Lecture 2

Reflection and Refraction at Boundaries/ Total internal reflection/ Propagating in a conducting

medium

We have seen how plane waves propagate in vacuum or in isotropic homogeneous linear media.
The next thing Maxwell’s equations can give us is a description of the propagation of light across a
boundary between two media described by different values of  and  .

Clearly, in order to solve this problem we first need to know the boundary conditions on the fields
at the interface. We consider the special case where no free charges or currents are present near
the boundary, so the source-free Maxwell equations may be used (which is the case for most
problems in optics). In integral form:

B
 D  ds = 
s
free =0  E  dl = − t  ds
s


 B  ds = 0
s
 H  dl = t  D  ds
S

Consider first the closed surface integrals. Construct a “hockey puck” whose faces lie parallel to,
and on opposite sides of, the interface:

n̂ =unit vector from i to t

ds =- n̂ dA in region i, and + n̂ dA in region t

− Di  nˆ + Dt  nˆ = 0
=>
− Bi  nˆ + Bt  nˆ = 0
=>the normal components of D and B are continuous across the interface.
1
Now consider the line integrals. Construct a loop across the interface as follows:

As dh->0, the flux Φ𝐵 , Φ𝐷 ->0.

=> -𝐸⃑𝑖 ∙ 𝑡̂ + 𝐸⃑𝑡 ∙ 𝑡̂ = 0
⃑ 𝑖 ∙ 𝑡̂ + 𝐻
-𝐻 ⃑ 𝑡 ∙ 𝑡̂ = 0
Thus the tangential components of E and H must be continuous across the surface.
Consider a monochromatic wave:

E (r , t ) = El 0 exp[i(t − kl  r )]
Where the index l can be i, r or t for the incident, reflected, or transmitted wave.

In the region i, the possible wave vectors which can propagate

lie in the surface of a sphere of radius:

ni
| ki |=
c
Let’s now suppose that the wave vector lies in the x-z plane so we can write:

E (r , t ) = El 0 exp[i (t − hlx −  lz )]

Which is a form we will find very useful later when we consider optical waveguides.

kl = hlxˆ −  lzˆ
Note that:
| kl |= hl 2 +  l 2

If the interface lies in the x-y plane, we have the following configuration:

The possible wave vectors are thus a circle in the x-z plane.

nt ni
Consider the case nt  ni (so kt =  = ki = kr )
c c
The wave vector diagram is thus the following:

2
Note that the projection of k along the x-axis is the same for all 3 waves <-> conservation of

momentum along x.
i (t − kxx )
At z=0, E = El 0e , so continuous phase implies hi = hr = ht  h

For the three waves:

h = ki sin  i = kr sin  r = kt sin  t
ni ni nt
So sin  i = sin  r = sin  t
c c c
This gives us the kinematic condition at the interface:

i = r
(Snell’s Law)
ni sin  i = nt sin  t
Thus the directions of the reflected and refracted waves are entirely determined by the phase
continuity condition.
However, to get the amplitudes of the reflected and transmitted waves, one must apply the
electromagnetic boundary conditions. The results will depend on the polarization of the incident
field.

(1) S polarization (also called TE polarization)

Ei ⊥ “plane of incidence” (plane defined by ki and kt)

Our convention:
Material interface=x-y plane of z=0
Plane of polarization=x-z plane

3
(2) P polarization (also called TM polarization)

Ei ∥plane of incidence

Of course, for an arbitrary input polarization, one just considers the appropriate linear combination
of these two cases.

Mnemonic: S-polarization => E “skips” the materials interface

P-polarization=> E ”pokes” the interface

(1) S-polarization:
Incident:

Ei = ˆjEiei (t −kir ) ⃑ 𝑖 = (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑖 𝑖̂ + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑖 𝑛̂) 𝜔𝑛𝑖

where 𝐾
𝑐

1
⃑𝑖 =
𝐵 ⃑ 𝑖 × 𝐸⃑𝑖 = 𝑛𝑖 (−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑖 𝑖̂ + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑖 𝑛̂)𝐸𝑖 𝑒 𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝐾⃑𝑖 ∙𝑟)
𝐾
𝜔 𝑐

Reflected:

Er = ˆjErei (t −kr r ) ⃑ 𝑟 = (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑖 𝑖̂ − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑖 𝑛̂) 𝜔𝑛𝑖

where 𝐾 𝑐

⃑ 𝑟 = 𝑛𝑖 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑖 𝑖̂ + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑖 𝑛̂)𝐸𝑟 𝑒 𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝐾⃑𝑟∙𝑟)

𝐵 𝑐

Transmitted:

 nt
Et = ˆjEtei (t −kt r ) where kt = (sin  tiˆ + cos  tnˆ )
c

nt
Bt = (− cos  tiˆ + sin  tnˆ ) Etei (t −kt r )
c
The boundary condition that the normal component of D is continuous is trivially satisfied, since
there is no normal component for S-polarization light.
In fact, the field is entirely tangential, so we require:
4
 Ei + Er = Et
The normal and tangential B-field conditions lead to :

ni nt
sin  i ( Ei + Er ) = sin  tEt (Normal)
c c
And

ni nt
cos  i ( Ei − Er ) = cos  tEt (Tangential)
 ic  tc
The normal equation above is actually redundant, by Snell’s law and Ei + Er = Et .
Eliminating Et from the tangential equation, we have

ni nt ni nt
Ei[ cos  i − cos  t ] = Er[ cos  i + cos  t ]
i t i t
This allows the definition of the field reflection coefficient:

ni nt
cos  i −
cos  t
Er  i t
rs = =
Ei ni cos  i + nt cos  t
i t

sin  i
Or, using nt = ni , above becomes:
sin  t

 t tan  t ( Ei − Er ) =  i tan  i( Ei + Er )
Thus yields:

−  i tan  i +  t tan  t Er
rs = =
 i tan  i +  t tan  t Ei

And

2  t tan  t Et
ts = =
 i tan  i +  t tan  t Ei
These are the Fresnel refection and transmission coefficients for S-polarization. Of course, there is
really only one independent variable, namely  i , since  t is fixed by Snell’s Law.
In most cases in optics, a much simpler form can be used, since quite frequently  i = t=1 for
both materials. Then a little algebra yields:

5
 − sin( i −  t )
rs =
sin( i + t )

2 cos  i sin  t
ts =
sin( i + t )
(2) P-polarization
The fields now have the form:
Incident:

Ei = (cos  iiˆ − sin  inˆ ) Eiei (t −kir )

ni
Bi = ˆj Eiei (t −kir )
c
Reflected:

Er = −(cos  iiˆ + sin  inˆ ) Erei (t −kr r )

n
Br = ˆj i Erei (t − kr r )
c
Transmitted:

Et = (cos  tiˆ − sin  tnˆ ) Etei (t − kt r )

nt
Bt = ˆj Etei (t − kt r )
c
Now the normal B continuity is trivially satisfied.
The other conditions are:

Transverse E: cos  i ( Ei − Er ) = cos  tEt

Normal D:  i sin  i ( Ei + Er ) =  t sin  tEt

ni nt
Transverse H: ( Ei + Er ) = Et
 ic  tc
By Snell’s Law, it is clear that the latter two equations are equivalent. Applying the same algebraic
steps as before yields the field reflection and transmission coefficents as:

− i tan  i +  t tan  t i = t tan( i −  t )

rp = →
 i tan  i +  t tan  t tan( i +  t )
And:

2 i sin  i / cos  t ( i = t ) 2 cos  i sin  t

tp = →
 i tan  i +  t tan  t sin( i +  t ) cos( i −  t )

6
Power reflection+transmission
You can’t just square the field values to get the power reflection+transmission coefficients! (That’s
because the calculation is for plane waves, which are infinite in extent. You have to consider the
power per unit area which is incident on the interface-i.e. use Poynting’s vector.)

Clearly, all the power in area Ai covers an area A=Ai/cos  i in the plane of the interface. The power
transmitted is in At, with A=At/cos  t .
Thus, the Power reflectivity is:

| Sr | cos  r | Er |2
R= = =| rs , p |2
| Si | cos  i | Ei |2

The power transmissivity is:

| St | cos  t nt cos  t | Et | 2 nt cos  t

T= = ( ) = | ts , p |2
| Si | cos  i ni cos  i | Ei | ni cos  i
Plots of the reflection coefficients are shown in page 9 and 10.
There are several interesting angles to be considered in particular.

(a) Normal incidence:   0

Clearly, exactly at normal incidents, it is no longer possible to distinguish between S and P
polarization. For  near 0, we can find the coefficients by taking lim of the expressions for
 →0

both S and P. We find:

nt − ni Er
r → 0 = =
nt + ni Ei
P-polarization:
2ni Et
t → 0 = =
nt + ni Ei

7
 nt − ni Er
r → 0 =− =
nt + ni Ei
S-polarization:
2ni Et
t → 0 = =
nt + ni Ei
(Trivial note: “index-matching”<-> nt=ni =>r=0 t=1)
The sign flip between the two cases is merely a result of the choice in sign conventions in setting
up the geometries,and are not, therefore, physically significant. Usually sign convention (in most
texts) is that for S-polarization (=>180°phase shift on reflection for nt>ni).
In either case, the electric field flips direction.

Note that, while r may be positive or negative, it is always real, which means the plane shift is
either 0 or  (nothing in between).

(b)Brewster’s angle
Looking at the expression for P-polarization:

tan( i −  t )
rp = −  0 when tan( i +  t ) → 
tan( i +  t )
From Snell’s law:
nt sin𝜃𝑖 sin𝜃𝑖 sin𝜃𝑖
= = =
ni sin𝜃𝑡 sin(90° −𝜃𝑖 ) cos𝜃𝑖

nt
Or when  i =  B , tan  B = , rp → 0 .
ni
In other words, at Brewster’s angle, all P-polarized light is transmitted through the interface.
Note that the reflectivity never goes to zero for S-polarization light. On that basis one can make a
cheap, if inefficient, polarizer from a simple piece of glass. A beam of arbitrary polarization is
incident on the glass at Brewster’s angle, and all reflected light is then S-polarized. (the transmitted
beam may still be unpolarized, but will have a greater degree of P-polarization.)

8
 𝐸
This page shows the plots of reflection coefficient ( 𝐸𝑟 ) at external and internal
𝑖

reflection conditions.
External reflection (n2> n1)

Internal reflection (n1> n2)

Remember:
𝜃𝐵 ≡ Brewster’s angle, 𝜃𝑐 ≡ critical angle

9
 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
This page shows the plots of Reflectivity ( 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 )

Plot of reflectivity (n2> n1)

Plot of reflectivity (n1> n2)

10
From refraction to total internal reflection (ni>nt)
Consider propagation of light from an optically dense medium into a less dense medium, i.e. ni>nt
(e.g. light going from water into air). Then, depending on the incident angles, different light
propagating phenomena can happen:

𝐸⃑𝑡 ~𝑒 −𝑖𝐾⃑𝑡 ∙𝑟 = 𝑒 −𝑖𝐾𝑡 (𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑡+𝑧𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑡)

cos𝜃𝑡 ≡ −𝑖𝑎

11
 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑖
−𝑖𝐾 [𝑥( ⁄𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 )−𝑖𝑎𝑧]
𝐸⃑𝑡 ~𝑒 𝑡 𝑐

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑖
−𝑖𝐾𝑡 𝑥( ⁄𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 )
~𝑒 −𝑎𝐾𝑡 𝑧 𝑒 𝑐

Phase shift in TIR:

Let’s consider just the case of S-polarization. The phase shift is easiest to calculate, if we use the
form of rs given before (with 𝜇𝑖 = 𝜇𝑡 ):

12
Propagation in a conducting medium
So far we have considered propagation only in a uniform “lossless dielectric”, where we have

D =  E and B =  H with  and  being real constants.

In a conducting medium we must also take into account the current that can be induced in the

medium by the electric field of an E.M. wave. We assume the simplest case, which is J =  E

(  =conductivity of the medium).

Now Maxwell’s equations are

 E = 0  B = 0

B E
 E = −  H =  E +
t t

The derivation of the wave eqn. goes exactly as before (taking     E ), but we get an extra

𝜕2 𝐸⃑ 𝜕𝐸⃑
⃑ = 𝜇𝜀
term: ∇2 𝐸 + 𝜇𝜎 𝜕𝑡
𝜕2𝑡 2
Such an equation, with both first and second time derivations, is known as a “telegraph equation”
We shall see below that the first-time-derivative results in damping of the wave.

Harmonic waves:
Consider solutions of the form

E = E ( r ) eit
The wave equation then becomes

 2 E ( r ) = − 2  E ( r ) + i E ( r )
Or

i
 2 E ( r ) +  2  ( − )E ( r ) = 0

This looks just like the wave equation we had before, but now it behaves as if the dielectric constant
is complex.

i i
Def.  = − or r = r − (dimensionless form) complex dielectric constant
  o

=> 2 E +  2  E = 0 Complex Helmholtz eqn.

We can still write this in the familiar form of the Helmholtz equation, but now the wave vector
must be complex:
13
2 E ( r ) + k 2 E ( r ) = 0

i
Where k =   ( − )


If we want to write k in terms of an index of refraction, then it must also be complex:

n
k=
c
Where n can be written in terms of its real and imaginary parts as

n = n(1 − i )
Where  is called the “extinction coefficient”

To see the consequences of a nonzero conductivity or imaginary part of the dielectric constant,
consider a plane wave propagating in the z-direction.

E ( r ) = Eoe−ikz

n n n n
−i (1−i ) z −i z − z −i z
−z/d
= Eoe c
= Eoe c
e c
= Eoe c
e
n
−i z
c
Eoe : the usual harmonic wave
z
−
e d : Exponentially damped amplitude

c
d= =”skin depth” of the metal
n

Some straightforward algebra will allow n and  to be expressed in terms of  ,  , and :

c 2  2 2    
2

n =    +
2
+  
2     
 
c 2  2 2    
2

n  =    +
2 2
−  
2     
 
𝜎 𝑐 2 𝜇𝜎
For typical metals, ≫ 𝜀, so 𝑛2 𝜅 2 ≅
𝜔 2𝜔

2
And thus d ≅ √𝜇𝜎𝜔

i.e. the skin depth goes as 1⁄ and 1⁄

√𝜎 √𝜔
In the visible (optical) region of the spectrum, the skin depth of typical metals is on the order
of 10 Å.
14
Key Points of Lecture 2
1. How to derive reflection and transmission coefficient using Maxwell equation and
boundary condition?
2. How to derive the power reflectivity and transmissivity?
3. Understand the plots of rs,p , ts,p , Rs,p and Ts,p
4. Understand the Brewster and critical angles? (evanescent wave, Goos–Hänchen shift)
5. Propagation in a conducting medium

15