BA (Computer) S1U1E

B.A.
PART-I (SEMESTER-I) PAPER : BAP-101
COMPUTER SCIENCE FUNDAMENTALS OF IT
UNIT - 1
Lesson Nos :
1.1 : Introduction & Block Diagram of Computer

1.2 : Classification & History of Computers
1.3 : Number System
1.4 : Input Devices
1.5 : Output Devices
1.6 : Central Processing Unit
1.7 : Memory
1.8 : Storage Devices
1.9 : Computer Languages
Note:- The students can download syllabus from

departmental website www.dccpbi.com
B.A. PART–I COMPUTER SCIENCE
SEMESTER-I PAPER : BAP-101 FUNDAMENTALS OF IT
LESSON NO. 1.1 AUTHOR : JAGMOHAN SINGH JUNEJA
INTRODUCTION AND BLOCK DIAGRAM OF COMPUTER

1.1.1 Objectives of the lesson
1.1.2 Introduction
1.1.3 What is Computer ?
1.1.4 Benefits of Computers
1.1.5 Characteristics of Computers
1.1.6 Limitations of Computers
1.1.7 Computer System
1.1.7.1 Central Processing Unit (C.P.U.)
1.1.7.2 Block diagram of Computer
1.1.7.3 Arithmetic and Logical Unit
1.1.7.4 Control Unit
1.1.7.5 Main Memory Unit
1.1.8 Types of Software
1.1.9 Summary
1.1.10 Keywords
1.1.11 Short answer type Questions
1.1.12 Long answer type Questions
1.1.13 Suggested Readings
B.A. Part-I (Semester-I) 2 Paper : BAP-101 (Fundamentals of IT)

Objectives of this lesson are to describe the benefits, characteristics and
limitations of computers. To know the function of Arithmetic and Logical Unit
(ALU); Control Unit (CU) and Main Memory Unit (MMU).
1.1.2 Introduction
In the contemporary age of Information Technology, computers are used as an
ultimate initiation point pertaining to creating, managing, processing and
exchanging information. Its charisma (attraction) can be found in almost in all
walks of life such as education, communication, entertainment, banking,
business, medicine, weather forecasting, scientific research, defense, transport
reservation systems, etc.
Undoubtedly, computers are powerful tools, which can be used to perform a wide
range of functions. But they ask for clear and complete instructions to perform a
task comprehensively. That is why; use of computer is subjugated to the skills of
its user. Dexterity is directly proportional to practice it and rehearsals. Minor
distortions can lead to complete malfunctioning of this basic time and effort
saving techno-service.
High speed processing, accuracy maintained by it, massive storage capabilities,
diligence, versatility in its usage and cost effectiveness are the bare minimum
benefits. These can be easily approved to be in conjugal relationships while
using Computers for any job.
When computers were first introduced in India, cost and maintenance involved
allowed a limited number of institutions to afford computers. Only the top-of-
the-line educational institutions, such as the Indian Institute of Technology and
the Indian Institute of Management (IITs and IIMs), had a computer laboratory.
In addition to these, only government sponsored research laboratories, such as
Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) and Bhaba Atomic Research Centre
were able to afford them. In the late 1980s, the country witnessed a sweeping
change.
There is an escalating trend towards the usage of Computers in our daily life.
Portability, owing to its small size and huge processing and storage capacity has
made it very popular. Easy to use graphical user interface, reusable software and
robust operating environments is the second critical factor, which adds to the
success story of usage of computers. Introduction of the computers into even
kindergarten curriculum is also an escalating factor in the popularization of this

machine.
A computer is composed of hardware and software, and can exist in a variety of
sizes and configurations : Personal Computer, Workstation, Minicomputer, Main-
frame, Supercomputer.
1.1.3 What is Computer

Computer can be described as an information-processing machine which
can perform arithmetic operations (Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication
and Division etc.) and which can take logical decisions. It has the capability
to store lot of information and instructions in the memory. The stored
information can be retrieved, moved and operated upon as desired. Computations
are done at an extremely fast speed with complete reliability and accuracy.
1.1.4 Benefits of Computers

A Computer is an intelligent amplifier that performs the operations in a more
faster, accurate and efficient way as compared to humans. Thus, it frees
humans to use their time in matters involving creativity & Judgment.
The benefits are listed as below:
A Computer can add, subtract, multiply and divide numbers, compare letters to
determine alphabetic sequence, move and copy numbers and letters with
significant speed. This speed varies from a few microseconds (millionth of a
second) to nanosecond (billionth of second). For instance, a small computer can
evaluate investment decisions by performing hundreds of thousands of machine
operations in a second. Number crunching at tremendous processing speed and
that too with lot of accuracy is simply guaranteed with the use of computers.
Computers are very accurate. They can perform hundreds of thousands of
operations with great accuracy as their circuits have no mechanical parts to wear
and malfunction. They can run errorless for days, at a time.
Computer output is generally very reliable, subject to the condition that the input
data entering the computer should be correct and the program of instructions
should be reliable and correct. Because various computer media can store
millions of characters of data in a condensed form, there is a tremendous savings
in the storage area required to maintain the vital records necessary in a business
environment.
Computers are used for official and home use i.e you can write papers on it,
download music, play games and compose e-mail, instant message friends on it.
It is a tool for all things high-tech and a staple of the college student's life.
Computer can also help take care of simple tasks that are easy to do i.e. your
computer can wake you up in the morning, tell you when a test is, make a long-
distance phone call for you and even keep in touch with friends through video. It
is much more than a program to check e-mail. If you want to take the time,
Outlook can keep up with all your test times, homework assignments and various
dates of high importance. An easy-to-navigate planner also allows effortless
setup of recurring appointments. You can also keep in touch with friends using
a webcam with computer. It is this diligence and its versatility that makes
computers a robust machine.
1.1.5 Characteristics of Computers

Computers possess a number of characteristics which have been discussed below
:
Speed
The speed of modern computers is amazing. Today, the computers are able to
calculate even in pico seconds (10-12 second). A Computer can do more than 3
lac calculations like addition, substraction etc. in only one second. Its internal
speed is virtually instantaneous. This characteristic of computers is very
important and useful for human because forecasting is easy. Computers can
forecast weather in advance and thus the information of the weather can be given
well in advance to the people living at sea-shores or in hilly areas.
Accuracy
The accuracy of the computers is consistently very high. The work performed by
the computers is error-free and if there is any error, it is due to its wrong use.
Mostly the errors are made by the user himself and not by the machine. If the
programming is correct and the data feeded into the computer is accurate, then
the results furnished by the computers are always accurate. Computers are
capable of performing almost any job without any sign of tiredness.
Storage
Computer has the capability to store data on a large scale in its memory. A large
quantity of data/information can be stored in it and can be recalled in no time in
case of need. A computer has two types of memory. One is called permanent and
another is temporary. Data or information can be stored temporarily in the Main

Memory. This memory is limited. On the other hand the secondary memory is
large and the data can be stored permanently. This memory is also termed as
Auxiliary Memory. The capacity of memory is measured in terms of bytes. The
higher units are Kilobytes, Megabytes and Gigabytes. For storage of data, devices
like magnetic tapes, floppies, disks etc. are used.
Communications
Today computer is mostly used to exchage messages or data through computer
networks all over the world. The information can be received or send through the
internet with the help of computer. It is the most important feature of modern IT.
Consistency
People often have difficulty to repeat their instructions again and again e.g. a
lecturer feels difficult to repeat the same lecture in a class room again and again.
Computer can repeat actions consistently without loosing its concentration.
Versatility
A Computer is capable of performing logical operations. For logical operations it
makes use of its internal control (CPU). It can perform the job given to it without
any break for a very long duration. It is capable of doing the following functions:
• It transfers the data internally.
• It can perform the functions of comparison.
• It performs arithmetical operation.
• It exchanges information with the outside world.
Automation
Automation is one of the most important characteristics of the computer. Once
the command is given to the computer, it can perform the job without the need of
human intervention until the completion of the job. If something is to be printed
in output form and the necessary instructions are given to the computer, it
transfers the data continuously to the printer until the completion of work. The
automation of computers is of utmost importance in Industries.
Diligence
Computer does not suffer from the human traits of tiredness. It is capable of
performing the job with full concentration. It can be put to work continuously for
several hours and it will perform the job with same speed and accuracy.
Due to these characteristics, the computers are being used in designing, science,
engineering, hospitals, schools and universities etc.
1.6 Limitations of Computers
Computers are very good at what they do, but there are many tasks that they
can’t do. They can’t do anything unless they are first programmed with specific
instructions. Computer can’t decide how they are to be programmed or provide
their own input; they can’t interpret the data they generate; they can’t implement
any decisions that they suggest; and they can’t “THINK”. For example they can be
programmed to store recipes, but they can’t decide to fix dinner. They can keep
track of scientific data, but they can’t conceive of express the ideas for continued
research. Their memories can contain the contents of encyclopedias, but only
humans can decide what to do with that knowledge.
1.1.7 Computer System

A computer system consists of a computer and supporting devices for input,
output and storage of data. The data to be processed is supplied to the computer
with the help of input devices. The processing unit performs the desired
operations on the information and the results of calculations/processing are
obtained on the output devices. Several types of input/output devices can be
attached to the computer. A computer consists of electronic circuits only, while
the input/output devices have both electronic and mechanical components. The
basic organization of any computer is shown in figure-1:
Input devices Central processing unit Output devices
Figure-1 Computer system
The input device supplies the data to the computer. Most commonly used input
devices are: Keyboard, Magnetic tape, Floppy disk drive, Hard disk drive, Mouse,
MICR and Scanners etc. We specify the data in a form which we use in our
everyday life, that is in the numeric and alphabetic form. These are converted
into the form which computer can ‘understand’ i.e. binary form. After the
computer has processed the data, results are obtained on the output devices.
Commonly used devices are printers and plotters. The results obtained are in the
human readable form.
Normally when we say computer - that means a complete computer system.
1.1.7.1 Central Processing Unit (C.P.U.)

The computer does all the computing and data processing work in Central
Processing Unit (C.P.U.). Its main components are :
a) Arithmetic and Logical Unit (ALU)
b) Control Unit (CU)
c) Main Memory Unit (MMU)
For processing of data, Information is transferred to and fro from one unit to
other as shown below in Figure-2.
1.1.7.2 Block diagram of Computer:
Figure-2
1.1.7.3 Arithmetic and Logical Unit:

This unit consists of complicated electronic circuits designed using the concepts
of Boolean algebra. All arithmetic operations-addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division and logical operations-comparison, decision etc. are
performed by this unit.
1.1.7.4 Control Unit:

The control unit also consists of electronic circuits. It acts as a supervisor in a
computer system. It obtains instructions from the main memory, interprets them,
decides the action to be taken and directs other units to execute them. It keeps
check on correct information flow in the computer system. Normally, the
instructions are executed sequentially (one after another) in the machine. The
control unit also provides the facility to alter this sequence.
1.1.7.5 Main Memory Unit:

This unit stores all the data which are to be processed and the program
instructions for carrying out the processing/computing work. The main memory
is also referred to as Primary or Main storage. It is extremely fast (High speed

memory) and generally consists of magnetic cores (older systems) or semi-
conductor/microprocessors (modern systems). Information can be
entered/retrieved at random from the main memory.
The ALU, MMU and the CU are also referred to as Central Processing Unit (CPU).
Hardware:
Hardware refers to objects that we can actually touch, like disks, disk drives,
display screens, keyboards, printers, boards and chips etc.
Software:
Software is a set of instructions. It is untouchable. Software exists as ideas,
concepts, and symbols, but it has no substance. The distinction between
software and hardware is sometimes confusing because they are so integrally
linked. Clearly, when you purchase a program, you are buying software. But to
buy the software, you need to buy the disk (hardware) on which the software is
recorded.
Books provide a useful analogy. The pages and the ink are the hardware, while
the words, sentences, paragraphs and the overall meaning are the software. A
computer without software is like a book full of blank pages -- you need software
to make the computer useful just as you need words to make a book meaningful.
Similarly TV is hardware. Programs being relayed are software. If no program is
being relayed then TV is nothing but a waste box. Similarly without software
computer is nothing but a waste box.
1.1.8 Types of Software:

1. System software:
It includes the operating system and all the utilities that enable the computer to
function.
2. Application software: An application program (sometimes shortened to
application) is any program designed to perform a specific function directly
for the user or, in some cases, for another application program. It includes
programs that do real work for users. Examples of application programs
include word processors, spreadsheets, database management systems; Web
browsers; development tools; drawing, paint and image editing programs;
and communication programs. Application programs use the services of the
computer's operating system and other supporting programs. The formal

requests for services and means of communicating with other programs that
a programmer uses in writing an application program is called the
application program interface (API).
Memory Units : A bit is a binary digit, taking a value of either 0 or 1. Binary
digits are a basic unit of information storage and communication in digital
computing and digital information theory.
Bit: Computer stores a variety of data and information in its memory, including
numbers (0-9), letters (A-Z), symbols and other characters (#,{},’,~,^). A
computer uses the binary system to represent these characters. In a binary
system, only two digits, 0 and 1, are used. The 0’s and 1’s in the binary
system are known as bits.
Byte : A byte (pronounced "bite") is the basic unit of measurement of information
storage in computer science. In many computer architectures it is a unit of
memory addressing, most often consisting of eight bits. A byte is one of the
basic integral data types in some programming languages, especially system
programming languages.
A byte is an ordered collection of bits, with each bit denoting a single binary
value of 1 or 0. The size of a byte can vary and is generally determined by
the underlying computer operating system or hardware, although the 8-bit
byte is the standard in most of the systems. Historically, byte size was
determined by the number of bits required to represent a single character
from a Western character set. Its size was generally determined by the
number of possible characters in the supported character set and was
chosen to be a divisor of the computer's word size. Historically bytes have
ranged from five to twelve bits.
Since computer memory comes in a power of two rather than 10, a large
portion of the software and computer industry use binary estimates of the
quantities, Kilobytes, Megabytes, Gigabytes and Terabytes are higher units for
measuring the capacity of memory or storage devices. To understand the
relationship between them, please refer the following table.
8 bits 20 * 8 bits = 1 byte = 1 byte
210 bytes 210 * 8 bits = 1024 bytes = 1 Kilobyte (KB)
210 KB 220 * 8 bits = 1024 KB = 1 Megabyte (MB)
210 MB 230 * 8 bits = 1024 MB = 1 Gigabyte (GB)
210 GB 240 * 8 bits = 1024 GB = 1 Terabyte (TB)
1.1.9 Summary
Computer can be described as an information-processing machine which can
perform arithmetic operations (Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Division
etc.) and which can take logical decisions. Main characteristics of computer are
speed, accuracy, storage, versatility, automation and diligence. The speed of
modern computers is amazing. Today, the computers are able to calculate even in
pico seconds (10⁻12 second). A Computer can do more than 3 lac calculations
like addition, subtraction etc. in only one second. Its internal speed is virtually
instantaneous. The accuracy of the computers is consistently very high. The work
performed by the computers is error-free and if there is any error, it is due to its
wrong use. Mostly the errors are made by the user himself and not by the
machine. Computer has the capability to store data on a large scale in its
memory. A large quantity of data/information can be stored in it and can be
recalled in no time in case of need. A computer has two types of memory. One is
called permanent and another is temporary. Automation is one of the most
important characteristics of the computer. Once the command is given to the
computer, it can perform the job without the need of human intervention until
the completion of the job. Computer can be used for vast variety of applications.
Computer does not suffer from the human traits of tiredness. It is capable of
performing the job with full concentration. It can be put to work continuously for
several hours and it will perform the job with same speed and accuracy. Due to
these characteristics, the computers are being used in designing, science,
engineering, hospitals, schools and universities etc. Computer system consists of
a computer and supporting devices for input, output and storage of data. Several
types of input/output devices can be attached to the computer. The computer
does all the computing and data processing work in Central Processing Unit
(C.P.U.). Main components of CPU are Arithmetic and Logical Unit (ALU); Control
Unit (CU) and Main Memory Unit (MMU). All arithmetic operations-addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division and logical operations-comparison, decision
etc. are performed by the ALU unit. Control unit acts as a supervisor in a
computer system. It obtains instructions from the main memory, interprets them,
decides the action to be taken and directs other units to execute them. Main
memory unit stores all the data which are to be processed and the program
instructions for carrying out the processing/computing work. The main memory
is also referred to as Primary or Main storage. It is extremely fast (High speed
memory) and generally consists of magnetic cores (older systems) or semi-
conductor/microprocessors (modern systems). Information can be
entered/retrieved at random from the main memory.
1.1.10 Keywords
Computer Computer is an information-processing machine,

which can perform arithmetic operations (Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication and Division etc.) and
which can take logical decisions having memory and
capability to store information and instructions.
Computer System Computer system consists of a computer and
supporting devices for input, output and storage of
data.
ALU Arithmetic and Logical Unit
CU Control Unit
MMU Main Memory Unit

CPU Central Processing Unit
Hardware Hardware refers to objects that we can actually touch,
like disks, disk drives, display screens, keyboards,
printers, boards and chips etc.
Software Software is a set of instructions. It is untouchable.

Software exists as ideas, concepts and symbols, but it
has no substance.
Bit A bit is a binary digit, taking a value of either 0 or 1.
Binary digits are a basic unit of information storage
and memory.
Byte A byte is an ordered collection of bits, with each bit

denoting a single binary value of 1 or 0.

1. Explain the function of CPU, ALU,CU and MMU
2. Describe the role of computer in our daily life?
3. Differentiate between Hardware and Software.
4. Differentiate between Bit and Byte.
5. Write the full form of the following abbreviations
 CPU
 ALU
 CU
 MMU
 Draw a block diagram of computer system and explain the function of

various units.
 Discuss the various characteristics of computers.
 Describe various benefits of computers.

1. Information Technology by Satish Jain
2. Information Technology and Management by Turban Mclean and
Wetbrete
3. Computer Fundamentals by Pradeep Kumar Sinha and Priti Sinha
4. Fundamentals of Computer by V.Rajaraman, PHI, India.
5. Introduction to Computer - Vol. 1 by N. Subramanium
SEMESTER-I PAPER – BAP-101 FUNDAMENTALS OF IT
LESSON NO. 1.2 SECTION-A AUTHOR: JAGMOHAN SINGH JUNEJA
CLASSIFICATION AND HISTORY OF COMPUTERS

1.2.2 Introduction
1.2.3 What is Computer ?
1.2.4 Classifications of Computers
1.2.4.1 Classification due to historical development of computers
1.2.4.2 Classification according to purpose
1.2.4.3 Classification according to type of data-handled techniques
1.2.4.3.1 Analog Computers
1.2.4.3.2 Digital Computers
1.2.4.3.3 Hybrid computers
1.2.4.4 Classification according to functionality
1.2.4.4.1 Micro computers
1.2.4.4.2 Mini computers
1.2.4.4.3 Mainframes
1.2.4.4.4 Super computers
1.2.5 History and Generations of Computers
1.2.5.1 History of computers
1.2.5.1.1 Early Developments
1.2.5.1.2 Generations of Computers
1.2.5.2.1 First generation
1.2.5.2.2 Second generation
1.2.5.2.3 Third Generation
B.A. Part – I (Semester-I) 15 Paper : BAP-101 (Fundamentals of IT)
1.2.5.2.4 Fourth Generation

1.2.5.2.5 Fifth Generation
1.2.6 Summary
1.2.7 Keywords

Objective of this lesson is to classify the computers on the basis of historical
development of computers (Five generations), Classification according to purpose
(General and Specific), classification according to type of data- techniques (Analog
Computers, Digital Computers, Hybrid computers) and Classification according
to functionality (Micro computers, Mini computers, Mainframes, Super
computers)
1.2.2 Introduction
exchanging information. Its charisma can be found in almost in all walks of life
such as education, communication, entertainment, banking, business, medicine,
weather forecasting, scientific research, defense, transport reservation systems,
etc.
1.2.3 What is Computer

Computer can be described as an information-processing machine which can
perform arithmetic operations (Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Division
etc.) and which can take logical decisions. It has the capability to store lot of
information and instructions in the memory. The stored information can be
retrieved, moved and operated upon as desired. Computations are done at an
extremely fast speed with complete reliability and accuracy.
1.2.4 Classifications of Computers

These days, computers are available in many sizes and types. One can have a
computer that can fit in the palm to those which can occupy the space of entire
room. Computers can be classified on the basis of many factors and criterion
such as historical development, Physical size, Performance, Application areas,
Data processing abilities etc.
1.2. 4.1 Classification due to historical development of computers

On the basis of historical development, computers are classified into five
generations which are discussed later in this chapter (Section 2.5.2).
1.2.4.2 Classification according to purpose

Computers are designed for different purposes. They can be used either for
general purposes or for some specific purpose.
General purpose computers

A general purpose computer, as the name suggests, is designed to perform a
range of tasks. These computers have the ability to store numerous programs.
These machines can be used for various applications ranging from scientific as
well as business purpose applications. Even though such computers are
versatile, they generally lack in speed and efficiency. Normally general purpose
computers are used by the common man, institutions and business applications.
Normally, when we talk about computer, it means general purpose digital
computer.
Specific purpose computers

These computers are designed to handle specific type of applications, normally a
single specific task. A set of instructions for the specific task is built into the
machine. Hence these cannot be used for other applications. Therefore these
lacked in versatility. However, being designed for specific tasks, they can provide
the result very quickly and efficiently. ATM machines, Election voting machines,
Image processing machines, Satellite tracking machines etc. are some of the
examples of such type of computers.
1.2.4.3 Classification according to type of data-handled techniques

According to the basic data handling principle, computers can be classified into
following three types of categories
1. Analog Computers
2. Digital Computers
3. Hybrid computers
1.2.4.3.1 Analog Computers

An analog computer (spelled analogue in British English) is a form of computer
that uses electrical, mechanical or hydraulic phenomena to model the problem
being solved. More generally an analog computer uses one kind of physical
quantity to represent the behavior of another physical system or mathematical
function. Analog computer accepts, processes and generates continuous data.
Computations are carried out with physical quantities such as length, voltage,
current etc. Slide rule, voltmeter, ammeter, potentiometer, thermometer are the
examples of analog devices. When current is passed through ammeter, it gives
information about current passing through it. The deflection in the needle
indicates the amount of current passing. Deflection is more for higher current
and less for lower current. Current (input) and deflection (output) are both
continuous quantities.
Analog computers are usually slow and less accurate. They are designed for
special applications. Analog computers comprise of mechanical parts to solve the
problem.
1.2.4.3.2 Digital Computers

Digital computer accepts, processes and generates discrete data (discontinuous
data). Computations are done with discrete quantities, such as numerical digits.
Usual facit machines (mechanical calculating machine), electronic calculators are
the digital devices. A computer that stores data in terms of digits (numbers) and
proceeds in discrete steps from one state to the next. The states of a digital
computer typically involve binary digits. In digital computers letters, words,
whole texts, pictures and graphics etc. are represented digitally.
Digital computers calculate by manipulating binary digits (bits; ones and zeroes).
Because bits are so simple to handle they can be made easily to stand for almost
anything; hence the general usefulness of digital computers. Bits can symbolize
words, instructions, laws of logic or of physics, numerical measurements,
recorded images and sounds--anything that can be written down.
Normally digital computers are much faster than analog computers and
computations are much more accurate. They come in various sizes – starting
from pocket size to large systems. All personal computers are digital. Digital
computers can be designed for special or for general purpose.
1.2.4.3.3 Hybrid computers

Hybrid computers are computers that comprise features of analog computers and
digital computers. The digital component normally serves as the controller and
provides logical operations, while the analog component normally serves as a
solver of differential equations. Hybrid computers find applications in special
areas only.
Normally, when we speak of a computer, it means digital computer unless
otherwise it is mentioned.
1.2.4.4 Classification according to functionality

Based on the physical size, performance and application areas, computers are
classified into the following four major categories
 Micro computers
 Mini computers
 Mainframes
 Super computers
Manufacturers design a vast range of computers, Input/Output devices and
software to meet different requirements of users. Computers come in various
sizes. We speak of Micro, Mini, Large, Super Computers and so on. These terms
are convenient but not precise.
1.2.4.4.1 Micro computers

A micro computer is a small, low cost digital computer. These computers use a
microprocessor chip. These computers are also called personal computers.
Initially these are used at homes or by the individuals but now a days these have
become very powerful with respect to Processor speed, Primary and Secondary
storage capacities, Sophisticated Input/Output devices and multimedia
capabilities. Now these are being used in large by the business houses and
institutions. Major types of micro computers are Laptop, Desktop and Palmtop.
These have been discussed in detail in next lessons.
1.2.4.4.2 Mini computers

The term minicomputer originated in 1960s when it was realized that many
computing tasks do not require an expensive contemporary mainframe
computers but can be solved by a small, inexpensive computer. Initial
minicomputers were 8 bit and 12 bit machines but by 1970's almost all
minicomputers were 16 bit machines. The 16 bit minicomputers have the
advantage of large instruction set and address field; and efficient storage and
handling of text, in comparison to lower bit machines. Thus, 16 bit minicomputer
was more powerful machine which could be used in variety of applications and
could support business applications alongwith the scientific applications.
With the advancement in technology the speed, memory size and other
characteristics developed and the minicomputer was then used for various stand
alone or dedicated applications. The minicomputer was then used as a multi-user
system, which can be used by various users at the same time. Gradually the
architectural requirement of minicomputers grew and a 32-bit minicomputer,
which was called super mini was introduced. The super mini had more peripheral
devices, larger memory and could support more users working simultaneously on
the computer in comparison to previous minicomputers.
These are powerful computers. These computers come into existence in 1960s at
that time mainframe computer was very costly. Mini computers were available in
cheap prices, so users start using it. Mini computers are far ahead in speed when
compared to micros. They vary in size from a desk top model to a small file
cabinet. They are generally used to cater the needs of multiple users
simultaneously. Normally they are used for the following purposes
• Business & industry usage
• Multiple users
• Specified tasks
1.2.4.4.3 Mainframes
Mainframe computers are generally 32-bit machines or on the higher side. These
are suited to big organisations, to manage high volume applications. Few of
popular mainframe series are MEDHA, Sperry, DEC, IBM, HP, ICL, etc.
Mainframes are also used as central host computers in distributed systems.
Libraries of application programs developed for mainframe computers are much
larger than those of the micro or minicomputers because of their evolution over
several decades as families of computing. All these factors and many more make
the mainframe computers indispensable even with the popularity of
microcomputers. Mainframes as, the name implies are used on a large scale jobs
in organizations and factories. They have enormous storage and other special
capabilities. They vary in sizes and performances. They are expensive, but larger,
quicker and smarter than their counterparts. Mainframe computers are used
when you access your bank account from a automated teller. The bank’s
mainframes handle all the transactions. A mainframe is a computer that can
process and store large amounts of information and support many users at the
same time. They can handle processing of many users at a time. Terminals are
used to connect a user to this computer and users submit there task through
mainframe. Terminal is a device which has keyboard and a screen. By using
terminal users put inputs into the computer and get the output through screen.
A small mainframe computer might be a rack of equipment about eight feet tall
and ten to twenty feet wide. It is kept in a special room with heavy air
conditioning. One of the biggest mainframe computers are those at an IRS
regional office. They take up many rooms and have hundreds of terminals, tape
stands and disk drives.
1.2.4.4.4 Super computers

The upper end of the state of the art mainframe machine is the supercomputers.
These are amongst the fastest machines in terms of processing speed and use
multiprocessing techniques, where a number of processors are used to solve a
problem. There are a number of manufacturers who dominate the market of
supercomputers-CRAY (CRAY YMP, CRAY 2). ETA (CDC-ETA 10, ETA 20) and
IBM 3090 (with vector), NEC (NEC SX-3), Fujitsu (VP Series) and HITACHI (S
Series) are some of them. Lately ranges of parallel computing products, which are
multiprocessors sharing common buses, have been in use in combination with
the mainframe supercomputers. The supercomputers are reaching up to speeds
well over 25000 million arithmetic operations per second. India has also
announced its indigenous supercomputer. As the name "Super Computer"
specifies that these are most powerful computers even than mainframe. Actually,
when we optimize a mainframe computer then we get super computer. A special
class of computers designed to do high speed processing are the super
computers. They were the first computers to do a 24-hr weather forecast in less
than 25 hours. They work best of weather forecasting and other types of
computing where many calculations can be done in parallel. Super computers
belong to the pinnacle of this classification. They are the best in the business.
They can perform billions of calculations in an instant. Supercomputers are

mainly being used for number crunching problems such as weather forecasting,
computational fluid dynamics, remote sensing, image processing, aircraft
designing, biomedical applications, etc. In India, we have one such mainframe
supercomputer system-CRAY XMP-14, which is at present, being used by
Meteorological Department.
1.2.5 History and Generations of Computers

1.2.5.1 History of Computers
1.2.5.1.1 Early Developments
Man has been interested in
counting since ages. The earliest
counting devise was the Abacus. It
was developed sometime between
1000 and 400 B.C. The Abacus is
essentially a collection of beads strung
on parallel rods fixed in a frame. There
are two portions. The beads in the
upper portion count five each and
those in the lower portion count one each. Arithmetic calculations are performed
by manipulating these beads.
Significant developments in counting devices took place around 1640, when
Blasie Pascal, a Young French Mathematician, invented a simple adding
machine. It consists of a series of toothed wheels.
There were ten teeth on each wheel. These represented digits from 0 to 9. When a
wheel was rotated past 9, a small indicator on one wheel caused the next wheel
to rotate automatically. This way, when one wheel turned past digit 9, it
exchanged its ten teeth for one tooth on the next wheel. Pascal’s machine could
perform additions. It was later improved upon by Leibnitz, a German
mathematician whose machine could perform multiplications and divisions as
well.
Charles Babbage, an English
mathematician, developed a mechanical
calculating device, called Difference
Engine for automatic computation of
mathematical tables around 1830.
Babbage was also involved in the design
of another calculating machine which
could perform many general functions
in an automatic way. After much effort,
he constructed a machine called
Analytical Engine. This machine had
a memory device, an arithmetic device,
a punched card input system and an
external memory store. Thus, Babbage’s
analytical engine had many of the same
fundamental features as the modern
computers about which you will learn in the next lesson. However, the analytical
and difference engines were never produced commercially.
This was because of the lack of manufacturing technology at that time. But
Babbage is considered one of the great pioneers in the field of computation for his
foresight to design the analytical engine.
These were all mechanical machines and their reliability was rather poor.
Nevertheless, they laid the basis for the development of advanced
calculating machines for the future.
1.2.5.2 Generations of Computers

Several types of computers, having wide range of characteristics have been
designed. The design, speed, size and performance of computers have been
changing continuously. Due to this, it has become customary to divide the
computer systems into what have come to be known as “Generations”. A major
technological development that fundamentally changed the way computers
operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, more powerful and more
efficient and reliable devices characterize each generation of computer. Broadly
speaking, following are the generations of the computers.
1.2.5.2.1 First generation

Computers designed during the period 1940-55 are generally termed as first
generation computers. The computers of this generation used vacuum tubes for
circuitry and magnetic drums for memory and often covered enormous space and
bulky, taking up entire rooms.
They were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal of
electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions.
First generation computers relied on machine language to perform operations
and they could only solve one problem at a time. Their memory was limited and
used punched card and punched paper tape for input and output of data. These
machines used low level programming languages and involved manual controls.
They were special purpose machines. Their operating systems were primitive
(Operating system is a collection of programs supplied by the manufacturers. It
helps to reduce the human intervention and increase the efficiency of the
computer.)
ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator), EDSAC (Electronic
Delayed Storage Automatic Computer), UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic
Computer), IBM 650 are the examples of first generation computers.
1.2.5.2.2 Second generation

The second-generation computers (1956-1963) are characterized by their use of
tiny transistors. Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second
generation of computers. The transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see
widespread use in computers until the late 50s.
The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to
become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than
their first-generation predecessors. They required less power to operate. They
were much more reliable as compared to the first generation computers. Though
the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that subjected the computer to
damage, it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube. Second-generation
computers still relied on punched cards and paper tapes for input and printouts
for output.
Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to
symbolic, or assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify
instructions in words. High-level programming languages were also being
developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. These
were also the first computers that stored the instructions in memory, which
moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.
Second generation computers had more speed (about 106 operations per second),
larger memory and faster Input/Output devices.
The second-generation computers span spreads over the years 1960-65. Several
companies started manufacturing computers. Systems were designed for special
applications, for business and scientific data processing.
IBM 1401, IBM 7090/7094 series, IBM 1620, Burroughs B5000, CDC 1640, GE
635, Honeywell 400 series, UNIVAC III and several others are the examples of
second-generation computers.
1.2.5.2.3 Third Generation

The third Generation computers (1964-75) used integrated circuits (electronic
circuits designed on silicon chips) instead of transistors. The development of the
integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers.
Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called
semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of
computers. The size of such circuits
was hundreds times smaller than the
transistor circuit size. Moreover, the
associated electronic circuitry was also
reduced in dimensions many times.
This leads to several advantages:
(I) small size and increased
processing speed (~108 operations/ second)
(ii) more reliability and higher accuracy
(iii) easy maintenance and simple repair requirements.
Moreover, these machines had very large storage capacity, faster and more
versatile Input/Output devices. Instead of punched cards and paper tapes, users
interacted with third generation computers through keyboards and monitors.
These computers were interfaced with highly sophisticated operating system,
application software, and packages, which allowed the device to run many
different applications at one time with a central program that, monitored the
memory. Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience
because they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors. Video display,
graphic terminals, plotters, magnetic disks, drums, tapes etc. may be used with
them.
Third generation computers were mostly general purpose, that is, they may be
used for processing business, scientific or text oriented problems. Some examples
of third generation computers are IBM 360 series, Burroughs 6700/7700 series,
CDC 6000/7000 series, Digital Equipment PDP-8/11 series, UNIVAC 1108/9
series, ICL 1900/2900 series, and so on.
1.2.5.2.4 Fourth Generation

First Decade (1976-85)
The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of
integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first
generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel
4004 chip, located all the components of the computer - from the central
processing unit and memory to input/output controls - on a single chip.
The fourth generation may be identified by the advent of the microprocessor chip.
Medium scale integrated circuits yielded to
Large and Very Large Scale Integrated
circuits (VLSI) packing about 50000
transistors in a chip. Magnetic core
memories were replaced by semiconductor
memories. Semiconductor memory size of
16 Megabytes with a cycle time of 200
nsecs were in common use. The emergence
of the microprocessor led to two directions
in computer development. One direction
was the emergence of extremely powerful personal computers. Computer cost
came down so rapidly that professionals had their own computer to use in their
office and home. Hard disks provided a low cost, high capacity secondary
memory.
The other direction of development was the decentralization of computer
organization. Individual microprocessor controls for terminals and peripheral
devices allowed the CPU to concentrate on processing the main program.
Networks of computers and distributed computer systems were developed. Disk
memories became very large (1000 Mbytes/drive). A significant development in

software was the development of concurrent programming languages. Such
languages are important to program distributed systems and real time systems.
The most ambitious language of this type was ADA. Another important
development was interactive graphic devices and language interfaces to graphic
systems. The emergence of graphics gave a great impetus to computer aided
engineering design.
Fourth generation saw the coming of age of UNIX OS and time shared interactive
systems. These systems became user friendly and highly reliable. The effective
cost of computing came down..
In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple
introduced the Macintosh.
Second Decade (1986-1995)

The second decade of the fourth generation has seen a relentless increase in the
speed of microprocessors and the size of main memory. The speed of
microprocessors and the size of main memory and hard disk went up by a factor
of 4 every 3 years. Many of the features originally found in CPU of large expensive
mainframe computers of the first decade of the fourth generation became part of
the microprocessor architecture in the 90s. Thus the mainframe computer of
early 80s died in mid 90s. The alpha microprocessor chip designed by DEC in
1994 packed 9.3 million transistors in a single chip, was driven by a 300 MHZ
clock and could carry out a billion operations per second. It had a built in 64 bit
floating point arithmetic unit, used 64 bit address buses. It has built in cache
memory of 64KB and 32 registers to store temporary operands. Apart from this
IBM, Apple computers and Motorola co-operated in designing a microprocessor
called Power PC 600 series. Intel also designed a powerful chip in 90s called
Pentium (1993) which sold in large numbers.
Microprocessors such as Pentium, Power PC, etc., are being used as the CPU of
portable laptop and palm held computers (1995). Personal Computer, Desk to
workstations and powerful servers for numeric computing as well as services use
RISC microprocessors such as Alpha, MIPS and SUNSPARC.
The area of hard disk storage also saw vast improvements. 1 GB of disk on
workstations became common in 1994. For larger disks RAID technology
(Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks) was used to give storage of 100 GB.
During the decade optical disks emerged as mass storage particularly for read
only files.
Optical storage sizes were of order of 600MB on a 5.25 disk. The availability of
optical disks at low cost saw the emergence of multimedia applications.
Multimedia workstations emerged as widely used systems.
Computer Networks came of age. The networks become very powerful with the
advent of fibre optic Local Area Networks which could transmit 100MB/sec. to 1
GB/sec. Mainframes were replaced by powerful workstations connected by fibre
optic network.
In the area of languages C language became popular. This was followed by a new
method of design called Object Oriented Design. The primary objectives of Object
Oriented Design are to generalize programs and to reuse objects. The C++
language emerged as the most popular Object Oriented Language. One also saw a
trend towards design of specification oriented languages. PROLOG was designed
for Logic Oriented Specification Language. With the emergence of distributed
computers connected by networks considerable effort has gone into programming
distributed systems. A number of parallel computers were built but no commonly
accepted standard parallel programming language emerged.
Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into
many areas of life as more and more everyday products began to use
microprocessors.
As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to
form networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth
generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and
handheld devices.
Main Characteristics of First four Generations have been shown in the

following Table
Gener Years Switchin Storage Switchin MTBF* Software Application

ation g device device g time s
First 1940- Vacuum Acoustic 0.1 to 1 30 mts. Machine Mostly

55 tubes delay lines milliseco to 1 language scientific.
and later nd hour s and Later simple
magnetic Simple business
drum. 1 monitori applications
kbyte ng
memory. software
Secon 1956- Transisto Magnetic 1 to 10 About Symbolic Extensive

d 63 rs core main microsec 10 hrs. and business
memory, onds assembly applications
tapes and language .
disk s. Early Engineering
peripheral version design
memory. of rs optimization
100 Kbyte High , scientific
main level research.
memory. language
s
FORTRA
N,
COBOL,
Algol,
Batch
operatin
g
systems.
Third 1964- Integrate High speed 0.1 to 1 About FORTRA Data base
75 d magnetic micro- 100 N IV, managemen
Circuits cores. Large second hrs. COBOL t systems.
disks (100 68. On line
(IC) MB). 1 PL/1, systems.

Mbyte main Timeshar
memory. ed
operatin
g
system.
Fourth 1976- Large Semiconduc 10 to About FORTRA Personal

-- 85 scale tor memory. 100 1000 N 77, computers.
inte- Winchchest nano- hrs. Pascal, Distributed
First
grated er disk. seconds ADA, systems.
decad
circuits. 10Mbyte COBOL- Integrated
e
Micro- main 74, CAD/CAM
processo memory. Concur- Real time
rs 1000 Mbyte rent control.
disks. Pascal. Graphics
(LSI)
oriented
systems.
Fourth 1986- Very Semiconduc 1 to 10 About C, C++,. Simulation,

-- 1995 large tor memory. nano- 10,000 JAVA, Visual-
scale IGB main seconds. hrs. PROLOG ization,
Secon
integrate memory. Parallel
d
d 100 GB computing,
decad
circuits. disk. Virtual
e
Over 3 reality,
million Multimedia.
transisto
rs per
chip
1.2.5.2.5 Fifth Generation - Present and Beyond

Presently “Ultra Large Scale Integrated Circuits” chips technology is being used.
Today’s microprocessors are having million of electronic circuits on one small
chip. As a result of this now computers have become very compact, very cheap,
much more powerful and reliable. With the advent of new technologies Desktop
Personal Computers, Workstations and Laptops with multimedia capabilities
have become very popular. These are coming with dual core and core 2 duo
processors. Present computers are very powerful with respect to Processor speed,
Primary and Secondary storage capacities, Sophisticated Input/Output devices

and multimedia capabilities. Detailed configuration, Input - Output devices, other
peripherals and other features have been discussed in later lessons.
Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence (Normally
abbreviated as AI), are still in development, though there are some applications,
such as voice recognition, that are being used today. The use of parallel
processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality.
Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology will radically change
the face of computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-generation computing is
to develop devices that respond to natural language input, graphic images, voice
recognitions, human expressions etc. and are capable of learning and self-
organization. These computers will be based on NLP – Natural Language
Processing and biometric techniques. These computers will use intelligent
programming (artificial intelligence) and knowledge based problem solving
techniques. The conventional data processing is based on processing information
whereas artificial intelligence deals with processing ideas and knowledge.
1.2.6 Summary
exchanging information. Computer can be described as an information-
processing machine which can perform arithmetic operations (Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication and Division etc.) and which can take logical
decisions. Computers can be classified on the basis of many factors such as
Classification due to historical development of computers - On the basis of
historical development, computers are classified into five generations,
Classification according to purpose - Computers can be used either for general
purposes or for some specific purpose. Classification according to type of data-
handled techniques - According to the basic data handling principle, computers
can be classified into Analog, Digital and Hybrid computers. Analog computer
accepts, processes and generates continuous data. Digital computer accepts,
processes and generates discrete data (discontinuous data). Hybrid computers
are computers that comprise features of analog computers and digital computers.
Classification according to functionality - Based on the physical size,
performance and application areas, computers are classified into the four major
categories, viz Micro computers, Mini computers, Mainframes, Super computers.
A micro computer is a small, low cost digital computer. These computers use a
microprocessor chip. Minicomputer originated in 1960s when it was realized that

many computing tasks do not require an expensive contemporary mainframe
computers but can be solved by a small. The 16 bit minicomputers have the
advantage of large instruction set and address field; and efficient storage and
handling of text, in comparison to lower bit machines. Mainframe computers are
generally 32-bit machines or on the higher side. These are suited to big
organisations, to manage high volume applications. Few of popular mainframe
series are MEDHA, Sperry, DEC, IBM, HP, ICL, etc. The upper end of the state of
the art mainframe machine is the supercomputers. These are amongst the fastest
machines in terms of processing speed and use multiprocessing techniques.
1.2.7 Keywords
ANOLOG Analog computer accepts, processes and generates
COMPUTER continuous data.
DIGITAL Digital computer accepts, processes and generates

COMPUTER discrete data (discontinuous data).
HYBRID Hybrid computers are computers that comprise
COMPUTER features of analog computers and digital computers.
MICRO A micro computer is a small, low cost digital
COMPUTERS computer. These computers use a microprocessor
chip.
MINI COMPUTERS Minicomputer originated in 1960s when it was
realized that many computing tasks do not require
an expensive contemporary mainframe computers
but can be solved by a small. The 16 bit
minicomputers have the advantage of large
instruction set and address field; and efficient
storage and handling of text, in comparison to lower
bit machines.
MAINFRAMES Mainframe computers are generally 32-bit machines
COMPUTERS or on the higher side. These are suited to big
organisations, to manage high volume applications.
Few of popular mainframe series are MEDHA,
Sperry, DEC, IBM, HP, ICL, etc.
SUPER The upper end of the state of the art mainframe
COMPUTERS machine is the supercomputers. These are amongst

the fastest machines in terms of processing speed
and use multiprocessing techniques,

1. Classify the computers on the basis of historical development of computers
2. Classify the computers according to purpose.
3. Classify the computers according to type of data-handled techniques.
4. Classify the computers according to functionality.

 What is the difference between analog, digital and hybrid computers?
 Describe some of the feature of Supper computers, Mainframe, Mini and

Micro Computers
 Explain the various classifications of computers.

Wetbrete
4. Fundamentals of Computers by V.Rajaraman, PHI, India.
5. Introduction to Computer - Vol. 1 by N. Subramanium
LESSON NO. 1.3 SECTION-A AUTHOR: DILRAJ SINGH
Number System
1.3.0 Introduction
1.3.1 Number Systems
1.3.2 Decimal Number System
1.3.3 Binary Number systems
1.3.4 Conversion of Binary Number System into Decimal Number System
1.3.5 Conversion of integer decimal number to binary number
1.3.6 Conversion of fractional decimal into binary number
1.3.7 Octal Number System
1.3.8 Conversion of Decimal Number System to Octal Number System
1.3.9 Conversion of Octal Number into Binary & Vice-Versa
1.3.10 Hexadecimal Number System
1.3.11 Conversion of Decimal Number to Hexadecimal
1.3.12 Conversion of Hexadecimal Number into Binary Number
1.3.13 Binary Arithmetic
1.3.13.1 Binary Addition
1.3.13.2 Binary Subtraction
1.3.13.3 Binary Multiplication
1.3.13.4 Binary Division
1.3.14 Summary
1.3.0 Introduction
Number Systems are very important to understand because the design and
organization of a computer is dependent upon the number systems. We are familiar
B.A. Part- I (Semester-I) 36 Paper : BAP-101 (Fundamentals of IT)
with decimal number system which is used in our day-to-day work. The Computer,
however, does not use the decimal number system. It uses the binary number
system which has base 2. This base 2 system uses only 2 digits, namely 0 and 1. A
user who works on a computer is allowed to use decimal digits 0, 1, 2 …9; letters A,
B, C…Z, a, b, c,……….z, usual special symbols +, -, ……. etc. for his convenience.
The decimal digits, letters, special symbols etc. are converted to binary codes in the
form of 0’s and 1’s within the computer. To understand the operation of computer
knowledge of binary, octal and hexadecimal number system is essential. This
chapter deals with these number systems.
1.3.1 Number Systems

There are two types of Number Systems
a) Non-positional number systems
b) Positional Number systems
(a) Non-Positional Number system

One example of a non-positional number system is Roman Number System.
This system has symbols such as I for 1, I for 2, III for 3, IV for 4 V for 5 etc. But,
there is no symbol corresponding to zero. Due to absence of zero, this system is
quite inefficient. Arithmetic calculations are very difficult when such systems are
used. For example it is very difficult for us if we want to multiply XI by VII. So
positional systems were introduced in which a few symbols are used and their value
depends on the position they occupy in the number.
(b) Positional Number systems

Now a day we use positional number systems. One example of positional
number system is our familiar decimal number system. In decimal number system
there are 10 symbols (0, 1, 2, 3…….9). Since It has 10 symbols, it has base (or
radix) of 10. Every positional number system has a base or radix. The base of a
number system is defined as number of different symbols it recognizes. All number
systems have the highest numerical symbol having a value one less than base.
Other number systems of our interest are binary number system, octal number
system and hexadecimal number system having base of 2, 8 and 16 respectively. In
positional number systems, the value of each symbol is determined by its position.
For example, the value of each symbol is determined by its position. For example,
the 4 in 400 has a different value than 4 in 40000. Hence the value of each digit in a
number depends upon the following.
a) The digit itself.
b) The base of the system
c) The position of the digit in the number.
1.3.2 Decimal Number System

We use the decimal Number system in our daily life. It has ten unique digits
(0, 1, 2…….9) and its base is 10. Let us consider a decimal Number 54219.328.
This number can be represented as.
Position 5x104 + 4x103 + 2x102 + 1x101 + 9x100 + 3x10-1 + 2x10-2 + 8x10-3
of digits 10000th 1000 th 100th Tenth Unit 1/10th 1/100th 1/1000th
The left most digit in a number is known as Most Significant Digit (MSD). It is
5 in our example. The right most digit, namely 8 is the least signifiacant digit (LSD).
Thus a decimal number which has n digits in its integer part and m digits in its
fractional part can be represented as
dnx10n-1 + dn-1x10n-2 + ………...d1x100 + d-1x10-1 + d-2x10-2 + d-3x10-3 +……+ d-mx10-m
In general a number with base r which has n digits in its integer part and m
digits in its fractional part can be represented as
dn rn-1 + dn-1 rn-2 +……..+ d1 r0 + d-1 r-1 + d-2 r-2 + …..+ d-m r-m
Here dn is the most significant digit and d-m is the least significant digit of the
number.
1.3.3 Binary Number systems

In computers binary number system is used which has base 2 with digits 0 or 1.
The 0 and 1 of the binary system are referred to as bits (which is an abbreviated
form of the expression binary digits).
Why do digital computers use binary number system? The reasons are
 Electronic Components by their nature operate in binary mode. A switch is

either on (1 state) or off (0 state), a transistor is either conducting (1) or non-
conducting (0).
 Computer circuits have to handle only two binary digits (bits) rather than 10.
So, binary system simplifies the design, reduce the cost and improve the
reliability of computer system.
 Everything that can be done with decimal system can also be done in binary
system.
1.3.4 Conversion of Binary Number System into Decimal Number System

The binary Numbers can be converted into decimal numbers and decimal into binary
numbers. A binary number having n bits in its integer part and m bits in its
fractional part can be changed to decimal number by the formula.
dn 2n-1 + dn-1 2n-2 + ……..+ d1 20 + d-1 2-1 + d-2 2-2 +…….+d-m 2-m
Example :- Convert the following binary number into decimal form
(110)2 = 1x22 + 1x21 + 0x20
= 4 + 2 + 0
= 6
Hence (110)2 = (6)10
This shows that 110 in binary is 6 in decimal. This is generally represented as
(110)2 = (6)10 i.e. 110 in base 2 =6 in base 10.
Example :- Convert the following binary number into decimal form
(1100.001)2 = 1x23 + 1x22 + 0x21 + 0x20 + 0x2-1 + 0x2-2 + 1x2-3
= 8 + 4 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 8-1
= 12.125
Hence (1100.001)2 = (12.125)10
1.3.5 Conversion of integer decimal number to binary number

Let us consider a decimal number (d) which can be represented as
d = dn 2n-1 + dn-1 2n-2 + ………..+ d2 21 + d120
If we divide d by 2, we get
Quotient q = d/2 = dn 2n-2 + dn-1 2n-3 + ….+ d2
And remainder r = d1
Where d1 is the least significant bit of binary equivalent of d. Again on

dividing the quotient (q) by 2, we get remainder as d2. Continue the procedure of
division till quotient becomes 0.
Example :- Convert the following decimal numbers into Binary:

(121)10 = ( ? )2
2 121 Remainders
2 60 1 Least Significant Digit
2 30 0
2 15 0
2 7 1
2 3 1
2 1 Most Significant Digit
Hence (121)10 = (1111001)2
1.3.6 Conversion of fractional decimal into binary number

Let us consider a decimal fractional which can be represented as
d = d -1 2-1 + d-2 2-2 + ………….. + d–m 2-m
We want to find the coefficients d-1, d-2,………….d-m.
If we multiply this fractional by 2, we get
2xd = d-1 + d-2 2-1 +……………+ d-m 2-m+1
MSD (0 or 1) Fractional Part (Say d1)

The fractional part of the product may be multiplied again by 2 to get the next
significant digit d-2.This procedure is continued till the fractional part becomes zero.
Example: - Convert the following decimal fractional into binary.

(.625)10 = (?)2
.625
Bits 2
1 .250
2
0 .500
2
1 .000
Hence (.625)10= (.101)2
Example : Convert the following decimal fractional into binary

(.6)10 = (?)2
.6
Bits 2
1 .2
2
0 .4
2
0 .8
2
1 .6
Observe that we have found the same fractional .6, therefore, this lead to a non
terminating binary fraction
Hence (.6)10 = ( .1001(1001))2
Recurring
1.3.7 Octal Number System

Octal system has base of 8 and it uses the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. The values
assigned to the consecutive places in the systems are ………83, 82, 81, 80, 8-1, 8-2,
………… where 80 place is the unit place. The octal numbers can be converted into
decimal numbers and vice versa.
Example: - Convert the following octal number to decimal number
(305)8 = (?)10
(305)8 = 3x82 + 0x81 + 5x80

= 192 + 0 + 5
=197
Example :- Convert the following octal number to decimal number
(7532.625)8 = (?)10
(7532.625)8 = 7x83 + 5x82 + 3x81 + 2x80 + 6x8-1 + 2x8-2 + 5x8-3
= 3584 + 320 + 24 + 2 + 0.75 + 0.03125 + 0.009765625
= 3930.791015625
=3930.791
3.8 Conversion of Decimal Number System to Octal Number System: -

Procedure of conversion of decimal to octal is similar to that of the conversion of
decimal to binary. Only difference is that base of octal number system is 8.
Example: - Convert the following decimal number to octal number
(125)10 = (?)8
8 125 5 Remainders
8 15 7
8 1
Hence (125)10 = (175)8

Example: - Convert the following decimal number to octal number
(225.225)10 = (?)8
Integral part
8 225 1 Remainder
8 28 4
8 3
Thus (225)10=(341)8
Fractional part
.225
Digits 8
1 .800
8
6 .400
8
3 .200
8
1 .600
8
4 .800
Thus (.225)10 = .16314(6314)8
Hence (225.225)10 = 341.16314(6314))8
1.3.9 Conversion of Octal Number into Binary & Vice-Versa

Octal system has a base of 23=8, so for binary to octal conversions, make groups of
the three digits from right to left in the integer part of the binary number and from
left to right in the binary fractional part. These groups of three are replaced by their
octal equivalents as shown in the table.
Decimal Number Octal Number Binary Number

0 0 000
1 1 001
2 2 010
3 3 011
4 4 100
5 5 101
6 6 110
7 7 111
Example: Convert (101111100)2 binary number to octal number

(101111100)2 = 101 111 100
5 7 4
= (574)8
Example: Convert (.001110)2 binary number to octal number
(.001110)2 = .001 110
1 6
= (.16)8
Example : Convert (305)8 octal number into binary equivalents:-
(305)8 = 3 0 5
= 011 000 101
= (011000101)2
Example : Convert (225.34)8 octal number into binary equivalents:-
(225.34)8 = 2 2 5 3 4
= 010 010 101 011 100
= (010010101011100)2
1.3.10 Hexadecimal Number System

Hexadecimal system has a base of 16 and it uses the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
A, B, C, D, E, F. Since its base is 24=16, therefore, every hexadecimal digit can be
represented as a group of 4 bits as shown in the table
Decimal number Hexadecimal number Binary Number

0 0 0000
1 1 0001
2 2 0010
3 3 0011
4 4 0100
5 5 0101
6 6 0110
7 7 0111
8 8 1000
9 9 1001
10 A 1010
11 B 1011
12 C 1100
13 D 1101
14 E 1110
15 F 1111
The values assigned to the consecutive places in the system are ………..163,
162, 161,160, 16-1, 16-2………….. where 160 place in the unit place.
The Hexadecimal number can be easily converted into decimal numbers vice-versa.
Example:- Convert (3FA.8)16 hexadecimal numbers into their decimal
equivalents
(3FA.8)16 = 3x162 + Fx161 + Ax160 + 8x16-1

= 3x256 + 15x16 + 10x1+ 8/16
= 768 + 240 + 10 + 0.5
= 1018.5
Example:- Convert (3BFC)16 hexadecimal numbers into their decimal
equivalents
(3BFC)16 = 3x163 + Bx162 + Fx161 + Cx160
= 3x4096 + 11x256 + 15x16 + 12x1 + 12288 + 2816 + 240 + 12
= 15356
1.3.11 Conversion of Decimal Number to Hexadecimal

Procedure of conversion of decimal to hexadecimal is similar to that of the
conversion of decimal to octal (or binary). Here base is 16 in place of 8 (or 2).
Example: Convert (7547)10 decimal numbers to hexadecimal numbers.
16 7547 11(B) Remainder

16 471 7
16 29 13 (D)
1
Hence (7547)10 = (1D7B)16
Example: Convert (225.225)10 decimal numbers to hexadecimal numbers.

Integral Part
16 225 Remainders
16 14 1
0 14 (E)
Hence (225)10 = 14(E1)16
Fractional Part
.225
Digits 16
3 .600
9 .600
Hence (225.225)10 = (E1.39)16
1.3.12 Conversion of Hexadecimal Number into Binary Number

Hexadecimal system has a base of 24=16, so for binary to hexadecimal conversion,
make groups of 4 digits from right to left in the integer part of the binary number
and from left to right in the binary fractional part. These groups of four are replaced
by their hexadecimal equivalents.
Similarly from hexadecimal to binary conversion, replacing each digit by a set of four
binary digits.
Example: - Convert (10110)2 binary numbers into their hexadecimal equivalents:-
(10110)2 = 0001 0110
= 1 6
= (16)16
Example: - Convert (110101.1101)2 binary numbers into their hexadecimal

equivalents:-
(110101.1101)2 = 0011 0101 1101
= 3 5 D
= (35.D)16
Example: - Convert (1BCE)16 hexadecimal numbers into their binary equivalents.
(1BCE)16 = 1 B C E
= 0001 1011 1100 1110
= (1101111001110)2
1.3.13 Binary Arithmetic

Counting is a form of addition as successive numbers are obtained by adding 1 in
the preceding number. In decimal number system, we start from 0 and by
successively adding 1 reach 9. After 9 we count 10. But in decimal system there are
no symbol corresponding to 10. So we consider 1 as carry to the tens position in the
positional system.
1.3.13.1 Binary Addition

We can add two binary numbers by using addition table shown below. This table
gives the simple addition of two bits X and Y and is called Half adder table.
X Y SUM CARRY
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
Example: - Add 1001 + 101
Carry 0 0 1
1 0 0 1
1 0 1
1 1 1 0
Example: - Add 101110.1001 + 11001.01
Carry 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 0 . 1 0 0 1
1 1 0 0 1 . 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 . 1 1 0 1
1.3.13.2 Binary Subtraction

Binary subtraction is performed by using subtraction table similar to the one used
for addition.
X Y Difference Borrow
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
Example: - Subtract 1001 – 101

Borrow 1 0 0
1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1
0 1 0 0
Example: - Subtract 10101.00 – 1001.11

Borrow 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 . 0 0
1 0 0 1 . 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 . 0 1
1.3.13.3 Binary Multiplication

Binary multiplication is similar to the decimal multiplication. Let us consider the
following example to understand the binary multiplication.
Example: - Multiply (110)2 by (101)2

1 1 0
1 0 1
1 1 0
0 0 0 X
1 1 0 X X
1 1 1 1 0
Example:- Multiply (11.011)2 by (10.01)2
1 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1
1 1 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 x
0 0 0 0 0 x x
1 1 0 0 1 x x x
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
The result is (111.00001)2
1.3.13.4 Binary Division

Binary division is similar to the decimal division. Let us consider following examples
to understand the binary division.
Example: Divide (11011)2 / (11)2
11 11011 1001
11
00011
11
00
1.3.14 Summary
In this chapter we have discussed the basic number system related to the computer
architecture. We have discussed the conversion between various number systems.
The part we discussed is related to Binary Arithmetic.
LESSON NO. 1.4 AUTHOR: JAGMOHAN SINGH JUNEJA
INPUT DEVICES
1.4.2 Introduction
1.4.3 Input Devices
1.4.3.1 Punched Paper Tape
1.4.3.2 Punched Cards
1.4.3.3 Magnetic Tape
1.4.3.4 Magnetic Drum
1.4.3.5 Keyboard
1.4.3.6 Mouse
1.4.3.7 Floppy Diskette
1.4.3.8 Hard Disk Drive
1.4.3.9 Track ball
1.4.3.10 Touch Screen
1.4.3.11 Joy Stick
1.4.3.12 Digitizer Tablet/ Pen tablet
1.4.3.13 Light Pen
1.4.3.14 Scanner
1.4.3.15 MICR
1.4.3.16 Microphone
1.4.3.17 Vision System (Webcam/Digital/ Video cameras)
1.4.3.18 CD-ROM/DVD
B.A .Part - I (Semester-I) 52 Paper : BAP-101 (Fundamentals of IT)
1.4.4 Summary
1.4.5 Keywords
Objectives of this lesson are to familiarize with the various input devices, which
are being used to communicate with the computer.
1.4.2 Introduction
As already explained that to communicate with the computer, we need input and
output devices. For computer processing, data needs to be entered into the
computer through input devices and the result of processing needs to be
communicated to the user through output devices. Several input and output
devices have been developed so far. With the passage of time and with the advent
of new technologies, new advanced more efficient input and output devices have
been developed. As a result of this some of the input output devices have become
obsolete. Input/Output devices form an integral part of a computer system.
Without them, a computer is hardly of any use. The Input/Output devices are
also referred to as the Peripheral Devices. Following are some of the commonly
used input devices which are developed so far.
1.4.3 Input Devices

1. Punched Paper Tape 2. Punched Cards
4. Magnetic Tape 4. Magnetic Drum
5. Keyboard 6. Mouse
7. Floppy Diskette 8. Hard Disk Drive
9. Track ball 10. Touch Screen
11. Joy Stick 12. Digitizer Tablet/ Pen tablet
14. Light Pen 14. Scanner
15. MICR 16. Microphone
17. Vision System (Digital/ Video cameras)

18 CD-ROM/DVD
Study of all these devices in details is very lengthy. Moreover some of these
devices have become obsolete. Therefore we will not discuss them in detail.
1.4.3.1 Punched Paper tape

Punched tape or paper tape consisting of a long strip of paper in
which holes are punched to store data. It was widely used during
much of the twentieth century for tele printer
communication, and later for input, output and for storage medium
for minicomputers. Now-a-days these have become obsolete.
1.4.3.2 Punched Card
A punch card or punched card (or punchcard or Hollerith card or IBM
card), is a piece of stiff paper that contains digital information
represented by the presence or absence of holes in
predefined positions. Punched cards were widely used throughout the

19th century for controlling textile looms and in the late 19th and
early 20th century for operating fairground organs and related
instruments. Early digital computers used punched cards as the
primary medium for input of both computer programs and data, with
offline data entry on key punch machines. Some voting and sorter
machines also used punched cards.
Now-a-days these have become obsolete
1.4.3.3/1.4.3.4 Magnetic Tape/Magnetic Drum - A detailed overview
would be presented in Unit-8.
1.4.3.5 Keyboard:
Keyboard is an input device partially modeled after the typewriter keyboard
which uses an arrangement of buttons or keys which act as electronic switches.
A keyboard typically has characters engraved or printed on the keys and each
press of a key typically corresponds to a single written symbol. However, to
produce some symbols requires pressing and holding several keys
simultaneously or in sequence. While most keyboard keys produce letters,
numbers or signs (characters), other keys or simultaneous key presses can
produce actions or computer commands.
On most computers, a keyboard is the primary text input device. (The mouse is
also a primary input device but lacks the ability to easily transmit textual
information.) The keys on computer keyboards are often classified as follows:
Alphanumeric keys -- letters and numbers

Punctuation keys -- comma, period, semicolon and so on.
Special keys -- function keys, control keys, arrow keys, Caps Lock
key, Escape key, tab, cursor movement keys, shift keys, sometimes other
manufacturer-customized keys and so on.
The computer keyboard uses the same key arrangement as the mechanical and
electronic typewriter keyboards that preceded the computer. Because many
keyboard users develop a cumulative trauma disorder, such as carpal tunnel
syndrome, a number of ergonomic keyboards have been developed. Approaches
include keyboards contoured to alleviate stress and foot-driven pedals for certain
keys or keyboard functions
Standard keyboards such as the 104-key Windows keyboards include alphabetic

characters, punctuation symbols, numbers and a variety of function keys.
Keyboards with extra keys such as multimedia keyboards have special keys for
accessing music, web and other often-used programs, a mute button, volume
buttons or knob and standby (sleep) button. Similarly gaming keyboards have
extra function keys which can be programmed with keystroke macros. For
example, ctrl+shift+y could be a keystroke that is frequently used in a certain
computer game. Shortcuts marked on color-coded keys are used for some
software applications and for specialized for uses including word processing,
video editing, graphic design and audio editing etc. Now-a-days wireless
keyboards are also available.
Maintenance of the Keyboard

1. Excessive pressure and dirt on the keys can damage the internal circuit as
they are very sensitive.
2. Clean your keyboard regularly.
3. Do not eat or drink while using keyboard.
1.4.3.6 Mouse
It is a small device that controls the movement of the cursor or pointer on a
display screen. It can be rolled along a hard, flat surface, in order to point to a
place on a display screen and to select one or more actions to take from that
position. Its name is derived from the real mouse as its shape, which looks a bit
like a mouse and the mouse pointer can be moved very quickly on the display
screen just like as the real mouse moves very fast. As you move the mouse, the
pointer on the display screen moves in the same direction. It contains at least one
button and sometimes as many as three, which have different functions
depending on what program is running.
The most conventional kind of mouse has two buttons on top: the left one is used
most frequently. In the Windows operating systems, it lets the user click once to
send a "Select" indication that provides the user with feedback that a particular
position has been selected for further action. The next click on a selected position
or two quick clicks on it causes a particular action to take place on the selected
object. For example, in Windows operating systems, it causes a program
associated with that object to be started. The second button, on the right, usually
provides some less-frequently needed capabilities. For example, when viewing a
Web page, you can click on an image to get a popup menu that, among other
things, lets you save the image on your hard disk. Some mouses have a third
button for additional capabilities. Some mouse manufacturers also provide a
version for left-handed people else left and right mouse buttons can also be
interchanged through software.
There are three basic types of mouse:
1. Mechanical: It consists of a metal or plastic housing or casing, a rubber or

metal ball that sticks out of the bottom of the casing and can be rolled on a
flat surface in all directions, one or more buttons on the top of the casing. As
the ball is moved over the surface in any direction, a sensor sends impulses to
the computer that causes a mouse-responsive program to reposition a visible
indicator (called a cursor) on the display screen. The positioning is relative to
some variable starting place. Viewing the cursor's present position, the user
readjusts the position by moving the mouse.
2. Opto-mechanical: Same as a mechanical mouse, but uses optical sensors

to detect motion of the ball.
3. Optical: Uses a laser to detect the mouse's movement. Optical mechanism

has a frame of reference. Optical mice have no mechanical moving parts. They
respond more quickly and precisely than mechanical and opto-mechanical
mice, but they are also expensive.
Windows and other operating systems let the user adjust the sensitivity of the
mouse, including how fast it moves across the screen, and the amount of time
that must elapse within a "double click.". In some systems, the user can also
choose among several different cursor appearances. Some people use a mouse-
pad to improve traction for the mouse ball.
Although the mouse has become a familiar part of the personal computer, its
design continues to evolve and there continue to be other approaches to pointing
or positioning on a display. Notebook computers include built-in mouse devices
that let you control the cursor by rolling your finger over a built-in trackball.
IBM's Scroll Point mouse adds a small "stick" between two mouse buttons that
lets you scroll a Web page or other content up or down and
right or left. Users of graphic design and CAD applications can use a stylus and a
specially-sensitive pad to draw as well as move the cursor. Other display screen-
positioning ideas include a video camera that tracks the user's eye movement and
places the cursor accordingly.
Mouse can be connected to Serial, PS/2 USB port and using wireless interface.
For different ports different mouse are available.
Cordless mouse are not physically connected at all. Instead they rely on
infrared or radio waves to communicate with the computer. Cordless mice are
more expensive than both serial and bus mice, but they do eliminate the cord,
which can sometimes get in the way.
Maintenance of Mouse
1. Always use a mouse pad.
2. If there is no mouse pad then place the mouse on a clean flat surface.
3. Do not stretch the mouse cable.
4. Do not expose the mouse to excessive moisture.
5. Regularly clean you mouse to work it properly.
1.4.3.7/1.4.3.8 Floppy Diskettes/ Hard Disk Drives – These are

discussed in the next Unit under the heading Storage devices
1.4.3.9 Trackball
A trackball is a pointing device consisting
of a ball housed in a socket containing sensors to
detect rotation of the ball about two axes—like an
upside-down mouse with an exposed protruding ball. The user rolls

the ball with the thumb, fingers or the palm of the hand to move a
cursor. Normally these are used in portable computers/laptops, where
there may be no desk space on which to run a mouse.
1.4.3.10 Touch Screen
A display screen that is sensitive to the touch of a finger or stylus. It
allows a user to interact with the computer by touching pictures or
words on the screen. Widely used on ATM machines, retail point-of-
sale terminals, car navigation systems, medical monitors and
industrial control panels , the touch screen offers several

advantages. It is resistant to harsh environments and on-screen
buttons created by software enable an infinite number of options to
be presented to the user without requiring a keyboard. They also
accept hand printing, handwriting and graphics.
All touch screens "digitize" the point of contact on screen into
an X-Y coordinate. Although touch screens provide a natural interface
for computer novices, they are unsatisfactory for some applications
because the finger is such a relatively large object. It is impossible to
point accurately to small areas of the screen.
4.3.11 Joystick
A lever that moves in all directions and controls
the movement of a pointer or some other display
symbol. A joystick is similar to a mouse, except that
with a mouse the cursor stops moving as soon as you
stop moving the mouse. With a joystick, the pointer
continues moving in the direction the joystick is pointing. To stop

the pointer, you must return the joystick to its upright position. Most
joysticks include two buttons called triggers. Joysticks are used
mostly for computer games, but they are also used occasionally for
CAD/CAM systems and other applications.
1.4.3.12 Digitizer Tablet
A digitizer tablet (or digitizing tablet, graphics tablet, graphics pad, drawing
tablet) is a computer input device that allows one
to hand-draw images and graphics, similar to the
way one draws images with a pencil and paper.
These tablets may also be used to capture data of
handwritten signatures. It is used for sketching
new images or tracing old ones. The user contacts
the surface of the device with a wired or wireless
pen or puck. Often mistakenly called a mouse, the
puck is officially the "tablet cursor." A graphics tablet (also called pen pad)
consists of a flat surface upon which the user may "draw" an image using an
attached stylus, a pen-like drawing apparatus. The image generally does not
appear on the tablet itself but, rather, is displayed on the computer monitor.
Some tablets however, come as a functioning secondary computer screen that
you can interact with directly using the stylus.
Some tablets are intended as a general replacement for a mouse as the primary
pointing and navigation device for desktop computers.
For sketching, either the pen or puck is used. For tracing, the puck is preferred
because its crosshairs, visible through a clear glass lens, lets you precisely
pinpoint ends and corners of detailed drawings. Most tablets allow parts of the
tablet surface to be customized into buttons that can be tapped to select menus
and functions in the application.
Pen tablet
A digitizer tablet that is specialized for handwriting and hand marking. LCD-
based tablets emulate the flow of ink as the tip touches the surface and pressure
is applied. Non-display tablets display the handwriting on a separate computer
screen.
1.4.3.13 Light Pen

An input device that utilizes a light-sensitive detector to select
objects on a display screen. It is a light-sensitive stylus wired to a
video terminal used to draw pictures or select menu options. The user
brings the pen to the desired point on screen and
presses the pen button to make contact. Contrary to what it looks

like, the pen does not shine light onto the screen; rather, the screen
beams into the pen. Screen pixels are constantly being refreshed.
When the user presses the button, the pen senses light and the pixel
being illuminated at that instant identifies the screen location.
1.4.3.14 Scanner
A scanner is a device that optically scans images, printed text, handwritten
documents and other objects directly and converts them to digital images. After
scanning the text documents, with the help of application softwares (OCR/ICR)
data can be converted to editable text format. OCR (Optical Character
Recognition) software can convert typed text and numbers into
machine readable strings and documents. OCR software can recognize
a wide variety of fonts in different languages but handwriting and
script fonts that mimic handwriting are still problematic. ICR
(Intelligent Character Recognition) can convert handwritten text and
numbers into machine readable strings and documents. For example,
an application using ICR technology can convert handwritten reports
into PDF files or Word Doc files.
Types of Scanners
Flatbed Scanner
The Flatbed scanner is one of the most commonly used and most recommended
scanners. This scanner allows the user to place a full piece of paper, book,
magazine, photo or any other object onto the bed of the scanner and have the
capability to scan
that object. While the Flatbed scanner is an excellent recommendation, expect

more desk space to be used than any other option as well expect to pay more for
the scanner.
Sheet fed Scanners

Another commonly used scanner which allows a
user to scan pieces of paper into the computer.
While the sheetfed is a less expensive solution
when compared to the flatbed scanner, normally
sheetfed scanners have limited resolution upto
400dpi. These scanners are more like a fax
machine than a copier, because they move the
page being scanned past the scanning head,
rather than the other way around. Sheetfed scanner is a good choice for handling
paperwork without giving up much desk space.
Drum Scanners
Before the advent of desktop scanning, most images
were loaded into computers through drum scanners.
Expensive and difficult to operate, these units were
found primarily in color prepress companies.
Technicians there would carefully mount originals on
a glass cylinder, which would then be rotated at high speeds around a sensor
located in the center.
Handheld Scanners
Today, not commonly used scanner option and can be
difficult to find at stores. The handheld option allows
the user to drag over select sections of pages,
magazines, books and other objects. While it is a very
inexpensive solution, it can be tedious to drag the
handheld correctly. While scanning, it will be difficult to have a straight scan as
well as if it is moved to slow / fast can cause distortion in the image being
scanned. It is difficult to obtain a high-quality image with it.
Cardscan scanners
Excellent solution for anyone interested in scanning business cards for record
purposes.
OMR Scanners
Optical Mark Reader (OMR scanner) is a high-tech data input device.
OMR (Optical Mark Recognition) is used for recognizing optical
marks. Typical applications of OMR scanners are the processing of
questionnaires, ballots, educational tests and reporting, ordering
sheets, data statistics and evaluation in fields such as vote,
transportation, human resources, fiscal taxation and finance etc.,
where the documents to be processed are form-like and filled in by
hand by the respondents.
Bar Code scanners
A barcode reader, also called a price scanner or point-of-sale ( POS )
scanner, is a hand-held or stationary input device used
to capture and read information contained in a bar code . A barcode reader

consists of a scanner , a decoder (either built-in or external), and a cable used to
connect the reader with a computer. Because a barcode reader merely captures
and translates the barcode into numbers and/or letters, the data must be sent to
a computer so that a software application can make sense of the data. A barcode
reader works by directing a beam of light across the bar code and measuring the
amount of light that is reflected back. (The dark bars on a barcode reflect less
light than the white spaces between them.) The scanner converts the light energy
into electrical energy, which is then converted into data by the decoder and
forwarded to a computer.
Modern scanners typically use a charge-coupled device (CCD) or a Contact Image
Sensor (CIS) as the image sensor, whereas older drum scanners use a
photomultiplier tube as the image sensor. A rotary scanner, used for high-speed
document scanning, is another type of drum scanner, using a CCD array instead
of a photomultiplier. Other types of scanners are planetary scanners, which take
photographs of books and documents and 3D scanners, for producing three-
dimensional models of objects. 3D scanners used for industrial design, reverse
engineering, test and measurement, gaming and other applications. Mechanically
driven scanners that move the document are typically used for large-format
documents, where a flatbed design would be impractical.
Scanners can be connected to the computer through Parallel, SCSI and USB
ports. SCSI port scanners can transfer the data at a much faster speed than the
parallel port scanners. USB is becoming a very popular interface for scanners as
it generally allows the user to connect the scanner and be ready to scan in a
matter of minutes.
1.4.3.15 MICR
Magnetic Ink Character Recognition or MICR (pronounced my-ker or micker), a
character recognition technology adopted mainly by the banking industry to
facilitate the processing of cheques. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition is a
character recognition system that uses special ink and characters. When a
document that contains this ink needs to be read, it passes through a machine,
which magnetizes the ink and then translates the magnetic information into
characters. Numbers and characters found on the bottom of cheques (usually
containing the cheque number, sort number, and account number) are printed
using Magnetic Ink. MICR provides a secure, high-speed method of scanning and
processing information. In addition to their unique fonts, MICR characters are
printed with a magnetic ink, usually containing iron oxide. Magnetic printing is
used so that the characters can be reliably read into a system, even when they
have been overprinted with other marks such as cancellation stamps or
signatures etc. The MICR typeface has only 14 characters in it: the numbers 0-9
and special symbols.
1.4.3.16 Microphone
Input to a computer can also be given through voice via microphone. Microphone
is a device for converting sound waves into electrical energy or to convert sound
waves or signals
into electric signals. Most of the computers now have a built-in microphone to
record speech and sounds into the computer.
1.4.3.17 Vision System (Webcam/Digital/ Video camera)

Input to a computer can also be given through Web, Digital or Video camera.
Webcam (Web Camera)

Webcam is small camera, which is attached to
someones computer. Normally it is used for accessing
images either continuously or at regular intervals using
World Wide Web, instant messaging, or a PC video
conferencing application. Normally it is a low-resolution
digital video camera. Webcam software typically captures
the images as JPEG or MPEG format. There are countless
Webcam sites on the Internet that have cameras pointed
at virtually everything. Some Webcams are set up in
people's houses and allow you to watch them as they go
about their day to day business.
Digital camera
It is a camera that captures images electronically rather than on film.
The image is captured by an array of charge-
coupled devices (CCDs), stored in the camera's
random access memory or a special diskette,
and transferred to a computer for
modification, long-term storage, or printing
out. Since the technology produces a graphics
file, the image can be readily edited using
suitable software. Models designed and priced
for the mass consumer market—as opposed to costly models designed
for photojournalism and industrial photography. They appeal
particularly to users who want to send pictures over the Internet or
to crop, combine, enhance, or otherwise modify their photographs.
It records images in digital form, unlike traditional film cameras that
record a light image on film (analog), digital cameras record discrete
numbers for storage on a flash memory card or optical disc. As with
all digital devices, there is a fixed, maximum resolution and number
of colors that can be represented. Images are transferred to the
computer with a USB cable, a memory card or wireless. Modern

compact digital cameras are typically multifunctional, with some
devices capable of recording sound and/or video as well as
photographs with zoom ability. Many Live-Preview Digital cameras
have a "movie" mode, in which images are continuously acquired at a
frame rate sufficient for video.
Resolution in Megapixels
The number of pixels determines the maximum size of the resulting
image and its sharpness, especially when printed. The higher the
resolution to start, the better the results. You can easily reduce a
high-resolution image to low resolution in the computer, but you
cannot go from low to high with great results.
Professional video cameras such as those used in television and
movie production. These typically have multiple image sensors (one
per color) to enhance resolution and color gamut. Professional video
cameras usually do not have a built-in VCR or microphone.
Camcorders used by amateurs. They generally include a microphone
to record sound, and feature a small liquid crystal display to watch
the video during taping and playback.
Video camera
A camera that takes continuous pictures and generates a signal for
display or recording. These types of cameras
are suitable for movies. A camera which
contains an electronic image sensor and
records on Tape, CD, Memory card or on
Hard disk rather than photographic film.
These types of Camera are capable of
acquiring and delivering full-motion video.
Converts the moving image into a series of
horizontal lines, A camera that captures light on chips that convert
light into electronic impulses (CCDs) and then fix the electronic
impulses onto tape etc Now-a-days portable hand-held video cameras
that records onto videocassettes for playback on a television set are

available at affordable prices.
CD-ROM/DVD - These are discussed in the next Unit under the heading
Storage devices
1.4.4 Summary
To communicate with the computer, we need input and output devices. For
computer processing, data needs to be entered into the computer through input
devices and the result of processing needs to be communicated to the user
through output devices. Several input and output devices have been developed so
far. With the passage of time and with the advent of new technologies new
advanced and more efficient input and output devices have been developed.
Different Input Devices are Punched Paper Tape, Punched Cards, Magnetic Tape,
Magnetic Drum, Keyboard, Mouse, Floppy Diskette, Hard Disk Drive, Track ball,
Touch Screen, Joy Stick, Digitizer Tablet/ Pen tablet, Light Pen, Scanner, MICR,
Microphone, Vision System (Digital/ Video cameras) and CD-ROM/DVD.
Punched Paper tape is a paper tape of consisting of a long strip of
paper in which holes are punched to store data. Punched card is a
piece of stiff paper that contains digital information represented by
the presence or absence of holes in predefined positions. Keyboard is
the primary text input device. The computer keyboard uses the same key
arrangement as the mechanical and electronic typewriter keyboards that
preceded the computer. Mouse is a small device that controls the movement of
the cursor or pointer on a display screen. It can be rolled along a hard, flat
surface, in order to point to a place on a display screen and to select one or more
actions to take from that position. Trackball is a pointing device consisting
of a ball housed in a socket containing sensors to detect rotation of
the ball about two axes—like an upside-down mouse. Touch Screen is
a display screen that is sensitive to the touch of a finger or stylus. It
allows a user to interact with the computer by touching pictures or
words on the screen. Joystick is a lever that moves in all directions
and controls the movement of a pointer or some other display
symbol. A joystick is similar to a mouse, except that with a mouse
the cursor stops moving as soon as you stop moving the mouse. With
a joystick, the pointer continues moving in the direction the joystick
is pointing. Digitizer Tablet is a computer input device that allows one to

hand-draw images and graphics, similar to the way one draws images with a
pencil and paper. Light Pen is an input device that utilizes a light-
sensitive detector to select objects on a display screen. Scanner is a
device that optically scans images, printed text, handwritten documents and
other objects directly and converts them to digital images. After scanning the
text documents, with the help of application softwares (OCR/ICR) data can be
converted to editable text format. Different type of available scanners are
Flatbed Scanners, Sheet fed Scanners, Drum Scanners, Handheld
Scanners, Cardscan scanners, OMR Scanners and Bar Code scanners.
MICR - Magnetic Ink Character Recognition is a character recognition
technology adopted mainly by the banking industry to facilitate the processing of
cheques. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition is a character recognition system
that uses special ink and characters. Microphone is a device for converting sound
waves into electrical energy or to convert sound waves or signals into electric
signals. Webcam (Web Camera) Webcam is small camera, which is attached to
someones computer to capture the images. Digital camera
is a camera that captures images electronically rather than on film.

1.4.5 Keywords
Keywords of this lesson are “Input devices, Punched Paper Tape, Punched
Cards, Magnetic Tape, Magnetic Drum, Keyboard, Mouse, Floppy
Diskette, Hard Disk Drive, Track ball, Touch Screen, Joy Stick,
Digitizer Tablet/ Pen tablet, Light Pen, Scanners, Webcam, Digital
camera, Video camera, MICR, Microphone,and CD-ROM/DVD”. These
have been explained briefly in the summary.

1. Name the different Input devices.
2. Write short notes on the any of three following input devices.
 Punched Paper Tape
 Punched Cards
 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Track ball
 Touch Screen
 Joy Stick
 Digitizer Tablet/ Pen tablet
 Light Pen
 Scanner

1. What are the different Input devices. Explain the function of each.
2. Describe the different types of keyboards.
3. What is the use of scanner. What type of scanners are available.

Wetbrete
OUTPUT DEVICES
1.5.1 OBJECTIVES OF THE LESSON
1.5.2 INTRODUCTION
1.5.3 OUTPUT DEVICES
1.5.3.1 Punched Tape
1.5.3.5 Visual Display Units (Monitors)
1.5.3.8 Printers
1.5.3.9 Plotters
1.5.3.10 Voice Response System (Speakers/Headphones)
1.5.3.11 CD - RW/DVD-RW
1.5.3.12 Multimedia Projector
1.5.4 Summary
1.5.5 Keywords
B.A. Part–I (Semester-I) 72 Paper : BAP-101 (Fundamentals of IT)
1.5.1 OBJECTIVES OF THE LESSON

Objectives of this lesson are to familiarize with the different output devices, which
are being used to communicate with the computer.
1.5.2 INTRODUCTION
As already explained that to communicate with the computer, we need input and
output devices. For computer processing, data needs to be entered into the
computer through input devices and the result of processing needs to be
communicated to the user through output devices. Several input and output
devices have been developed so far. With the passage of time and with the advent
of new technologies new advanced and more efficient input and output devices
have been developed. Following are some of the commonly used output devices
which are developed so far.
1.5.3 OUTPUT DEVICES

 Punched Tape
 Punched Cards
 Magnetic Tape
 Magnetic Drum
 Visual Display Units (Monitors)
 Floppy Diskette
 Hard Disk Drive
 Printers
 Plotters
 Voice Response System
 CD - RW/DVD-RW
1.5.3.1 Punched Paper tape – Already explained in the previous lesson.
1.5.3.2 Punched Card– Already explained in the previous lesson.
1.5.3.3/1.5.3.4 Magnetic Tape/Magnetic Drum - These have been
discussed in the Unit 8.
1.5.3.5 Visual Display Units (Monitors)

A computer display monitor, usually called simply a Monitor or Terminal
or VDU (Video display unit), is a piece of
electrical equipment which displays viewable
images generated by a computer. It is a
display screen used to present output from a
computer. A computer display device is
usually either a cathode ray tube (CRT) or
some form of flat panel such as a TFT LCD
display. The clarity of a monitor is based on
video bandwidth, dot pitch, refresh rate and
convergence. The monitor comprises the
display device, circuitry to generate a picture
from electronic signals sent by the computer.
Within the computer, either as an integral part or a plugged-in interface, there is
circuitry to convert internal data to a format compatible with a monitor.
TFT (Thin Film Transistor) monitor uses thin-film transistor technology. It is

a type of LCD (liquid crystal display) flat-panel display technology. Normally these
are called flat panel displays. Compared to other types of LCD technology, TFT
features excellent image quality and response time, but more expensive. TFT
technology is an active-matrix technology, meaning that a tiny circuit (a
transistor) is located next to each pixel, allowing the pixel to be turned on and off
individually. This permits faster response time and greater contrast compared to
passive-matrix technology. Now-a-days TFT has replaced old style cathode ray t
ubes (CRTs). Nearly all LCD monitors today use TFT technology. A typical 17-inch
TFT monitor has about 1.3 million pixels and 1.3 million transistors.
There are many ways to classify monitors. The most basic is in terms of color
capabilities, which separates monitors into three classes:
Monochrome : Monochrome monitors actually display two colors, one for the
background and one for the foreground. The colors can be black and white, green
and black or amber and black.
Gray-scale : A gray-scale monitor is a special type of monochrome monitor

capable of displaying different shades of gray.
Color: Color monitors can display anywhere from 16 to over 1 million different
colors. Color monitors are sometimes called RGB monitors because they accept
three separate signals -- red, green, and blue.
Another important aspect of a monitor is its screen size. Like televisions, screen
sizes are measured in diagonal inches, the distance from one corner to the
opposite corner diagonally. These are available in different sizes like 12”, 14”, 15”,
17”,19” and 22” etc. The screen size is sometimes misleading because there is
always an area around the edge of the screen that can't be used. Therefore,
monitor manufacturers must now also state the viewable area -- that is, the area
of screen that is actually used.
Another important aspect of a monitor is resolution. Resolution of a monitor

indicates how densely packed the pixels are. In general, the more pixels the
sharper the image. Most modern monitors can display 1024 by 768 pixels, the
SVGA standard. Some high-end models can display 1280 by 1024, or even 1600
by 1200.
Maintenance of thé Monitor

Monitor are sensitive to electro magnetic waves, such as mobile phone and audio
speakers. Care must be taken to protect your monitor from such disturbances.
Tips: -
1. Turn off the monitor when not in use
2. Keep away devices that emit electromagnetic signals.
3. Do not touch the screen with your hands or sharp objects.
4. Keep UPS/ CVTS away from monitors.
5. Make use of screen savers.
1.5.3.6/1.5.3.7 Floppy Diskettes/ Hard Disk Drives – These are

discussed in the next Unit under the heading Storage devices
1.5.3.8 Printers
A device that prints text or illustrations. Printer is the main output device for
taking Hard copy (permanent human-readable text and/or graphics) of the
required information on documents stored in electronic form, usually on
physical print media such as paper or transparencies. Printers vary in size,
speed, sophistication and cost. In general, more expensive printers are used for
higher-resolution color printing. Printers can be distinguished as impact or non-
impact printers.
Impact printers – these printers use a type head which physically hits an
inked ribbon. It is pressed against the paper and imprints it. Due to
advancements in technology, these printers are no longer being manufactured
and the only type of impact printer which is still commonly found today, is the
dot matrix printer.
Non-impact printers – these printers use a technique such as ink spray or

laser to form a printed copy of the output. In this way characters are not formed
by mechanical impact. Normally Non-impact printers produce better quality

output than impact printers and they are less noisy.
The printers are generally characterized by the following elements:
Print speed: expressed in pages per minute (ppm), For colour printers, a
distinction is generally made between monochrome and colour print speed.
Resolution: Printer resolution (the sharpness of text and images on paper) is

usually measured in dots per inch (abbreviated as dpi). Sometimes the resolution
is different for a monochrome, colour or photo print-out.
Warm-up time: the waiting time necessary before the first print-out.
Onboard memory: the quantity of memory that allows the printer to store print
jobs. The higher the amount of memory, the longer the printer queue can be.
Paper format: depending on their size, printers are able to accept different sized
documents.
Paper feed: the method of loading paper into the printer, characterizing the way
in which blank paper is stored. The paper feed can change depending on where
the printer will be placed (rear loading is advised for printers that will be up
against a wall).
Interface: how the printer is connected to the computer. The main interfaces
are:
USB, Serial, Parallel, Network. There are also WiFi printers that are available
through a wireless network.
There are many different types of printers. In terms of the technology utilized,
printers fall into the following categories:
Daisy-wheel: Similar to a ball-head typewriter, this type of printer has a plastic

or metal wheel on which the shape of each character
stands out in relief. A matrix in the shape of a daisy
contains "petals" that each has one raised character. A
hammer presses the wheel against a ribbon, which in
turn makes an ink stain in the shape of the character
on the paper. Daisy-wheel printers produce letter-
quality print but cannot print graphics. These printer
are known as Letter Quality Printers (LQP). These printers are obsolete
because they are costly, extremely noisy and very slow.
Dot-matrix: The dot-matrix printer (sometimes called a matrix printer or an

impact printer) creates characters by striking pins against an ink ribbon. The
head is made up of tiny metal pins (Normally it
has 9 or 24 pins), driven by electromagnets,
which strike a carbon ribbon called an "inked
ribbon", located between the head and the paper.
The carbon ribbon scrolls by so that there is
always ink on it. At the end of each line, a roller
makes the sheet advance. Each pin makes a dot,
and combinations of dots form characters and
illustrations. Dot Matrix Printers can print any
type of text and graphics. On these printers printing of English, Punjabi, Hindi
and Pictures etc. can be taken. The most recent dot-matrix printers are equipped
with 24-needle printer heads, which allows them to print with a resolution of 216
dpi (dots per inch). Earlier dot-matrix printer was a popular low-cost personal
computer printer.
Line Printers : The line printer is a form of high speed impact printer in which
one line of type is printed at a time. They are mostly
associated with the early days of computing, but the
technology is still in use. Print speeds of 600 to 1200
lines-per-minute (approximately 10 to 20 pages per
minute) were common.
Page printers : A printer that prints a page at a time.

It processes entire page at one time. All laser and ink-jet
printers are page printers, which mean that they must
have enough memory to store at least one page. The first
page printers were huge, floor-standing devices. These
are generally a nonimpact printers. Such printers requires continuous movement
of the paper. The information for one page of output is usually accumulated
within a buffer in the printer before the printing process is started.
Inkjet Printer and Bubble Jet Printer

Inkjet printers spray ink at a sheet of paper. Ink-jet printers produce high-quality
text and graphics. These are based on the
principle that a heated fluid produces bubbles.
Today's printer heads are made up of several
nozzles (up to 256), equivalent to several
syringes, which are heated up to between 300
and 400°C several times per second. Each
nozzle produces a tiny bubble that ejects an
extremely fine droplet. The vacuum caused by
the decrease in pressure creates a new bubble.
Inkjet printers use nozzles that have their own
built-in heating element. Thermal technology is used here. Bubble jet printers
use nozzles that have piezoelectric technology. Each nozzle works with a
piezoelectric crystal that changes shape when excited by its resonance frequency
and ejects an ink bubble.
Laser Printers
The laser printer produces quality print-outs inexpensively at a high print speed.
Laser printer is a popular type of personal computer printer that uses a non-
impact (keys don't strike the paper), photocopier
technology. When a document is sent to the
printer, a laser beam "draws" the document on a
selenium-coated drum using electrical charges.
After the drum is charged, it is rolled in toner, a
dry powder type of ink. The toner adheres to the
charged image on the drum. The toner is
transferred onto a piece of paper and fused to the
paper with heat and pressure. After the document
is printed, the electrical charge is removed from the drum and the excess toner is
collected. Most laser printers print only in monochrome. A color laser printer is
more expensive than a monochrome laser printer. IBM introduced the first laser
printer in 1975 for use with its mainframe computers. In 1984, Hewlett-Packard
revolutionized laser-printing technology with its first LaserJet, a compact, fast
and reliable printer that personal computer users could afford. Since then, laser
printers have decreased further in price and increased in quality. Hewlett
Packard continues to be the leading manufacturer with competitors including
Lexmark, Okidata, and Xerox. The laser printer is different from an inkjet printer
in a number of ways. The toner or ink in a laser printer is dry. In an inkjet, it is
wet. Over time, an inkjet printer is about ten times more expensive to operate
than a laser printer because ink needs replenishing more frequently. The printed
paper from an inkjet printer will smear if wet, but a laser-printed document will
not. Because both the printers do not have mechanical heads, they operate
quickly and quietly and allow fonts to be added by using font cartridges or
installing soft fonts. If your printing needs are minimal, an inkjet printer is
sufficient. But if your printing volume is high, consider buying a laser printer.
Resolution: The standard resolution in most laser printers today is 600 dots-
per-inch (dpi). This resolution is sufficient for normal everyday printing including
small desktop publishing jobs. A high-end production printer might have a
resolution of 2400 dpi. Some laser printers still use a resolution of 300 dpi. This
resolution can cause jagged lines to appear on the outer edge of an image.
Hewlett Packard created RET (Resolution Enhancement Technology) to correct
this. RET inserts smaller dots at the edges of lines and to smooth the rough
edges. RET does not improve the resolution, but the document looks better.
1.5.3.9 Plotters
Plotters are used in the making of hard copy of graphical output. These are used
to draw sketch diagrams and designs such as maps and floor maps. Plotters
differ from printers in that they draw lines using a pen. As a result, they can
produce continuous lines, whereas printers can only simulate lines by printing a
closely spaced series of dots. Multicolor plotters use different-colored pens to
draw different colors. This means that plotters are restricted to line art rather
than creating a solid region of colours like printers. Still, plotters can shade an
area by drawing a number of close regular lines. There are two main types of
plotters:
Flatbed plotters: In this type of plotter, the paper lies flat on the plotter and a
pen moves along the paper drawing the image. Some flat bed plotters can
produce coloured images with the arm retrieving different coloured pens from the
side of the plotter. Flatbed plotters are typically used for plotting maps and
designing complicated images.
Drum plotters: In this type of plotter, the paper moves vertically (back and
forth) by means of rollers while the pen moves horizontally along the
paper. Drum
plotters are commonly used in medical environments to plot medical information

such as data from electrocardiogram.
Plotters are used for Computer Aided Design (CAD). Plotters can combine text
and graphics together. Large images can be printed. Printing is costly and very
time consuming. The size of the plotter is big and sufficient space is required for
it. In general, plotters are considerably more expensive than printers. They are
used in engineering applications where precision is mandatory.
1.5.3.10 Voice Response System (Speakers/Headphones)

Through the means of a sound card and speakers, the computer outputs audio
signals which produce sound. The initial sound cards
were mono; in other words, only one speaker was
available; otherwise the sound came out exactly the
same from both speakers. The stereo cards followed with
two independent sound channels that allowed a sort of
sound depth. Finally we are witnessing surround sound
systems of the highest quality as available on the best
hi-fi equipment.
Headphones (also known as earphones, or headsets)

are a pair of small speakers placed in close proximity
to the ears that receive an electrical signal from a
computer and convert the signal into audible sound
waves.
1.5.3.11 CD-RW/DVD-RW - These are discussed in the next Unit under the
heading Storage devices
1.5.3.12 Multimedia Projectors:

LCD Projectors:
LCD projectors project video signals and computer video to the screen. It is a
complex electronic device, These are used for displaying images or data. Unlike
monitors, projectors can project larger
images due to the large screen area.
In fact, projectors are used when
addressing an audience for advertising, publicity, education or entertainment etc.

Projection screens (usually a blank white surface) are used in conjunction with
projectors since the best image quality can only be accomplished with a blank
white surface to project on.
Advantages: Display can include Its display can include text, graphics and
colours; Larger screen size. Small in size and portable.
Disadvantage: Image quality decreases as the size increases.

1.5.4 Summary
To communicate with the computer, we need input and output devices. For
computer processing, data needs to be entered into the computer through input
devices and the result of processing needs to be communicated to the user
through output devices. Different output devices are Punched Tape, Punched
Cards, Magnetic Tape, Magnetic Drum, Visual Display Units (Monitors), Floppy
Diskette, Hard Disk Drive, Printers, Plotters, Voice Response System
(Speakers/Headphones), CD - RW/DVD-RW and Multimedia Projector. Visual
Display Units (Monitors) are normally of two types – CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)
and TFT (Thin Film Transistor). Printers are the main output device for taking
Hard copy (permanent human-readable text and/or graphics) of the required
information on documents stored in electronic form, usually on physical print
media such as paper or transparencies. Printers can be classified as Impact and
non impact printers. Printers are generally characterized by Print speed,
Resolution, Warm-up time, Onboard memory and Interface. Main type of printers
are Daisy-wheel, Dot-matrix, Line Printers, Page printers, Inkjet Printer and
Bubble Jet Printer, Laser Printers. Plotters are used in the making of hard copy of
graphical output. These are used to draw sketch diagrams and designs such as
maps and floor maps. Important type of plotters are Flatbed and Drum type.
Voice Response Systems (Speakers/Headphones) are also used as output devices.
1.5.5 Keywords
Keywords of this lesson are “Output devices, Visual Display Units
(Monitors), Printers, Plotters, Voice Response System
(Speakers/Headphones), CD - RW/DVD-RW, Multimedia Projector and
Plotters”. These have been explained briefly in the summary.

1. Name the different output devices.
2. Write short notes on the any of three following input devices.
 Punched Tape
 Punched Cards
 Visual Display Units (Monitors)
 Printers
 Plotters
 Voice Response System (Speakers/Headphones)
 Multimedia Projector
3. What is the difference between impact and non-impact printers ?

1. What are the different output devices. Explain the function of each.
2. Describe the different types of plotters.
3. What is the use of printer. What type of printers are available.

Wetbrete
LESSON NO. 1.6 AUTHOR : VISHAL SINGH
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

The part of the computer that performs the bulk of data processing operations is
called the central processing unit and referred to as CPU. The CPU is made up of
three major parts, as shown in the figure 6.1. The register sets stores
intermediate data used during the execution of the instructions. The arithmetic
logic unit (ALU) performs the required microoperations for executing the
instructions. The control unit supervises the transfer of information among the
registers and instructs the ALU as to which operation to perform.
The CPU performs a variety of functions dictated by the type of instructions that
are incorporated in the computer. Computer architecture is sometime defined as
the computer structure and behavior as seen by the programmer that uses
machine language instructions. This includes the instruction formats, addressing
modes, the instruction set, and the general organisation of the CPU registers.
The user who programs the computer in machine or assembly language must be
aware of the register set, the memory structure, the type of data supported by the
instructions, and the function that each instruction performs.
Figure 6.1: major components of CPU
General Register organisation

Memory locations are needed for storing pointers, counters, return address,
B.A Part-I (Semester-I) 85 Paper : BAP-101 (Fundamentals of IT)
temporary results and partial products during manipulation. Having to refer to

memory locations for such application is time consuming because memory access
is the most time consuming operation in a computer. It is more convenient and
more efficient to store these intermediate values in processor registers. When a
large number of registers are included in the CPU, it is more efficient to connect
them through the common bus system. The registers communicate with each
other not only for direct data transfers, but also while performing various
microoperations. Hence it is necessary to provide a common unit that can
perform all the arithmetic, logic, and shift microoperations in the processor.
A bus organisation for 7 CPU registers is shown in figure 6.2. The output of each
register is connected to two multiplexers (MUX) to form the two buses A and B.
The selection line in each multiplexer select one register or the input data for the
particular bus. The A and B buses form the inputs to a common arithmetic logic
unit (ALU). The operation selected in the ALU determines the arithmetic or logic
microoperation that is to be performed. The result of the microoperation is
available for output data and also goes into the input of all the registers. The
register that receives the information from the output bus is selected by the
decoder. The decoder activates one of the register load inputs, thus providing a
transfer path between the data in the output bus and the input of the selected
destination register.
9.2
The control unit that operates the CPU bus system directs the information flow
through the registers and ALU by selecting the various components in the
system. For example to perform the operation
R1R2 + R3
The control must provide binary selection variables to the following selector
inputs:
1. MUX A selector (SELA): to place the contents of R2 into bus A.
2. MUX B selector (SELB): to place the contents of R3 into bus B.
3. ALU operation selector (OPR): to provide the arithmetic addition A + B.
4. Decoder destination selector (SELD): to transfer the contents of the output
bus into R1.
The four control selection variables are generated in the control unit and must be
available in the beginning of the clock cycle. The data from the two source
register propagate through the gates in the multiplexers and the ALU, to the
output bus, and into the inputs of the destination register, all during the clock
cycle interval. Then, when the next clock transition occurs, the binary
information from the output bus is transferred into R1. To achieve a fast
response time, the ALU is constructed with the high speed circuits.
Control Word
There are 14 binary selection inputs in the unit, and their combined value
specifies a control word. The 14 bit control word is defined in figure 6.2 (b). It
consists of four fields. Three fields contain 3 bits each and the one field has 5
bits. The 3 bits of SELA selects the source register for the A input of the ALU. The
3 bits of SELB selects a register for the B input of the ALU. The 3 bits of SELD
select a destination register using the decoder and its seven load outputs. The 5
bits of OPR select one of the operations in the ALU. The 14 bit control word when
applied to the selection inputs specify a particular microoperation.
The encoding of the register selections is specified in the table 6.1
Table 6.1: Encoding of register selection fields
The 3 bit binary code listed in the first column of the table specifies the binary
code for each of the three fields. The register selected by fields SELA, SELB, and
SELD is the one whose decimal number is equivalent to the binary number in
the code. When SELA or SELB is 000, the corresponding multiplexer selects the
external input data. When SELD = 000, no destination register is selected but
the contents of the output bus are available in the external output.
The ALU provides arithmetic and logic operations. In addition, the CPU must
provide shift operations. The shifter may be placed in the input of the ALU to
provide a preshift capability, or at the output of the ALU to provide postshifting

capability. In some cases, the shift operations are included with the ALU. The
encoding of the ALU operations for the CPU is specified in Table 6.2. The OPR
field has five bits and each operation is designated with a symbolic name.
TABLE 6.2 Encoding of ALU Operations
Stack Organization
A useful feature that is included in the CPU of most computers is a stack or last-
in, first-out (LIFO) list. A stack is a storage device that stores information in such
a manner that the item stored last is the first item retrieved. The operation of a
stack can be compared to a stack of trays. The last tray placed on top of the
stack is the first to be taken off.The stack in digital computers is essentially a
memory unit with an address register that can count only (after an initial value is
loaded into it). The register that holds the address for the stack is called a stack
pointer (SP) because its value always points at the top item in the stack. Contrary
to a stack of trays where the tray itself may be taken out or inserted, the physical
registers of a stack are always available for reading or writing. It is the content of
the word that is inserted or deleted.The two operations of a stack are the
insertion and deletion of items. The operation of insertion is called push (or push-
down) because it can be thought of as the result of pushing a new item on top.
The operation of deletion is called pop (or pop-up) because it can be thought of as
the result of removing one item so that the stack pops up. However, nothing is
pushed or popped in a computer stack. These operations are simulated by
incrementing or decrementing the stack pointer register.
Register Stack
A stack can be placed in a portion of a large memory or it can be organized as a
collection of a finite number of memory words or registers. Figure 6.3 shows the
organization of a 64-word register stack. The stack pointer register SP contains a binary
number whose value is equal to the address of the word that is currently on top of the
stack. Three items are placed in the stack: A, B, and C, in that order. Item C is on top of
the stack so that the content of SP is now 3. To remove the top item, the stack is
popped by reading the memory word.At address 3 and decrementing the content of SP.
Item B is now on top of the stack since SP holds address 2. To insert a new item, the
stack is pushed by incrementing SP and writing a word in the next-higher location in
the stack Note that item C has been read out but not physically removed. This does not
matter because when the stack is pushed, a new item is written in its place.
Figure 1.6.3 Block diagram of a 64-word stack.

In a 64-word stack, the stack pointer contains 6 bits because 26 = 64. Since
SP has only six bits, it cannot exceed a number greater than 63 (111111 in
binary). When 63 is incremented by 1, the result is 0 since 111111 + 1 =
1000000 in binary, but SP can accommodate only the six least significant bits.
Similarly, when 000000 is decremented by 1, the result is 111111. The one-bit
register FULL is set to 1 when the stack is full, and the one-bit register EMTY is
set to 1 when the stack is empty of items. DR is the data register that holds the
binary data to be written into or read out of the stack.
Initially, SP is cleared to 0, EMTY is set to 1, and FULL is cleared to 0, so that SP
points to the word at address 0 and the stack is marked empty and not full. If the
stack is not full (if FULL = 0), a new item is inserted with a push operation. The
push operation is implemented with the following sequence of microoperations:
SPSP+1 Increment stack pointer
M [SP]DR Write item on the top of the stack.
If (SP=0) then (FULL1) Check if status if full
EMTY0 Mark the stack not empty
The stack pointer is incremented so that it points to the address of the next-
higher word. A memory write operation inserts the word from DR into the top of
the stack. Note that SP holds the address of the top of the stack and that M [SP]
denotes the memory word specified by the address presently available in SP. The
first item stored in the stack is at address 1. The last item is stored at address 0.
If SP reaches 0, the stack is full of items, so FULL is set to 1. This condition is
reached if the top item prior to the last push was in location 63 and, after
incrementing SP, the last item is stored in location 0. Once an item is stored in
location 0, there are no more empty registers in the stack. If an item is written in
the stack, obviously the stack cannot be empty, so EMTY is cleared to 0.
A new item is deleted from the stack if the stack is not empty (if EMTY = 0). The
pop operation consists of the following sequence of microoperations:
DRM [SP] Read item form the top of stack
SPSP-1 Decrement stack pointer
If (SP=0) then (EMTY1) Check if stack is empty
FULL0 Mark the stack not full
The top item is read from the stack into DR. The stack pointer is then
decremented. If its value reaches zero, the stack is empty, so EMTY is set to 1.
This condition is reached if the item read was in location 1. Once this item is read
out, SP is decremented and reaches the value 0, which is the initial value of SP.
Note that if a pop operation reads the item from location 0 and then SP is
decremented, SP changes to 111111, which is equivalent to decimal 63. In this
configuration, the word in address 0 receives the last item in the stack. Note also
that an erroneous operation will result if the stack is pushed when FULL = 1 or
popped when EMTY = 1.
Memory Stack
A stack can exist as a stand-alone unit as in Fig. 6.3 or can be implemented in a
random-access memory attached to a CPU. The implementation of a stack in the
CPU is done by assigning a portion of memory to a stack operation and using a
processor register as a stack pointer. Figure 6.4 shows a portion of computer
memory partitioned into three segments:
Program, Data and Stack. The program counter PC points at the address of the
next instruction in the program. The address register AR points at an array of
data. The stack pointer SP points at the top of the stack. The three registers are
connected to a common address bus, and either one can provide an address for
memory. PC is used during the fetch phase to read an instruction. AR is used
during the execute phase to read an operand. SP is used to push or pop items
into or from the stack.
6.4
As shown in Fig. 6.4, the initial value of SP is 4001 and the stack grows with
decreasing addresses. Thus the first item stored in the stack is at address 4000,
the second item is stored at address 3999, and the last address that can be used
for the stack is 3000. No provisions are available for stack limit checks.
We assume that the items in the stack communicate with a data register DR. A
new item is inserted with the push operation as follows:
SPSP-1
M [SP]SP
The stack pointer is decremented so that it points at the address of the next
word. A memory write operation inserts the word from DR into the top of the
stack. A new item is deleted with a pop operation as follows:
DRM [SP]
SPSP+1
The top item is read from the stack into DR. The stack pointer is then incre-
mented to point at the next item in the stack.
Most computers do not provide hardware to check for stack overflow (full stack)
or underflow (empty stack). The stack limits can be checked by using two
processor registers: one to hold the upper limit (3000 in this case), and the other
to hold the lower limit (4001 in this case). After a push operation, SP is compared
with the upper-limit register and after a pop operation, SP is compared with the
lower-limit register.
The two microoperations needed for either the push or pop are (1) an access to
memory through SP, and (2) updating SP. Which of the two microoperations is
done first and whether SP is updated by incrementing or decrementing depends
on the organization of the stack. In Fig. 2.4 the stack grows by decreasing the
memory address. The stack may be constructed to grow by increasing the
memory address as in Fig. 2.3. In such a case, SP is incremented for the push
operation and decremented for the pop operation. A stack may be constructed so
that SP points at the next empty location above the top of the stack. In this case
the sequence of microoperations must be interchanged.
A stack pointer is loaded with an initial value. This initial value must be the
bottom address of an assigned stack in memory. Henceforth, SP is automatically
decremented or incremented with every push or pop operation. The advantage of
a memory stack is that the CPU can refer to it without having to specify an
address, since the address is always available and automatically updated in the
stack pointer.
Polish Notation of Stack

There are three methods of writing arithmetic expression when evaluated by
computer.
1.1 Infix Notation

It is a traditional Mathematical notation. In this notation, operator is placed in
between the operands.
Example consider two operand X and Y are to be added then in fix notation will
be X+Y
1.2 Prefix Notation

This notation is also known as polish notation named after the Polish
mathematician Lukasiewicz. In this notation operator is placed before the
operand.
Example Let two operand X and Y be added then polish notation will be + X
Y
1.3 Post Fix Notation

It is also known as reverse polish notation. In this operator is placed after the
operands.
Example consider two X and Y be added then reverse polish notation will be XY+
Example of Equivalent in fix, post fix and prefix notation
S.No. Infix Prefix Post Fix

1 X+Y*Z +X*YZ XYZ * +
2 X*Y+Z + * XYZ XY*Z+
3 X*Y+Z*W +*XY*ZW XY*ZW*+
4 X * Y/Z * X/YZ XY*Z/
Instructions Formats
The physical and logical structure of computer is normally described in reference
manuals provided with the system. Such manuals explain the internal
construction of the CPU, including the processor registers available and their
logical capabilities. They list all hardware-implemented instructions, specify their
binary code format, and provide a precise definition of each instruction. A
computer will usually have a variety of instruction code formats. It is the function
of the control unit within the CPU to interpret each instruction code and provide
the necessary control functions needed to process the instruction.
The format of an instruction is usually depicted in a rectangular box symbolizing
the bits of the instruction as they appear in memory words or in a control
register. The bits of the instruction are divided into groups called fields. The most
common fields found in instruction formats are:
1. An operation code field that specifies the operation to be performed.
2. An address field that designates a memory address or a processor register.
3. A mode field that specifies the way the operand or the effective address is
determined.
Other special fields are sometime employed under certain circumstances, as for
example a field that gives the number of shifts in a shift type instruction.
The operation code field of an instruction is a group of bits that define various
processor operations such as add, subtract, complement and shift.
The bits that define the mode field of an instruction code specify a variety of
alternatives for choosing the operands from the given address. Operations
specified by computer instructions are executed on some data stored in memory
or processor registers. Operands residing in memory are specified by their
memory address. Operands residing in processor registers are specified with a
register address. A register address is a binary number of k bits that defines one
of 2k registers in the CPU. Thus a CPU with 16 processor registers R0 through
R15 will have a register address field of four bits. The binary number 0101, will
designate register R5.
Computers may have instructions of several different lengths containing varying
number of addresses. The number of address fields in the instruction format of a
computer depends on the internal organisation of its registers. Most computers
fall into one of the three types of CPU organization :
1. Single accumulator organisation

2. General register organisation
3. Stack organisation
In accumulator type organisation all operations are performed with an implied
accumulator register. The instruction format in this type of computer uses one
address field. For example the instruction that specifies an arithmetic addition is
defined by an assembly language instruction as :
ADD X
Where X is the address of the operand. The ADD instruction in this case results
in the operation ACAC + M [X]. AC is the accumulator register and M [X]
symbolizes the memory word located at address X.
In general register type of organisation the instruction format of computer needs
three register address fields. Thus the instruction for an arithmetic addition may
be written in an assembly language as :
ADD R1, R2, R3
To denote the operation R1R2 + R3. The number of address field in the
instruction can be reduced from three to two if the destination register is the
same as one of the source registers. Thus the instruction :
Add R1, R2
Would denote the operation R1R1 + R2. Only register address for R1 and R2
need be specified in this instruction.
Computers with stack organization would have PUSH and POP instructions
which require an address field. Thus the instruction :
PUSH X
will push the word at address X to the top of the stack. The stack pointer is
updated automatically. Operation-type instructions do not need an address field
in stack-organized computers. This is because the operation is performed on the
two items that are on top of the stack. The instruction :
ADD
in a stack computer consists of an operation code only with no address field. This
operation has the effect of popping the two top numbers from the stack, adding
the numbers, and pushing the sum into the stack. There is no need to specify
operands with an address field since all operands are implied to be in the stack.
1.1 Three-Address Instructions

Computers with three-address instruction formats can use each address field to
specify either a processor register or a memory operand. The program in
assembly language that evaluates X = (A + B) * (C + D) is shown below, together
with comments that explain the register transfer operation of each instruction.
ADD R1, A, B R1M [A] + M [B]
ADD R2, C, D R2M [C] + M [D]
MUL X, R1, R2 M [X]R1 * R2
It is assumed that computer has two processor registers R1 and R2. The
symbol M [A] denotes the operand at memory address symbolized by A. The
advantage of the three address formats is that it results in short programs when
evaluating arithmetic expressions.
1.2 Two Address Instructions

Two address Instructions are most common in commercial computers. Here
again each address field can specify either a processor register or a memory
word. The Program to evaluate X= (A+B) * (C+D) is a follows
MOV R1, A R1  M [A]
ADD R2, B R1  R1 + M [B]
MOV R2, C R2  M [C]
ADD R2, D R2  R2 + M [D]
MUL R1, R2 R1  R1 * R2
MOV X, R1 M [X]  R1
The MOV instruction move or transfers the operand to and from memory and
processor registers. The first symbol listed in an instruction is assumed to be
both a source and destination where the result of the operation is transferred.
1.3 One Address Instructions

It uses an implied accumulator [AC] for all the data manipulation. For
multiplication and division there is a need for a second register. However, here we
will neglect the second register and assume that AC contains the result of all
operations. The program to Evaluate X= (A+B) * (C+D) in one address instruction

is:
LOAD A AC  M [A]
ADD B AC  AC + M [B]
STORE T M [T]  AC
LOAD C AC  M [C]
ADD D AC  AC + M [D]
MUL T AC  AC * M [T]
STORE X M [X]  AC
All operation all done between AC register and a memory operand. T is two
address of a temporary memory location required for storing the intermediate
result.
1.4 Zero Address Instruction

A stack organized computer does not use an address field for the instruction ADD
and MUL. The PUSH and POP instructions, however, need an address field to
specify the operand that communicates with the stack. The following program
shows how
X = (A+B) * (C+D) will be written for a stack organized computer.
TOS stands for top of stack

PUSH A TOS  A
PUSH B TOS  B
ADD TOS  (A + B)
PUSH C TOSC
PUSH D TOSD
ADD TOS(C+D)
MUL TOS(C + D)* (A+B)
POP X M [X]TOS
To evaluate arithmetic expressions in a stack computer, it is necessary to convert

the expression into reverse polish notation. The name "zero-address" is given to
this type of computer because of the absence of an address field in the
computational instructions.
MEMORY
1.7.2 Introduction
1.7.3 Some basic definitions
1.7.4 Units to measure the capacity of memory
1.7.5 Units for Measurement of Speed
1.7.6 Access and Access time
1.7.7 Random and Sequential access
1.7.8 Primary Memory
1.7.9 Secondary Memory
1.7.10 Type of Computer Memories - On the basis of technology:
1.7.10.1 Magnetic core memory:
1.7.10.2 Semiconductor Memory :
1.7.11 Classification of memories on the basis of functionality
1.7.12 Sequential and Random Access Memories :
1.7.13 Random Access Memory (RAM) :
1.7.13.1 DRAM
1.7.13.2 SRAM
1.7.13.3 SDRAM
1.7.13.4 DDR-SDRAM
1.7.14 Read Only Memory (ROM) :
1.7.14.1 PROM (Programmable, Read Only Memory)
1.7.14.2 EPROM (Erasable programmable read-only memory)

1.7.14.3 EEPROM (Electrically erasable programmable read-only
memory)
1.7.15 Flash memory
1.7.16 Cache Memory
1.7.17 Memory caching
1.7.18 Disk caching
1.7.19 Summary
1.7.20 Keywords

Objectives of this lesson are to understand the importance of memory, units to
measure it, different types of memories – technology and functionality wise.
1.7.2 Introduction
As already explained in previous lessons that computer consists of Primary/Main
memory and secondary memory. Main memory is the electronic place for holding
the instructions and data that computer's microprocessor can reach quickly.
Before proceeding further, we need to refresh some of the terms, which are
covered in the previous unit.
1.7.3 Some basic definitions

Bit:
Computer stores a variety of data and information in its memory, including
numbers (0-9), letters (A-Z), symbols and other characters (#,{},’,~,^). A computer
uses the binary system to represent these characters. In a binary system, only
two digits, 0 and 1 are used. The 0’s and 1’s in the binary system are known as
bits. A bit is a binary digit, taking a value of either 0 or 7. Binary digits are a
basic unit of information storage and communication in digital computing and
digital information theory.
Byte:
A byte is the basic unit of measurement of information storage in computer
science. In many computer architectures it is a unit of memory addressing, most
often consisting of eight bits. A byte is one of the basic integral data types in
some programming languages, especially system programming languages.
A byte is an ordered collection of bits, with each bit denoting a single binary value
of 1 or 0. The size of a byte can vary and is generally determined by the
underlying computer operating system or hardware, although the 8-bit byte is
the standard in most of the systems. Historically, byte size was determined by the
number of bits required to represent a single character from a Western character
set. Its size was generally determined by the number of possible characters in the
supported character set and was chosen to be a divisor of the computer's word
size. Historically bytes have ranged from five to twelve bits.
Since computer memory comes in a Power of two rather than 10, a large portion
of the software and computer industry use binary estimates of the quantities,
1.7.4 Units to measure the capacity of memory

Bit, Byte, Kilobytes, Megabytes, Gigabytes and Terabytes are the units for
measuring the capacity of memory or storage devices. Bit is the smallest unit of
memory, which can store either 0 or 7. To understand the relationship between
them, please refer the following tables.
8 bits = 1 byte
1024 bytes = 1 kilobyte (KB)
1024 KB = 1 megabyte (MB)
1024 MB = 1 gigabyte (GB)
1024 GB = 1 terabyte (TB)
8 bits 20 * 8 bits = 1 byte = 1 byte
210 bytes 210 * 8 bits = 1024 bytes = 1 Kilobyte (KB)

210 KB 220 * 8 bits = 1024 KB = 1 Megabyte (MB)
210 MB 230 * 8 bits = 1024 MB = 1 Gigabyte (GB)
210 GB 240 * 8 bits = 1024 GB = 1 Terabyte (TB)
*Memory in terms of Text :

1. One Byte is sufficient to represent 1 character
2. One kilobyte can store a few paragraphs (Roughly 1000 characters)
3. One MB can store a book (Roughly 1 Million characters)
4. One GB can store a small library (Roughly 1 billion characters)
5. One TB can store a book repository (Roughly 1 Trillion characters)
1.7.5 Units for Measurement of Speed

In computer science speed is measured in
Millisecond (ms or msec) is one thousandth (10-3)of a second and is

commonly used for measuring the time to read to or write from a hard disk or a
CD-ROM player or to measure packet travel time on the Internet.
Microsecond is one millionth (10-6) of a second.

Nanosecond (ns or nsec) is one billionth (10-9) of a second and is a common
measurement of read or write access time to random access memory (RAM).
Pico-second is one trillionth (10-12) of a second, or one millionth of a

microsecond.
Femtosecond is one millionth of a nanosecond or (10-15) of a second and is a

measurement sometimes used in laser technology.
Attosecond is one quintillionth (10-18) of a second and is a term used in photon

research.
1.7.6 Access and Access time

Normally access means to read data from or write data to a mass storage device.
The time interval between the instant at which information is called from the
storage and instant at which delivery is completed is known as Access time.
1.7.7 Random and Sequential access

Random access (sometimes called direct access) is the ability to access an
arbitrary element in a sequence in equal time. The opposite is sequential access,
where a remote element takes longer time to access. Sequential access means
retrieving data serially starting from the beginning. A typical illustration of this
distinction is to compare an ancient scroll (sequential; all material prior to the
data needed must be unrolled) and the book (random: can be immediately flipped
open to any random page). A more modern example is a cassette tape
(sequential—you have to fast-forward through earlier songs to get to later ones)
and a compact disc (random access—you can jump right to the track you want).
In the Payroll system, where we have to prepare the salary of every employee,
sequential access of data is better but if we have to find the information of one
employee from the database then random access is better. These terms are
relevant to memory and storage devices.
1.7.8 Primary Memory

The primary memory or the main memory is part of the main computer system.
The processor or the CPU directly stores and retrieves information from it. This
memory is accessed by CPU, in random fashion. Normally primary memory is of
type RAM, ROM, Cache etc. It is also called as Volatile Memory because data is
lost when electric supply is withdrawn.
1.7.9 Secondary Memory

Secondary memory (or secondary storage) is the cheapest form of memory. It is
also called auxiliary memory. Secondary memory unlike primary memory is
much slower but is far more cost effective and stores the data permanently
unless it is erased. Secondary memory devices include magnetic tapes, magnetic
disks like hard drives and floppy disks ; optical disks such as CDs and CDROMs.
It is a Permanent Memory as data is not lost when electric supply is withdrawn.
1.7.10 Type of Computer Memories - On the basis of technology:

Main memory unit is an extremely important part of any computer. Many types of
memories have been developed and used over the years. The earliest memory
units consisted of vacuum tubes (diodes). These were used in first generation
systems, like ENIAC. A memory unit could not be prepared having large number
of tubes due to size considerations. Because of this, the memory size was very
small. Such memories were bulky and very slow. Alternative memory elements
have been developed. Commonly used are magnetic cores and semi conductor
memories.
1.7.10.1 Magnetic core memory:

Magnetic core memory, or ferrite-core memory, is an early form
of computer memory. It uses small magnetic ceramic rings, the
cores, to store information via the polarity of the magnetic field
they contain. Such memory is often just called core memory,
Magnetic core memories were used for quite a long time. Many
of the third generation computers used this type of memory. A
magnetic core can be magnetized clockwise or anti-clockwise
1.7.10.2 Semiconductor Memory :

Semiconductor memory consists of electronic circuits prepared on silicon- chips.
The electronic circuit is called a Flip - flop. A flip-flop,
circuit can store either 1 or 0, that is, it is a two-state
element. A flip-flop is also called a Storage, cell.
Thousand of these storage cells can be prepared on a
single silicon chip. Due to this, the physical size of the
semiconductor memories is very small. Moreover, their
cost is decreasing every year as the fabrication
technology is advancing. These are the devices for storing
digital information that are fabricated by using integrated circuit technology.
Semiconductor memories are widely used to store programs and data in almost
every digital system and have replaced core memory as the main active computer
memory.
1.7.11 Classification of memories on the basis of functionality

On the basis of functionality, computers can also be classified into different types
of categories like Random/Sequential, RAM, ROM, PROM, EPROM, Flash and
Cache etc.
1.7.12 Sequential and Random Access Memories :

Sequential access memory means that information stored in the computer
memory can be reached only by starting at the first memory location, then next,
then next, in the order till the desired location where information is stored.
Random access memory indicates that the information stored anywhere in the
memory can be reached directly. There is no step by step scan involved in this.
Magnetic core and semiconductor memories are examples of this. Generally,
Random Access Memories are much faster than sequential access memories.
1.7.13 Random Access Memory (RAM) :

As the name suggests, it is a Random access type memory. Information can be
read or written into the memory at random. It is also called, a Read/Write
memory. It is a volatile memory, that is,
information stored there is lost when the
electrical power to the circuit is switched
of. Normally, user programs and data
are stored in RAM. Memory is often used
as a shorter synonym for random access
memory (RAM). RAM is a place, where
the operating system, application
programs, and data in current use are kept so that they can be quickly reached
by the computer's processor. It is used while the computer is on to retrieve
recently accessed files, run applications and performs other tasks. It is a chip
that can be upgraded to larger capacity. RAM allows information to be stored or
accessed in any order. RAM is much faster to read from and write to than the
other kinds of storage in a computer, the hard disk, floppy disk, and CD-ROM.
RAM a memory chip is an integrated circuit (IC) made of millions of transistors
and capacitors and they (transistors and capacitors are paired to create a
memory cell, which represents a single bit of data. The capacitor holds the bit of
information -- a 0 or a 7.
RAM can be compared to a person's short-term memory and the hard disk to the
long-term memory. The short-term memory focuses on work at hand, but can
only keep so many facts in view at one time. If short-term memory fills up, your
brain sometimes is able to refresh it from facts stored in long-term memory. A
computer also works this way. If RAM fills up, the processor needs to continually
go to the hard disk to overlay old data in RAM with new, slowing down the
computer's operation. Unlike the hard disk which can become completely full of
data so that it won't accept any more, RAM never runs out of memory. It keeps
operating, but much more slowly than you may want it to. RAM is small, both in
physical size (it's stored in microchips) and in the amount of data it can hold. It's
much smaller than the hard disk. A typical computer may come with 256 million
bytes of RAM and a hard disk that can hold 40 billion bytes. RAM comes in the
form of "discrete" (meaning separate) microchips and also in the form of modules
that plug into holes in the computer's motherboard. These holes connect through
a bus or set of electrical paths to the processor. The hard drive, on the other
hand, stores data on a magnetized surface that looks like a phonograph record.
Most personal computers are designed to allow you to add additional RAM
modules up to a certain limit. Having more RAM in the computer reduces the
number of times that the computer processor has to read data in from the hard
disk, an operation that takes much longer than reading data from RAM. (RAM
access time is in nanoseconds; hard disk access time is in milliseconds.)
Following are the some of the popular types of RAM, which are being
used.
1.7.13.1 DRAM
Dynamic random access memory (DRAM) is a type of random access memory that
stores each bit of data in a separate capacitor within an integrated circuit. Since real
capacitors leak charge, the information eventually fades unless the capacitor charge
is refreshed periodically. Because of this refresh requirement, it is a dynamic
memory as opposed to SRAM and other static memory. Its advantage over SRAM is
its structural simplicity: only one transistor and a capacitor are required per bit,
compared to six transistors in SRAM. This allows DRAM to reach very high density.
Like SRAM, it is in the class of volatile memory devices, since it loses its data when
the power supply is removed.
1.7.13.2 SRAM
Static random access memory (SRAM) is a type of semiconductor memory. The
word "static" indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power
remains applied, unlike dynamic RAM (DRAM) that needs to be periodically
refreshed (nevertheless, SRAM should not be confused with read-only memory
and flash memory, since it is volatile memory and preserves data only while
power is continuously applied).
1.7.13.3 SDRAM
Short for Synchronous DRAM, a type of DRAM that can run at much higher clock
speeds than conventional memory. SDRAM actually synchronizes itself with the
CPU's bus
1.7.13.4 DDR-SDRAM
Short for Double Data Rate-Synchronous DRAM, a type of SDRAM that supports
data transfers on both edges of each clock cycle (the rising and falling edges),
effectively doubling the memory chip's data throughput. DDR-SDRAM also
consumes less power, which makes it well-suited to notebook computers.
1.7.14 Read Only Memory (ROM) :

ROM is "built-in" computer memory containing data that normally can only be
read, not written to. Data can be read from the memory but cannot be written
there. This is why its name is Read Only Memory. ROM contains the
programming that allows your computer to be "booted up" or regenerated each
time you turn it on. Unlike a computer's random access memory (RAM), the data
in ROM is not lost when the computer power is turned off. Therefore it is called
as non-volatile memory. In ROM, information is written permanently into the
memory. It cannot be changed easily. ROMs are normally used to store
information that the computer may need frequently for its own operation.
Besides RAM and ROM, following are the other special forms of semi-conducting
memories. These are, used in microcomputers and personal computers for
special purposes.
1.7.14.1 PROM (Programmable, Read Only Memory)

Programmable read-only memory (PROM) is read-only memory (ROM) that can be
modified once by a user. PROM is a way of allowing a user to tailor a microcode
program using a special machine called a PROM programmer. This machine
supplies an electrical current to specific cells in the ROM that effectively blows a
fuse in them. The process is known as burning the PROM.
1.7.14.2 EPROM (Erasable programmable read-only memory)

EPROM is programmable read-only memory (programmable ROM) that can be
erased and re-used. Since the burning of PROM leaves no margin for error, most
ROM chips designed to be modified by users use erasable programmable read-
only memory. Erasure is caused by shining an intense ultraviolet light through a
window that is designed into the memory chip. (Although ordinary room lighting
does not contain enough ultraviolet light to cause erasure, bright sunlight can
cause erasure. For this reason, the window is usually covered with a label when
not installed in the computer.
1.7.14.3 EEPROM (Electrically erasable programmable read-only

memory)
EEPROM is user-modifiable read-only memory (ROM) that can be erased and
reprogrammed (written to) repeatedly through the application of higher than
normal electrical voltage. Unlike EPROM chips, EEPROMs do not need to be
removed from the computer to be modified. However, an EEPROM chip has to be
erased and reprogrammed in its entirety, not selectively. It also has a limited life -
that is, the number of times it can be reprogrammed is limited to tens or hundreds
of thousands of times.
1.7.15 Flash memory

(sometimes called "flash RAM") is a type of constantly-powered non-volatile
memory that can be erased and reprogrammed in units of memory called blocks.
Flash memory is often used to hold control code such as the basic input/output
system (BIOS) in a personal computer. When BIOS needs to be changed
(rewritten), the flash memory can be written to in block (rather than byte) sizes,
making it easy to update. On the other hand, flash memory is not as useful as
random access memory (RAM) because RAM needs to be addressable at the byte
(not the block) level. Flash memory gets its name because the microchip is
organized so that a section of memory cells are erased in a single action or
"flash." Flash memory is used in digital cellular phones, digital cameras, LAN
switches, PC Cards for notebook computers, digital set-up boxes, embedded
controllers and other devices.
1.7.16 Cache Memory

Pronounced cash, a special high-speed storage mechanism. It can be either a
reserved section of main memory or an independent high-speed storage device.
Two types of caching are commonly used in personal computers: memory caching
and disk caching.
1.7.17 Memory caching

A memory cache, sometimes called a cache store or RAM cache, is a portion of
memory made of high-speed static RAM (SRAM) instead of the slower and
cheaper dynamic RAM (DRAM) used for main memory. Memory caching is
effective because most programs access the same data or instructions over and
over. By keeping as much of this information as possible in SRAM, the computer
avoids accessing the slower DRAM. Some memory caches are built into the
architecture of microprocessors. The Intel 80486 microprocessor, for example,

contains an 8K memory cache, and the earlier Pentium had a 16K cache. Such
internal caches are often called Level 1 (L1) caches. Most modern PCs also come
with external cache memory, called Level 2 (L2) caches. These caches sit between
the CPU and the DRAM. Like L1 caches, L2 caches are composed of SRAM but
they are much larger. Now-a-days computer have normally 1 or 2 MB cache
memory.
1.7.18 Disk caching

Disk caching works under the same principle as memory caching, but instead of
using high-speed SRAM, a disk cache uses conventional main memory. The most
recently accessed data from the disk (as well as adjacent sectors) is stored in a
memory buffer. When a program needs to access data from the disk, it first
checks the disk cache to see if the data is there. Disk caching can dramatically
improve the performance of applications, because accessing a byte of data in
RAM can be thousands of times faster than accessing a byte on a hard disk.
When data is found in the cache, it is called a cache hit, and the effectiveness of
a cache is judged by its hit rate. Many cache systems use a technique known as
smart caching, in which the system can recognize certain types of frequently
used data. The strategies for determining which information should be kept in
the cache constitute some of the more interesting problems in computer science.
1.7.19 Summary
A bit is a binary digit, taking a value of either 0 or 7. Binary digits are a basic
unit of information storage and communication in digital computing and digital
information theory. A byte is an ordered collection of bits, with each bit denoting
a single binary value of 1 or 0. Bit, Byte, Kilobytes, Megabytes, Gigabytes and
Terabytes are the units for measuring the capacity of memory. In computer
science speed is measured in Millisecond, Microsecond, Nanosecond,
Picosecond and Femtosecond. Magnetic core memory, or ferrite-core
memory, is an early form of computer memory. It uses small magnetic ceramic
rings, the cores, to store information. Semiconductor memory consists of
electronic circuits prepared on silicon- chips. RAM, as the name suggests, is a
Random access type memory. Information can be read or written into the
memory at random. RAM a memory chip is an integrated circuit (IC) made of
millions of transistors and capacitors. Dynamic random access memory
(DRAM) is a type of random access memory that stores each bit of data in a
separate capacitor within an integrated circuit. Static random access memory

(SRAM) is a type of semiconductor memory. The word "static" indicates that the
memory retains its contents as long as power remains applied. SDRAM is a type
of DRAM that can run at much higher clock speeds than conventional memory.
SDRAM actually synchronizes itself with the CPU's bus. DDR-SDRAM is a type
of SDRAM that supports data transfers on both edges of each clock cycle (the
rising and falling edges), effectively doubling the memory chip's data throughput.
ROM is "built-in" computer memory containing data that normally can only be
read, not written to. Data can be read from the memory but cannot be written
there. PROM - Programmable read-only memory is a read-only memory that can
be modified once by a user. EPROM is programmable read-only memory
(programmable ROM) that can be erased and re-used. EEPROM is user-
modifiable read-only memory (ROM) that can be erased and reprogrammed
(written to) repeatedly through the application of higher than normal electrical
voltage. Flash memory (sometimes called "flash RAM") is a type of constantly-
powered non-volatile memory that can be erased and reprogrammed in units of
memory called blocks. Cache Memory - Pronounced cash is a special high-
speed storage mechanism. It can be either a reserved section of main memory or
an independent high-speed storage device.
1.7.20 Keywords
Keywords of this lesson are Bit, Byte, Millisecond, Microsecond, Nanosecond,
Picosecond, Femtosecond, Attosecond, Access time, Random and Sequential
access, Primary Memory, Secondary Memory, Magnetic core memory,
Semiconductor Memory, RAM, DRAM, SRAM, SDRAM, DDR-SDRAM, ROM,
PROM, EPROM, EEPROM, Flash and Cache Memory.

 Differentiate between Access and Access time.
 Differentiate between Random and Sequential access.
 Differentiate between Primary Memory and Secondary Memory
 Differentiate between RAM and ROM.
 Differentiate between Bit and Byte
 Describe the units to measure the memory


 What is memory ? Describe the different type of memories.
 Write short notes on RAM, ROM, DRAM, SRAM, PROM AND EPROM.

Wetbrete
4. Fundamentals of Computers by V.Rajaraman, PHI, India
STORAGE DEVICES
1.8.2 Introduction
1.8.3 Random and Sequential Storage devices
1.8.4 Storage Devices
1.8.4.1 Punched Paper Tape
1.8.4.3 Paper
1.8.4.8 Compact Disk
1.8.4.9 DVD
1.8.4.10 USB/Pen drives
1.8.5 Summary
1.8.6 Keywords

Objectives of this lesson are to discuss the various types of storage devices.
1.8.2 Introduction
Computer storage refers to the data stored in an electromagnetic form to be used
by the processor. The amount of data stored on a computer can be measured just
as we can measure the amount of water in a container, although measurement
units are different. The storage capacity defines the amount of data that can be
stored on a storage device. Units to measure the memory or storage capacity have
been discussed in earlier lesson.
Normally, when we talk about memory, we mean the primary memory, when we
talk about storage, we mean the secondary memory. Various types of primary
memories have been discussed in the previous lesson. In this lesson, we will
discuss about the various devices, which are used for secondary storage devices.
These are the physical mediums that hold the much larger amounts of data that
won't fit into RAM and may not be immediately needed there. Commonly storage
devices include hard disks, floppy disks, CD-ROM, DVD and Pen drives. The
terms auxiliary storage, auxiliary memory and secondary memory have also been
used for this kind of data repository. There are number of devices which can be
used as input, output and storage purposes. Following are some of the commonly
used storage devices. These devices can be used to store the information
permanently. The main advantages of these are that these devices can store the
huge amount of information and data and very less space is required to store
these.
 Punched Paper Tape
 Punched Cards
 Paper
 Magnetic Tape
 Magnetic Drum
 Floppy Diskette
 Hard Disk Drive
 Compact Disk
 DVD
 USB/Pen drives

1.8.3 Random and Sequential Storage devices

As already explained in the previous lesson, that some of the storage devices are
random storage devices and some are sequential devices.
1.8.4 Storage Devices

1.8.4.1 Punched Paper Tape – Already discussed in previous lessons.
1.8.4.2 Punched Cards – Already discussed in previous lessons.
1.8.4.3 Paper
It is the most common and convenient method to store the information
permanently. Normally printers and plotters are used to store the information
on this media. Drawback of this is, once this medium is used, it can not be re-
used.

A sequential storage medium used for data collection,
backup and archiving. Like videotape, computer tape is
made of flexible plastic with one side coated with a
ferromagnetic material. Tapes were originally open reels,
but were superseded by cartridges and cassettes of
many sizes and shapes.
Tape has been more economical than disks for archival
data, but that is changing as disk capacities have
increased enormously. If tapes are stored for the
duration, they must be periodically recopied or the tightly coiled magnetic
surfaces may contaminate each other.
The major drawback of tape is its sequential format. Locating a specific record
requires reading every record in front of it or searching for markers that identify
predefined partitions. Although most tapes are used for archiving rather than
routine updating, some drives allow rewriting in place if the byte count does not
change. Otherwise, updating requires copying files from the original tape to a
blank tape (scratch tape) and adding the new data in between.
Open reel tapes used nine linear tracks (8

bits plus parity), while modern cartridges
use 128 or more tracks. Data are recorded in
blocks of contiguous bytes, separated by a
space called an "inter-record gap" or "inter-
block gap." Tape drive speed is measured in
inches per second (ips). Over the years,
storage density has increased from 200 to
38,000 bpi. Now-a-days these are not in
much use.

An early high-speed, direct access storage device that used a magnetic-coated
cylinder with tracks around its circumference. Each track had its own read/write
head. Magnetic drums were used in the 1950s and 1960s.
The tracks on a magnetic drum are assigned to channels located around
the circumference of the drum,
forming adjacent circular
bands that wind around the
drum. A single drum can have
up to 200 tracks. As the drum
rotates at a speed of up to
3,000 rpm, the device's
read/write heads deposit
magnetized spots on the drum
during the write operation and
sense these spots during a
read operation. This action is
similar to that of a magnetic
tape or disk drive.
Unlike some disk packs,
the magnetic drum cannot be physically removed. The drum is permanently
mounted in the device. Magnetic drums are able to retrieve data at a quicker rate
than tape or disk devices but are not able to store as much data as either of
them. Now-a-days these are not used.
1.8.4.6 Floppy Disk

A soft magnetic disk. It is called floppy because it flops if you wave it (at least, the
5¼-inch variety does). Unlike most hard disks, floppy disks (often called floppies
or diskettes) are portable, because you can remove them from a disk drive.
Floppy disk drive (FDD), a disk drive that can read and write to floppy disks. Just
like as we have at homes tape recorders and tape, where tape is media and Tape
recorder is a device. Similarly for FDD - floppy diskette is media and Floppy disk
drive is the device. Floppy diskettes come in different sizes with different
capacities.
A floppy disk looks like a phonogram record. It is provided with a protective card
board envelope. Usually Floppies come in 51/4 ” and 3.5 ” sizes in capacities of
360 KB, 1.2 MB and 1.44 MB. Different types of Floppies have different tracks
like 48 TPI, 96 TPI. TPI stands for Tracks per inch. Some Floppies are Single Side
Single Density (SSSD), some are Double Side Double Density (DSDD) and some
are Double Side High Density (DSHD). Floppy disk drive is a random access
device.
Floppies come in three basic sizes:
8-inch: The first floppy disk design, invented by IBM in the late 1960s and used
in the early 1970s as first a read-only format and then as a read-write format.
5¼-inch: The common size for PCs made before 1987 and the predecessor to
the 8-inch floppy disk. This type of floppy is generally capable of storing between
100K and 1.2MB (megabytes) of data. The most common sizes are 360K and
1.2MB.
3½-inch: Floppy is something of a misnomer for these disks, as they are

encased in a rigid envelope. Despite their small size, microfloppies have a larger
storage capacity than their cousins -- from 400K to 1.4MB of data. The most
common sizes for PCs are 720K (double-density) and 1.44MB (high-density).
As per specifications of Floppy disk drive (FDD) corresponding floppy diskettes
must be used. However in 1.2 MB floppy disk drive floppy diskettes of 360 KB
and 1.2 MB capacity both can be used but in 360 KB FDD only 360 KB floppy
diskette can be used.
Now-a-days these are not in much use.

Hard disk drive is a sealed box consisting of number of magnetic disks and
having storage capacity much more than floppy diskette. Normally hard disk is
part of a computer. It
provides relatively quick access to large amounts of data on an

electromagnetically charged surface or set of surfaces. Today's computers
typically come with a hard disk that contains several billion bytes (gigabytes) of
storage. Earlier capacity of HDD was 20 MB, 40 MB, 80 MB and so on but now-a-
days capacity of HDD is normally GB or TB etc. It is faster and much more
reliable than the floppy diskette. Hard disk usually consists of several platters.
Each platter requires two read/write heads, one for each side. All the read/write
heads are attached to a single access arm so that they cannot move
independently. Each platter has the same number of tracks, and a track location
that cuts across all platters is called a cylinder. For example, a typical 84
megabyte hard disk for a PC might have two platters (four sides) and 1,053
cylinders. A hard disk/drive unit comes with a set rotation speed varying from
4500 to 7200 rpm. Disk access time is measured in milliseconds. Although the
physical location can be identified with cylinder, track and sector locations, these
are actually mapped to a logical block address (LBA) that works with the larger
address range on today's hard disks.
Portable hard disk drive

A disk drive that is plugged into an external port on a computer such as USB or
FireWire. Typically used for backup, but also as secondary storage, such units
rival internal drives in capacity. For laptops, the PC Card slot may be used to
connect a cable to a full-size drive, or the hard disk may be contained entirely
inside the PC Card.
USB Hard Disk Drive

It is a portable hard disk drive fitted in a safe
case having USB Connectivity. A Laptop has also
this type of Hard disk. It is faster and reliable
than pen drives. The only caution is to handle it
with care.
Normally these are available in the capacities
160GB, 250GB, 320GB, 500 GB or 1 TB etc. Even in Higher capacity HDD lare
also available.
1.8.4.8 Compact Disk

Sometimes it is also called an optical disc. A nonmagnetic, polished metal disk
used to store digital information. The disk is read by a optical scanning
mechanism that used a high-intensity light source, such as a laser and mirrors.
A compact disc [sometimes spelled disk] (CD) is a small, portable, round medium
made of molded polymer (close in size to the floppy disk) for electronically
recording, storing, and playing back audio, video, text and other information in
digital form. CDs have replaced the phonograph record and tape recorders for
playing back music. At home, CDs have tended to replace the tape cartridge
although the latter is still widely used in cars and portable playback devices.
Initially, CDs were read-only, but newer technology allows users to record as well.
CDs will probably continue to be popular for music recording and playback. A
newer technology, the digital versatile disc (DVD), stores much more in the same
space and is used for playing back movies.
CD ROM
(Compact Disc, read-only-memory) - is an adaptation of the CD that is designed
to store computer data in the form of text and
graphics, as well as hi-fi stereo sound. CD-ROM is a
drive which reads aluminum-coated round plastic
discs, however does not write to the discs. Similar to
FDD, Diskette or disk or disc is the media and to
read or write on this, we need the corresponding
drive.
Standard CD-ROM diskettes are 120 mm (4.75
inches) in diameter and 1.2 mm (0.05 inches) thick.
The diskette is made of a polycarbonate wafer and is
coated with a metallic film, usually an aluminum alloy. This aluminum film is the
portion of the disc that the CD-ROM drive reads for information. The aluminum
film is then covered by a plastic polycarbonate coating that protects the
underlying data. A label will usually be placed on the top of the disc and data is
read from the bottom of the CD.
Today, CD-ROMs are standardized and work in any standard CD-ROM drive. CD-
ROM drives can also read audio compact discs for music, although CD players
cannot read CD-ROM discs.
The CD-ROM, like other CD adaptations, has data encoded in a spiral track
beginning at the center and ending at the outermost edge of the disc. The spiral
track holds approximately 650 MB of data. That's about 5.5 billion bits. The
distance between two rows of pits, measured from the center of one track to the
center of the next track is referred to as track pitch. The track pitch can range
from 1.5 to 1.7 microns, but in most cases is 1.6 microns.
Constant Linear Velocity (CLV) is the principle by which data is read from a CD-
ROM. This principal states that the read head must interact with the data track
at a constant rate, whether it is accessing data from the inner or outermost

portions of the disc. This is affected by varying the rotation speed of the disc,
from 500 rpm at the center, to 200 rpm at the outside. In a music CD, data is
read sequentially, so rotation speed is not an issue. The CD-ROM, on the other
hand, must read in random patterns, which necessitates constantly shifting
rotation speeds. Pauses in the read function are audible and some of the faster
drives can be quite noisy because of it.
CD-R
(CD Recordable) – On these types of diskettes data can be written only once. Once
it is written, it cannot be erased.
CD-RW
(Compact disc, rewriteable) is a compact disc (CD) format that allows repeated
recording on a disc. Now any user with a CD Recorder drive could create their
own CDs from their desktop computers. CD-RW drives can write both CD-R and
CD-RW discs and can read any type of CD. Only drives designated as "Multi
Read" can read CD-RW diskettes reliably.
CD-RW discs usually hold 74 minutes (650
MB) of data, although some can hold up to
80 minutes (700 MB) and, according to some
reports, can be rewritten as many as 1000
times. With packet writing software and a
compatible CD-RW drive, it is possible to
save data to a CD-RW in the same way as
one can save it to a floppy disk. CD
recorders (usually referred to as CD
burners), were once much too expensive for the home user, but now are similar
in price to CD-ROM drives. CD-RW drive is a popular alternative to the CD-R
drive.
1.8.4.9 DVD
Digital Video Disc or Digital Versatile Disc - An optical digital disc for storing
movies and data. disc uses the same diameter platter as a CD (120mm/4.75"
diameter), but holds 4.7GB (of digital information on a single-sided, single-layer
disc) rather than 700MB. High-density double-sided compact disc can store up to
17 gigabytes of digital data-roughly the equivalent of 24 CDs. It is a better

medium for distributing feature-length films than videocassettes,
Whereas CDs use only one side, DVDs can be recorded on both sides as well as
in dual layers. DVD drives/players can read most CD media as well.
Originally these were named as "Digital Video Disc." Since the technology
became important to the computer world, the "video" was dropped, and it was
dubbed as "Digital Versatile Disc" by the DVD Forum.
Read-Only Data DVDs - DVD-ROM.

Designed for data files, a DVD-ROM disc is a higher-capacity CD-ROM, and like
CD-ROMs, DVD-ROMs are manufactured.
Writable/Recordable Data DVDs - DVD-RAM

A DVD-RAM is a rewritable DVD that functions like a removable hard disk. It
uses a phase-change technology like the CD-RW drives. DVD-RAM media can be
rewritten 100,000 times before they are no longer usable. DVD-RAM discs cannot
be read by standard DVD-ROM drives because of the differences in both
reflectivity of the medium and the data format.
DVD-R and DVD+R are competing write-once formats for movies or data. DVD-
RW and DVD+RW are competing rewritable (re-recordable) formats that unlike
DVD-RAM's 100,000 cycles, can only be rewritten 1,000 times. Aimed at the
consumer, 1,000 rewrites is considered more than sufficient.
Music DVDs - DVD-Audio

DVD-Audio is a second-generation digital music format that provides higher
sampling rates than audio CDs.
DVD-Video is the movie format, which uses MPEG-2 compression to provide

approximately two hours of video per side at standard definition TV resolution
(480i resolution). When most people mention the word "DVD," they are referring
to a DVD-Video disc.
The Comparison table may be as follows
Floppy Disk Hard Disk CD-ROM DVD

Referred as Floppy Referred as fixed Referred as Referred as
disk compact disk digital versatile
disk
Is removable Is usually attached Is removable Is removable

within the system
unit
Made of flexible Less prone to Reliable Reliable because
vinyl material, Less damage, since because data data cannot be
resistant to packed airtight cannot be altered without
damage by heat, altered without DVD writer
dust and magnetic CD writer
fields
Has capacity of Sizes are 40, 80, Can store 650 Can store at
1.44 MB 120, 160, 200, 250 MB- 700 MB least 4.7 GB
and 500 GB and so
on
Can be used to Can be used to read Is read only Is read only
read write data write data (i.e., data once
written cannot
be erased or
overwritten)
1.8.4.10 USB drives/ Pen Drives

A flash memory card that plugs into the computer's USB port. Small enough to
hook onto a keychain, it emulates a small
disk drive and allows data to be easily
transferred from one machine to another.
Software drivers are not required for the
latest operating systems, but are available
on the Web for legacy systems such as
Windows 98, Windows NT and Mac OS 8.
Pen drive is a small, portable flash memory card that plugs into a computer’s
USB port and functions as a portable hard drive. USB flash drives are easy-to-
use as they are small enough to be carried in a pocket and can plug into any
computer. USB flash drives have less storage capacity than an external hard
drive, but they are smaller and more durable because they do not contain any
internal moving parts.
USB flash drives also are called thumb drives, jump drives, pen drives, key
drives, tokens, or simply USB drives.
Wireless USB
The wireless version of the universal serial bus (USB). Using ultra-wideband
(UWB) technology, wireless USB is designed to provide the same 480 Mbits/sec
data rate as USB 2.0 within two meters (6.6 ft.) or 110 Mbps within 10 meters (33
ft.). Although it can be used with desktop computers, wireless USB makes it easy
to connect and disconnect USB peripherals from a laptop.
1.8.5 Summary
Paper is the most common and convenient method to store the information
permanently. Normally printers and plotters are used to store the information on
this media. Drawback of this is, once this medium is used, it can not be re-used.
Magnetic Tape is a sequential storage medium used for data collection, backup
and archiving. Like videotape, computer tape is made of flexible plastic with one
side coated with a ferromagnetic material. Magnetic Drum is an early high-
speed, direct access storage device that used a magnetic-coated cylinder with
tracks around its circumference. Each track had its own read/write head.
Floppy disk drive (FDD) is a drive that can read and write to floppy disks. A
floppy disk looks like a phonogram record. It is provided with a protective card
board envelope. Usually Floppies come in 51/4 ” and 3.5 ” sizes in capacities of
360 KB, 1.2 MB and 1.44 MB. Hard disk drive is a sealed box consisting of
number of magnetic disks and having storage capacity much more than floppy
diskette. Normally hard disk is part of a computer. It provides relatively quick
access to large amounts of data on an electromagnetically charged surface or set
of surfaces. Portable hard disk drive is a drive that is plugged into an
external port of a computer such as USB or FireWire. USB Hard Disk Drive is
a portable hard disk drive fitted in a safe case having USB Connectivity. It is
faster and reliable than pen drives. The only caution is to handle it with care.
Compact Disk is also called optical disc. A nonmagnetic, polished metal disk
used to store digital information. The disk is read by a optical scanning
mechanism that use a high-intensity light source, such as a laser, and mirrors. A
compact disc [sometimes spelled disk] (CD) is a small, portable, round medium
made of molded polymer (close in size to the floppy disk) for electronically
recording, storing, and playing back audio, video, text, and other information in
digital form. CD ROM is an adaptation of the CD that is designed to store
computer data in the form of text and graphics, as well as hi-fi stereo sound. CD-
R - (CD Recordable) – On these types of diskettes data can be written only once.
Once it is written, it cannot be erased. CD-RW (Compact disc, rewriteable) is a
compact disc (CD) format that allows repeated recording on a disc. DVD (Digital
Versatile Disc) is an optical digital disc for storing movies and data. disc uses the
same diameter platter as a CD (120mm/4.75" diameter), but holds 4.7GB (of
digital information on a single-sided, single-layer disc) rather than 700MB. High-
density double-sided compact disc can store up to 17 gigabytes of digital data-
roughly the equivalent of 24 CDs. It is a better medium for distributing feature-
length films than videocassettes. DVDs can be recorded on both sides as well as
in dual layers. DVD drives/players can read most CD media as well. Originally
these were named as "Digital Video Disc." Since the technology became
important to the computer world, the "video" was dropped, and it was dubbed as
"Digital Versatile Disc" by the DVD Forum. Read-Only Data DVDs - DVD-
ROM are designed for data files, a DVD-ROM disc is a higher-capacity CD-ROM.
Writable/Recordable Data DVDs - DVD-RAM is a rewritable DVD that
functions like a removable hard disk. It uses a phase-change technology like the
CD-RW drives. DVD-RAM media can be rewritten 100,000 times before they are
no longer usable. Pen Drives is a flash memory card that plugs into the
computer's USB port. Small enough to hook onto a keychain, it emulates a small
disk drive and allows data to be easily transferred from one machine to another.
1.8.6 Keywords
Keywords of this lesson are Random and Sequential Storage devices, Storage
Devices, Punched Paper Tape, Punched Cards, Paper, Magnetic Tape, Magnetic
Drum, Floppy Diskette, Hard Disk Drive, Compact Disk, DVD, USB/Pen drives

 Differentiate between primary and secondary memory. Name some
of the commonly used secondary devices
 Differentiate between random access and sequential access devices.


 Describe the various storage devices.
 Describe the different type of floppy disks.
 Describe different types of hard disk drive.

Wetbrete
COMPUTER LANGUAGES
1.9.2 Introduction
1.9.3 Computer/Programming Languages
1.9.4 Source code
1.9.5 Object code
1.9.6 Classifications of Computer Languages
1.9.6.1 Low level languages
1.9.6.2 High Level Languages
1.9.6.3 Machine Languages
1.9.6.4 Assembly Languages
1.9.7 Historical development of computer languages
1.9.7.1 First Generation Languages
1.9.7.2 Second Generation Languages
1.9.7.3 Third generation Languages
1.9.7.4 Fourth generation Languages
1.9.7.5 Fifth generation languages
1.9.7.6 Sixth generation languages
1.9.8 Translators
1.9.9.1 Assemblers
1.9.9.2 Interpreters
1.9.9.3 Compilers
1.9.9 Summary
1.9.10 Keywords

Objectives of this lesson are to discuss the various types of Computer languages,
their generations, Translators, Assemblers, Compilers and Interpreters.
1.9.2 Introduction
A language is nothing but a way of communication. We, human beings, use
natural languages like Hindi, Punjabi, English, Urdu, Persian and Spanish etc. to
communicate our ideas and emotions with each other. Similarly we communicate
with the computer in the language understood by the computer. The language
understood by the computer is known as Computer language. The language,
which the user employs to interact with the computer, is known as Programming
or Computer Language. Computer needs to be given instructions to perform each
task. The instructions are given in the form of computer programs. The process of
giving instructions using computer languages is known as programming or
coding.
1.9.3 Computer/Programming Languages

Programming Language consists of a set of characters, symbols and rules that
allow the user to communicate with the computers. The words and symbols of a
computer language must also be used as per set rules, which are known as the
syntax rules of the language. In case of natural languages, people can make use
of poor or incorrect vocabulary or grammar, and still it can be understood up to
some extent. However in case of computer language, we must stick to the exact
syntax rules of the language. Although computers can be programmed to
understand many different computer languages, but strictly speaking computer
can understand only one language and that is binary language, which consists of
only 0s and 1s. Although these programs are easily understood by the computer,
it proved too difficult for a normal human being to remember all the instructions
in the form of 0s and 1s. Therefore, the computer remained a mystery to a
common man until other languages such as assembly and especially high level
languages were developed.
1.9.4 Source code

Programmers write programs in a form called source code. The source code
consists of instructions in a particular language, like C or FORTRAN. The source
code consists of the programming statements that are created by a programmer
with a text editor or a visual programming tool and then saved in a file. For
example, a programmer using the C language types in a desired sequence of C
language statements using a text editor and then saves them as a named file.
This file is said to contain the source code.
1.9.5 Object code

The compiler produces an intermediary form called object code. Object code is
often the same as or similar to a computer's machine language. The object code
file contains a sequence of instructions that the processor can understand but
that is difficult for a human to read or modify. The object code is machine-
dependent meaning that the compiled program can only be executed on a
machine for which it has been compiled.
Source code and object code refer to the "before" and "after" versions of a
compiled computer program. When we purchase or receive operating system or
application software, it is usually in the form of compiled object code and the
source code is not included. Proprietary software vendors usually don't allow us
to try to improve their code. Now, there is a movement to develop software (Linux
is an example) that is open to further improvements by anyone who wants to
improve it, and here the source code is provided.
1.9.6 Classifications of Computer Languages

Over the years, programming languages have progressed from machine-oriented
languages to problem oriented languages, which use common mathematical
and/or English terms. However, computer languages are generally classified into
the following categories.
 Low level languages

o Machine Language
o Assembly Language
 High Level Languages
1.9.6.1 Low level languages

Low level language is usually the most basic language, in which we directly
communicate with hardware. Low-level languages are difficult to understand.
Instructions written in low level languages are difficult to understand and modify.
Machine and Assembly Languages are considered as Low Level Languages.
1.9.6.2 High Level Languages

High level languages are similar to English language and resemble human
languages. We can write programs in English like manner. High level languages
are much more convenient to use. These languages are designed to make
programming easy. High level language code is easier to understand. Generally
these are known as third-generation languages (3GL). Design of these
programming languages is easier for a human to understand, including things
like named variables, abstract data types and algebraic expression syntax.
Examples of high level languages are BASIC, C, C++, C#, Delphi, Java, ALGOL,
COBOL, FORTRAN and ADA etc.
Most of these languages have compilers and the advantage of this is speed.
Independence is another factor as these languages are machine independent and
could run on different machines. The advantages of high level languages include
the support for ideas of abstraction so that programmers can concentrate on
finding the solution to the problem rapidly, rather than on low-level details of
data representation. The comparative ease of use and learning, improved
portability and simplified debugging, modifications and maintenance led to
reliability and lower software costs. New features are being added to make the
language more powerful. Third generation languages often followed procedural
code, meaning the language performs functions defined in specific procedures on
how something is done.
Compiled and interpreted languages

High-level programming languages are generally divided for convenience into
compiled languages and interpreted languages. Interpreted languages are read
and then executed directly, with no compilation stage. Compiled languages are
transformed into an executable form before running. However, there is rarely
anything about a language that requires it to be exclusively compiled, or
exclusively interpreted. The categorization usually reflects the most popular or
widespread implementations of a language — for instance, BASIC is sometimes
called an interpreted language, and C a compiled one, despite the existence of

BASIC compilers and C interpreters.
1.9.6.3 Machine Languages

As mentioned earlier that computer can understand only one language and that
is binary language, which consists of only 0s and 1s. This language is called
machine language. Machine language is the native language of computers. It uses
only 0s and 1s to represent data and instructions. It is a most efficient in term of
storage area use and execution speed and it also allows programmer to utilize the
computer's full potential for processing data. In machine language everything is
written as numbers. Programs written in machine language can be executed very
fast by the computer. However writing a program in machine language has the
following disadvantages:
1. Machine dependent – Programs written in a machine language are

generally machine dependent. In order to transfer code to a different
computer it needs to be completely rewritten since the machine language
for one computer could be significantly different from another computer.
Architectural considerations make portability difficult too. For example,
the number of registers on one CPU architecture could differ from those of
another.
2. Difficult to learn and program – It is difficult for the programmer

either to memorize the several operation code numbers for the commands
or to constantly refer to a reference card. Programmer is also forced to
keep track of the storage locations of data and instructions.
3. Error prone – For writing programs in machine language, since a

programmer has to remember the opcodes, and must keep track of the
storage locations, it becomes very difficult to concentrate fully on the logic
of the problem. This frequently results in programming errors.
4. Difficult to modify – It is difficult to modify machine language

programs. Checking machine instructions to locate errors is very difficult
and time consuming.
1.9.6.4 Assembly Languages

An assembly language is a low-level language. It implements a symbolic
representation of the numeric machine codes and other constants. This
representation is usually defined by the hardware manufacturer, and is based on
abbreviations (called mnemonics) that help the programmer to remember

individual instructions, registers, etc. A program written in assembly language
consists of a series of instructions--mnemonics that correspond to a stream of
executable instructions, when translated by an assembler that can be loaded into
memory and executed. An assembly language is thus specific to a certain
physical or virtual computer architecture (as opposed to most high-level
languages, which are usually portable). Instructions (statements) in assembly
language are generally very simple. Each instruction typically consists of an
operation or opcode plus zero or more operands. Most instructions refer to a
single value, or a pair of values. Generally, an opcode is a symbolic name for a
single executable machine language instruction. Operands can be either
immediate (typically one byte values, coded in the instruction itself) or the
addresses of data located elsewhere in storage. Assembly languages eliminated
much of the error-prone and time-consuming problems of machine language,
freeing the programmer from tedious task of remembering numeric codes and
calculating addresses. They were once widely used for all sorts of programming.
Today, assembly language is used primarily for direct hardware manipulation,
access to specialized processor instructions, or to address critical performance
issues. Typical uses are device drivers, low-level embedded systems, and real-
time systems. Assembly language is used to write programs using the instruction
set for a particular processor/controller. To write assembly code it is necessary to
know the architecture of the processor or controller. Thus assembly language is
not portable. Assembly language is more human-readable than machine
language. Generally, statements in assembly language are written using short
codes for the instruction and arguments, such as "MOV $12 SP", For example, an
x86/IA-32 processor can execute the following binary instruction as expressed in
machine language
 Binary: 10110000 01100001 (Hexadecimal: B0 61)

The equivalent assembly language representation is easier to remember
 MOV AL, 61h

This instruction means:
 Move the value 61h (or 97 decimal; the h-suffix means hexadecimal)
into the processor register named "AL".
The mnemonic "mov" represents the opcode 1011 which moves the value in the
second operand into the register indicated by the first operand.
1.9.7 Historical development of computer languages

Programming languages have evolved tremendously since early 1950's and this
evolution has resulted in over hundreds of different languages being invented and
used in the industry. This revolution was needed as we can now instruct
computers more easily and faster than ever before due to technological
advancement in hardware and software. Software for early computers was
primarily written in assembly language for many years. The very limited memory
capacity of early computers also created many technical problems. Development
of computer languages has been divided into the following generations:
1.9.7.1 First Generation Languages

Programming language history really began with the work of Charles Babbage in
the early nineteenth century who developed automated calculation for
mathematical functions. A first-generation programming language was a
machine-level programming language. Originally, no translator was used to
compile or assemble the first-generation languages. Instructions were entered
through the front panel switches of the computer system. The main benefit of
first-generation programming languages was that the code a user writes can run
very fast and efficiently, since it is directly executed by the CPU. However,
machine language is somewhat more difficult to learn than higher generational
programming languages and it is far more difficult to edit if errors occur. In
addition, if instructions need to be added into memory at some location, then all
the instructions after the insertion point need to be moved down to make room in
memory to accommodate the new instructions. Doing so on a front panel with
switches can be very difficult. Furthermore, portability was significantly reduced -
in order to transfer code to a different computer it needs to be completely
rewritten since the machine language for one computer could be significantly
different from another computer. Architectural considerations make portability
difficult too. For example, the number of registers on one CPU architecture could
differ from those of another. Though 1GL were typically used only with first
generation computers, machine level programming still finds a use in several
areas of modern programming.
Further developments in early 1950 brought us machine language without
interpreters and compilers to translate languages. Micro-code is an example of
the first generation language residing in the CPU written for doing multiplication
or division. Computers then were programmed in binary notation that was very
prone to errors. A simple algorithm resulted in lengthy code. This was then
improved to mnemonic codes to represent operations.
1.9.7.2 Second Generation Languages

Symbolic assembly codes came in the mid 1950's, the second generation of
programming language like AUTOCODER, SAP and SPS. Symbolic addresses
allowed programmers to represent memory locations, variables and instructions
with names. Programmers now had the flexibility not to change the addresses for
new locations of variables whenever they are modified. Second-generation
programming languages had the following properties:
 The code can be read and written by a programmer. To run on a computer

it must be converted into a machine readable form, a process called
assembly.
 The language was specific to a particular processor family and

environment.
Second-generation languages are sometimes used in kernels and device drivers
(though C is generally employed for this in modern kernels), but more often find
use in extremely intensive processing such as games, video editing, graphic
manipulation/rendering.
One method for creating such code is by allowing a compiler to generate a
machine-optimized assembly language version of a particular function. This code
is then hand-tuned, gaining both the brute-force insight of the machine
optimizing algorithm and the intuitive abilities of the human optimizer.
This kind of programming is still considered fast and to program in machine
language required high knowledge of the CPU and machine's instruction set. This
also meant high hardware dependency and lack of portability.
1.9.7.3 Third generation Languages

Throughout the early 1960's till 1980 saw the emergence of the third generation
programming languages. Languages like ALGOL 58, 60 and 68, COBOL,
FORTRAN IV, ADA, BASIC, C, C++, C#, Delphi and Java are examples of this and
were considered as high level languages. A third-generation language (3GL) is a
programming language designed to be easier for a human to understand,
including things like named variables, abstract data types, and algebraic
expression syntax. Most 3GLs support structured programming. Most of these
languages had compilers and the advantage of this was speed. Independence was
another factor as these languages were machine independent and could run on
different machines. The advantages of high level languages include the support
for ideas of abstraction so that programmers can concentrate on finding the
solution to the problem rapidly, rather than on low-level details of data
representation. The comparative ease of use and learning, improved portability
and simplified debugging, modifications and maintenance led to reliability and
lower software costs. Some languages were improved over time and some were
influenced by previous languages, taking the desired features thought to be good
and discarding unwanted ones. New features were also added to the desired
features to make the language more powerful. Then, there were languages that
evolved from other languages like LISP1 developed in 1959 for artificial
intelligence work, and had strong influences languages like MATHLAB, LPL and
PL/I. Language like BALM had the combined influence of ALGOL-60 and LISP.
These third generation languages are less processor dependent than lower level
languages. An advantage in languages like C++ is that it gives the programmers a
lot of control over how things are done in creating applications. This control
however calls for more in depth knowledge of how the operating system and
computer works. Many of the real programmers now still prefer to use these
languages despite the fact the programmer having to devote a substantial
professional effort to the leaning of a new complicated syntax which sometimes
have little relation to human-language syntax even if it is in English. Third
generation languages often followed procedural code, meaning the language
performs functions defined in specific procedures on how something is done. A
disadvantage with fourth generation languages was they were slow compared to
compiled languages and they also lacked control. Programmers whose primary
interests are programming and computing use third generation languages and
programmers who use the computers and programs to solve problems from other
applications are the main users of the fourth generation languages.
1.9.7.4 Fourth generation Languages

A fourth-generation programming language (1970s-1990) (abbreviated 4GL) is a
programming language or programming environment designed with a specific
purpose in mind, such as the development of commercial business software.
Though used earlier in papers and discussions, the term 4GL was first used
formally by James Martin in his book Applications Development Without
Programmers in 1982 to refer to non-procedural, high-level specification
languages. In the evolution of computing, the 4GL followed the 3GL in an upward
trend toward higher abstraction and statement power. Features evident in fourth
generation languages quite clearly are that it must be user friendly, portable and
independent of operating systems, usable by non-programmers, having intelligent
default options about what the user wants and allowing the user to obtain results
fasts using minimum requirement code generated with bug-free code from high-
level expressions (employing a data-base and dictionary management which
makes applications easy and quick to change), which was not possible using
COBOL or PL/I. Examples of this generation of languages are IBM's ADRS2, APL,
CSP and AS, Power Builder, Access. 4GL and 5GL projects are more oriented
toward problem solving and systems engineering. All 4GLs are designed to reduce
programming effort, the time it takes to develop software, and the cost of software
development. Just as the 3GL offered greater power to the programmer, so too
did the 4GL open up the development environment to a wider population. In
terms of applications, a 4GL could be business oriented or it could deal with
some technical domain.
One of the early (and portable) languages that had 4GL properties was Ramis
developed by Gerald C. Cohen at Mathematica, a mathematical software
company. Cohen left Mathematica and founded Information Builders to create a
similar reporting-oriented 4GL, called Focus. Later 4GL types are tied to a
database system and are far different from the earlier types in their use of
techniques and resources that have resulted from the general improvement of
computing with time. An interesting twist to the 4GL scene is realization that
graphical interfaces and the related reasoning done by the user form a 'language'
that is poorly understood. A disadvantage with fourth generation languages was
they were slow compared to compiled languages and they also lacked control.
A number of different types of 4GLs exist:
 Table-driven (codeless) programming, usually running with runtime

framework and libraries. Instead of using code, the developer defines his
logic by selecting an operation in a pre-defined list of memory or data table
manipulation commands. In other words, instead of coding, the developer
uses Table-driven algorithm programming, a good example of this type of
4GL language is eDeveloper. These type of tool can be used for business
application development usually consisting in a package allowing for both
business data manipulation and reporting, therefore they come with GUI
screens and report editors. They usually offer integration with lower level
DLLs generated from a typical 3GL for when the need arise for more
hardware/OS specific operations.
 Report generators take a description of the data format and the report to
generate and from that they either generate the required report directly or
they generate a program to generate the report.
 Similarly, forms generators manage online interactions with the

application system users or generate programs to do so.
 More ambitious 4GLs (sometimes termed fourth generation environments)

attempt to automatically generate whole systems from the outputs of
CASE tools, specifications of screens and reports, and possibly also the
specification of some additional processing logic.
 Data management 4GLs such as SAS, SPSS and Stata provide

sophisticated coding commands for data manipulation, file reshaping, case
selection and data documentation in the preparation of data for statistical
analysis and reporting.
Some fourth-generation languages

General Use / Versatile
 DataFlex
 Forté TOOL (transactional object-oriented language)
 IBM VisualAgen/VisualAge Generator
 Panther
 PowerBuilder
 SheerPower4GL (Microsoft Windows Only)
 SQLWindows/Team Developer
 WinDev
 Up ! 5GL
 Visual DataFlex (Microsoft Windows Only)
 Discovery Machine Modeler
Database query languages

 FOCUS
 Genero
 SB+/SystemBuilder
 Informix-4GL
 NATURAL
 Progress 4GL
 SQL
Report generators
 BuildProfessional
 GEMBase
 IDL-PV/WAVE
 LINC
 Metafont
 NATURAL
 Oracle Reports
 Progress 4GL Query/Results
 Quest
 Report Builder
 RPG-II
Data manipulation, analysis, and reporting languages

 Ab Initio
 ABAP
 Aubit-4GL
 Audit Command Language
 Clarion Programming Language
 CorVision
 Culprit
 ADS/Online (plus transaction processing)

 DASL
 FOCUS
 GraphTalk
 IDL
 IGOR Pro
 Informix-4GL
 LANSA
 LabVIEW
 MAPPER (Unisys/Sperry) now part of BIS
 MARK-IV (Sterling/Informatics) now VISION:BUILDER of CA
 Mathematica
 MATLAB
 NATURAL
 Nomad
 PL/SQL
 Progress 4GL
 PROIV
 R
 Ramis
 S
 SAS
 SPSS
 Stata
 Synon
 XBase++
 SQR
Data-stream languages
 APE
 AVS
 Iris Explorer
Database driven GUI Application Development

 Genexus
 Progress Dynamics
 UNIFACE
Screen painters and generators

 FOURGEN CASE Tools for Rapid Application Development by
Gillani
 Oracle Forms
 Progress 4GL ProVision
 Unify Accell
GUI creators
 4th Dimension (Software)
 eDeveloper
 MATLAB's GUIDE
 Omnis Studio
 OpenROAD
 Progress 4GL AppBuilder
 Revolution programming language
 Sculptor 4GL
Web development languages

 Cold Fusion
 CSS
1.9.7.5 Fifth generation languages

The 1990's saw the developments of fifth generation languages like PROLOG,
referring to systems used in the field of artificial intelligence, fuzzy logic and
neural networks. A fifth-generation programming language (abbreviated 5GL) is a
programming language based around solving problems using constraints given to
the program, rather than using an algorithm written by a programmer. Most
constraint-based and logic programming languages and some declarative
languages are fifth-generation languages. This means computers can in the
future have the ability to think for themselves and draw their own inferences
using programmed information in large databases. Complex processes like
understanding speech would appear to be trivial using these fast inferences and
would make the software seem highly intelligent. In fact, these databases
programmed in a specialized area of study would show a significant expertise
greater than humans. Also, improvements in the fourth generation languages
now carried features where users did not need any programming knowledge.
Little or no coding and computer aided design with graphics provides an easy to
use product that can generate new applications. This way, the programmer only
needs to worry about what problems need to be solved and what conditions need
to be met, without worrying about how to implement a routine or algorithm to
solve them. Fifth-generation languages are used mainly in artificial intelligence
research. Prolog, OPS5 and Mercury are the best known fifth-generation
languages.
1.9.7.6 Sixth generation languages

What does the next generation of languages hold for us? The sixth generation?
That is pretty uncertain at the moment. With fast processors, like in fifth
generation computers, able to have multiple processors operating in parallel to
solve problems simultaneously will probably ignite a whole new type of language
being designed. The current trend of the Internet and the World Wide Web could
cultivate a whole new breed of radical programmers for the future, now exploring
new boundaries with languages like HTML and Java. What happens next is
entirely dependent on the future needs of the whole computer and
communications industry.
1.9.8 Translators
As already mentioned, the only language that a computer can understand is the
so called machine language. To convert Assembly language and high level
language programs into machine language, we need translators. Normally for this
purpose Assemblers, Interpreters and Compliers are used. To run a program of
any particular language, we need the corresponding assembler, interpreter or
compiler.
1.9.9.1 Assemblers
A utility program called an assembler is used to translate assembly language
statements into the target computer's machine code. The assembler performs a
more or less isomorphic translation (a one-to-one mapping) from mnemonic
statements into machine instructions and data. Many sophisticated assemblers
offer additional mechanisms to facilitate program development, control the
assembly process and aid debugging. Modern assembler creates object code by
translating assembly instruction mnemonics into op codes, and by resolving
symbolic names for memory locations and other entities. The use of symbolic
references is a key feature of assemblers, saving tedious calculations and manual
address updates after program modifications. More sophisticated high-level
assemblers provide language abstractions such as:
 Advanced control structures
 High-level procedure/function declarations and invocations
 High-level abstract data types, including structures/records,

unions, classes, and sets
 Sophisticated macro processing

Note that, in normal professional usage, the term assembler is often used
ambiguously: It is frequently used to refer to an assembly language itself, rather
than to the assembler utility.
1.9.9.2 Interpreters
An interpreter is a program which takes something written in a programming
language and then runs it by executing a series of machine instructions, which
are clearly defined for each word or token in the language. It is a program that
implements or simulates a virtual machine using the base set of instructions of a
programming language as its machine language. We can also think of an
Interpreter as a program that implements a library containing the

implementation of the basic instruction set of a programming language in
machine language. An Interpreter reads the statements of a program, analyzes
them and then executes them by calling the corresponding instructions of the
library.
1.9.9.3 Compilers
A Compiler is a program that translates code of a programming language in
machine code, also called object code. The object code can be executed directly
on the machine where it was compiled. A compiler is a program which takes
something written in a higher level language, usually called source code, and
translates it into a lower level language, usually called object code. It is a
computer program (or set of programs) that translates text written in a computer
language (the source code) into another computer language (the target language).
Commonly the output has a form suitable for processing by other programs (e.g.,
a linker). The object code is machine-dependent meaning that the compiled
program can only be executed on a machine for which it has been compiled. The
most common reason to translate source code is to create an executable program.
The name "compiler" is primarily used for programs that translate source code
from a high-level programming language to a lower level language (e.g., assembly
language or machine language). A program that translates from a low level
language to a higher level one is a decompiler. A program that translates between
high-level languages is usually called a language translator, source to source
translator, or language converter. A compiler is likely to perform many or all of
the operations like lexical analysis, preprocessing, parsing, semantic analysis,
code generation etc.
One-pass versus multi-pass compilers

Classifying compilers by number of passes has its background in the hardware
resource limitations of computers. Compiling involves performing lots of work
and early computers did not have enough memory to contain one program that
did all of this work. So compilers were split up into smaller programs which each
made a pass over the source (or some representation of it) performing some of the
required analysis and translations. The ability to compile in a single pass is often
seen as a benefit because it simplifies the job of writing a compiler and one pass
compilers are generally faster than multi-pass compilers. Many languages were
designed so that they could be compiled in a single pass (e.g., Pascal).
1.9.9 Summary
A language is nothing but a way of communication. We, human beings, use
natural languages like Hindi, Punjabi, English, Urdu, Persian and Spanish etc. to
communicate our ideas and emotions with each other. Similarly we communicate
with the computer in the language understood by the computer. The
Programming Language consists of a set of characters, symbols and rules that
allow the user to communicate with the computers. Source code and object code
refer to the "before" and "after" versions of a compiled computer program. Low
level language is the most basic language, in which we directly communicate with
hardware. Low-level languages are difficult to understand. Machine and
Assembly languages are considered to be low level languages. High level
languages are similar to English language and resemble human languages. We
can write programs in English like manner. Computer can understand only one
language and that is binary language, which consists of only 0s and 1s. This
language is called machine language. Main disadvantages of machine language
are that it is machine dependent, difficult to learn, error prone and difficult to
modify. Assembly language implements a symbolic representation of the numeric
machine codes and other constants. Development of computer languages has
been divided into different generations like First Generation Languages, Second
Generation Languages, Third generation Languages, Fourth generation
Languages, Fifth generation languages and Sixth generation languages. As
computer can understand only one language, that is machine language. To
convert Assembly language and high level language programs into machine
language, we need translators. Normally for this purpose Assemblers,
Interpreters and Compliers are used. To run a program of any particular
language, we need the corresponding assembler, interpreter or compiler.
Assembler is used to translate assembly language statements into the target
computer's machine code. An interpreter is a program which takes something
written in a programming language and then runs it by executing a series of
machine instructions, which are clearly defined for each word or token in the
language A Compiler is a program that translates code of a programming
language in machine code, also called object code. The object code can be
executed directly on the machine where it was compiled.
1.9.10 Keywords
Keywords of this lesson are Computer/Programming Languages, Source code,
Object code, Low level languages, High Level Languages, Machine Languages,
Assembly Languages, First Generation Languages, Second Generation

Languages, Third generation Languages, Fourth generation Languages, Fifth
generation languages, Sixth generation languages, Translators, Assemblers,
Interpreters and Compilers.

 Differentiate between Low level and high level languages.
 Differentiate between Machine and Assembly languages.
 Differentiate between Source and Object code.

 Describe different generations of computer languages.
 Write short notes on Assembly languages
 Write short notes on 4GL
 Write short notes on Interpreters, Compilers and Assemblers

Wetbrete
5. The C Programming language-2nd edition by B.W. Kerrigham & D.M.
Richie, PHI, India.
Type Setting :
Department of Distance Education, Punjabi University, Patiala.

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B.A.

PART-I (SEMESTER-I) PAPER : BAP-101

COMPUTER SCIENCE FUNDAMENTALS OF IT

1.1 : Introduction & Block Diagram of Computer

Note:- The students can download syllabus from

LESSON NO. 1.1 AUTHOR : JAGMOHAN SINGH JUNEJA

INTRODUCTION AND BLOCK DIAGRAM OF COMPUTER

1.1.1 Objectives of the lesson

kindergarten curriculum is also an escalating factor in the popularization of this

1.1.3 What is Computer

1.1.4 Benefits of Computers

1.1.5 Characteristics of Computers

another is temporary. Data or information can be stored temporarily in the Main

1.1.7 Computer System

Input devices Central processing unit Output devices

Figure-1 Computer system

1.1.7.1 Central Processing Unit (C.P.U.)

1.1.7.2 Block diagram of Computer:

1.1.7.3 Arithmetic and Logical Unit:

1.1.7.4 Control Unit:

1.1.7.5 Main Memory Unit:

is also referred to as Primary or Main storage. It is extremely fast (High speed

1.1.8 Types of Software:

computer's operating system and other supporting programs. The formal

8 bits 20 * 8 bits = 1 byte = 1 byte

210 bytes 210 * 8 bits = 1024 bytes = 1 Kilobyte (KB)

210 KB 220 * 8 bits = 1024 KB = 1 Megabyte (MB)

210 MB 230 * 8 bits = 1024 MB = 1 Gigabyte (GB)

210 GB 240 * 8 bits = 1024 GB = 1 Terabyte (TB)

Computer Computer is an information-processing machine,

MMU Main Memory Unit

Software Software is a set of instructions. It is untouchable.

Byte A byte is an ordered collection of bits, with each bit

1.1.11 Short answer type Questions

 Draw a block diagram of computer system and explain the function of

 Discuss the various characteristics of computers.

 Describe various benefits of computers.

LESSON NO. 1.2 SECTION-A AUTHOR: JAGMOHAN SINGH JUNEJA

CLASSIFICATION AND HISTORY OF COMPUTERS

1.2.5.2.4 Fourth Generation

1.2.1 Objectives of the lesson

1.2.3 What is Computer

1.2.4 Classifications of Computers

1.2. 4.1 Classification due to historical development of computers

1.2.4.2 Classification according to purpose

General purpose computers

Specific purpose computers

1.2.4.3 Classification according to type of data-handled techniques

1.2.4.3.1 Analog Computers

1.2.4.3.2 Digital Computers

1.2.4.3.3 Hybrid computers

1.2.4.4 Classification according to functionality

1.2.4.4.1 Micro computers

1.2.4.4.2 Mini computers

1.2.4.4.4 Super computers

They can perform billions of calculations in an instant. Supercomputers are

1.2.5 History and Generations of Computers

1.2.5.2 Generations of Computers