CELLULAR LEVEL OF

ORGANIZATION

By:
Daryll Jay C. Amores, OTRP
 CONTENT

• Overview of Cells and its parts

• Plasma Membrane
• Transport Across Membranes
• Cytoplasm
• Organelles
• Nucleus
• Protein Synthesis
• Cell Division
 LEARNING OUTCOMES

• The student can identify the major parts of the cell and their functions.
• The student can differentiate the types of transport across the membrane.
• The student can identify the types and functions of organelles.
• The student can explain the process of protein synthesis.
• The student can discuss the process of cell division.
 CELLS

Cells – basic, living, structural, and functional units the body.

The body consists of 100 trillion cells.

Cytology – the study of cells. Also known as cell biology.

CELLS ARE LIKE YOU!
 CELLS

Divided into three (3) main parts:

1. Plasma membrane – separates internal and external environment.
2. Cytoplasm – contains all cellular contents.
3. Nucleus – houses most of cell’s DNA.
PLASMA MEMBRANE
 PLASMA MEMBRANE

• Is a flexible yet sturdy barrier.

• Surrounds and contains the cytoplasm.

• Fluid mosaic model – arrangement of lipids and proteins.

 FUNCTIONS

1. Separates inside and outside of cell.

2. Controls the flow of substances in and out of cell.

3. Helps identify the cell to other cells.

4. Participates in intercellular signaling.

CDU CDU
 QUESTIONS

• Do cells know one type of cell from another?

• Do cells allow all substances to go in and out of the cell freely?
• Do cells allow communication between each other?
• Does the cell membrane separate internal form external environment?
 FLUID MOSAIC MODEL

• A sea of lipids with many different proteins.

• Some proteins float freely like icebergs.

• Other proteins are anchored like islands.

• Act as barriers to polar substances.

 STRUCTURE

• Is a lipid bilayer – back-to-back layer of lipids

• Made of phospholipids (75%), cholesterol (20%), and glycolipids (5)%

• Contains amphipathic lipids.

 PHOSPHOLIPID STRUCTURE

• Phosphate filled head which is hydrophilic.

Hydro – Water, Philic – Love

• Two tails which are hydrophobic.

• Phobic – fearing
 STRUCTURE

The heads face outward and are polar.

The tails face inward and are non-polar.

Extracellular Fluid

A B
 ARRANGEMENT OF PROTEINS

Proteins are either integral or peripheral.

Integral – extended into and embedded in bilayer.

Peripheral – attached to membrane lipids or integral proteins.

 GLYCOCALYX

Formed by glycoproteins and glycolipids.

Unique in each cell, serves as an “ID”

Function:
• Allows adherence of cell to cell
• Prevents digestion by enzymes
• Identification of foreign bodies
 FUNCTION OF MEMBRANE PROTEINS

• Ion channels – forms a pore for ions to flow in and out.

• Carrier – transports a substance across membrane.
• Receptor – recognizes ligands and changes function of cell.
• Enzyme – catalyzes reaction inside or outside the cell.
• Linker – anchors filaments inside/outside.
• Cell-identity – distinguishes cells from others.
 FUNCTION OF MEMBRANE PROTEINS

Ion channel
Carriers
Receptors
Enzyme
Linkers
Cell-Identity
 MEMBRANE FLUIDITY

Membranes are fluid structures; contents move around

Dependent on:
• Number of double bonds
• Fatty acid tails
• Cholesterol
 MEMBRANE PERMEABILITY

Permeable – allows passage, impermeable – stops passage

Plasma membranes are selectively permeable

Permeability Substance

Highly Permeable O2, CO2, Steroids

Moderately permeable Water and urea

Impermeable Ions and Glucose

 PERMEABILITY

H2O O2
Na-

Polar
O2
Glucose -
Na-

O2
Na-
H2O
 WHAT CHANGES
PERMEABILITY?

• Gaps in the cell membrane or movement

• Transmembrane proteins

• Channel membranes or carriers

• Endocytosis or exocytosis
 GRADIENTS

Permeability maintains different concentrations around a cell

Concentration gradient – difference of concentration in chemicals between regions

Electrical gradient – difference between electrical charges in regions

Membrane potential – charge difference between membrane and environment

TRANSPORT ACROSS MEMBRANES
 MEMBRANE TRANSPORT

Transport of materials is essential to life

Two (2) types:

1. Passive transport
2. Active transport
 PASSIVE TRANSPORT

Substance moves down gradient using kinetic energy

Like going downhill, requires no energy

Example:
Simple diffusion
 DIFFUSION

Movement of material from higher to lower gradient

Both solute and solvent undergo diffusion

 SIMPLE DIFFUSION

Passive process

Substances moves freely through membrane

Non-polar, hydrophobic material do this

Examples:
O2, CO2, Steroids, Fat-soluble vitamins, Water, Urea
 FACILITATED DIFFUSION

For polar or highly charged particles

Diffusion with the help of integral protein

Channel-mediated – membrane channel


Carrier-mediated – carrier/transporter
 OSMOSIS

Passive movement of SOLVENT between gradients

From lower solute to higher solute gradient

Hydro static pressure – pressure exerted by liquids in motion

Osmotic pressure – pressure exerted by solute

 TONICITY

Measure of solute’s ability to change water content

Isotonic – equal water and solute

Hypotonic – lower solute

Hypertonic – greater solute

 ACTIVE TRANSPORT

Movement of substances against a gradient

An uphill movement; requires energy

Two (2) types:

1. Primary Active Transport
2. Secondary Active Transport
 PRIMARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT

Uses energy derived from ATP hydrolysis

Uses 40% of body’s ATP

Uses proteins called pumps

Sodium-potassium pump – most prevalent

 SODIUM-POTASSIUM PUMP

Process:
1. Three Na+ attaches to pump
2. ATP is used to change pump shape
3. Three Na+ is release to extracellular environment
4. Two K+ attach to pump
5. Pump returns to normal shape
6. Two K+ enters cytosol
 SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT

Uses energy from Na+ or H+

Harnesses potential energy in Na+ or H+

Symporters – moves two substances in same direction

Antiporters – moves two substance in opposite directions

 TRANSPORT IN VESICLES

Vesicle – small, spherical sac.

Two (2) forms:

Endocytosis – move into a cell via membrane vesicle
Exocytosis – move out of cell via secretory vesicle
 PHAGOCYTOSIS

Otherwise known as “cell eating”

Cell engulfs material and processes it

Only a few cells can perform this, called phagocytes

Macrophages and Neutrophils are examples

 TRANSCYTOSIS

Material is absorbed in one part, and taken out the other

Endocytosis then Exocytosis

Like eating and then defecating.

CYTOPLASM
 CYTOPLASM

Consists of cellular contents between membrane and nucleus

Two (2) components:

1. Cytosol – intracellular fluid
2. Organelles – functional cell structures
 CYTOSOL

Constitutes about 55% of total cell volume.

Is 75 – 90 % water.

Contains several components, such as:

Ions, glucose, amino acids, proteins, lipids, and ATP
 CYTOSKELETON

Protein filaments that contribute to cell structure

Microfilaments – actin and myosin, thinnest structure, movement

Intermediate filaments – stability and strength, mid thickness

Microtubules – tubulin, largest, cell shape and movement

ORGANELLES
 CENTROSOME

Microtubule organizing center near the nucleus

Composed of two (2) components:

1. Two Centrioles - microtubules
2. Pericentriolar matrix – contains tubulin

Replicate during mitosis

 CILIA FLAGELLA

Numerous short, hair-like projections Long projections

Contains several microtubules Generates forward motion

Does an oar like movement

 RIBOSOMES

Site for protein synthesis

Contains a high number of ribonucleic acid

Two (2) types:

1. Free ribosomes – synthesize proteins for cytosol
2. ER Ribosomes – proteins for membrane or secretion
 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

Network of membranes made of flattened sacs or tubules

Extends from nuclear envelope to cytoplasm

Two (2) types:

1. Rough ER
2. Smooth ER
 ROUGH ER

Continuous with the nuclear membrane

Contains ribosomes, site of protein synthesis

Produces the following:

Secretory proteins, membrane proteins, and organelle proteins
 SMOOTH ER

Extends from the Rough ER

No ribosomes, site of fatty acid and steroid synthesis

Has greater flexibility in function and production

 GOLGI COMPLEX

Most proteins from rough ER are transported here

Cisternae – small, flattened membranous sacs with bulging edges

Functions:
1. Modifies, sorts, packages, and transports proteins
2. Forms vesicles for transport
 LYSOSOMES

Lyso – dissolving, somes – bodies

Form from the golgi complex, contains digestive enzymes

Functions:
1. Autophagy – digestion of organelles
2. Autolysis – digestion of whole cells
 PEROXISOMES

Similar to lysosomes but smaller in size

Contains oxidases instead of digestive enzymes

Can oxidize harmful substances such as alcohol

 PROTEASOMES

Similar to lysosomes but digests unneeded proteins

Digestion of degraded structural proteins

 MITOCHONDRIA

The “powerhouse” of the cell

Site of ATP synthesis

Three (3) parts:

1. External Mitochondrial Membrane
2. Internal Mitochondrial Membrane
3. Fluid-filled space
 IDENTIFY THE ORGANELLE

Mitochondria Golgi Complex Lysosomes

Endoplasmic Reticulum
Centrosomes
NUCLEUS
 NUCLEUS

Spherical or oval-shaped figure in a cell

Cells can have multiple (muscle) or none (RBC)

Outer parts:
1. Nuclear envelope – bilayer covering continuous with ER
2. Nuclear pores – openings
 NUCLEOLI

More bodies inside the nucleus

Produces ribosomes

Site for rRNA and protein synthesis

Prominent in protein producing cells like muscles and liver

 GENES

Cell’s hereditary units

Control cellular structure and cellular functions

Humans have 46 chromosomes, 23 from each parent

 CHROMOSOMES
Long strands of DNA

Chromatin – long strands of protein, DNA, and RNA

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
 TRANSCRIPTION

DNA sequences serve as templates for making copies

Three (3) RNA products:

1. Messenger RNA – directs the synthesis of proteins
2. Ribosomal RNA – joins with ribosomal proteins to make ribosomes
3. Transfer tRNA – binds with amino acids during translation
 TRANSLATION

mRNA specifies amino acid sequences of proteins

CELL DIVISION
 SOMATIC CELL DIVISION

Produces two identical cells

Same number of chromosomes (46)

Mitosis – nuclear division

Cytokinesis – cytoplasmic division
 MITOSIS

Phases:
1. Interphase – DNA replication phase.
2. Prophase – organelles disappear, centrioles move to poles
3. Metaphase – chromosomes line at equate, centrioles at poles
4. Anaphase – chromosomes are pulled apart to poles
5. Telophase – cleavage formation, cytokinesis
MITOSIS
 REPRODUCTIVE CELL DIVISION

Cell division undergone by gametes (sperm and egg cells)

Undergoes the process of meiosis

Produces two identical cells but with half chromosomes

(23 instead of 46)
 MEIOSIS

Follows the same set of phases as mitosis, but with one difference.

It goes through two phases, with one not having a follow-up interphase.

First Phase: Second Phase:

1. Interphase
1. Interphase
2. Prophase II
2. Prophase 3. Metaphase II
3. Metaphase 4. Anaphase II
5. Telophase II
4. Anaphase
5. Telophase
 MEIOSIS

Interphase

Telophase Prophase
Telophase Prophase
II II

Anaphase Metaphase
Anaphase Metaphase
II II
MEIOSIS
LEARNING ACTIVITY
 INSTRUCTIONS

Listen carefully, when you hear the word, do the action!

• Mitosis – find a pair

• Meiosis – group yourselves into four
• Prophase – hold hands
• Metaphase – line in the middle
• Anaphase – wave goodbye
• Telophase – separate
 LEARNING OUTCOMES

• The student can identify the major parts of the cell and their functions.
• The student can differentiate the types of transport across the membrane.
• The student can identify the types and functions of organelles.
• The student can explain the process of protein synthesis.
• The student can discuss the process of cell division.