I.

BUILDING • Wind Loads

• Allow unimpeded human activity irrespective of the • Seismic Loads

conditions of the natural environment
• Expansion/Contraction
• BUILDING = Enclosure + Services
• Envelope
• ENCLOSURE to separate environment internal to the enclosure from
that external to it while acting as barrier and/or selective
Means of containment and articulation of filter to all external or internal environmental factors acting
upon such envelope
habitable space, selected and assembled to
• Solar Radiation
resist and/or control effects of:
• Moisture: Rain/Snow
• Factors of environment external to such means of
containment and/or factors of the environment thus • Water Vapor
contained
• Heat Flow
• Forces acting upon and forces developing within such
means of containment • Sound

While maintaining its internal shape and integrity • Light/Vision

under all possible combinations of such factors • Air Movement

and forces. • Elements of Interior

to articulate, define, separate, or connect space or spaces
within the enclosure while resisting any environmental
factors and/or forces acting upon them, and transmitting
• ENCLOSURE all such forces to means of support

• Solar Radiation • Ceilings

• Rain/Snow • Floors

• Wind • Partitions

• Heat • Means of Circulation/Conveyance

• Moisture • SERVICES

• Gravity Loads Means of maintaining the environment internal to

• Lateral Loads the means of containment at:

• Expansion/Contraction • Comfort and convenience levels acceptable to the

occupants
• ENCLOSURE
• Safety levels required by the occupants
• ENCLOSURE = Means of Support +
• SERVICES
Envelope +
• Air Conditioning
Elements of
Interior • Power and Light

• Water Supply

• Means of Support • Waste Disposal

to maintain any enclosure in the shape intended while
resisting all external and internal forces acting upon such • Safety/Security
enclosure, and transmitting all such forces to the ground
• Communications
• Superimposed
• Services
• Internal
• Forces
Gravity Loads • Curved surface monolithic

• Load transferred continuously deck, structural membrane or

• Point transfer of loads – simply supported shell

• Point transfer of loads outward thrust at supports • Curvature (barrel arches,

• Continuous transfer of loads – outward thrust at domes, cones, hyperbolic

foundation
paraboloids
• Forces
• Means of Support
• Wind/Seismic Loads
Point Supported
Wind Pressure (Positive and Negative)
• Flat monolithic deck (two way slab – flat plate)
Deflection/Displacement
• Flexible membranes (tensile: nonprestressed)
• Forces
• Means of Support
• Expansion/Contraction
Air Pressure
• Environmental Factors
• Air Supported: interior is pressurized to counteract gravity
• Heat load

• Environmental Factors • Air Inflated: pressurized air entrapped in membrane

• Moisture • ENVELOPE

• Environmental Factors Envelope of an enclosure – a continuous air and watertight barrier to

separate the contained environment from that external to it
• Sound
Barrier/Envelope – roof assembly /wall assemblies
• Environmental Factors
• Roof and Walls Separate
• Fire
• Roof and Walls Combined
• Means of Support
Envelope may be:
Columns and Girders
• Flexible fabric membrane functioning as a complete
• Solid Web: beams (structural steel, solid or laminated structure
wood, reinforced concrete)
• Flexible roof assembly and rigid wall assemblies
• Open Web (trusses of various materials – structural steel,
wood) • Rigid roof and wall assemblies or components selected to
resist/control environmental factors
• Means of Support
• ENVELOPE
Columns and
• Roof and Walls Separate
Girders/Bearing Walls
• Roof and Walls Combined
• Means of Support
• ENVELOPE
Curved Girder
Roofs
• Rigid Frame (pitched or curved such as trusses with
pitched or curved top chords supported on columns) • Roofing Deck: decking and framing combined

• Curved in different configurations, with the girder and Means of Support:

columns being combined in one element - arches)
 columns
• Means of Support
 bearing walls
Curved Deck
 • ENVELOPE • Roof Deck

Roofs • Optional Interior Facing

• Roofing Decking + Framing = Deck • Floor Deck

Means of Support: • Wall Panels

• girders and columns • Grid System: mullions, rails, infill panels

• bearing walls • Foundation/Ground

• ENVELOPE • ENVELOPE

Roofs Curtain – nonbearing walls secured to and supported by the

structural frame of an enclosure
• Roofing Decking + Framing = Deck
Grid Type: vertical and horizontal framing members
Means of Support: supported by floor or roof assemblies

• girders and columns

• bearing walls • ENVELOPE

• ENVELOPE Curtain – nonbearing walls secured to and supported by the

structural frame of an enclosure
Walls
Wall Panel Type: prefabricated panels spanning between
BEARING WALLS – walls carrying superimposed gravity loads in floor and roof or between
addition to their own weight

• Roof Deck
• ENVELOPE
• Floor Deck
Faced Curtain
• Interior Facing (maybe optional)
• Roof Deck
• Exterior Facing (maybe optional)
• Optional Interior Facing
• Foundation/Ground
• Floor Deck
• ENVELOPE
• Exterior Facing
Walls
• Back-up Wall
NONBEARING WALLS – walls not carrying superimposed gravity loads
in addition to their own weight • Foundation/Ground

• Roof Deck • ELEMENTS OF INTERIOR SPACE

• Floor Deck FLOORS – flat, horizontal surfaces

• Interior Facing (maybe optional) Floor assemblies commonly include:

• Exterior Facing (maybe optional) • Flooring: resist the effects of traffic over the surface of the
floor deck
• Foundation/Ground
• Deck: framing + decking separate or framing/decking
• ENVELOPE combined

Curtain – nonbearing walls secured to and supported by the • Flooring

structural frame of an enclosure
• Deck on Grade
Grid Type: vertical and horizontal framing members
supported by floor or roof assemblies • ELEMENTS OF INTERIOR SPACE

Wall Panel Type: prefabricated panels spanning between FLOORS – flat, horizontal surfaces
floor and roof or between floors
Floor assemblies commonly include: WATER/WASTEWATER SYSTEMS

• Flooring: resist the effects of traffic over the surface of the • Storm Drainage
floor deck
• Potable Water Supply (to plumbing fixtures, equipment,
• Deck: framing + decking separate or framing/decking sprinklers)
combined
• Wastewater Disposal
• Flooring
• SERVICES
• Deck on Grade
POWER/LIGHTING/COMMUNICATIONS
• ELEMENTS OF INTERIOR SPACE
• Lighting System
CEILINGS – nonstructural components of an enclosure, depending on
their support on floor or roof assemblies • Communication System

• Visual screens and/or functional separation between an • Electric Power Service and Distribution System
inhabited space and the underside of a floor or roof
assembly above • SERVICES

• Integral components of floor or roof assemblies SAFETY/SECURITY SYSTEMS

• ELEMENTS OF INTERIOR SPACE • Fire Detection

PARTITIONS • Fire Extinguishing

• Fixed • Forced Entry Detection

• Relocatable • Surveillance

• Operable

• Supported on

• Suspended from floor or roof assemblies

• ELEMENTS OF INTERIOR SPACE

MEANS OF CIRCULATION

• Ladders

• Stairs

• Escalators

• Elevators

• Dumbwaiters

• Conveyors

• Moving sidewalks

• SERVICES

AIR CONDITIONING

• Waste Heat to Atmosphere (cooling tower)

• Exhaust

• Distribution System (supply and return)

• Heating/Cooling/Filtering Equipment

• SERVICES
 II. FOUNDATIONS AND SUBSTRUCTURE • Selecting a Foundation Type

• Evaluating the Bearing Capacity of Soil Spread Footings: for uniform bearing on the soil; good bearing
material occurs directly under the building excavation
Subsurface investigation done by borings
• Selecting a Foundation Type
typical boring rig - tripod or frame with a pulley and a small
winch  Variations of spread footings:

test pits Eccentric Footings: center of the superimposed load does not line up
with the resultant center of the soil bearing pressure
• Boring Rig/Test Pits
• Selecting a Foundation Type
boring rig: (tripod or frame with pulley, small winch)
Combined Footings: two or more columns must share one footing
• Evaluating the Bearing Capacity of Soil
• Selecting a Foundation Type
A hammer is raised by the winch and allowed to fall free, driving a
pipe casing into the ground. The number of blows necessary to drive Matt Footings: the required superimposed loads require most of the
the spoon 1 ft. gives important information as to the compactness of building’s footprint to transfer the accumulated loads to relatively
the soil weak soil bearing capacity.

• Evaluating the Bearing Capacity of Soil • Selecting a Foundation Type

 Many codes as well as good engineering practice dictate  Pile Foundations : required where poor surface and near
boring locations about 50 ft. (15 m) on center within the surface soils are weak and column like shafts must be used
building outline. to penetrate the weak soil and reach acceptable
supporting stratum and greater depths below grade.
Abnormal ground conditions may require closer spacing.
• Selecting a Foundation Type
• Evaluating the Bearing Capacity of Soil
Piles are tied together with pile caps upon which the building’s
Depth of borings are typically 15 to 20 ft. (4.5 to 6m) below columns or walls are supported.
foundation level, with one or more borings deeper to look for weak
lower levels • Selecting a Foundation Type

• Evaluating the Bearing Capacity of Soil  When large column load exist, caissons are used as
extensions to columns.
 Test pits give an immediate idea of the soil
Caissons typically are larger in diameter and longer. They rely on end
conditions [limited to a depth of about 10 ft. (3 m)] bearing directly on earth with very high bearing capacity.

Dug with a backhoe, they give a method of economical and visually

evident evaluation.
• Selecting a Foundation Type
• Evaluating the Bearing Capacity of Soil
 Retaining Walls: used where a grade change occurs and
Where rock is near the surface, a rock profile is obtained. Once the the upper levels must be stabilized behind a wall. The wall
type and degree of compactness of soil has been established, its portion of the foundation extends vertically cantilevered
supporting ability must be evaluated. from a substantial and carefully designed footing.

• Selecting a Foundation Type • Selecting a Foundation Type

 Spread footings and Wall footings - most common types of The choice between walls and footings, piers and grade beams, or
footings; used where the soil bearing capacity is adequate piles and grade beams is determined by soil conditions, by the
for the applied loads requirements of the building’s structural system, and cost. The
requirement of many codes – that a pile be at least 10 ft. (3 m) long
• Selecting a Foundation Type in order to provide adequate lateral stability – often determines the
change over depth between piers and short piles.
 Spread footings and Wall footings - most common types of
footings; used where the soil bearing capacity is adequate • Selecting a Foundation Type
for the applied loads
Mats can distribute loads to large areas, permitting light soil
• Selecting a Foundation Type bearing loads on weak material. Hydraulic mats resist upward water
pressure. Because of the various possible arrangements and loads,
 Wall Footings each mat becomes a specialized custom design.
 • Foundations to Rock 12. Concreting
13. Tremie pipe recovery
Rock, having the highest bearing capacity, is often the only 14. Completing cast-in-place concrete pile with belling bottom.
acceptable foundation available for heavy loads.
• Piles
Piers carry the loads directly to rock. On hard rock, piers require no
footing, as the capacity of the rock is almost that of concrete. Typical  Type III is similar to Types I and II except that the shell
column and grade beam construction is employed. gage is heavier and no mandrel is required.

• Foundations to Rock • Piles

When rock occurs more than 10 to 15 ft. 3 to ..5 m belo the  Type IV is an open-end steel pipe. It is excavated, often by
grade beam soffits, piers become too costly. Clusters of piles driven air jet, as it is advanced, and then filled with concrete after
to rock and encased in a pile cap can support substantial loads. For refusal has been reached. In lieu of reaching refusal,
heavier loads, caissons are used. Caissons are big holes drilled driving may stop while a concrete plug is placed and then
through the weak soil strata down to rock. The drilled voids are then redriving will seat it. The advantage is fewer disturbances
filled with concrete. Piles or caissons may vary in length from 15 to to adjacent structures.
over 100 ft. (4.5 to over 30 m).
• Piles
• Piles
 Type V is a closed-end pipe. After driving, it is filled with
Piles carry loads to strata belo the ground surface concrete. Often it is used inside buildings with low
headroom. Shorter lengths are simply spliced with steel
either by end bearing, which are called bearing piles, or by surface collars.
friction along their sides by which are called friction piles. The soft
material through which the pile is driven provides lateral stability, • Piles
but for structures
 Type VI is a precast concrete pile. It is good in marine
over water the piles must be designed as columns. structures but requires heavy handling equipment and
accurate estimation of tip elevation and it is difficult to cut
• Piles off in the field.

Test load or driving resistance generally establishes pile capacity. • Piles

Load tests are used to establish capacity. Driving resistance
measurements are used to ensure that all piles are driven as hard as  Type VII is a ood pile – the least expensive. Where the
the test piles. Piles are generally grouped in clusters connected by pile is partially exposed permanently above water level, it
pile caps. must be treated with a wood preservative.

• Piles • Piles

Borings are essential for proper pile evaluation. Individual piles may  Type VIII, a composite ood and concrete pile, is seldom
test to a capacity greater than their contribution to the capacity of a used. The timber is kept below groundwater and a greater
cluster. A soft stratum underlying a hard one may not be able to over-all length is achieved. A closed-end pipe may be used
support the total load delivered from the hard stratum even though in place of the timber section.
the resistance of the hard stratum may indicate satisfactory pile
support. • Piles

• Piles  Type IX is a rolled steel H section. It is the cheapest of the

higher-capacity piles. Protection must be provided when
 Types I and II are cast-in-place concrete piles. A light-gage driving through cinder fill or other rust-producing material.
steel shell, driven on a mandrel, which is then withdrawn,
is inspected and filled with concrete. Care must be taken to • Piles
avoid collapsing of the shell with an adjacent pile is driven.
 Type X is a drilled-in caisson. A 24-in. (60 cm) round pipe is
1. Centering driven to rock and cleaned, a steel H-section core is set,
and the shell is filled with concrete. This is good for very
2. Starting drilling heavy loads.
3. Inserting stand pipe.
4. Feeding bentonite • Piles
5. Drilling till the specified depth
6. Inserting belling bucket Piles almost al ays are installed in groups of three or more. For
7. Reaming bore hole bottom heavier column loads the architect is referred to a structural
8. Measuring depth engineer for analysis of specific foundation requirements of the
9. Setting up iron-reinforcement cage building(s) under consideration.
10. Inserting tremie tube
11. Cleaning slime by an air-lift • Piles
Pipes are located ith a lo degree of precision. They can easily be Made by blending and processing several raw materials
6 inches or more from their desired location. If building columns,
which are located with much greater precision, were to be located Calcareous: limestone, sea shells, marl
on single piles, the centerlines would rarely coincide. The resulting
eccentric loads in both the column and the pile would generate Siliceous/silicous/aluminous: sand, clay, shale, slate
unwanted moments in both members. A similar condition could exist
around one axis for a column supported by a two-pile foundation. Iron compounds: iron ore, mill scale

• Piles  PORTLAND CEMENT

Groupings of three or more piles provide a degree of safety and Siliceous/silicous/aluminous: sand, clay, shale, slate
redundancy should one pile be driven slightly out of alignment.
Lateral stability of the group increases with three piles as compared Iron compounds: iron ore, mill scale
to fewer piles.
 Color of Cement

Depends on the raw materials (manufacturing process): fine-

ground (lighter); coarse (darker)

Raw materials: contains small amounts of impurities (alkalies)

 Portland Cement Types

TYPE I: for general use when special properties are not required
(resistance to sulfate attack)

for structural work, bridges, pavements, concrete masonry units

TYPE IA: Type I with air-entraining additives incorporated during

the manufacturing process

air entrainment: improves resistance to freeze-thaw cycles of

concrete mix

TYPE II: generates less heat and at a slower rate during

hydration process than Type I; provides moderate resistance to
sulfate attack

used in structures of considerable size (large piers, heavy

abutments) to minimize detrimental effects of heat of hydration

used in structures in contact with water

TYPE IIA: Type II with air-entraining additives incorporated

during the manufacturing process

TYPE III: where high strength is desired at early periods within a

week or less

TYPE IIIA: air-entrained Type III cement

TYPE IV: where low heat of hydration is desired; develops

strength at a much slower rate than Type I massive structures
(gravity dams)

TYPE V: when high resistance to sulfate attack is desired; gains

strength at a slower rate than Type I
III. CEMENTS
 Other Portland Cements
 CEMENT: A material when mixed with water or other liquid
substance, will: White Cement: decorative architectural concrete; stucco;
cement paint; white or pigmented grout
Form temporarily a plastic paste; easily molded or deformed;
Will harden or set to a rigid mass Portland blast-furnace slag cement: in general construction
when special properties are not required granulated blast-
 PORTLAND CEMENT furnace slag interground with cement clinker (blending the two)

Most important group of cementitious materials in construction

 Portland-pozzolan cement: intergrinding/blending Portland Aggregates
cement or Portland blast-furnace slag with pozzolan
• Fine and coarse aggregates make up the bulk of a concrete
Pozzolan: should not be used where special characteristics mixture. Sand, natural gravel and crushed stone are used
attributable to Portland-pozzolan cement are required mainly for this purpose.

Masonry Cement: mixture of Portland cement, air-entraining • The presence of aggregate greatly increases the robustness
additives, plasticizers, and other supplemental materials of concrete above that of cement, which otherwise is a
brittle material and thus concrete is a true composite
 Special Types of Portland Cements material.

Block cement: similar to Type III •

Expansive cement: inhibit shrinkage of concrete; minimize Reinforcement

cracking; self-stressing cement in prestressed concrete work
• strong in compression, as the aggregate efficiently carries
Gun plastic cement: compressed air guns/pumps the compression load

Oil- ell cement: sealing oil wells • weak in tension as the cement holding the aggregate in
place can crack, allowing the structure to fail.
Pipe cement: centrifugally spun pipe
• Reinforced concrete solves these problems by adding
Plastic cement: mortar, cement plaster, stucco either steel reinforcing bars, steel fibers, glass fiber, or
plastic fiber to carry tensile loads.
Regulated set cement: fast setting
steel reinforcing bars, steel fibers, glass fiber, or plastic fiber
IV. CONCRETE
• Reinforcement
INTRODUCTION
steel fibers, glass fibers, or plastic fibers
Concrete is a composite construction material, composed of cement
(commonly Portland cement) and other cementitious materials such • CLASSES OF STRUCTURAL CONCRETE
as fly ash and slag cement, aggregate (generally a coarse aggregate
made of gravel or crushed rocks such as limestone, or granite, plus a Structural concrete (Class A, Class B, and Class C) The differences
fine aggregate such as sand), water and chemical admixtures. between the classes are in the cement and aggregate contents and
water/cementitious ratios.
Baths of Caracalla
• Concrete Mix Ratio
Cement
Concrete is made up of a ratio of mixed cement, sand, and
• Portland cement: most common type of cement; basic aggregates or gravel. When mixed with water cement becomes a
ingredient of concrete, mortar and plaster paste that chemically sets hard. However cement alone is not strong
enough and so sand and gravel are mixed in for strength and bulk or
• Pozzolan Cement: general name for a group of cements volume.
containing not less than 20% active mineral additives; term
is derived from the name of a friable volcanic rock— There are many different types of concrete and uses but the most
pozzolana—used in ancient Rome as an additive to lime in common are high strength and water tight, general use and
the production of hydraulic cement. foundations.

Water High Strength Concrete Mix Ratio

• Combining water with a cementitious material forms a Cement = 1 part.

cement paste (process of hydration)
Sand = 2 parts.
• The cement paste glues the aggregate together, fills voids
within it and allows it to flow more freely Stone or gravel = 3 parts.

• Less water in the cement paste will yield a stronger, more This concrete mix ratio will give you high strength concrete plus
durable concrete water tight properties making it great for ponds, and structural uses
such as concrete panels and building slabs.
• More water will give a freer-flowing concrete with a higher
slump • Foundations and Large Volume

• Impure water used to make concrete can cause problems Cement = 1 part.
when setting or in causing premature failure of the
structure. Sand = 3 parts.
Stone or gravel = 5 parts. • Accelerators speed up the hydration (hardening) of the
concrete. However, use of chlorides may cause corrosion in
• Foundations are the main use for this concrete mix ratio steel reinforcing and is prohibited in some countries, so
where a large amount of concrete is used to fill up strip that nitrates may be favored.
footings trenches. This concrete mix is used in house
foundations, to make solid and stable, when filling from • Retarders slow the hydration of concrete and are used in
bed rock to ground level. large or difficult pours where partial setting before the
pour is complete.
• Mortar Mix Ratio
• Air Entrainments add and entrain tiny air bubbles in the
• Mortar is a mix of sand, cement, lime and water. When concrete, which will reduce damage during freeze-thaw
mixed properly it forms a bond between masonry surfaces cycles, thereby increasing the concrete's durability.
such as bricks and concrete blocks of all different sizes.
• Plasticizers increase the workability of plastic or "fresh"
Cement (using General purpose cement) = 1 part. concrete, allowing it be placed more easily, with less
consolidating effort.
Sand = 6 parts.
• Superplasticizers (also called high-range water-reducers)
Lime = 1 part. are a class of plasticizers that have fewer deleterious
effects and can be used to increase workability more than
• Types of Cement is practical with traditional plasticizers.

• All of the concrete mix ratios use type GP or General • Pigments can be used to change the color of concrete, for
Purpose Portland cement. However type GP and Type GB aesthetics.
are the most common types.
• Corrosion inhibitors are used to minimize the corrosion of
• Type GP - General Purpose Portland cement. steel and steel bars in concrete. Bonding agents are used
to create a bond between old and new concrete
• Type GB – General Purpose Blended cement.
• Pumping aids improve pumpability, thicken the paste and
• Type HE – high Early Strength Cement – or rapid set. reduce separation and bleeding.
• Type LH – low heat cement – used on large structure such • Workability
as building and dams.
• the ability of a fresh (plastic) concrete mix to fill the
• Type SR – Sulphate Resisting cement – use in salty areas. form/mold properly with the desired work (vibration) and
without reducing the concrete's quality
• Type SL – Shrinkage Limited cement.
• depends on water content, aggregate (shape and size
All of these types have different properties and have a different
distribution), cementitious content and age (level of
purpose and are made to have different end results.
hydration) and can be modified by adding chemical
admixtures, like super plasticizer.
• Some of the types above all contain additives such as: fly
ash, silica fume, and ground slag that change the
• Raising the water content or adding chemical admixtures
workability of the cement and the end result.
will increase concrete workability.
• When laying a path or slab it is best practice to compact
• Excessive water will lead to increased bleeding (surface
the concrete by removing the air from the concrete. This is
water) and/or segregation of aggregates (when the cement
done by placing a vibrator pole into the concrete at the
and aggregates start to separate), with the resulting
time of laying to release the air bubbles which in turn
concrete having reduced quality. The use of an aggregate
increases the density and strength of the concrete.
with an undesirable gradation can result in a very harsh
mix design with a very low slump, which cannot be readily
made more workable by addition of reasonable amounts
• CONCRETE MIX of water.

• Chemical Admixtures • Curing

• Chemical admixtures are materials in the form of powder • to achieve best strength and hardness
or fluids that are added to the concrete to give it certain
• happens after the concrete has been placed
characteristics not obtainable with plain concrete mixes. In
normal use, admixture dosages are less than 5% by mass
• Cement requires a moist, controlled environment to gain
of cement and are added to the concrete at the time of
strength and harden fully. The cement paste hardens over
batching/mixing.
time, initially setting and becoming rigid though very weak
and gaining in strength in the weeks following. In around 3
The common types of admixtures are as follows.
 weeks, typically over 90% of the final strength is reached, • Exposed Aggregate
though strengthening may continue for decades
• Form Boards
• Use of concrete in infrastructure
• Form Liners
Reinforced concrete structures
• Dimpled
• Reinforced concrete contains steel reinforcing that is
designed and placed in the structure at specific positions • Sand blasted
to cater for all the stress conditions that the structure is
required to accommodate. • Bush hammered

• Pre-stressed Concrete Structures • Building Insulation

• Pre-stressed concrete: builds in compressive stresses Damp, Heat, Acoustic, Fire

during construction to oppose those found when in use

• reduce the weight of beams or slabs, by better distributing

the stresses in the structure to make optimal use of the V. STONES
reinforcement.
ROCK
• Concrete Textures
• formative
• With the use of form liner, concrete can be cast and
molded into different textures and used for decorative • naturally occurring aggregate of specific mineral/ chemical
concrete applications. Sound/retaining walls, bridges, composition in one of three forms igneous, metamorphic,
office buildings and more serve as the optimal canvases for and sedimentary
concrete art.
• aggregates of minerals
• Building ith Concrete
STONE
• one of the most durable building materials
fragment of rock classified by its shape and size; larger than sand,
• provides superior fire resistance, compared with wooden silt, and clay
construction and can gain strength over time
CLASSIFICATIONS OF ROCKS
• Concrete structures can have a long service life
Rocks classified by:
• most widely used construction material in the world.
• mineral and chemical composition
• Fire Safety
• texture of the constituent particles
• Concrete buildings are more resistant to fire than those
• by the processes that formed them
constructed using wood or steel frames
• further classified according to particle size
• Concrete reduces the risk of structural collapse and is an
effective fire shield, providing safe means of escape for
ROCK CYCLE
occupants and protection for fire fighters.
The rock cycle explains how the three rock types are related to each
• Concrete Finishes Types
other, and how processes change from one type to another over
time.
• Integrally Pigmented
1. Magma
• Screeded Trowelled
2. Crystallization
• Swirl 3. Igneous Rock Formation
4. Erosion
• Broomed 5. Sedimentation
6. Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks Formation
• Burlap drag 7. Tectonic Burial
8. Metamorphic Rock Formation
• Travertine 9. Melting

• Rock Salt

• Stamped
ROCK TYPES Normal Requirements:

IGNEOUS ROCKS - formed by crystallization from a melt (magma) • Color

2 Main Categories • Texture and Pattern

• Extrusive (volcanic) - produced when magma flows on the • Surface finish of the stone
earth's surface
• Durability
Example: Diorite, Gabbro, Granite and Pegmatite
• Hardness
• Intrusive (plutonic) - produced when magma solidifies at
depth beneath the earth. • Strength

Example: Andesite, Basalt, Obsidian, Pumice, Rhyolite and Scoria Additional criteria: resistance to moisture, decay and extreme
temperatures, ability of the stone to take on a polish or finish
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
QUARRIES - used for extracting building materials, such as dimension
Basic Types stone, construction aggregate, riprap, sand, and gravel

• Clastic Sedimentary Rocks - formed from mechanical • the stone shattered by heavy and indiscriminate blasting
weathering debris must be removed

Example: Breccia, Conglomerate, Sandstone and Shale • Dimension stone is separated by more precise and delicate
techniques, such as diamond wire saws, diamond belt
• Chemical Sedimentary Rocks - form when dissolved saws, burners (jet-piercers), or light and selective blasting
materials precipitate from solution with a weak explosive.

Example: Limestone STONE AND ROCK TYPES

• Organic Sedimentary Rocks - form from the accumulation Common rock types used as structural and decorative dimension
of plant or animal debris stone are:

Example: Coal • Granite

METAMORPHIC ROCKS • Limestone

• transformation of existing rock types, in a process called • Marble

metamorphism, which means "change in form"
• Travertine
• modified by heat, pressure and chemical process usually
while buried deep below Earth's surface • Quartz-based stone (sandstone, quartzite)

• Protolith (original rock) is subjected to heat and pressure, • Slate

(temperatures greater than 150 to 200 °C and pressures of
1500 bars) causing profound physical and/or chemical Other dimension stone normally considered to be special minor
change; may be sedimentary rock, igneous rock or another types include:
older metamorphic rock
• Alabaster (massive gypsum)
2 Basic Types
• Soapstone (massive talc)
• Foliated Metamorphic Rocks - a layered or banded
appearance that is produced by exposure to heat and • Serpentine
directed pressure
FABRICATION
Example: Gneiss, Phyllite, Schist and Slate
• A block saw, or gang saw, cuts the massive stone blocks
• Non – Foliated Metamorphic Rocks - do not have a layered into slabs
or banded appearance
• Polishers grind down the naturally rough surface of the
Example: Marble and Quartzite stone to whatever finish the consumer desires

DIMENSION STONE • Routers create edge profiles on a slab, and cut designs on
larger pieces like fireplace mantles and hearths
• natural stone or rock that has been selected and fabricated
(i.e., trimmed, cut, drilled, ground, or other) to specific FINISHES - to achieve diverse architectural and aesthetic effects
sizes or shapes
 • POLISHED FINISH – gives the surface a high luster and • crushed basalt used for road base, concrete aggregate,
strong reflection of incident light (almost mirror-like) asphalt pavement aggregate, railroad ballast, filter stone in
drain fields
• HONED FINISH – provides a smooth, satin-like (eggshell),
non-reflective surface • Thin slabs of basalt are cut and sometimes polished for use
as floor tiles, building veneer, monuments and other stone
• BUSH-HAMMERED – creates a rough, but uniformly objects
patterned surface with impact tools varying in coarseness
DIORITE - a coarse-grained, intrusive igneous rock that contains a
• SAND BLASTED – provides an irregular pitted surface by mixture of feldspar, pyroxene, hornblende and sometimes quartz
impacting sand or metal particles at high velocity against a
stone surface GABBRO

• THERMAL/FLAMED FINISH - produces a textured, non • a coarse-grained, dark-colored, intrusive igneous rock.
reflective surface with only a few reflections from cleavage usually black or dark green in color and composed mainly
faces, by applying a high-temperature flame of the minerals plagioclase and augite

DECAY • this mineral composition usually gives gabbro a black to

very dark green color
• Most decay of porous building materials is caused by
wetting/drying cycles • The difference between Gabbro and Basalt is their grain
size
• Sulfation: common form of decay in urban areas
USES:
• The calcium carbonate of limestone converts to calcium
sulfate by the action of acid rains • can be polished to a brilliant black luster

• Organic growth is not always destructive, but again it is • brightly polish gabbro is used to make cemetery markers,
important to understand the plant and the building kitchen counter tops, floor tiles, facing stone and other
dimension stone products
USES3BUILDING
• a highly desirable rock that stands up to weathering and
FLOORING wear

Rock materials - popular flooring tile because of their durability, GRANITE

patterns and colors
• a light-colored igneous rock with grains large enough to be
Countertops & Walls visible with the unaided eye

durable minerals which makes it a logical choice for home • composed mainly of quartz and feldspar with minor
construction amounts of micas, amphiboles and other minerals

Roofing • this mineral composition gives granite a red, pink, gray or

white color with dark mineral grains visible throughout the
split and cut slate into shingles rock

ADENESITE - fine-grained, extrusive igneous rock composed mainly • hard enough to resist most abrasion, strong enough to
of plagioclase with other minerals such as hornblende, pyroxene and bear significant weight, inert enough to resist weathering
biotite.
USES:
BASALT –
• countertops, floor tiles, paving stone, curbing, stair treads,
• fine-grained, dark-colored extrusive igneous rock building veneer and cemetery monuments
composed mainly of plagioclase and pyroxene minerals
• Rough-cut and polished granite is used in buildings,
• The difference between basalt and gabbro is that basalt is bridges, paving, monuments and many other exterior
a fine-grained rock while gabbro is a coarse-grained rock projects

• forms as an extrusive rock, such as a lava flow, but can also • Indoors: polished granite slabs and tiles are used in
form in small intrusive bodies countertops, tile floors, stair treads and practical and
decorative features
USES:
OBSIDIAN
• crushed for use as an aggregate in construction projects
• an igneous rock that forms when molten rock material
cools so rapidly that atoms are unable to arrange
themselves into a crystalline structure
 • The colors are thought to be caused mainly by trace IRON ORE
elements or inclusion
• formed from chemical reactions that combined iron and
• a composition similar to rhyolite and granite oxygen in marine and fresh waters
PEGMATITE - a light-colored, extremely coarse-grained intrusive
• The two most important minerals in these deposits are
igneous rock; forms near the margins of a magma chamber during
the final phases of magma chamber crystallization iron oxides: hematite (Fe2O3) and magnetite (Fe3O4)

PERIDOTITE - a coarse-grained intrusive igneous rock that is USES:

composed almost entirely of olivine; may contain small amounts of
amphibole, feldspar, quartz or pyroxene • used to make steel

PUMICE - a coarse-grained intrusive igneous rock that is composed • Steel is used to make automobiles, locomotives, ships,
almost entirely of olivine; may contain small amounts of amphibole, beams used in buildings, furniture, paper clips, tools,
feldspar, quartz or pyroxene reinforcing rods for concrete, bicycles, and thousands of
other items
RHYOLITE - a light-colored, fine-grained, extrusive igneous rock that
typically contains quartz and feldspar minerals
LIMESTONE
COMENDITE - a peralkaline rhyolite
COMPOSITION: calcium carbonate (CaCO3) in the form of the
PANTELLERITE – an alkaline rhyolite-rhyodacite with amphibole mineral calcite commonly forms in clear, warm, shallow marine
phenocrysts waters

SCORIA - a dark-colored, vesicular, extrusive igneous rock; the USES: crushed and used as a construction material road base and
vesicles are a result of trapped gas within the melt at the time of railroad ballast
solidification
More Uses:
TUFF - composed mainly of volcanic ash and sometimes contains
larger size particles such as cinders; sometimes called tufa,
particularly when used as construction material Dimension Stone:

BRECCIA – COMPOSITION -mainly determined by the rock and Limestone is often cut into blocks and slabs of specific dimensions
mineral material that the angular fragments were produced from for use in construction and in architecture. It is used for facing stone,
floor tiles, stair treads, window sills and many other purposes.
USES:
Roofing Granules:
used as architectural stones for interior building veneers, tiles,
window sills and other decorative applications Crushed to a fine particle size, crushed limestone is used as a
CHERT - COMPOSITION: microcrystalline silicon dioxide weather and heat-resistant coating on asphalt impregnated shingles
and roofing. It is also used as a top coat on built-up roofs.
USES: produces a spark when it is struck against steel; the heat from
this spark can be used to start fires Portland Cement:

COAL - a sedimentary rock formed from organic matter; forms from Limestone is heated in a kiln with shale, sand and other materials
the accumulation of plant debris, usually in a swamp environment; and ground to a powder that will harden after being mixed with
used in electricity production water.

CONGLOMERATE ROCK SALT - a chemical sedimentary rock that forms from the
evaporation of ocean or saline lake waters
• a sedimentary rock composed of large rounded fragments
of other rocks SANDSTONE
• The space between the clasts is generally filled with
• a clastic sedimentary rock defined by its grain size
smaller particles and/or a chemical cement that binds the
rock together.
• a sedimentary rock group which is mostly made up of tiny
COMPOSITION: contain clasts of any rock material or weathering grains of quartz.
product that is washed downstream or down current
• environments where large amounts of sand can
USES: can be used where a low-performance material is suitable; accumulate include beaches, deserts, flood plains and
ornamental stone for interior use deltas

• composed mainly of sand-sized minerals or rock grains

 • very light buff to light chocolate brown or brick red HORNFELS –

• fairly hard if well cemented • a fine-grained non foliated metamorphic rock with no
specific composition
Applications: inside and outside
• produced by contact metamorphism
• Rough and weathered sandstone: fireplaces, walls, and
walkways. • a rock that was "baked" while near a heat source such as a
magma chamber, sill or dike
• Ideal for carving and architectural uses as arches, garden
furniture, landscaping products MARBLE - a non-foliated metamorphic rock composed of
recrystallized carbonate minerals
• Sandstone blocks: foundations and stonewalls
• Color : Highly varied: snow white to black; blue-gray and
• Sandstone is extracted from open quarries light to dark green; also pinkish

• it is worked, or removed by levering and wedging. • Texture : Finely granular to very coarsely crystalline
showing flat-sided crystals
• it can be sawn by using a large diameter circluar saws
• Hardness: Slightly harder than limestone
SHALE
• Uses: may be used for building; decorative panels
• a fine-grained sedimentary rock formed from the
compaction of silt and clay-size mineral particles that • The marble is cut into different shapes for different tasks
commonly called “mud”
• Some of the most common types of marble are: sculpture
• "Laminated" means that the rock is made up of many thin marble, marble tiles, countertop marbles and others.
layers
PHYLLITE -
• "Fissile" means that the rock readily splits into thin pieces
along the laminations • a foliate metamorphic rock that is made up mainly of very
fine-grained mica
USES:
• The surface of phyllite is typically lustrous and sometimes
• black shale contains organic material that sometimes wrinkled
breaks down to form natural gas or oil
• It is intermediate in grade between slate and schist
• can be crushed and mixed with water to produce clays that
can be made into a variety of useful objects QUARTZITE - a metamorphosed sandstone typically composed of
>95% quartz
• crushed limestone and shale are heated to produce
cement • a hard, non-foliated metamorphic rock which was
originally sandstone
SILTSTONE - a clastic sedimentary rock defined by its grain size;
forms from silt-size weathering debris USES:

AMPHIBOLITE - • Because of its hardness and angular shape, crushed

quartzite is often used as railway ballast
• a non-foliated metamorphic rock that forms through
recrystallization under conditions of high viscosity and • a decorative stone and may be used to cover walls, as
directed pressure roofing tiles, as flooring, and stair steps

• composed primarily of amphibole and plagioclase, usually SCHIST - a group of medium-grade metamorphic rocks, chiefly
with very little quartz notable for the preponderance of lamellar minerals such as
micas, chlorite, talc, hornblende, graphite, and others
GNEISS - foliated metamorphic rock that has a banded appearance
and is made up of granular mineral grains; typically contains • characteristically foliated, meaning the individual mineral
abundant quartz or feldspar minerals grains split off easily into flakes or slabs
SLATE - a fine-grained, foliated, homogeneous metamorphic MORTAR CEMENT
rock derived from an original shale-type sedimentary rock composed
of clayor volcanic ash through low-grade regional metamorphism - Similar to masonry Cement
- Lower air Content
• Can be made into roofing slates - Bond strength requirement

GROUT MASONRY - After a masonry structure is completed, grout is

used to fill in the remaining crevices and joints; Grout differs from
VI. MASONRY 3PART 1 masonry mortar in its fluidity since it is poured and not spread into
place with a trowel
MASONRY - the building of structures from individual units laid in
and bound together by mortar; can also refer to the units
themselves, generally a highly durable form of construction Structural Masonry - divided into load-bearing, non-load-bearing,
and decorative veneers used on walls of buildings
Modern masonry units - any type of small, solid, or hollow units of
building material that are held together with mortar units usually Concrete masonry - assembly of walls of solid or hollow units; may
include stone, cast stone, cement brick and concrete block, clay brick be reinforced or non-reinforced, interior or exterior walls (walls may
and tile, and glass blocks contain clay, tile, or glass units)

successful performance of masonry: selection of proper mortar to CLAY MASONRY UNITS

hold the units together and keep out the weather
Concrete Masonry Units: depend on the ingredients reacting with
common materials of masonry construction: water; heated until the clay melts and flows over the surface of the
brick, stone, marble, granite, travertine, limestone, cast stone, aggregates
concrete, block, glass block, stucco, and tile
Clay Bricks - The type of clay selected and its processing determine
Application the structure and characteristics of clay units in building structures;
These bricks, unlike concrete masonry units, are not delivered at the
MASONRY MORTAR
job site conditioned to the humidity of the surroundings
Less than 1 percent of the weight of masonry structures consists of
Clay Tile - Clay tiles are often used as facing that is anchored to the
the mortar holding them together
structural steel framing of the building; the use of clay tile for
restoration purposes continues
Cement, hydrated lime, aggregates, and water are the necessary
ingredients that make this feat possible
Terra Cotta Tile - Terra cotta stands for “fired earth” ; no longer
popular and is used mainly in restorations
PROPERTIES OF MASONRY
Stone Masonry - vary greatly in compressive strength—between
 Workability
varieties of stones and between stones from the same source; due to
 Water retentivity
the complexity of their compositions and wide variations in the
 Consistent rate of hardening
percentage of mineral components
 Durability
 Compressive Strength Granite - used as a building material since the beginning of
 Bond civilization, is a visibly crystalline igneous rock with granular texture
 Volume Stability and composed of quartz, feldspar, mica, and hornblende
 Appearance
Limestone - a sedimentary rock composed mainly of calcium
COMPOSITION OF MASONRY MORTARS carbonate or magnesium carbonate, is durable, workable, and
distributed throughout the earth’s crust
 Cementitious Material
 Masonry Sand Travertine - a form of limestone found in deposits at the mouth of a
 Water hot spring, can be polished and often resembles marble

MASONRY CEMENT CONSISTS OF: Coral Limestone - forms on the ocean floor bordering the shores of
islands and lagoons; composed of reef-forming coral often of great
 Portland Cement or Blended Hydraulic Cement extent, consists chiefly of calcareous skeletons of corals, coral sands,
 Hydrated or Hydraulic Lime and the solid limestone resulting from their compaction
 Talc, clay, fly ash, slag, air entertainers

ASTM C 91 Standard Specification for Masonry Cement

Sandstone - a sedimentary rock composed of individual sand or MORTAR - a plastic mixture of lime or cement, or a combination of
quartz grains held together by cementitious material, contains a high both, with sand and water, used as a bonding agent in masonry
degree of iron oxide which gives it a red or brown color. construction

Slate - A group name for various fine-grained rocks derived from KINDS OF MORTAR
mudstone, siltstone, and high-silica clays and shale sedimentary
deposits, is characterized by planes which easily split into thin sheets 1. Cement Mortar - a mortar made by mixing Portland cement, sand
and lines and water

Types of Cement Mortar

Masonry: building with various material or manufactured products a. Type M Mortar - a high-strength mortar recommended for use in
(stone, brick or concrete block) usually with the use of mortar as reinforced masonry-below grade or in contact with the earth, as
bonding agent foundation and retaining walls subject to frost action or to high
lateral or compressive loads
Raw materials are made into masonry units of different sizes and
shapes, each having specific physical and mechanical properties b. Type S Mortar - a medium-high-strength mortar recommended
for use in masonry where bond and lateral strength are more
USES: walls, retaining walls, monuments important than compressive strength

Common masonry construction materials: c. Type N Mortar - a medium-strength mortar recommended for
general use in exposed masonry above grade where high
-Brick compressive and lateral strength are not required.
-Stone
-Marble d. Type O Mortar - a low-strength mortar suitable for use in interior
-Travertine non-load-bearing walls and partitions.
-Granite
-Limestone e. Type K Mortar - a very-low-strength mortar suitable only for use
-Cast Stone in interior non-load-bearing walls where permitted by the building
-Glass Block code
-Concrete Block
2. Cement- lime mortar - a cement mortar to which lime is added to
-Tile
increase its plasticity and water retentivity
TYPES OF MASONRY
. Masonry Cement - a proprietary mix of Portland cement and
a. Brick - uniform units (“bricks”), small enough to be placed other ingredients, as hydrated lime, plasticizers, air-entraining and
with one hand, are laid in courses with mortar joints to gypsum, requiring only the addition of sand and water to make
form walls cement mortar

2 Basic Looks: Veneer Brick and Solid Brick .. Epoxy Mortar - a mortar consisting of epoxy resin, a catalyst,
and fine aggregate
b. Concrete - built with concrete blocks, hollow tile, or cinder
blocks 5. Non-staining Mortar - a mortar having a low-free alkali content to
c. Stone Block - uses rubble or ashlar as materials (these minimize the staining of adjacent masonry by the migration of
materials are rather rough in nature); rubble resembles soluble materials
crumbled rock, while ashlar resembles (cut rock), its blocks
6. Lime Mortar- a mixture of lime, sand, and water that is rarely used
can have a smooth surface
because of its slow rate of hardening and low compressive strength
d. Ashlar Masonry - Masonry composed of various sized
rectangular units having sawed, dressed or squared bed
TYPES OF MASONRY BONDS
surfaces, properly bonded and laid in mortar
e. Rubble Masonry: composed of roughly shaped stones MORTAR BOND: adhesion of the joint mortar to the masonry units
- Coursed rubble. composed of roughly shaped stones or to reinforcing steel
fitting approximately on level beds and well bonded
- Random rubble. composed of roughly shaped stones laid PATTERN BOND: pattern formed by the masonry units and the
without regularity of coursing but well bonded and fitted mortar joints on the face of a wall. The
together to form well-divided joints pattern may result from the type of structural bond used or may
- Rough or ordinary rubble. composed of unsquared be purely decorative one in no way related to the structural bond
field stones laid without regularity of coursing but well
bonded
STRUCTURAL BOND: a method of interlocking or tying individual VII. STEEL
masonry units together so that the entire assembly acts as a single
structural unit Steel - Alloy made by combining iron and other elements, (most
common of these being carbon (between 0.2% and 2.1% by weight,
depending on the grade)
Structural bonding of brick and tile walls may be accomplished in
three ways: Other alloying elements :manganese, chromium, vanadium, tungsten

• By overlapping(interlocking) the masonry units Carbon acts as a hardening agent, preventing dislocations in the iron
atom crystal lattice from sliding past one another.
• By the use of metal ties embedded in the connecting
joints Varying the amount of alloying elements and the form of their
presence in the steel controls qualities such as
• By the adhesion of grout to adjacent wythes of masonry the hardness, ductility, and tensile strength of the resulting steel

What is steel used for?

Steel is one of the strongest materials and can be bent to make

bridges mainly used in building houses or small furniture, kitchen
appliances, in railway tracks and train trailers .

Types of Steel Products

1) flat products - mother product in flats is slabs, from which sheets
or plates are produced

2) long products - mother products in longs are blooms and billets,

from which bars, rods and structural shapes are rolled

3) stainless steel.

Slabs: semi-finished steel products; obtained by the continuous

casting of steel or rolling ingots on a rolling mill and cutting them
into various lengths; used as a starting material in the production
process of other flat product.

 Hot-Rolled Sheets: Hot rolling involves passing a slab

through a multi-stand rolling mill to reduce its thickness to
less than 12 millimeters; used in non-surface applications
like automobile suspension arms, frames, wheels, and
other unexposed parts in auto and truck bodies,
agricultural equipment, construction products, machinery,
tubing, pipes and guard rails

Cold-Rolled Sheets: hot-rolled sheets processed through an acid

bath that removes scaling from steel's surface, and then passed
through a rolling mill without reheating until the desired thickness is
achieved; further treated to achieve uniformity, ductility and various
surface finishes and textures; used in surface applications like
exposed automobile and appliance panels; usually coated or painted
before sale to an end-user

Coated Sheets: cold-rolled steel that have been coated with zinc or
aluminum for corrosion-resistance and paintability.; also the highest
value-added sheet products because they require the greatest
degree of processing and have the strictest quality requirements;
used in exterior applications (automobile chassis, household
appliances, roofing and siding, heating and air conditioning
equipment, air ducts and switch boxes, certain packaging
applications, food containers)

 Plates: produced by hot-rolling reheated slabs; used as a

structural material for bridge construction, storage vessels,
tanks, shipbuilding, line pipe, industrial machinery and
equipment
 PURPOSES AND TYPES OF REINFORCING STEEL

Billets and Blooms: semi-finished steel products. Blooms are Reinforced Concrete: designed on the principle that steel and
basically larger billets; obtained by the continuous casting of steel or concrete act together in resisting force.
rolling ingots on a rolling mill; used as a starting material in the
production process of other long products Concrete is strong in compression but weak in tension. The tensile
strength is generally rated about 10 percent of the compression
Bars: rolled from billets. Merchant bar and reinforcing bar (rebar) strength.
are two common categories of bars.
Concrete works well for columns and posts that are compression
Merchant bars include rounds, flats, angles, squares, and channels members in a structure. But, when it is used for tension members,
that are used by fabricators to manufacture furniture, stair railings, such as beams, girders, foundation walls, or floors, concrete must be
and farm equipment. reinforced to attain the necessary tension strength.

Rebar is used to strengthen concrete in highways, bridges and Steel is the best material for reinforcing concrete because the
buildings. properties of expansion for both steel and concrete are considered
to be approximate] y the same; that is, under normal conditions,
Special Bar Quality 3SBQ Steel: highest quality long product; they will expand and contract at an almost equal rate.
typically requires customer approval for strength, life and other
engineering parameters; generally sold under contract to long-term NOTE: At very high temperatures, steel expands more rapidly than
customers; used in safety-critical applications such as axles, concrete and the two materials will separate.
crankshafts, transmission gears, bearings and seamless tubes
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
Wire Rods: ring-shaped coils used in the automotive, construction,
welding and engineering sectors The priority during the construction is to minimize on-site
construction and provide extensive prefabrication. Proper planning
Wire Products: produced by treating wire rods with a series of dies during design stage is required, with consideration of column and
to improve surface finish, dimensional accuracy and physical beam spacing for the following:
properties; used in fasteners, springs, concrete wire, electrical
conductors and structural cables • Unpropped metal deck during concreting

Structural Sections: shapes produced in a rolling mill from reheated • Hoisting of precast facade panel for external walls
blooms or billets; include wide-flange beams, bearing piles,
channels, angles and tees; used mainly in the construction • Ensure the steel member sizes are easy to hoist, manage and
industry. Shaping steel into standard forms install on site. Site constraints such as accessibility and limitations of
hoisting equipment need to be considered. These constraints may
There is a ide range of standard steel sections produced. subsequently affect the sequence of construction for the
Designers can select from a wide range of standard steel sections to development.
determine the profile, size and weight appropriate for the majority
of situations; the following figure illustrates some of the most SEQUENCE OF INSTALLATION
common sections used for structural steelwork. Steel alloyed with
 Erection of steel column and beams - Temporary bracing
carbon, chromium and even other elements such as nickel,
was required to ensure verticality of steel columns when
molybdenum, titanium, niobium, manganese, nitrogen, copper,
bolt connections from beams to columns were tightened.
silicon, aluminum and vanadium; has properties like resistance to
corrosion in highly aggressive elements, resistance to oxidation at
 Bolted connection for column to beam with laying of
high temperatures, toughness and ductility at very low
metal decking
temperatures, strength and ease in fabrication
 Installation of precast facade walls to beams storey and
Carbon & Stainless Pipe &Tube
roof
Carbon steel is more commonly used than any other metal, versatile
 Fastening of connection
and low cost. Stainless steel pipe has many remarkable attributes
including corrosion resistance, high strength, durability, and The use of steel building design for construction
machinability
Steel structures are not utilized just for the residential reason but
Alloy Pipe & Tube furthermore for financial reasons. This most absolutely assists in the
general method because you can aim on having astonishing kinds of
Benefits of alloy steel pipe: tensile strength, yield strength, fatigue
dwellings which have all kinds of innovative designs.
resistance, toughness, and wear resistance. Chrome moly power
piping is used extensively in power plants throughout the world Leicester Square, London
Fittings and Flanges Stainless steel upgrades the image of London’s cinema land.
Leicester Square has uplifted its look with new balustrades and
available in a full range of pipe sizes covering popular carbon, alloy
gates, made of stainless steel, around the park area
and stainless steel specifications
Stonecutters Bridge to ers TYPES OF ALLOY STEEL

The upper sections of the Stonecutters Bridge towers are formed A. Manganese Steel - It contains 10%-18% Manganese
from a composite structural section of reinforced concrete and Uses: Rail tracks, armor plate, safe
duplex stainless steel plate. The bridge is the latest showcase of the B. Silicon Steel - It contains 1% to 5% Silicon
merits of duplex grades in structural applications. Uses: electromagnet, lamination, transformers
C. Nickel Steel - It contains 2% to 4% Nickel
STEEL 3PART 2 Uses: Gear, shaft, cable
D. High Speed Steel - High speed steel is an alloy of steel
- commercial iron that contains carbon in any amount up to which may consists of either of the following metals:
about 1.7 percent as an essential alloying constituent tungsten, cobalt, molybdenum or chromium. It is probably
- is malleable when under suitable conditions, and is the toughest of all the types. The term high speed is given
distinguished from cast iron by its malleability and lower to it due to the fact that it has the ability to cut the metals.
carbon content Uses: Drills, tools, powersaws
- general term for iron containing small amounts of carbon, E. Cobalt Steel - Steel containing up to 35% cobalt possesses
manganese and other elements. exceptionally good magnetic properties. Cobalt is much
like the high speed steel with an excess of cobalt present in
STRUCTURE OF STEEL it. It might not be as hard as the high speed steel is but it
too can drill through certain types of metals. The drill tools
The physical properties of various types of steel and of any given made of cobalt steel have a touch of brown color.
steel alloy at varying temperatures depend primarily on the amount Uses: Drills, knives, annular cutter, permanent magnets
of carbon present and on how it is distributed in the iron. F. Aluminum steel – A smooth steel with a high content of
aluminum. Because of its strong and smooth surface it is
Before heat treatment most steels are a mixture of three substances:
used in the making of furniture.
G. Chromium Steel - Chromium steels have a high content of
Ferrite: iron containing small amounts of carbon and other elements
chromium and are resistant to corrosion. They are very
in solution; soft and ductile
strong, ensile and are elastic in nature.
Cementite: a compound of iron containing about 7% carbon; Uses: Automobile and airplane parts
extremely brittle and hard

Pearlite: an intimate mixture of ferrite and cementite having a VIII. NATURAL WOOD
specific composition and characteristic structure, and physical
characteristics intermediate between its two constituents Woods Classification: Softwoods and Hardwoods

TYPES OF STEEL Trees:

1. Carbon Steel 3Steel containing 0.2% C to 1.5% C Coniferous (bears cones, needle shaped leaves, stay green all year
round); timber from the coniferous tree is soft ood
Steels containing 0.2% C to 1.5% C are known as carbon steel. They
are of three types. Deciduous (flat leaves that fall in autumn); the timber from
deciduous trees is hard ood
 Low Carbon Steel - contains 0.2% carbon.
Uses: Sheets, wires, pipes Advantages of Wood as Building Material

 Mild Carbon Steel - contains 0.3% to 0.7% carbon. • Availability

Uses: Rails, boilers, plates, axles, structures
• Relatively low cost
 High Carbon Steel - contains 0.7% to 1.5% carbon
• Low heat conductivity
Uses: Surgical instruments, razor blades, cutlery,
spring
• Not difficult to dress
2. Stainless Steel
• Durability
It contains 14% to 18% chromium and 7% to 9% nickel.
• Light weight
Uses: Car accessories, watch case, utensils, cutlery
STRUCTURES THAT USES WOOD
. Alloy Steel
• Buildings
Steel that is alloyed with a variety of elements in total amounts
between 1.0% and 50% by weight to improve its mechanical • Bridges
properties.
• Utility Poles

• Floors

• Roofs
 • Trusses Wood/forests are ravaged for harvesting

• Piles destruction of the rain forests as a prime example

Types of Natural Woods NATURAL WOOD DEFECTS WHEN TREATED

Pine- inexpensive, used in rustic applications, often has knots, used
for framing houses etc. - Pitch
Mahogany - dark, dense texture, used for furniture - Tight Knot
Oak - many varieties, used in flooring and other applications- great - Check or Split
grain character, hardwood - Blue Stain
Cherry- softer wood, beautiful in appearance, often used in building - Loose Knot
fine furniture and musical instruments - Cur
Walnut - soft wood, great brown color and texture, expensive
Red Wood- this type of wood is usually used in outdoor applications NATURAL WOOD 3PART 2
as it has good resistance to elements
• Hard ood - commonly used for flooring
PINE – Softwood
cheap wood, pale in color, quite easy to cut and shape, and machines Thin, narrow strips are available; preassembled into parquet
relatively well; used in building trade and furniture tile; used for stairs treads, moldings, trim

OAK WOOD – Hardwood Hard ood: Mahogany

expensive material; used in for making quality, expensive furniture.
Steel fittings such as hinges will stain oak so it is important to use OAK - This is an expensive material and is used in for making
brass ones. quality, expensive furniture. Steel fittings such as hinges will
stain oak so it is important to use brass ones.
MAHOGANY WOOD – Hardwood
light brown in color expensive; used for quality furniture and • Soft ood
hardwood windows
Broadly classified into:
TEAK WOOD – Hardwood
 Stress-graded lumber:
contains oils (resistant to decay); used to make garden furniture or
for wood block flooring.
• Timber posts and beams
CHERRY WOOD – Hardwood
availability may be limited, of seasoned stock
brown American hardwood; has a hint of pink or dark red; darkens
with age and considered both desirable and beautiful been largely replaced by parallel laminated wood in heavy
timber type of construction
WALNUT WOOD – Hardwood
hard, heavy wood; heartwood is very dark brown, gets darker if kiln- • Joints, rafters, studs, decking: for structural framing
drying cycle alternates between drying and steaming
Grades of all species for high allowable stresses may not
RED WOOD – softwood always be readily available
finest appearance, excellent durability against rot and termites,
totally natural (no artificial preservatives) installation should be inspected to ascertain that the
proper grade lumber is being used
SHAPES
Appearance graded lumber: for trim, panelling, siding, cabinets,
shelving

Nonstress-graded lumber: generally boards, planks for sheathing,

underflooring, formwork, utility shelving

Softwood end-grain blocks are also used as heavy duty flooring

square section
• Examples of Soft oods

• Pine - Is a relatively cheap wood used in the building trade

and for furniture. It is pale in colour, quite easy to cut and
shape, and machines relatively well.
Dowel rod in different diameters
• Maple Wood Properties
Advantages and Disadvantages
Physical features: wood type is heavy, hard, strong, tough,
- cost effective and cheaper to use in construction than
stiff, close-grained, possesses a uniform texture
stone
- has a number of other uses - paper products
 Uses : Furniture, cabinets, decorative woodwork, flooring, Physical Features: Heavy, hard, and dense with high
cutting surfaces, musical instruments, bowling pins, bending and crushing strengths, medium shock resistance,
utensils, and bowls; takes stain satisfactorily and polishes good stability and steam bending, and very durable
well. heartwood. Holds screws and nails well and glues
satisfactorily. Finishes nicely although filling
• Teak Wood Properties recommended.

Physical Features: Moderately hard and heavy, low Uses : for decorative and ornamental purposes including
stiffness, shock resistant, moderate bending strength, and furniture, cabinetry, paneling, and turnery. Also used for
steam bending, excellent decay resistance and dimensional musical and mathematical instruments, brush backs, inlay,
stability; Stains and finishes well although natural oils can
cause adhesion difficulties • Properties of Willo Wood

Uses: ship building (especially decks), indoor or outdoor Physical features: Light, soft, and weak, with low shock
furniture, high class joinery, flooring, paneling, plywood, resistance, decay resistance, and steam bending
decorative veneers, turnery, carving, chemical tanks properties. Glues, screw, nails, and finishes satisfactorily.

• Pine Wood Properties • Uses: Used for millwork, packing cases and boxes, artificial
limbs, caskets, polo balls, cricket bats, Venetian blinds,
Physical features: light weight, straight grained and lacks slack cooperage, veneer, and inexpensive furniture.
figure; resists shrinking and swelling; Knotty pine is often
used for decorative effect Characteristics

Uses: for furniture; Pickled, whitened, painted and oil - It produces sheaths of new wood along its stem and
finishes often used on this wood branches each year, somewhat like a stack of ever larger
cones.
• Walnut Wood Properties - In Southern pines, wood produced earliest in the year,
called Earlywood (EW), is lower density and lighter colored
Physical Features: fine hardwood; mixes well with other than that produced later on, called Latewood (LW).
woods and natural materials to provide a friendly - Growth Sheaths Schematic diagram of a tree stem cut
atmosphere in otherwise austere interiors; moderately away to the center, exposing 6 growth sheaths or growth
heavy, very strong, exceptionally stable rings (bottom). The top of each sheath shows the height
of the tree at the end of each growing season (right).
Uses: Furniture, cabinets, doors, flooring, architectural
woodwork, gunstocks, and novelties; takes and holds Wood Directions
paints and stains exceptionally well, and is readily polished

• Mahogany Wood Properties

Physical properties: moderately heavy and hard, medium

bending and crushing strength, low stiffness shock
resistance, moderate decay resistance, good stability in
use; works fairly easily although interlocked, woolly grain
can be troublesome. Glues, nails, and screws satisfactorily.
Stains and polishes to an excellent finish.

Uses: furniture, cabinetry, high class joinery, interior trim,

boat building, vehicle bodies, paneling, plywood, and
decorative veneers.

• Ebony Wood Properties

Spiral Grain
Physical Features: Very heavy, hard, strong, stiff with high
shock and decay resistance. Steam-bends reasonably well
but wood is brittle. Works with difficulty due to hardness,
has severe blunting effect on cutting edges. Requires pre-
drilling to nail or screw. Glues satisfactorily , takes an
excellent finish

Uses : for luxury furniture, carving, turned items i.e. knife

and tool handles, billiard cues, and brush backs; for combs,
piano keys musical instrument parts, inlay, and decorative
veneer

• Properties of Rose ood

Wood Construction

Platform Frame

- In platform-frame construction, first floor joists are completely

covered with sub-flooring to form a platform upon which exterior
walls and interior partitions are erected.

Balloon Frame

- In balloon-frame construction, exterior wall studs continue through

the first and second stories.

Foundations

- A firm foundation, consisting of properly installed footings of

adequate size to support the structure, is essential to the satisfactory
performance of all buildings.

Floor Framing

- Floor framing consists of a system of sills, girders, joists or floor

trusses and sub-flooring that provides support for floor loads and
gives lateral support to exterior walls.

Interior Partition Framing

- There are two types of interior partitions: bearing partitions which

support floors, ceilings, or roofs; and non-bearing partitions which
carry only the weight of the materials in the partitions.

Roof and Ceiling Framing

- Roof construction must be adequate strength to withstand

anticipated snow or wind loads.

Structures made of Natural Wood

Wood House Design at Muskoka Lake

Oak Wood Kitchen Design by Roberto Lazzeroni

Natural Home Design in Beach Area, Sydney

Ocean Villa with Natural Wood Interior in Stockholm

Natural Home Interior by PPA at Lesponne

Twofold House In Black Stained Wood with Natural Wood Between

the Window Partitions