» LECTURE NOTES

The Shapes of Nyquist Plots

Connections with Classical Plane Curves
ABBAS EMAMI-NAEINI

T
he Nyquist criterion is a valuable design tool with the intersection of cones with planes. Ellipses, parabolas,
applications to control systems and circuits [1], [2]. and hyperbolas were constructed around 150 B.C.
In this article, we show that many Nyquist plots are by Menaechmus.
classical plane curves. Surprisingly, this connection seems After a long intermission, starting with Dürer in 1525
to have gone unnoticed. We determine the precise shapes and for the following 300 years during the Renaissance,
of several Nyquist curves and relate them to the shapes of there was tremendous interest in plane curves by the
the classical plane curves. Some classical plane curves are eminent mathematicians of the day, including Bernoulli,
related to exactly proper or improper loop transfer func- Euler, Huygens, Newton, Descartes, and Pascal. Kepler
tions, which do not roll off at high frequencies and thus tried a variety of curves before settling on the ellipse as
are not physical. the best fit to the shape of planetary orbits. The inven-
Classical plane curves are used for robustness analysis tion of calculus in the second half of the 17th century had
in [3]. In addition, the area enclosed by the Nyquist curve a strong influence on the study of curves. For example,
is related to the Hilbert-Schmidt-Hankel norm of a linear the nephroid was shown by Huygens to be the solution
system [4]. Therefore, knowledge of the precise shape of the to a classical optical problem, namely, it is the catacaus-
Nyquist curve can provide additional useful information tic of parallel light rays falling on a circle [10]. In 1696,
about the properties of a system. Bernoulli posed a minimum-time optimal control prob-
The organization of this article is as follows. We first lem whose solution, given the next day by Newton,
give a brief history of plane curves and then describe is the brachistochrone, which is a section of a cycloid
various plane curves. We then state some results that curve [11]. In mechanics, plane curves were applied to
relate Nyquist plots to plane curves and present vari- the design of gears and motors [10]. James Watt inves-
ous illustrative examples. We end with some conclud- tigated Watt’s curve, which is produced by a linkage of
ing remarks. rods connecting two wheels of steam locomotives. Lis-
sajous patterns were discovered in 1850 by the French
PLANE CURVES physicist J.A. Lissajous with applications to electrical
Plane algebraic curves have been studied for more than engineering and vibrations. The development of ana-
2000 years with applications to architecture, astronomy, lytic and descriptive geometry in Europe was acceler-
and the arts [5]–[10]. Straight lines and circles were defined ated during the mid-19th century. Descartes led the
in antiquity, by Thales around 600 B.C., with applications investigation of curves in the complex projective plane.
to architecture. The classical mathematical problems in T.J. Freeth, an English mathematician, published a paper
antiquity include the determination of p, the trisection on strophoids in 1879.
of an angle, and the Delian problem, which concerns the
amount that the side length of a cube needs to be increased Cardioid
to double its volume. All three problems are related to The name cardioid, which means heart shaped, was used
plane curves. by de Castillon in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
The cissoid of Diocles and the conchoid of Nicomedes Society in 1741 to refer to the curve shown in Figure 1
were studied around 180 B.C. The Greeks used the cis- [6], [7]. The cardioid is given in polar coordinates by
soid of Diocles to attempt to solve the problem of trisect-
ing an angle. The cissoid is the most ancient example of r 5 2a 1 1 1 cos u 2 . (1)
a curve with a cusp singularity. Conchoids were used in
the construction of vertical columns, which are common To express (1) in Cartesian coordinates we use the
in Greek, Roman, and Persian architecture. The discov- relations
ery of conic sections in 350 B.C. resulted in the study of
x 5 rcos u, y 5 rsin u, (2)
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MCS.2009.933489 r 5 "x2 1 y2, (3)

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 90 2 90
3
120 60 120 60
1.5
2
150 1 30 150 30
1
0.5

180 0 180 0

210 330 210 330

240 300 240 300

270 270

FIGURE 1 Plot of the cardioid with the polar equation r 5 2a 111 cos u 2 . FIGURE 2 Plot of the limaçon with the polar equation r 5 2a cos u 1 b.
The name cardioid, which means heart shaped, was first used by The limaçon, which means “snail” in French and from the Latin
de Castillon in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society in limax, was first investigated by Dürer in 1525.
1741. This curve has a cusp at the origin.

y Note that [5] in polar coordinates the point (r, u), where r < 0,
21
u 5 tan a b, x 2 0. (4) denotes the point (|r|, u + p). The size of the inner loop
x
decreases as 0 2a/b 0 decreases. If 0 2a 0 , 0 b 0 , then the lima-
We rewrite (1) in the form çon has no inner loop. For 1/2 , 0 2a/b 0 , 1, the limaçon’s
cusp is smoothed and becomes a dimple. The limaçon loses
r 2 2a cos u 5 2a. (5) its dimple when 0 2a/b 0 5 1/2.
To express the limaçon in Cartesian coordinates, we
Multiplying both sides of (5) by r and squaring both sides multiply both sides of (8) by r and rearrange terms to obtain
of the resulting equation and using (2)–(4) yields the quar-
tic equation r2 2 2ar cos u 5 br. (9)

1 x2 1 y2 2 2ax 2 2 5 4a2 1 x2 1 y2 2 . (6) By squaring both sides of (9) and using (2)–(4) we obtain

The area enclosed by the cardioid is [7] 1 x2 1 y2 2 2ax 2 2 5 b2 1 x2 1 y2 2 . (10)

A 5 6pa2. (7) The area enclosed by the limaçon is given by [7]

Limaçon 1 2a2 1 b2 2 p, b $ 2a,

The limaçon, whose name means snail in French from the
A5 • b 3
Latin word limax, was first investigated by Dürer in 1525, 1 2a2 1 b2 2 ap 2 cos21 b 1 b"4a2 2 b2, b , 2a.
2a 2
who gave a method for drawing the curve [6], [7]. The
curve was rediscovered by Étienne Pascal, father of Blaise (11)
Pascal, and named by Gilles-Personne Roberval in 1650.
This curve, which is shown in Figure 2, is described by the
polar equation Dad, That Is a Limaçon

I was drawing the curve in Figure 2 on our home computer.

r 5 2a cos u 1 b. (8) My 17-year-old son looked over my shoulder and said: “Dad,
that is a limaçon.” I was very surprised and asked: “How do
For details, see “Dad, That Is a Limaçon.” If |2a| = |b|, then you know?” He said, “Oh, we plotted that two years ago in
the limaçon becomes a cardioid. If 0 2a 0 , 0 b 0 , then the lima- my sophomore trigonometry class.” I knew right then that this
çon has an inner loop. At points on the inner loop corre- article had to be written!
sponding to the values 1208 < u < 2408, r becomes negative.

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 curve with a single cusp that is symmetric about the line
Trisectrix of tangency of the cusp as shown in Figure 3 [6], [7]. The

T pair of symmetric branches approach the same asymp-

he combination of a compass and a straightedge cannot
be used to trisect an arbitrary angle. However, a form of the tote but from opposite directions. The polar equation is
limaçon can be used to trisect an angle. If a = b in (10), then given by
the curve shown in Figure S1 is called a trisectrix and satisfies
/OAB 5 1 1 /3 2 /ABC . Therefore, it can be used to trisect an sin2 u
r 5 2a . (12)
angle. cos u
To express the cissoid of Diocles in Cartesian coordi-
nates, we rewrite (12) as
90 3
120 60 y2
r 5 2a . (13)
2 xr
A
150 30
Multiplying both sides of (13) by r and substituting from
1
θ/3
(2)–(4) yields
θ
180 O 0
B C x3 5 2y2 1 a 1 x 2 . (14)

The cissoid of Diocles has the asymptote x = a.

210 330
Strophoid
240 300 The strophoid, investigated by Barrow in 1670, is the plane
270 curve shown in Figure 4. The word “strophoid” means
a belt with a twist. The strophoid is given by the polar
equation
FIGURE S1 Illustration of the trisectrix plane curve. A trisectrix
is a special limaçon that can be used to trisect an angle. The
trisectrix of Maclaurin can also be used to trisect an angle as r 5 a 1 cos 2u 2 sec u. (15)
shown in Figure S3.
To derive the Cartesian form of (15), rewrite (15) as

r 5 a 1 2cos2 u 2 1 2 sec u. (16)

Squaring both sides of (16) and substituting from (2)–(4)

yields
a2x
y2 5 x2 . (17)
a1x

The strophoid has an asymptote given by x 5 2a.

Cayley’s Sextic
Cayley’s sextic was discovered by Maclaurin in 1718 but
studied in detail by Cayley [7]. This curve, which is shown
in Figure 5, is described by the polar equation
FIGURE 3 Plot of the cissoid of Diocles with the polar equation u
r 5 2a 1 sin2 u/ cos u 2 . This curve, which means ivy shaped, has r 5 4a cos3 . (18)
3
the asymptote x 5 a and a single cusp.
To derive the Cartesian form, we first rewrite (18) as
If a = b, then the limaçon is called a trisectrix, which can be
used to trisect an angle. For details, see “Trisectrix.” cos u 1 3cos u3
r 5 4aa b. (19)
4
Cissoid of Diocles
The cissoid of Diocles is named after the Greek math- Multiplying both sides of (19) by r and rearranging yields
ematician Diocles who used it in 180 B.C. to solve the
Delian problem mentioned above. A cissoid of Diocles, u
r2 2 ar cos u 5 3ar cos . (20)
whose name means ivy shaped, is an unbounded plane 3

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 Cubing both sides of (20) and using (2)–(4) and (18)
leads to

4 1 x2 1 y2 2 ax 2 3 5 27a2 1 x2 1 y2 2 2. (21)

Folium of Kepler
The folium of Kepler studied by Kepler in 1609 is the leaf-
shaped plane curve with the polar equation

r 5 1 cos u 2 1 4a sin2 u 2 b 2 . (22)

To express (22) in Cartesian coordinates, we use (2)–(4)

to obtain
2
x y
r 5 a4a 2 2 bb. (23) FIGURE 4 Plot of the strophoid with the polar equation r 5
r r 2a 1 cos 2u 2 sec u . This curve, which means shaped like a belt with
Multiplying both sides of (23) by r and again using (2)–(4) a twist, was investigated by Barrow in 1670.
leads to

1 x2 1 y2 2 3 x 1 x 1 b 2 1 y2 4 2 4axy2 5 0. (24)
90
1
If b $ 4a, the curve has only one folium or leaf. Otherwise, 120 60
the curve has more than one leaf. Figure 6 shows Kepler’s 0.8
folium for the case a 5 1 and b 5 4. 0.6
150 30
0.4
Nephroid
0.2
The nephroid, meaning kidney shaped, was studied by Huy-
gens in 1678. This shape is described by the polar equation 180 0
1
r2 5 a2 1 5 2 3cos 2u 2 , (25)
2
which has two cusps. In Cartesian variables, the nephroid 210 330
is described by
u 3u 240 300
x 5 aa3cos 2 cos b, (26) 270
2 2
u 3u u
y 5 aa3 sin 2 sin b 5 4a sin3 . (27)
2 2 2 FIGURE 5 Plot of Cayley’s sextic with the polar equation r 5 4a cos3
1 u/3 2 . This curve, which resembles a shifted limaçon, was discov-
Cubing both sides of (25) and using (26)–(27) and (2)–(4) ered by Maclaurin in 1718, but studied in detail by Cayley.
yields

1 x2 1 y2 2 4a2 2 3 2 108a4y2 5 0. (28) Expanding the left-hand side, rearranging, and multiply-
ing both sides of (30) by r leads to
Figure 7 illustrates the nephroid for a 5 1.
r 1 r2 2 a2 2 5 2a 1 r2 2 ax 2 . (31)
Nephroid of Freeth
The nephroid of Freeth, which is shown in Figure 8, is Now squaring both sides of (31) and using (2)–(4) leads to
described by the polar equation
1 x2 1 y2 2 1 x2 1 y2 2 a2 2 2 2 4a2 1 x2 1 y2 2 ax 2 2 5 0. (32)
u
r 5 aa1 1 2 sin b, a . 0. (29)
2
This curve is distinct from the nephroid.
Rearranging the terms in (29) and squaring both sides
yields Shifted Plane Curves
Shifted versions of plane curves can be obtained by replac-
1 r 2 a 2 2 5 2a2 1 1 2 cos u 2 . (30) ing x and y by x 2 x0 and y 2 y0, respectively. For example,

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 the Cartesian equation for the shifted nephroid of Freeth
90 4 (32) is given by
120 60
3
1 1 x 2 x0 2 2 1 1 y 2 y0 2 2 2 1 1 x 2 x0 2 2 1 1 y 2 y0 2 2 2 a2 2 2
150 2 30
2 4a2 1 1 x 2 x0 2 2 1 1 y 2 y0 2 2 2 a 1 x 2 x0 2 2 2 5 0. (33)
1

180 0 NYQUIST CURVES

In this section, we relate the shapes of various Nyquist plots
to the plane curves presented in the previous section.
210 330

Theorem 1
240 300 Consider the second-order loop transfer function
270

1
FIGURE 6 Plot of the folium of Kepler with the polar equation L1s2 5 , (34)
1s 1 a2 1s 1 b2
r 5 1 cos u 2 1 4a sin2 u2b 2 . The folium of Kepler, which means leaf
shaped, was studied by Kepler in 1609.
where a . 0 and b . 0. Then the Nyquist plot of L(s) is the
cardioid

90 2 1 3 1 2 1
x4 1 y4 2 x 1 2x2y2 2 xy 2 y2 5 0. (35)
120 60 ab ab ab1a 1 b22
1.5

150 1 30 Proof
0.5 For v . 0 and s 5 jv, we have

180 0 1
L 1 jv 2 5
1 jv 1 a 2 1 jv 1 b 2
1
210 330 5 e 2j1u11v2 1u21v22
"v 1 a "v 1 b
2 2 2 2

300
1
240 5 1 cos 1 u 1 1 v 2 1 u 2 1 v 2 2
270 "v 2 1 a2"v 2 1 b2
2 j sin 1 u 1 1 v 2 1 u 2 1 v 2 2 2 ,
FIGURE 7 Plot of the nephroid with the polar equation is r 2 5
1 1 /2 2 a2 1 5 2 3cos u 2 . The nephroid, which means kidney shaped,
was studied by Huygens in 1678. This curve has two cusps. where
v v
u 1 1 v 2 5 tan 21 a b, u 2 1 v 2 5 tan 21 a b,
a b
90 3 which leads to the relation
120 60
2 v v
150 30
1
y a b 1a 1 b2v
1 1 1 2 1 2 2
5 2tan u 1 v 1 u 2 v 5 2 52 .
x vv a b 2 v2
12
ab
180 0
(36)

210
Rewriting (36) as the quadratic equation
330

v 2y 2 1 a 1 b 2 xv 2 a by 5 0
240 300
270
yields
FIGURE 8 Plot of the nephroid of Freeth with the polar equation 1 a 1 b 2 x 6 " 1 a 1 b 2 2x2 1 4a by2
r 5 a 1 1 1 2sin 1 u/ 2 22 . This curve was studied in 1879 by the v5 . (37)
English mathematician T.J. Freeth. 2y

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 Furthermore, we have that
0.8
1a 1 b2v 0.6
Re 1 L 1 jv 2 2 5 x 5 2 . (38)
1 2v 2 1 a b 2 2 1 v 2 1 a 1 b 2 2 0.4

Imaginary Axis
0.2
Substituting (37) into (38) yields (35). u
0

Example 1: Cardioid −0.2

Consider the loop transfer function [2] −0.4
−0.6
1
L1s2 5 . (39) −0.8
1s 1 122

−1

.8
.6
.4
.2

0
2
4
6
8
1
0.
0.
0.
0.
−0
−0
−0
−0
It follows from Theorem 1 that the Nyquist plot of L(s) is a Real Axis
cardioid. In polar coordinates we have that
FIGURE 9 The Nyquist plot for the second-order loop transfer
function L 1 s 2 5 1 / 1 s 1 1 2 2. The right-half plane is mapped into
1 1 the inside of the cardioid. The polar equation is r 1 v 2 5 0.5 1 1 1
r1v 2 5 5 1 1 1 cos 2u 1 v 2 2 ,
v2 1 1 2 cos 2u 1 v 2 2 , and the Cartesian equation is 1 x2 1 y2 2 0.5x 2 2 5
0.25 1 x2 1 y2 2 .
where the Nyquist plot is shown in Figure 9 with the cusp
point at the origin. The Cartesian equation is given by
Proof
1 2 1 For s = jv, we have the equation at the bottom of the page
ax 1 y 2 xb 5 1 x2 1 y2 2 .
2 2
(40)
2 4 where

■ v v
u 1 1 v 2 5 tan 21 a b, u 2 1 v 2 5 tan 21 a b.
a b
Theorem 2
Consider the proper second-order system with the loop Furthermore,
transfer function with imaginary zeros given by
y 21a 1 b2v
5 2tan 1 u 1 1 v 2 1 u 2 1 v 2 2 5 . (43)
s 1g
2
x 1 2 a bv 2
L1s2 5 , (41)
1s 1 a2 1s 1 b2
Solving (43) for v yields
where a > 0, b > 0, and g > 0. Then the Nyquist plot of L(s)
is the limaçon 1 a 1 b 2 x 6 " 1 a 1 b 2 2x2 1 4a by2
v5 . (44)
2a by
1 b3 1 b 12b2 2 x4 1 1 g22 b2 2 b3 2b2gb2 22gb2 x3 1
1 2 by2 1 2 b3y2 1 4 b2y2 1 g b2 1 2g b 1 g 2 x2 1 Furthermore, we have the relations
1 2gy2 2 b3y2 2 2 b2y2 2 2g by2 2 g b2y2 2 by2 2 x 1
1 2v 2 1 g 2
b3y4 1 by4 2 b2y2 1 2 b2y4 2 g2y2 1 2g by2 5 0. r 1 v 2 5 "x2 1 y2 5 2 , (45)
(42) "v 2 1 a2"v 2 1 b2

2v 2 1 g
L 1 jv 2 5
1 jv 1 a 2 1 jv 1 b 2

1 2v 2 1 g 2

{
e 2j 1u11v2 1u21v22
"v 2 1 a2 "v 2 1 b2
0 , v , "g,
5 r 1 v 2 1 cos 1 u 1 1 v 2 1 u 2 1 v 2 2 2 jsin 1 u 1 1 v 2 1 u 2 1 v 2 2 2 ,
5
1 2v 2 1 g 2
e 2j 1u11v2 1u21v2 2p2
"v 2 1 a2 "v 2 1 b2
v . "g,
5 r 1 v 2 1 2cos 1 u 1 1 v 2 1 u 2 1 v 2 2 1 jsin 1 u 1 1 v 2 1 u 2 1 v 2 2 2 ,

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 Proof
2 We first consider the case a > 0. For s = jv, we have
1.5
1 1
L 1 jv 2 5
Imaginary Axis

0.5 jv 1 jv 1 a 2
1 p
0 5 e 2j a 2 1u1v2b
−0.5
v"v 1 a
2 2

1
−1 5 1 2sin u 1 v 2 2 jcos u 1 v 2 2 ,
v"v 2 1 a2
−1.5
−2
−1 −0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 where
Real Axis
v x v ax
u 1 v 2 5 tan 21 a b, 5 tan u 1 v 2 5 , v5 . (51)
FIGURE 10 The Nyquist plot for the second-order loop transfer a y a y
function L 1 s 2 5 1 s2 1 3 2 / 1 s 1 1 2 2. This limaçon has the polar
equation r 1 v 2 5 1 1 cos 2u 1 v 2 , and the Cartesian equation
1 x 2 1 y 2 2 2x 2 2 5 x 2 1 y 2. Furthermore, we have

1
r 1 v 2 5 "x2 1 y2 5 2 . (52)
v"v 2 1 a2
1 2v 2 1 g 2 1 2v 2 1 a b 2
Re 1 L 1 jv 2 2 5 x 5 . (46)
1 2v 2 1 a b 2 2 1 1 a 1 b 2 2v 2 Substituting for v from (51) in (52) results in (50).
We now consider the case a < 0. For s = jv, we have
Substituting for v from (44) in (45) results in the polyno-
mial Cartesian equation (42), which is the limaçon. h 1
L 1 jv 2 5
jv jv 1 a 2
1
Example 2: Limaçon 1 3p
2u 1v 2 b
5 e 2j a 2 .
Consider the exactly proper [13] loop transfer function v"v 1 a2 2

1
5 1 2sin u 1 v 2 1 jcos u 1 v 2 2 ,
s2 1 3 v"v 2 1 a2
L1s2 5 . (47)
1s 1 122
where
It follows from Theorem 2 that the Nyquist plot of L(s) is a
limaçon. In polar coordinates we obtain v x v ax
u 1 v 2 5 tan 21 a b, 5 2tan u 1 v 2 5 2 , v5 2 ,
a y a y
2v 2 1 3
r1v 2 5 5 1 1 cos 2u 1 v 2 . (53)
v2 1 1
which leads to
The Nyquist plot is shown in Figure 10 with the cusp point
at the origin. The Cartesian equation is 1
r 1 v 2 5 "x2 1 y2 5 . (54)
v"v 2 1 a2
1 x 1 y 2 2x 2 5 x 1 y .
2 2 2 2 2
(48)
Substituting for v from (53) into (54) yields (50). h
■
Example 3: Cissoid of Diocles
Theorem 3 Consider the loop transfer function
Consider the second-order Type I loop transfer function
1
1 L1s2 5 . (55)
L1s2 5 , (49) s1s 1 12
s1s 1 a2
where a ? 0. Then the Nyquist plot of L(s) is the cissoid It follows from Theorem 3 that the Nyquist plot of L(s) is a
of Diocles cissoid of Diocles. In polar coordinates we have

1 1 1 cos2 u 1 v 2
x3 5 2y2 a 1 xb. (50) r1v 2 5 5 5 .
a2 v 11 1 v 2
2 1/2
tan u 1 v 2 1 1 1 tan u 1 v 2 2
2 1/2
sin u 1 v 2

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 The Nyquist plot is shown in Figure 11, and the corresponding 1
5 1 2sin 1 u 1 1 v 2 1 u 2 1 v 2 2
Cartesian equation is v"v 1a2"v 21b2
2

2 jcos 1 u 1 1 v 2 1 u 2 1 v 2 2 2 ,
x3 5 y2 1 1 2 x 2 . (56)
where
■
v v
u 1 1 v 2 5 tan 21 a b, u 2 1 v 2 5 tan 21 a b. (60)
a b
Example 4: Cissoid of Diocles
for an Improper System Moreover, we have
Consider the improper loop transfer function v v
1
s 2 x a b 1a 1 b2v
L1s2 5 . (57) 5 tan 1 u 1 1 v 2 1 u 2 1 v 2 2 5 5 . (61)
s11 y vv a b 2 v2
12
ab
For s 5 jv and v . 0, we have
We rearrange (61) to obtain
2v 2
2v 2
L 1 jv 2 5 5 e2ju1v2
jv 1 1 1 1 1 v 2 2 1/2 xv 2 1 1 a 1 b 2 yv 2 a bx 5 0, (62)
5 r 1 v 2 1 cos u 1 v 2 2 jsin u 1 v 2 2 .

In polar coordinates, we obtain 20

15
2v 2
r1v 2 5 5 2sin u 1 v 2 tan u 1 v 2 . 10
1 1 1 v 2 2 1/2
Imaginary Axis

5
Furthermore, we have 0

y −5
5 2tan u 1 v 2 . −10
x
−15
The Nyquist plot is the cissoid of Diocles shown in Fig-
−20
ure 12. The Cartesian equation is
−1
.9
.8
.7
.6
.5
.4
.3
.2
.1

0
−0
−0
−0
−0
−0
−0
−0
−0
−0
Real Axis
x3 5 2y2 1 1 1 x 2 . (58)

FIGURE 11 The Nyquist plot for the second-order Type I loop transfer
■ function L 1 s 2 5 1 / 3 s 1 s 1 1 2 4 . This curve, which is a cissoid of
Theorem 4 Diocles has an asymptote at 21. The polar equation is r 1 v 2 5
Consider the third-order Type I loop transfer function cos2 u 1 v 2/sin u 1 v 2 , and Cartesian equation is x 3 5 y 2 1 12x 2 .

1
L1s2 5 ,
s1s 1 a2 1s 1 b2
20
where a . 0, b . 0. Then the Nyquist plot of L(s) is the
15
shifted strophoid
10
Imaginary Axis

3a by 1 2a bx 1 5a bx y 1 a x y 1 a y 1 b y 1
2 4 2 4 2 2 2 3 2 2 3 4 3 4
5
a4 b2x5 1 2a b2x4 1 3a b2y4 1 5a b2x2y2 1 a2 b4xy4 1 0
2a b x y 1 a b xy 1 x 1 2a b xy 1 4a b x y 1
2 4 3 2 4 2 4 3 3 3 4 3 3 3 2
−5
2a4 b2x3y2 1 a2 b4x5 1 b3y2x2 1 2a3 b3x5 5 0. −10
(59) −15
−20
Proof
−1

.9
.8
.7
.6
.5
.4
.3
.2
.1

For s 5 jv and v . 0, we have

−0
−0
−0
−0
−0
−0
−0
−0
−0

Real Axis
1
L 1 jv 2 5 FIGURE 12 The Nyquist plot for the first-order improper loop trans-
jv 1 jv 1 a 2 1 jv 1 b 2
fer function L 1 s 2 5 s 2/1 s 1 1 2 . This curve, which is a cissoid of
1 p
5 e2j 1 2 1u11v2 1u21v22 Diocles, has an asymptote at 21. The polar equation is r 1 v 2 5
v"v 2 1 a2"v 2 1 b2 2 1 sin v 2 tan v , and the Cartesian equation is x 3 5 2y 2 1 1 1 x 2 .

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 whose solution is For s = jv and v > 0, we have

21 a 1 b 2 y 6 " 1 a 1 b 2 2y2 1 4a bx2

v5 . (63) 10 1 jv 1 1 2 10 1 1 1 v 2 2 1/2 2jau11v2 2u21v2 2 p b
2x L 1 jv 2 5 5 e 2
jv 1 jv 2 10 2 v 1 1 1 v2 2
We also see that
5 r 1 v 2 1 sin 1 u 1 1 v 2 2 u 2 1 v 2 2 2 jcos 1 u 1 1 v 2 2 u 2 1 v 2 2 2 ,
1
r 1 v 2 5 "x2 1 y2 5 2 . (64)
v"v 1 a2"v 2 1 b2
2 where

Substituting for v from (63) into (64) yields (59). h u 1 1 v 2 5 atan2 1 v, 1 2 , u 2 1 v 2 5 atan2 1 v,210 2 .

Example 5: Shifted Strophoid Note that the Matlab function atan2 is needed to correctly
Consider the loop transfer function [2] compute the arctangent. For details see “Which Quadrant
Are We In?” In polar coordinates, we have
1
L1s2 5 . (65)
s1s 1 122
10 1 1 1 v 2 2 1/2 10 1 1 1 tan2 u 1 1 v 2 2 1/2
r1v 2 5 5 .
It follows from Theorem 4 that the Nyquist plot of L(s) is the v 1 1 1 v2 2 tan u 1 1 v 2 1 100 1 tan2 u 1 1 v 2 2 1/2
shifted strophoid. The polar equation is
In addition, we see that
1 1 1 cos 2u 1 v 2
r1v 2 5 5 .
v 1 1 1 v2 2 2tan u 1 v 2
Re 1 L 1 jv 2 2 5 x 5 r 1 v 2 sin 1 u 1 1 v 2 2 u 2 1 v 2 2 ,
The Nyquist plot is shown in Figure 13, and the correspond- Im 1 L 1 jv 2 2 5 y 5 2r 1 v 2 cos 1 u 1 1 v 2 2 u 2 1 v 2 2 ,
ing Cartesian equation is
which implies that
4y4x 1 8x3y2 1 12x2y2 1 8y4 1 4x5 1 4x4 1 x3 5 0. (66)
x
5 2tan 1 u 1 1 v 2 2 u 2 1 v 2 2 .
y
■
The Nyquist plot is the “shifted strophoid” shown in Fig-
Example 6: “Shifted Strophoid”
ure 14. The Cartesian equation is
Consider the loop transfer function [2]
12100x4 136300x6y2 2 53240x4y2 136300x4y4 112100x2y6
s11 2 43681x2y4 112100x2y2 214641y6 112100x8 224200x6 50.
L1s2 5 . (67)
s (68)
sa 2 1b
10 ■

2 2
1.5 1.5
1 1
0.5 0.5
0 0
Im(L)

Im(L)

−0.5 −0.5
−1 −1
−1.5 −1.5
−2 −2
−2.5
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2
Re(L) Re(L)

FIGURE 13 The Nyquist plot for the third-order Type I loop transfer FIGURE 14 The Nyquist plot for the second-order loop transfer
function L 1s 2 5 1/ 3 s 1s 1 1 2 2 4 . This curve which is a shifted strophoid function L 1 s 2 5 1 s 1 1 2 / 3 s 1 0.1s 2 1 2 4 . This curve, which is a
has an asymptote at 22 . The polar equation is r 1v 2 5 111 cos 2u 1 v 22/ “shifted strophoid,” has an asymptote at 21.1. The polar equation is
1 2 tan u 1 v 2 2 , and the Cartesian equation is 4y 4x 1 8x 3y 2 1 12x 2y 2 1 r 1 v 2 5 10 1 1 1 tan2 u 1 1 v 2 2 0.5 / 3 tan u 1 1 v 2 1 100 1 tan2 u 1 1 v 2 2 0.5 4 ,
8y 4 1 4x 5 1 4x 4 1 x 3 5 0. and the Cartesian equation is (68).

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 Which Quadrant Are We In?
he classic trigonometric function arctangent tan 2 1, referred
T to as atan in Matlab, may give the wrong answer for the
phase of the complex quantity z 5 x 1 jy. In particular, the
atan2 (y,x)
(y,
y x)
x

Matlab computation phi 5 atan 1 y /x 2 may give the wrong an- π

y x
swer if the signs of the real and imaginary parts x and y are
used to form the sign for the ratio y /x of the imaginary part
and the real part. In this way, the information on the proper
quadrant may be lost. Therefore, we must keep the signs of the
real x and the imaginary y parts separate so that the correct
quadrant can be identified to yield the right answer as seen
in Figure S2. One of the jewels in Matlab is the four-quadrant –π
π
arctangent function phi = atan2 Ay, x B , 2p # phi # p . The
function atan2 in Matlab identifies the correct quadrant by FIGURE S2 Illustration of the four-quadrant arctangent. The
keeping track of the signs of x and y to yield the correct an- function atan2 in Matlab is needed to obtain the correct phase
swer for the inverse tangent. angle in arctangent computations.

Although the shape of the Nyquist curve resembles a For s 5 jv and v . 0, we have
shifted strophoid, this example does not satisfy the defini-
tion of a shifted strophoid. 1 1 2j3u 1v 2
L 1 jv 2 5 5 2
1 jv 1 1 2 3
1 v 1 1 2 3/2
Example 7: Strophoid 5 r 1 v 2 1 cos 3u 1 v 2 2 2 jsin 3u 1 v 2 2 .
Consider the improper loop transfer function
The polar equation is
1 s2 1 1 2 1 s 1 1 2
L1s2 5 . (69) 1 1
1 2 s2 r1v 2 5 5cos3 u 1 v 2 5 1 3cos u 1 v 2 1cos 3u 1 v 2 2 .
1 v 2 1 1 2 3/2 4
For s 5 jv and v . 0, we have
Moreover, we have
1 1 2 v 2 2 1 jv 1 1 2 1 1 2 v 2 2 1 1 1 v 2 2 1/2 ju 1v 2
L 1 jv 2 5 5 e y
1 1 v2 1 1 v2 5 2tan 3u 1 v 2 .
x
5 r 1 v 2 1 cos u 1 v 2 2 jsin u 1 v 2 2 ,
The Nyquist plot is the Cayley’s sextic with a 5 1/4 shown
where in Figure 16. The Cartesian equation is

1 1 2 v 2 2 1 1 1 v 2 2 1/2
r1v 2 5 5 cos 2u 1 v 2 sec u 1 v 2 .
1 1 v2
3
Moreover, we have
2
y
5 tan u 1 v 2 . 1
x
0
Im(L)

The Nyquist plot is the strophoid shown in Figure 15. −1

The Cartesian equation is
−2
1 1 2 x 2 x2 −3
y2 5 . (70)
11x −4

■ −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
Re(L)

Example 8: Cayley’s Sextic

FIGURE 15 The Nyquist plot for the improper second-order loop
Consider the loop transfer function
transfer function L 1 s 2 5 1 s 2 1 1 2 1 s 1 1 2 / 1 1 2 s 2 2 . This curve,
which is a strophoid has an asymptote at 21. The polar equation
1 is r 1v 2 5 1 cos 2u 1v 22 sec u 1v 2 , and the Cartesian equation is
L1s2 5 . (71)
1s 1 123 y 2 5 x 2 1 12x 2/1 11x 2 .

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 0.8 0.4
0.6 0.3
0.4 0.2
Imaginary Axis

Imaginary Axis
0.2 0.1
0 0
−0.2 −0.1
−0.4 −0.2
−0.6 −0.3
−0.8 −0.4
−1
.8
.6
.4
.2
0
2
4
6
8
1

−1
.9
.8
.7
.6
.5
.4
.3
.2
.1
0
0.
0.
0.
0.
−0
−0
−0
−0

−0
−0
−0
−0
−0
−0
−0
−0
−0
Real Axis Real Axis

FIGURE 16 The Nyquist plot for the third-order loop transfer FIGURE 17 The Nyquist plot for the third-order loop transfer
function L 1 s 2 5 1 / 1 s 1 1 2 3 . This curve, which is a Cayley’s function L 1 s 2 5 1 / 3 1 s 2 1 2 1 s 1 1 2 2 4 . This curve, which is the
sextic, has the polar equation r 1 v 2 5 0.25 1 3 cos u 1 v 2 1 folium of Kepler has the polar equation r 1v 2 5 1cos u 1 1v 22
r 1 v 2 5 0.25 1 3 cos u 1 v 2 1 cos 3u 1 v 2 2 , and the Cartesian equa- 1 sin2 u 1 1 v 2 212 , and the Cartesian equation 1x 2 1 y 2 2 3x 1 x 2 1 2 1
tion 4 1 x 2 1 y 2 2 0.25x 2 32 1 27/16 2 1 x 2 1 y 2 2 2 5 0. y 2 4 1 xy 2 5 0.

1 3 27 The Nyquist plot is the folium of Kepler shown in Figure 17.

4ax2 1 y2 2 xb 2 1 x2 1 y2 2 2 5 0. (72)
4 16 The Cartesian equation is
■
1 x2 1 y2 2 3 x 1 x 2 1 2 1 y2 4 1 xy2 5 0. (74)
Example 9: Folium of Kepler
■
Consider the loop transfer function
Example 10: Nephroid
1
L1s2 5 . (73) Consider the exactly proper [13] loop transfer function
1s 2 12 1s 1 122
For s 5 jv and v . 0, we have 2 1 s 1 1 2 1 s2 2 4s 1 1 2 3 1 s 1 1 2 1s 1 123
L1s2 5 5 2 . (75)
1s 2 12 3 1s 2 12 1s 2 123
1
L 1 jv 2 5
1 jv 2 1 2 1 jv 1 1 2 2
For s 5 jv and v . 0,
1
5 e 2j1u11v2 12u21v22
1 1 1 v 2 2 3/2 3 1 jv 1 1 2 1 jv 1 1 2 3
L 1 jv 2 5 2
5 r 1 v 2 1 cos 1 u 1 1 v 2 1 2u 2 1 v 2 2 2 jsin 1 u 1 1 v 2 1 2u 2 1 v 2 2 2 , 1 jv 2 1 2 1 jv 2 1 2 3
53ej1u11v 22p1u21v 22 2 ej13u11v 22p13u21v 22
where 53 1 2cos 2u 1 1 v 2 2jsin 2u 1 1 v 2 2
2 1 2cos 6u 1 1 v 2 2jsin 6u 1 1 v 2 2 ,
u 1 1 v 2 5 atan2 1 v, 21 2 , u 2 1 v 2 5 atan2 1 v, 1 2 ,
where
and
2v 5 tan u 1 1 v 2 , v 5 tan u 2 1 v 2 . u 1 1 v 2 5 tan 21 1 v 2 , v 5 tan u 1 1 v 2 ,
u 2 1 v 2 5 tan 21 1 v 2 , v 5 tan u 2 1 v 2 .
Therefore, we have
Furthermore, we see that
u 1 1 v 2 5 2u 2 1 v 2 .
In polar coordinates we obtain Re 1 L 1 jv 2 2 5 x 5 23cos 2u 1 1 v 2 1 cos 6u 1 1 v 2 ,
1 1 Im 1 L 1 jv 2 2 5 y 5 23sin 2u 1 1 v 2 1 sin 6u 1 1 v 2 ,
r1v 2 5 5
1 1 1 v 2 2 3/2 1 1 1 tan2 u 1 1 v 2 2 3/2
5 cos u 1 1 v 2 1 sin2 u 1 1 v 2 2 1 2 ,
which leads to the relation
which implies that
y x 23cos 2u 1 1 v 2 1 cos 6u 1 1 v 2
5 2tan u 2 1 v 2 5 2v. 5 .
x y 23sin 2u 1 1 v 2 1 sin 6u 1 1 v 2

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 4 0.8
3 0.6
2 0.4

Imaginary Axis
Imaginary Axis

1 0.2
0 0

−1 −0.2

−2 −0.4

−3 −0.6
−0.8
−4 −1 −0.8 −0.6 −0.4 −0.2 0 0.2 0.4
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
Real Axis Real Axis

FIGURE 18 The Nyquist plot for the third-order loop transfer FIGURE 19 The Nyquist plot of the third-order loop transfer func-
function L 1 s 2 5 2 1s 1 1 2 1 s 2 2 4s 1 1 2/1 s 2 1 2 3. This curve, which tion with a pair of zeros on the jv axis L 1 s 2 5 1 s 1 1 2 1 s 2 1 3 2 /
is a nephroid has the Cartesian equation 1x 2 1y 2 2 42 3 2108y 2 5 0. 34 1 s 2 1 2 3 4 . This curve, which is a nephroid of Freeth has the
Cartesian equation given by (78).

The Nyquist plot is the nephroid shown in Figure 18. The The Nyquist plot is the nephroid of Freeth with a 5 1/4
Cartesian equation is shown in Figure 19. The Cartesian equation is

1 x2 1 y2 2 4 2 3 2 108y2 5 0. (76) 1 2 1 2 1 2
1 x2 1 y2 2 ax2 1 y2 2 b 2 ax 1 y2 2 xb 5 0. (78)
16 4 4
■
■
Example 11: Nephroid of Freeth
Consider the exactly proper loop transfer function Example 12: Shifted Nephroid of Freeth
Consider the strictly proper loop transfer function
1 s 1 1 2 1 s2 1 3 2
L1s2 5 . (77) s2 1 1
41s 2 123 L1s2 5 . (79)
1s 2 123
For s 5 jv we have For s 5 jv, we have

1 jv 1 1 2 1 2v 2 1 3 2 2v 2 1 1
L 1 jv 2 5 L 1 jv 2 5
4 1 jv 2 1 2 3 1 jv 2 1 2 3
r 1 v 2 1 2cos 4u 1 v 2 2 jsin 4u 1 v 2 2 , 0 , v , "3, 2r 1 v 2 1 cos 3u 1 v 2 1 jsin 3u 1 v 2 2 , 0 , v , 1,
5e 5e
2r 1 v 2 1 cos 4u 1 v 2 1 jsin 4u 1 v 2 2 , v . "3, 2r 1 v 2 1 cos 3u 1 v 2 1 jsin 3u 1 v 2 2 , v . 1.

where In polar coordinates we have

2v 2 1 1
1 1 1 v 2 2 1/2 1 2v 2 1 3 2 1 2v 2 1 3 2 r1v 2 5 5 cos u 1 v 2 cos 2u 1 v 2 .
r1v 2 5 5 , 1 1 1 v 2 2 3/2
4 1 1 1 v 2 2 3/2 4 1 1 1 v2 2
u 1 v 2 5 tan 21 1 v 2 , v 5 tan u 1 v 2 . Moreover, we observe that

Furthermore, we obtain the relations 2r 1 v 2 cos 3u 1 v 2 , 0 , v , 1,

Re 1 L 1 jv 2 2 5 x 5 e
2r 1 v 2 cos 3u 1 v 2 , v . 1,
2r 1 v 2 cos 4u 1 v 2 , 0 , v , "3, 2r 1 v 2 sin 3u 1 v 2 , 0 , v , 1,
Re 1 L 1 jv 2 2 5 x 5 e Im 1 L 1 jv 2 2 5 y 5 e
2r 1 v 2 cos 4u 1 v 2 , v . "3, 2r 1 v 2 sin 3u 1 v 2 , v . 1,
2r 1 v 2 sin 4u 1 v 2 , 0 , v , "3,
Im 1 L 1 jv 2 2 5 y 5 e
2r 1 v 2 sin 4u 1 v 2 , v . "3, which implies that
y
which lead to 5 tan 3u 1 v 2 .
x
y The Nyquist plot is the shifted nephroid of Freeth shown in
5 tan 4u 1 v 2 .
x Figure 20. The Cartesian equation is

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 1 2 1 2 1 2
0.8 a ax 1 b 1 y2 b a ax 1 b 1 y2 2 b
4 4 16
0.6
1 1 2 1 1 2
0.4 2 a ax 1 b 1 y2 2 ax 1 b b 5 0. (80)
4 4 4 4
Imaginary Axis

0.2
■
0
−0.2
CONCLUSIONS
−0.4
We have shown that the shapes of many Nyquist plots are
−0.6 identical to familiar and well-studied plane curves. This
−0.8 observation can provide additional insight into the shapes
−1 −0.8 −0.6 −0.4 −0.2 0 0.2 0.4
Real Axis of Nyquist plots. Knowing the shape of the Nyquist plot can
also provide additional useful information about the system
FIGURE 20 The Nyquist plot for the third-order loop transfer func- beyond stability. Table 1 shows a summary of the examples
tion with a pair of zeros on the jv axis L 1 s 2 5 1 s 2 1 1 2 / 1 s 2 1 2 3. and the corresponding shapes of the Nyquist plots. Some
This curve, which is a shifted nephroid of Freeth has the Cartesian plane curves, such as the folium of Descartes [7], are not
equation given by (80).
symmetric with respect to the horizontal axis, and thus are
not related to Nyquist curves. Plane curves also appear in
root locus problems. For details, see “Root Locus and the
Plane Curves.” Many other examples of the Nyquist plots
Root Locus and the Plane Curves that are related to plane curves can be constructed using the
techniques discussed here.
P lane curves also appear in the root locus problems [12].
For example, the root locus associated with [2, Ex. 5.13,
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
p. 255] with the loop transfer function
The author is grateful to Prof. Gene F. Franklin for his com-
s11 ments on this article, Robert L. Kosut for suggesting a brief
L1s2 5
s21s 1 92 historical overview on plane curves, and Jon L. Ebert for
his help. The author is also grateful for feedback from the
is the trisectrix of Maclaurin [7] shown in Figure S3. The curve
anonymous reviewers.
was first studied by the Scottish mathematician C. Maclaurin
in 1742. The root locus associated with [2, Ex. 6.11, p. 255]
AUTHOR INFORMATION
resembles a limaçon.
Abbas Emami-Naeini received the B.E.E. with high-
est honors from Georgia Institute of Technology and
the M.S.E.E. and Ph.D. in electrical engineering from
4
Stanford University. He is a director of the Systems
3 and Control Division of SC Solutions, Inc., and a con-
2 sulting professor of electrical engineering at Stanford
University. His research has encompassed computer-
Imaginary Axis

1
aided control system design, multivariable robust ser-
0 θ/3 θ vomechanism theory, and robust fault detection meth-
ods. He is interested in robust control theory with
−1
applications to semiconductor wafer manufacturing
−2 systems. He is a coauthor of the book Feedback Control
−3 of Dynamic Systems, fifth edition, Prentice-Hall, 2006,
and the author/coauthor of over 70 papers and three
−4
U.S. patents.
−10 −9 −8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1
Real Axis

REFERENCES
FIGURE S3 Illustration of the root locus shaped as a trisectrix. [1] H. Nyquist, “Regeneration theory,” Bell Syst. Tech. J., vol. 11, pp. 126–147,
This root locus is the plane curve known as the trisectrix of Jan. 1932.
Maclaurin.
[2] G. F. Franklin, J. D. Powell, and A. Emami-Naeini, Feedback Control of
Dynamic Systems, 5th ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 2006.

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 TABLE 1 Summary of the example loop transfer functions and the associated plane curves. These examples illustrate that
the shapes of the Nyquist plots are identical to the well-studied plane curves. The Nyquist curves can be described in either
polar coordinates or Cartesian coordinates.

Loop Transfer Function Plane Curve Nyquist Plot

1 0.8

L1s2 5
0.6
0.4

Cardioid

Imaginary Axis
0.2

1s 1 12
0

2 −0.2
−0.4
−0.6
−0.8

−1

.8
.6
.4
.2

0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8

1
−0
−0
−0
−0
Real Axis

s 13
2 2
1.5

L1s2 5
1

Imaginary Axis
Limaçon
0.5
0

1s 1 122
−0.5
−1
−1.5
−2
−1 −0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Real Axis

20

1 15

L1s2 5
10

Imaginary Axis
5

Cissoid of Diocles 0

s1s 1 12
−5
−10
−15
−20

−1
.9
.8
.7
.6
.5
.4
.3
.2
.1

0
−0
−0
−0
−0
−0
−0
−0
−0
−0
Real Axis

20

s 2 15

L1s2 5
10

Imaginary Axis
5

Cissoid of Diocles for an improper system 0

s11
−5
−10
−15
−20

−1

.9
.8
.7
.6
.5
.4
.3
.2
.1

0
−0
−0
−0
−0
−0
−0
−0
−0
−0
Real Axis

1 1.5

L1s2 5
1
0.5

Shifted strophoid 0

Im(L)
s1s 1 122
−0.5
−1
−1.5
−2
−2.5
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2
Re(L)

s11
2
1.5

L1s2 5
1
0.5

“Shifted strophoid” 0

Im(L)
s 1 0.1s 2 1 2
−0.5
−1
−1.5
−2

−3 −2 −1 0 1 2
Re(L)

1s2 1 12 1s 1 12 3

L1s2 5
2

Strophoid 1
0

Im(L)
1 2 s2
−1
−2
−3
−4
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
Re(L)

0.8

1 0.6

L1s2 5
0.4

Imaginary Axis
0.2

Cayley’s sextic 0

1s 1 12
−0.2

3 −0.4
−0.6
−0.8

−1
.8
.6
.4
.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8

1
−0
−0
−0
−0
Real Axis

0.4
0.3

1 0.2

L1s2 5

Imaginary Axis
0.1

Folium of Kepler 0

1s 2 12 1s 1 122
−0.1
−0.2
−0.3
−0.4

−1
.9
.8
.7
.6
.5
.4
.3
.2
.1
0
−0
−0
−0
−0
−0
−0
−0
−0
−0
Real Axis

2 1 s 1 1 2 1 s 2 2 4s 1 1 2 4

L1s2 5
3
2

Nephroid

Imaginary Axis
1

1s 2 123
0
−1
−2
−3
−4
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
Real Axis

1s 1 12 1s 1 32 2 0.8

L1s2 5
0.6
0.4

Nephroid of Freeth
Imaginary Axis

0.2

41s 2 123
0
−0.2
−0.4
−0.6
−0.8
−1 −0.8 −0.6 −0.4 −0.2 0 0.2 0.4
Real Axis

s 11
2 0.8

L1s2 5
0.6
0.4

Shifted nephroid of Freeth

Imaginary Axis

0.2

1s 2 123
0
−0.2
−0.4
−0.6
−0.8
−1 −0.8 −0.6 −0.4 −0.2 0 0.2 0.4
Real Axis

[3] W. M. Haddad, V.-S. Chellaboina, and D. S. Bernstein, “Real-µ bounds [8] J. W. Rutter, Geometry of Curves. London, U.K.: Chapman & Hall,
based on fixed shapes in the Nyquist plane: Parabolas, hyperbolas, cis- 2000.
soids, nephroids, and octomorphs,” Syst. Control Lett., vol. 27, pp. 55–66,
[9] E. V. Shikin, Handbook and Atlas of Curves. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press,
1996.
1995.
[4] B. Hanzon, “The area enclosed by the (oriented) Nyquist diagram and [10] E. Brieskorn and H. Knörrer, Plane Algebraic Curves. Boston, MA:
the Hilbert-Schmidt-Hankel norm of a linear system,” IEEE Trans. Automat. Birkhauser, 1986.
Contr., vol. 37, no. 6, pp. 835–839, June 1992.
[11] A. E. Bryson and Y.-C. Ho, Applied Optimal Control. Hemisphere, 1975.
[5] C. H. Edwards and D. E. Penney, Calculus and Analytic Geometry. Engle- Washington, D.C.
wood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1982.
[12] A. de Paor, “The root locus method: Famous curves, control designs
[6] E. H. Lockwood, A Book of Curves. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge Univ. and non-control applications,” Int. J. Electr. Eng. Educ., vol. 37, no. 4, pp.
Press, 1961. 344–356, Oct. 2000.
[7] J. D. Lawrence, A Catalog of Special Plane Curves. New York: Dover, [13] D. S. Bernstein, Matrix Mathematics: Theory, Facts, and Formulas, 2nd ed.
1972. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press, 2009.

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