Transport of substances across plasma membranes

▪ Transport across plasma membrane must occur for the following

reasons:
1. To obtain nutrients
2. To excrete wastes
3. To secrete useful substances
4. To generate ionic gradients essential for nerve impulse
transmission and muscle activity
5. To maintain a suitable pH for enzyme activity
6. To maintain a good [ionic] for enzyme activity

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Substances move across plasma membranes using four major
mechanisms:

▪ Diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis, active transport and bulk

transport.

Diffusion
▪ Movement of molecules or ions from a region of higher concentration
to a region of lower concentration down a diffusion gradient.
▪ It is passive, spontaneous
▪ Examples of diffusion: oxygen diffusion from lungs to bloodstream

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Factors that affect diffusion rate
1. Steepness of diffusion gradient
▪ The steeper the gradient, the faster the rate of diffusion
▪ Mammals have a good capillary network to increase diffusion
gradient
2. Surface area of diffusion membrane
▪ Directly proportional to diffusion rate
▪ Microvilli increase surface area

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3. Diffusion distance
▪ Inversely proportional to diffusion rate
▪ Directly proportional to the square of the distance
▪ Cells are thus small in order to quicken diffusion rate
Factors that affect diffusion rate are summarised by Fick’s law:
Diffusion rate= surface area of membrane X difference in
concentration across the membrane divided by thickness of
membrane
4. Temperature
5. Particle size

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Facilitated diffusion
▪ Movement of ions and polar molecules from high concentration to a
low concentration using channel proteins and carrier proteins
▪ Involves movement of amino acids, sugars (e.g. glucose), fatty acids
and glycerol.
▪ Movement of chloride and hydrogencarbonate into and out of blood
cells during chloride shift
▪ Substances that move by facilitated diffusion are repelled by the
hydrophobic region of the plasma membrane
▪ These substances diffuse very slow hence the need for transporter
proteins

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▪ These molecules can still enter the cell by diffusion through
specific membrane proteins; channel protein and carrier protein.
▪ This diffusion mediated by membrane protein is called facilitated
diffusion.
▪ Facilitated diffusion just like simple diffusion is also dependent on
concentration gradient across the membrane.
▪ Facilitated diffusion makes the membrane permeable to ions and
polar molecules.
Extracellular
fluid

Channel protein

Carrier protein

Plasma
membrane

Cytoplasm
Channel protein
• Have hydrophilic passage that provides an aqueous channel through
which polar molecules can pass.
(i) Non gated channel
- Cell membrane has permanent pores (porins) through which
substances of specific size may pass.
- Some channel proteins have large tunnels through which water
molecules and solutes pass.
- Most protein channels form narrow channels that transport specific
ions.
- Ions diffuse into or out of the cell via ion channel depending on
relative concentration across the membrane.
- Each channel is specific to a particular type of ion such as Ca2+, Na+ ,
K+ and Cl-.
(ii) Gated channel
- These are special protein channel which can be stimulated to open or
close.
- Stimulation can be through hormone or electrical impulse.
- These channels can be stimulated at specific time depending on the
nutritional needs of a cell.
- For example some ion channels can be gated to regulate their
concentrations in the cytoplasm.
Carrier proteins
▪ Proteins that carry substances from one side of a plasma membrane
to the other.
▪ Mainly found in cell membranes, but also in mitochondria,
chloroplasts and nucleolus.
▪ Carrier protein pump binds to ions on one side of the membrane,
then changes shape to carry them through to the other side.
▪ Carrier proteins are useful for active transport and facilitated
diffusion
▪ Carrier proteins have binding sites which allows only specific
substances to bind.

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Carrier protein continuation
▪ The transport ions and other solutes such as glucose and amino acids
across the cell membrane.
▪ Carrier protein binds to the solute on one side of the membrane and then
change shape pulling the molecule through the membrane to the other
side.
▪ Transportation by carrier protein across the membrane occurs along the
concentration gradient.
▪ Example of facilitated diffusion by a carrier protein is a protein known as
glucose transporter 1 (GLUT 1) which transport glucose into red blood
cells.
▪ GLUT 1 facilitates diffusion along a concentration gradient from plasma
(fluid part of blood) into the red blood cell thousands of time faster than
simple diffusion.
▪ Hence, facilitated diffusion helps to speed up the diffusion of molecules
into and out of the cell.
▪ Some carrier proteins don’t require energy
Functions of carrier proteins:
▪ Creating ion gradients which allow nerve cells to function (Na+ & K+
gradient for locomotion, thinking...)
▪ Creating ion gradients which allow mitochondria to function
▪ Creating ion gradients which allow chloroplasts to carry out
photosynthesis
▪ Transporting large molecules such as sugars and fats out of cells

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 Differences between carrier proteins and channel
proteins
Carrier proteins Channels proteins
Can change shape Fixed shape
Uses energy Passive
Transport large molecules Transport small molecules
Exist in ping and pong Specific shape
Transport water-soluble & insoluble Transport only water-soluble

Move across membrane Can’t move while transporting

substances
Can transport against [gradient] Transport down [gradient]

Synthesized on free ribosomes Synthesized on ribosomes bound to

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Osmosis
▪ Movement of water molecules from a dilute solution to a concentrated solution
through a selectively permeable membrane.
▪ Water diffuse across the plasma membrane via channel proteins.
▪ Water flow in living cells is facilitated by aquaporins which are the specialised
channels proteins for water.
▪ The movement of water molecules into and out of the cell is dependent of the
difference in concentration gradient between cytoplasm and the surrounding
solution.

How is osmosis similar to diffusion? How does osmosis differ from diffusion?
Extracellular
aqueous solution

Water gradient
Plasma
membrane

Cytoplasm
Types of solutions
1. Isotonic solution
- Occurs when the concentration of the solution surrounding the cell is
equal to the concentration of the cytoplasm.
- Under such conditions, the rate of movement of water molecules
across the plasma membrane will be equal.
- This is because the concentration of two solutions on either side of
the membrane are at equilibrium.
2. Hypotonic solution
- When solution surrounding a cell has a lower concentration (diluted)
than cytoplasm it is said to be hypotonic.
- Under such condition water molecules will move across the plasma
membrane from the hypotonic solution into the cytoplasm along the
concentration gradient.
- Animal cells will under go lysis (burst) if kept in a hypotonic
solution for too long whereas plant cells undergo turgidity.
3. Hypertonic solution
- When solution surrounding a cell has a higher concentration (less
diluted/concentrated) than cytoplasm it is said to be hypertonic.
- Under such condition water molecules will move across the plasma
membrane from the cytoplasm to the surrounding hypertonic
solution along the concentration gradient.
- Animal cells will undergo crenation if kept in a hypertonic solution
for too long whereas plant cells undergo plasmolysis.
 Active transport
• Movement of molecules or ions from a region of low concentration
to a region of high concentration using energy.
• Transport of molecules or ions across a membrane against a
concentration gradient using energy.
• Achieved by carrier proteins found in cell surface membranes.
Importance of active transport
1. Movement of useful end-products of digestion from blood capillary
into blood (absorption in ileum of gut). Glucose, amino acids and
salts are absorbed in this way.

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2. Nerve impulse transmission in neurons
3. Selective re-absorption in the kidney. The re-absorption of useful
materials (Na+, glucose, amino acids) from the glomerular filtrate
back into the bloodstream in the proximal and distal convulunted
tubules of the nephrone.
4. Absorption of mineral salts from the soil to the plant root
5. Transport of sucrose in phloem cells of plants (translocation).

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▪ Transporting molecules against their concentration gradient require
the use of energy.
▪ The energy supplied is in the form of Adenosine Triphosphate
(ATP).
▪ Enzyme ATPase converts ATP to Adenosine diphosphate
releasing an inorganic phosphate (Pi) and energy in the process.
▪ Active transport is achieved by carrier proteins.
▪ There are three types of carrier proteins or transporters for active
transport; uniporter, symporter and antiporter.
▪ Uniporter carries one specific ion or molecule.
▪ Symporter carries two different ions or molecules in the same direction.
▪ Antiporter carries two different ions or molecules in different directions
▪ The carrier protein binds with specific molecules to transported
across a membrane.
▪ Energy is used to change the shape of the carrier protein as it binds
with the passenger molecule and twists around moving the molecule
from extracellular position to the cytoplasm.
▪ A good example of active transport is the sodium potassium pump.
▪ Pumps active in all animals cells spans the whole width of plasma
membrane.
▪ This transport system pumps ions against steep concentration
gradient.
▪ Sodium ion concentration moves is in high outside the cell and low
inside while potassium ion concentration is low outside the cell and
high inside.
▪ The sodium-potassium pump maintains this electrochemical
gradient.
▪ It moves 2 potassium ions into the cell for every 3 sodium ions
moved out pumped out of the cell.
Sodium-potassium pump processes
1. 3 Sodium ions binds to the carrier protein.
2. Phosphate group is transferred from ATP to carrier protein
3. Phosphorylation causes the carrier protein to change shape releasing
3 sodium ions outside the cell.
4. 2 potassium ions bind to carrier protein.
5. Phosphate is released from the carrier.
6. Phosphate released causes carrier protein to return to its original
shape releasing 2 potassium ions inside the cell.
SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT (COTRANSPORT)
▪ A cotransport is system in which the electrochemical gradient,
created by primary active transport is being used to move other
substances against their concentration.
▪ An energy source such as ATP is required to power the pump that
produces the concentration gradient.
▪ For example the sodium-potassium pump uses energy to generate
electrochemical gradient.
▪ The energy of this gradient drives the active transport of required
substances such as glucose and amino acids.
▪ A carrier protein cotransports a solutes against its concentration
gradient while sodium, potasium or hydrogen ions move down their
gradient.
▪ In glucose cotransport, a carrier protein transport both sodium and
glucose.
▪ As sodium moves into the cell along its gradient, the carrier protein
captures the energy released and use it to transport glucose into the
cell.