf(“\n Enter element”);
scanf(“%d”,&a[i][j]);
}
30
 }
printf(“\n The matrices is \n”);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<m;j++)
{
printf(“\t %d”,a[i][j]);
}
}
getch();
}
Output:-
Enter no:of rows2
Enter no:of columns2
Enter element1
Enter element2
Enter element3
Enter element4
The matrices is
1 2
3 4

Multi dimensional arrays:-

The C program allows array of two or multi dimensions. The compiler determines the restriction on it.
The syntax of multi dimensional array is
datatype arrayname[s1][s2][s3]…………….[sn];
The initialization of multi dimensional array is
int a[3][3][3]={
1,2,3,
4,5,6,
7,8,9

1,4,7,
2,5,8,
3,6,9

1,4,4,
2,4,7,
8,8,5 };
Example:-
Write a program to demonstrate three dimensional array.
Source Code:-
#include <stdio.h>
31
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
int a[3][3],i,j,k;
clrscr();
for(i=0;i<3;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<3;j++)
{
for(k=0;k<3;k++)
{
printf(“\n Enter element”);
scanf(“%d”,&a[i][j][k]);
}
}
}
printf(“\n 3-D array \n”);
for(i=0;i<3;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<3;j++)
{
for(k=0;k<3;k++)
{
printf(“\t%d”,a[i][j][k]);
}
printf(“\n”);
}
printf(“\n”);
}
getch();
}
Drawbacks of linear arrays:-
1. The number of elements, which are to be stored in an array, is to be known first.
2. When an array is declared, memory is allocated to it. If array is not filled completely, the vacant place
occupies memory.
3. Once the array is declared, its dimension can be changed.

Strings:-

In c language, a sequence of characters, digits and symbols enclosed within double quotation marks is
called a string. The string is always declared as character array and its elements are stored in contiguous
memory locations. In other words, in C, a string is defined as an array of characters.
Declaration and initialization of string:-
32
The syntax for declaring a string
char arrayname[arraysize];
Example:-
char ch[10];
The syntax for initialization of a string
char ch[10]={‘I’,’N’,’D’,’I’,’A’,’\0’};
(or)
char ch[10]=”INDIA”;
Each character of the string occupies 1 byte of memory. The last character is always ‘\0’. It is not
compulsory to write ‘\0’ in string. The compiler automatically puts ‘\0’ at the end of the character array
(or) string. While storing characters in a string array one should confirm if the array length is large
enough to store the given string.

ch[0] ch[1] ch[2] ch[3] ch[4] ch[5] ch[6] ch[7] ch[8] ch[9]

I N D I A \0

5001 5002 5003 5004 5005 5006 5007 5008 5009 5010

The length of the characters in “MAHARASHTRA” is 11 but in C the character array should have a
length of 12. One more character is needed at the end of string which is called a null character. The C
complier inserts the NULL (\0) character automatically at the end of the string. So, initialization of the
NULL character is not essential.

Example:-
Write a program to read the string and print that string.
Source Code:-
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
char str[10];
clrscr();
printf(“\n Enter string”);
gets(str);
printf(“\n The entered string is %s”,str);
getch();
}
Output:-
Enter stringINDIA
The entered string is INDIA

String Standard functions:-

33
C complier supports a large number of string handling library functions. The header file string.h is to be
initialized when ever standard library function is used.

Sno functions Description

1 strlen() Determines the length of a string

2 strcpy() Copies a string from the source to destination.

3 strncpy() Copies characters of a string to another string up to the specified length

4 strcmp() Compares characters of two strings(function discriminates between small and

capital letters).
5 stricmp() Compares two strings(function does not discriminate between the small and
capital letters).
6 strncmp() Compares characters of two strings up to the specified length.

7 strnicmp() Compares characters of two strings up to the specified length. Ignores case.

8 strlwr() Converts uppercase characters of a string to lowercase

9 strupr() Converts lowercase characters of a string to uppercase

10 strdup() Duplicates a string

11 strchr() Determines the first occurrence of a given character in a string

12 strrchr() Determines the last occurrence of a given character in a string

13 strstr() Determines the first occurrence of a given string in another string

14 strcat() Appends source string to the destination string

15 strncat() Appends the source string to the destination string up to a specified length.

16 strrev() Reversing all characters of a string

17 strset() Sets all characters of a string with a given argument or symbol

18 strnset() Sets specified numbers of characters of a string with a given argument or

symbol

19 strspn() Finds up to what length two strings are identical

20 strbrk() Searches the first occurrence of the character in a given string and then
displays the string starting from that character.

1. strlen():- This function returns the length of given string.

Syntax:- strlen(string);
Example:-
34
 Write a program to find the length of the string using strlen().
Source Code:-
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
char ch[20];
clrscr();
printf(“\n Enter string”);
gets(ch);
printf(“\n Length of given string is %d”,strlen(ch));
getch();
}
Output:-
Enter stringINDIA
Length of given string is 5

2. strcpy():- This function copies characters of one string into another string.
Syntax:- strcpy(destination_string , source_string);
Example:-
Write a program to copy the string using strcpy()
Source Code:-
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
char ch[20],ch1[20];
clrscr();
printf(“\n Enter string1”);
gets(ch);
strcpy(ch1,ch);
printf(“\n String is %s”,ch1);
getch();
}
Output:-
Enter string1INDIA
String is INDIA

3. strcat():- This function concatenates (appends or adds) one string to another.

Syntax:- strcat(destination_string , source_string);
Example:-
Write a program to concatenates two strings
Source Code:-
35
 #include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
char str1[20],str2[20];
clrscr();
printf(“\n Enter string1”);
gets(str1);
printf(“\n Enter string2”);
gets(str2);
strcat(str1,str2);
printf(“\n String1 is %s”,str1);
printf(“\n String2 is %s”,str2);
getch();
}
Output:-
Enter string1HELLO
Enter string2WORLD
String1 is HELLOWORLD
String2 is WORLD

4. strcmp():- This function can be used to compares two strings to find out whether they are same or
not.
Syntax:- strcmp(string1,string2);
After comparing the two strings strcmp() returns an integer value which may be
=0 if string1 is equal to string2
>0 if string1 is greater than string2
<0 if string1 is less than string2
strcmp() compares the ASCII values of characters, if there is mismatch in the characters while
comparing it returns the difference between the ASCII values as integer value otherwise returns zero.
Example:-
Write a program to compare two strings.
Source Code:-
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
char str1[20],str2[20];
int d;
clrscr();
printf(“\n Enter string1”);
gets(str1);
printf(“\n Enter string2”);
36
 gets(str2);
d=strcmp(str1,str2);
if(d==0)
puts(“Two strings are equal”);
else
puts(“Two strings are not equal”);
getch();
}
Output:-
Enter string1HELLO
Enter string2HELLO
Two strings are equal.

5. stricmp():- This function compares two strings. The characters of the strings may be in lowercase or
uppercase; the function does not discriminate between them. i.e., this function compares two strings
without case. If the strings are the same it returns to zero otherwise non zero value.
Example:-
Write a program to compares the two strings using the stricmp() function. If strings are identical
display “ The Two Strings are Identical” otherwise “The Strings are Different”.
Source Code:-
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
char str1[20],str2[20];
int d;
clrscr();
printf(“\n Enter string1”);
gets(str1);
printf(“\n Enter string2”);
gets(str2);
d=stricmp(str1,str2);
if(d==0)
puts(“Two strings are Identical”);
else
puts(“The strings are Different”);
getch();
}
Output:-
Enter string1HELLO
Enter string2hello
Two strings are Identical

37
6. strrev():- This function is used to reverse the given string.
Syntax:- strrev(string);
Example:-
Write a program to print the string in reverse order.
Source Code:-
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
char str[20];
clrscr();
printf(“\n Enter string”);
gets(str);
strrev(str);
printf(“\n The reverse string is %s”,str);
getch();
}
Output:-
Enter stringINDIA
The reverse string is AIDNI

7. strlwr():- This function can be used to convert any string to lowercase. When you are passing any
upper case string to this function it converts into lowercase.
Syntax:- strlwr(string);
Example:-
Write a program to convert the uppercase string to lowercase using strlwr().
Source Code:-
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
char str[20];
clrscr();
printf(“\n Enter the string in upper case”);
gets(str);
printf(“\n The string is %s”,strlwr(str));
getch();
}
Output:-
Enter stringINDIA
The string is india

8. strupr():- This function can be used to convert any string to uppercase.

38
 Syntax:- strupr(string);
Example:-
Write a program to convert the lowercase string to uppercase using strupr().
Source Code:-
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
char str[20];
clrscr();
printf(“\n Enter the string in lower case”);
gets(str);
printf(“\n The string is %s”,strupr(str));
getch();
}
Output:-
Enter stringindia
The string is INDIA

String Conversion functions:-

The header file stdlib.h includes functions, used for different conversions. When we get input of a
different type other than the type of variable in which the value is being stored, it warrants the need to
convert that type into another type.

Sn functions Description
o

1 double atof(const char *) Converts the given string to double

2 int atoi(const char *) Converts the given string to int.

3 long atoi(const char *) Converts the given string to long

4 double strtod(char *, char *) Separates char and float data from the given string

5 long strtol(char *, char *) Separates char and long int data from the given string.

Memory functions:-
Memory functions are used with the header file string.h

Sno functions Description

1 memcpy() Copies n number of characters from one string to another.

39
 2 memove() Moves a specified range of char from one place to another

3 memchr() Searches for the first occurrence of the given character

4 memcmp( Compares the contents of the memory.

)

Application of strings:-
Example 1 :-
Write a program to verify the given string is palindrome or not using built-in functions.
Source Code:-
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
char str[10],str1[10];
int x;
clrscr();
printf(“\n Enter string”);
gets(str);
strcpy(str1,str);
strrev(str);
x=strcmp(str,str1);
if(x==0)
printf(“%s is palindrome”,str1);
else
printf(“%s is not palindrome”,str1);
getch();
}
Output:-
Enter stringMADAM
MADAM is palindrome.

Example 2 :-
Write a program to verify the given string is palindrome or not without using built-in functions.
Source Code:-
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
char str[10],str1[10];
int len=0,j=0,i,c=0;
clrscr();
40
 printf(“\n Enter string”);
gets(str);
for(i=0;str[i]!=’\0’;i++)
len++;
printf(“\n The length of the given string is %d”,len);
for(i=len-1;i>=0;i--)
{
rev[j]=str[i];
j++;
}
rev[j]=’\0’;
printf(“\n The reverse string is %s”,rev);
for(i=0;i<len;i++)
{
if(str[i]!=rev[i])
{
c=1;
}
}
if(c==1)
printf(“%s is palindrome”,str);
else
printf(“%s is not palindrome”,str);
getch();
}
Output:-
Enter stringMADAM
The length of the given string is5
MADAM is palindrome.

Example 3 :-
Write a program to concatenate two strings using arrays.
Source Code:-
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
char str1[10],str2[10];
int s1=0,s2=0,i,j=0;
clrscr();
printf(“\n Enter string1”);
gets(str1);
printf(“\n Enter string2”);
41
 gets(str2);
for(i=0;str1[i]!=’\0’;i++)
s1++;
for(i=0;str2[i]!=’\0’;i++)
s2++;
printf(“\n The length of the string1 is %d”,s1);
printf(“\n The length of the string2 is %d”,s2);
for(i=s1;i<s1+s2;i++)
{
str2[i]=str1[j];
j++;
}
puts(str2);
puts(str1);
getch();
}
Output:-
Enter string1HELLO
Enter string2WORLD
The length of the string1 is 5
The length of the string2 is 5
HELLOWORLD
WORLD

42
Double (or) Two dimensional character arrays:-
These are similar to double dimensional array of integers. The difference is character arrays stores
strings. In a single dimensional character array only one string can be stored. To store more than one
string in a character array then it should be declared as double dimensional character array.
The syntax is
datatype arrayname[n][m];
Where n specifies number of rows.
M specifies number of columns
Example:-
Char names[6][5];
0 1 2 3 4 5

r a j u \0

s a i \0

r a n i \0

s i t a \0

a l i \0

flushall():-
flushall clear any data in stream. It doesn’t mean data gets lost, instead all buffered data process and sent
to target output source flushall function flushes all streams.
Example:-
43
Write a program to read n names into two dimensional array.
Source Code:-
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
char name[10][10];
int n,i;
clrscr();
printf(“\n Enter n value”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
flushall();
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf(“\n Enter name”);
gets(name[i]);
}
printf(“\n The names are\n”);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
puts(name[i]);
}
getch();
}
Output:-
Enter n value4
Enter namesai
Enter namesiva
Enter nameram
Enter namesita
The names are
sai
siva
ram
sita
Example:-
Write a program to print the given strings in ascending order.
Source Code:-
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
char name[10][10],temp[10];
44
 int n,i,j,x;
clrscr();
printf(“\n Enter n value”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
flushall();
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf(“\n Enter name”);
gets(name[i]);
}
printf(“\n The names before sorting are\n”);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
puts(name[i]);
}
for(i=0;i<n-1;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<n-i-1;j++)
{
x=strcmp(name[j],name[j+1]);
if(x>0)
{
strcpy(temp,name[j]);
strcpy(name[j],name[j+1]);
strcpy(name[j+1],temp);
}
}
}
printf(“\n The names after sorting are”);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
puts(name[i]);
}
getch();
}
Output:-
Enter n value4
Enter namesai
Enter namesiva
Enter nameram
Enter namesita
The names before sorting are
sai
45
siva
ram
sita
The names after sorting are
ram
sai
sita
siva

46