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TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM
Implementing
Total Productive Maintenance
TPM DEVELOPMENT
PROGRAM
Implementing
Total Productive Maintenance

Edited by Seiichi Nakajima

Introduction by Benjamin S. Blanchard
Virginia Polytechnic Institute

Originally published by the Japan Institute

for Plant Maintenance

Productivity Press
Cambridge, Massachusetts § Norwalk, Connecticut
Originally published as TPM tenkai by the Japan Institute for Plant
Maintenance, Tokyo, Japan. Copyright © 1982 by Seiichi Nakajima.

English translation copyright © 1989 Productivity Press, Inc.

Allrights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in

any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy-
ing, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publisher. Additional copies of this book
are available from the publisher. Address all inquiries to:

Productivity Press, Inc.

P.O. Box 3007 :
Cambridge, MA 02140
(617) 497-5146

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 88-43566

ISBN: 0-915299-37-2

Cover design by Gail Graves

Set in Palatino and Helvetica by Rudra Press, Cambridge, MA
Printed and bound by The Maple-Vail Book Manufacturing Group
Printed in the United States of America

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

TPM tenkai. English.

TPM development program: implementing total productive mainte-
nance/edited by Seiichi Nakajima; introduction by Benjamin S. Blanchard;
contributors, Seiichi Nakajima... [et al.].
Translation of: TPM tenkai.
1. Plant mainten — Management.
ance I. Nakajima, Seiichi, 1928- .
II. Title. III. Title: TPM development program.
TS192.T6813 1989 88-43566 658.2’02—dc20 CIP
ISBN 0-915299-37-2

9064 9 1602 10) 280 Be ah) 5 A

 Table of Contents

Publisher’s Foreword
Preface to the English Edition
Introduction

1 An Introduction to TPM
Seiichi Nakajima
From Preventive Maintenance (PM) to Total Productive
Maintenance (TPM)
History of TPM
TPM and the Future of Maintenance
How Does TPM Work?
Examples of TPM Effectiveness
Maximizing Equipment Effectiveness O1
Gi
“J
\o
Qe

The Relationship Between TPM, Terotechnology,

and Logistics af
Introducing TPM into the Factory PA
TPM as Basic Company Policy 13
Developing a TPM Master Plan 13
TPM Promotional Structure 14
Preliminary TPM Education 18
Overview of the TPM Development Program 18
Improving Equipment Effectiveness 20
 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Autonomous Maintenance by Operators

Planned Maintenance
Training to Improve Operating and Maintenance
Skills
Early Equipment Management
References

Equipment Effectiveness, Chronic Losses, and

Other TPM Improvement Concepts
Kunio Shirose
Six Big Losses Limit Equipment Effectiveness
Breakdown Losses
Setup and Adjustment Losses
Idling and Minor Stoppage Losses
Reduced Speed Losses
Quality Defects and Rework
Startup Losses
Measuring Equipment Effectiveness
Calculating the Operating, Performance, and
Quality Rates
Levels and Targeted Goals for Overall Effectiveness
Chronic Losses and Hidden Defects
Chronic Losses and Sporadic Losses
Differences Between Chronic and Sporadic Losses
Characteristics of Chronic Losses
How Chronic Losses Occur
Why Chronic Losses Are Neglected
Reducing and Eliminating Chronic Losses
Reliability
Restoration
Optimal Conditions
Chronic Losses and Slight Equipment Defects
P-M Analysis and Chronic Loss
P-M Analysis Procedure
The Quest for Skill
Raising Skill Levels through TPM
 Contents Vii

Why Skills Must Be Taught ALES OX

Aims of Skill Analysis ‘ Ne AAN
The Four Stages of Skill De pmen 0 wi
Importance of Skills CE |INFORM ATION 『 1
時
References シ SERVIC sf
‘t. AE TVYR_yA。 3/
Eliminating the Six Big Losses ヽ *※
Kunio Shirose ae
Fumio Goté
Taking Action Against Breakdowns
Changing How We Look at Breakdowns
Poor Equipment Management Promotes Chronic
Breakdowns
Basic Principles for Zero Defects: Exposing
Hidden Defects
Five Requirements for Zero Breakdowns
Pursue All Five Zero Breakdown Activities
Production Versus Maintenance
Zero Breakdowns: A Four-Phase Implementation
Program 101
Why the Four Phases Are Necessary 107
Case Study 3-1 - Four-Phase Development
Improving Setup and Adjustment 112
Common Problems with Setup and Adjustment 113
Improving Setup 114
Eliminating Adjustments 119
Improving Unavoidable Adjustments 125
Steps for Improving Setup and Adjustment
Operations 125
Case Study 3-2 - Eliminating Adjustment 128
Case Study 3-3 - Improving Unavoidable
Adjustments 128
Reducing Idling and Minor Stoppages 129
Definitions 132
Characteristics of Idling and Minor Stoppages まう
Common Problems 135
viii TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Strategies for Reducing Idling and Minor

Stoppages 136
Key Points and Cautions 143
Steps in Reducing Idling and Minor Stoppages 145
Case Study 3-4 — Reducing Blockages by
Correcting Slight Defects 145
Case Study 3-5 - Correcting Blockages 145
Reducing Speed Losses 150
Common Problems Related to Speed Losses 150
Approaches to Increasing Speed 151
Reducing Chronic Quality Defects 153
General Characteristics of Chronic Quality Defects 154
Sporadic Problems Versus Chronic Problems 156
Strategies for Reducing Chronic Problems 156
References 163

Autonomous Maintenance 165

Fumio Goto
Operation and Maintenance Are Inseparable 166
Classification and Allocation of Maintenance Tasks 166
Program for the Production Department 167
Program for the Maintenance Department 170
Establishing Basic Equipment Conditions 171
Cleaning and Cleanliness 171
Activities That Encourage Equipment Cleaning 173
Promoting Lubrication 181
Promoting Proper Bolting 185
General Inspection 186
Why Inspections Fail 186
Inspection Intervals 189
Inspection Times 190
Checkpoints for Daily Inspections 192
Autonomous Inspection Training and Education 193
Developing Operators Who Understand Their
Equipment 194
 Contents

Preparing for General Inspection Training

Implementing the Training Program
Conducting General Inspections
Completing the General Inspection Step by Step
Seiri and Seiton — Keys to Workplace Management
Seiri and Seiton = Standardization
Se777 and the Operators’ Role
Organization and Management of Materials
and Tools
Assuring Correct Operation
Implementing Autonomous Maintenance
in Seven Steps
Keys to Successful Autonomous Maintenance
References

Preventive Maintenance
Ainosuke Miyoshi
Standardization of Maintenance Activities
Types of Standards
Maintenance Standards
Revision of Standards
Maintenance Planning
Types of Maintenance Plans
Equipment Maintenance Standards and
Maintenance Planning
Preparing Annual Maintenance Plans
Preparing Monthly Maintenance Plans
Planning for Major Maintenance Projects
Project Management
Increase Maintenance Efficiency by Improving
Maintainability
Keeping and Using Maintenance Records
Why Keep Maintenance Records?
The Flow of Maintenance Records
 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Types of Maintenance Records 240

Using Maintenance Records 246
Record-Keeping Precautions 246
Computerization of Maintenance Records 250
Spare Parts Control 251
Purpose of Spare Parts Control 251
Classification of Maintenance Materials 251
Ordering Methods 254
Selecting Permanent Stock 258
Establishing Order Points and Quantities 259
Maintenance Budget Control and Maintenance
Cost Reduction 259
What Are Maintenance Costs? 261
Estimation and Control of Maintenance Budgets 262
Reducing Maintenance Costs 266
Lubrication Control 269
Types and Uses of Lubricants ダル|
Lubricating Methods 272
Controlling Deterioration and Contamination of
Lubricants 277
Predictive Maintenance and Machine Diagnostic
Techniques 280
The Need for Predictive Maintenance 280
Machine Diagnostic Techniques 281
Application and Aims of Predictive Maintenance 281
Condition Monitoring Techniques 282
Condition Monitoring and Machine Diagnosis 283
Case Study 5-1 - Predicting Life Span through
Vibration Monitoring 283
References 286

Maintenance Prevention 287

Fumio Goto
What Is Maintenance Prevention? 287
Aims of Maintenance Prevention 290
 Contents xi

Why Is MP Important? 293

Bridging the Information Gap 293
Increasing Technical Skill 294
Increasing Availability of Technical Data 294
Collecting and Using MP Data 295
Classifying Maintenance Data 296
MP Design Standardization 299
The Need for Parts Standardization 299
Sample Design Standard 302
Using Design Standards and Checklists to Eliminate
Errors 302
Predicting Problems and Preparing Checklists for
Subsequent Stages 307
Commissioning Control 307
The Importance of Control 308
Commissioning Control System 308
Problem Prevention Methodology 310
Forming the Project Team 315
Using Problem Prevention Control Charts 315
The Advantages of Problem Prevention Control 318
Life Cycle Cost Theory 319
What is Design-to-Cost? 320
What is Life Cycle Costing? 322
An Example of Life Cycle Costing 323
References 327

Maintenance Skill Training 329

Masamitsu Aso
TPM Requires Strong Maintenance Skills gen
Responsibilities of Operators and Maintenance
Personnel 330
Equipment Operators Are Like Auto Drivers 330
The Operator's Four Basic Functions 332
Optimal Functions for Maintenance Personnel 332
xii TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Maintenance Skills Training: Objectives

and Curriculum 633
Unit 1: Bolts and Nuts 335
Unit 2: Keys and Bearings 337
Unit 3: Power Transmissions (Gears, Belts, and
Chains) 338
Unit 4: Hydraulics, Pneumatics, and Sealing 639
Implementing the Training Course 340
Maintenance Training for Equipment Operators 342
Related Courses 343
Instructor Training 343
Maintenance Procedures Course 343
Electrical Wiring and Instrumentation Course 346
Machine Monitoring 346
The Importance of In-House Training 347

TPM Small Group Activities 349

Seiichi Nakajima
Integrating Small Group Activities into
the Organization 349
QC and ZD Groups Contrasted 350
TPM Small Groups Based on the ZD Model 352
Management of TPM Groups 353
Group Goals Coincide with Company Goals 9 のは
High Morale = High Profits 354
Promoting Small Group Activities 355
Workers Are the Leading Players 355
Managers’ Role in Promoting Small Groups 356
Leadership in Small Groups eye
The Role of Top Management 358
Developing Able, Self-Motivated Personnel 358
Creating a Favorable Work Environment 309
Evaluating the Progress of Small Groups 361
References 363
 Contents xiii

9 Measuring TPM Effectiveness 365

Why Measure Effectiveness? 365
Measuring Equipment Effectiveness 366
Overall Equipment Effectiveness 366
Reliability and Maintainability Indices 367
Measuring the Efficiency of Maintenance Activities 367
Measurement Indices Related to POCDSM 368
Summary 369
Case Studies 369
References 375

Appendix A — The PM Prize for Outstanding

TPM Plants 377
Appendix B — Application Procedures for the PM Prize 381
Appendix C — Criteria for Awarding the PM Prize 383
Policies and Goals 383
Organization and Management 383
Small Group Activities and Autonomous
Maintenance 384
Education and Training 384
Equipment Management 385
Maintenance Planning and Management 385
Equipment Investment Planning and MP
(Maintenance Prevention) 386
Relationship Between Cost Control and Production
Quantities, Delivery Times, and Product Quality 387
Industrial Safety, Hygiene, and Environment 387
Results and Evaluation 387
Author Profiles 389
Seiichi Nakajima 389
Kunio Shirose 389
Fumio Goto 390
Ainosuke Miyoshi 390
Masamitsu Aso 391
Index 393
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 Publisher’s Foreword

In the ideal factory, equipment should be operating at 100

percent capacity 100 percent of the time. TPM is a powerful con-
cept leading us close to the ideal with no downtime, no defects,
and no safety problem. This book, TPM Development Program,
offers a detailed explanation of the integrated spheres of im-
provement activity that we now recognize as TPM: equipment
improvement, autonomous maintenance, skills training for opera-
tors and maintenance personnel, improved maintenance man-
agement, and maintenance prevention activities.
In these contexts, if total productive maintenance is a com-
panywide approach to quality through equipment, what does
“total” mean? Certainly, it means involving everyone in the com-
pany in the programs. It also means transferring knowledge — a
certain kind of understanding — to everyone. TPM expands the
knowledge base of operators and maintenance personnel and
brings them together as a cooperative team to optimize PM acti-
vities. TPM should also be a major issue for senior management,
however, because eliminating breakdowns and reducing de-
fects-in-process also promotes the successful achievement of a
streamlined continuous flow process. In other words, optimally
functioning equipment is a vital piece in the just-in-time puzzle.
Taiichi Ohno, originator of the Toyota production system,
often speaks of the ideal production system as a sensitive flow,
like the nervous system of the human body. To act and react
xvi TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

efficiently, each part of the production system (like each part of

the body) must be sensitive to external stimuli and able to respond
to new demands immediately. This means shared understand-
ing, effective communication, and coordinated action — themes
that are repeatedly underscored in TPM Development. Improve-
ments emerging from isolated pockets of enthusiasm on the
shop floor or among a few engineers may ultimately result in
overall disappointment in a TPM program. Therefore, at every
stage of TPM implementation explored in this book, new ways of
thinking, communicating, and working are emphasized.
Teamwork and small group activity, for example, are impor-
tant at all levels and at every stage, because they promote the
flow of shared knowledge and information — the TPM “equip-
ment consciousness” and the transfer of new data gained
through a “shop-floor approach” to problem-solving. For exam-
ple, operators understand and begin to interact with their equip-
ment; their involvement in daily PM in turn allows maintenance
personnel to expand their own improvement horizons; they
have more time to improve equipment maintainability, to learn
about and use more sophisticated techniques.
Communication is vital and is continuously stressed. A
good example is maintenance-prevention cross-functional team
activities, which represent a potentially powerful collaboration
between maintenance, engineering, and design staff. Data de-
rived from day-to-day observation of equipment is translated
into information that can be used to design new, virtually
maintenance-free equipment or to make wiser equipment pur-
chases. Enhanced communication between these groups also
reduces time and eliminates costly delays to correct errors and
unanticipated problems between the design and commercial op-
eration stages.
Another important key in TPM is the combination of a zero-
defects philosophy with a shop-floor team approach to equip-
ment problem-solving. Dealing with persistent, chronic losses
forces team members to put aside narrow engineering solutions or
approaches that worked in the past for innovative, experimental,
hands-on work based on observation of the actual equipment.
 Publisher’s Foreword xvii

Every participant benefits from these activities and enhanced

communication systems document and help to share the valu-
able insights with other teams working on similar problems.
TPM Development Program was written by a team of consul-
tants at the Japan Institute of Plant Maintenance and is rich in
insights, case examples, and gritty truths about the work of im-
proving equipment and maintenance systems. It follows Intro-
duction to TPM, (Cambridge: Productivity Press, 1988), in what
we hope will be a valuable series of books and products on this
important subject. Our special thanks go out to Tajiri Masaji of
JIPM who, on behalf of Mr. Nakajima, devoted hundreds of
hours and a week-long visit at his own expense to help us pro-
vide a correct and complete translation. Finally, thanks to Esmé
McTighe, who produced the book with the able assistance of de-
signer Donna Puleo and our friends at Rudra Press, Caroline
Kutil, Michele Seery, Gayle Joyce, and Susan Cobb.

Norman Bodek
President
Connie Dyer
Senior Editor
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 Preface to
English Edition

What is the secret of Japanese quality and productivity? For

some time, the standard answer to this question has been just-in-
time production (JIT), the uniquely Japanese production system
developed at Toyota Motor Company, and TQC, the Japanese ap-
proach to total quality control.
Excellent Japanese companies have another secret, however,
that has pushed productivity and quality to their limits, making
possible production lines with zero breakdowns and zero de-
fects. That secret is TPM, or total productive maintenance.
Only a few companies in the world are aware of TPM, perhaps
because so little has been published in English on the subject.
Now, however, Productivity Press has produced an English-
language version of TPM Development Program, an in-depth follow-
up volume to Introduction to TPM, published in English in the
summer of 1988.
Introduction to TPM is intended to offer an executive’s sum-
mary of TPM. It outlines the principles and programs of TPM for
anyone willing to take an evening to read it. TPM Development
Program, on the other hand, provides a closer, more detailed
view of the various TPM programs, illustrated by case materials
from many cooperating companies. These two books have served
together as the “TPM bible” for Japanese companies developing -
6 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

their own TPM programs and have been reprinted in Japan many
times since their initial publication five or six years ago. We ex-
pect that publication of these new English-language editions will
contribute to wider understanding that TPM, like JITand TQC, is
a fundamental factor in world-class quality and productivity.
Although the basic TPM concepts and programs have
changed very little since their introduction, TPM has been im-
plemented in many different industries. For example, while most
examples in the book reflect the experiences of PM prizewinners
in the machining and assembling industries, today TPM is being
applied increasingly in process industries.
TPM Development Program, read together with its companion,
Introduction to TPM, should serve as an excellent basis for under-
standing total productive maintenance. We encourage com-
panies to pursue the development of TPM in their own factories
and to experience the improvements in quality and productivity
that it makes possible.
Finally, on behalf of the authors, I would like to express our
gratitude to all those at Productivity Press who tackled the
English translation of this book so enthusiastically.

Seiichi Nakajima, Editor

Vice Chairman, Japan Institute of Plant Maintenance
 Introduction

In today’s environment, systems are becoming increasingly

complex and their performance and effectiveness are often in-
adequate to meet consumer needs. The costs associated with
their acquisition and use are also growing rapidly. At the same
time, competition is increasing; there is a greater degree of inter-
national cooperation and exchange, and the requirements for
producing a well-integrated, cost-effective system are even greater
than in the past. System consumers are demanding higher qual-
ity and more cost-effective results whether they are buying a
manufacturing capability, an electronics system, or an automobile.
From an economic standpoint, total cost visibility is often lack-
ing. While we have been quite successful in dealing with the
short-term aspects of cost, we have been less responsive to long-
term effects. For example, design and development costs and the
costs of acquiring and installing a system are often relatively well
known, while much of the cost associated with its operation and
maintenance is hidden. As we have learned, the percentage of a
system’s life cycle cost attributable to operational and mainte-
nance activities can be quite large — up to 75 percent for some
systems. Obviously, these costs will have a negative impact on
profits, and ina highly competitive environment, they can affect
product sales. This is particularly true in manufacturing, where
consumer product prices must be adjusted upward to cover high
maintenance costs.
xxil TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Looking for the cause, we find that the major portion of a

system’s projected life cycle cost stems from decisions made dur-
ing the early phases of advanced planning and conceptual de-
sign. Decisions relating to system operation, maintenance and
support policies, manual versus automated applications, equip-
ment selection, packaging-design schemes, level of repair con-
cepts, and so on, have a great impact on life cycle cost. In other
words, the greatest opportunity for reducing life cycle cost, a large
percentage of which is attributed to system operation and mainte-
nance, exists during the early phases of system development.
Additionally, trends in today’s environment, combined with
the challenge of intense international competition, increasingly
require us to deal with systems in total, projected in terms of their
life cycle and developed on a well-integrated, top-down basis.
The system includes not only the equipment directly in-
volved in the manufacture of a consumer product but the mainte-
nance support capability as well. We must consider the need for
maintenance personnel, test equipment and tools, spare parts,
special facilities, data, and software, along with production
facilities, the prime equipment, and operating personnel. These
elements must be integrated and balanced with the other compo-
nents of the system, and this must be accomplished early in the
system development process.
Once specific qualitative and quantitative requirements for
the overall system are defined, they must be allocated in terms of
design criteria; trade-off analyses and design optimization are then
accomplished, followed by system development for consumer
use. This process, which must include maintenance considera-
tions, makes it possible to address the system (and its compo-
nents) as an entity, and to do so early in the life cycle, when the
costs of incorporating possible changes are minimized.
As for “high-cost contributors” to life cycle cost, experience
indicates that system maintenance has been a major cause! Many
of the costs associated with maintenance have been due to
equipment breakdowns, the continued operation of degraded
equipment, the inadequacies of maintenance personnel, and the
unavailability of spare parts, test equipment, data, and so on.
These factors lead to unnecessary downtime, production losses,
and the waste of valuable resources.
 Introduction XXili

Often, these costs are the result of poor equipment design

decisions such as selecting unreliable or unmaintainable equip-
ment. In other cases, such costs result from a poorly designed
support capability — for example, lack of properly trained
maintenance personnel or, simply, the lack of appropriate spare
parts when needed.

The total productive maintenance (TPM) development pro-

gram elaborated in this book and in the earlier Introduction to
TPM meets many of these concerns directly. First, the high con-
tribution of operational and maintenance activities to life cycle
cost is reduced through participative programs designed to in-
crease equipment effectiveness. These programs call for
* group activities to eliminate the six major equipment-
related losses
* restoration of all equipment to optimal operating condi-
tions and elimination of accelerated deterioration
* the involvement of operators in daily autonomous main-
tenance activities to maintain basic equipment conditions
(daily inspection, cleaning, lubrication, and bolting)
* maintainability improvements for existing equipment
* increased efficiency and cost-effectiveness of maintenance
work through better scheduling and management
Second, the impact of early planning and design-stage deci-
sions on life cycle cost is addressed in the TPM maintenance-
prevention programs. By promoting an integrated total-system
approach and close cooperation between maintenance, en-
gineering, and design engineers, valuable maintenance data ina
usable form becomes available in the earliest stages, thus prom-
oting maintenance-free design in new equipment. Moreover, the
same cooperative approach is taken to systematic debugging and
correction of design weaknesses before the commissioning and
startup stages, when problems are more costly to correct and are
often treated superficially.
In essence, system maintenance must be addressed on a
basis comparable with system performance if we are to truly
meet consumer demands in today’s environment. Reliability,
XX1V TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

maintainability, and supportability parameters must be incorpo-

rated into the earliest phases of design; the appropriate trade-off
analyses must be accomplished to ensure the proper balance be-
tween corrective maintenance and preventive maintenance; an
effective maintenance capability must be established throughout
the consumer-use phase to ensure high-quality support; and a
data collection, analysis, and feedback mechanism must be in-
corporated for the purposes of initiating corrective action or
modifications for system improvement. Maintenance must be
addressed in the context of the total system, on an integrated
basis, and in terms of the life cycle.
Fulfillment of these objectives requires the implementation
of an effective, integrated maintenance management program. 1
believe that the TPM concept presented in this text is excellent,
and that a program designed with TPM as the major thrust should
permit any large-scale system to achieve cost-effectiveness goals.
The authors do an excellent job of introducing TPM, describ-
ing the various categories of maintenance and some of the
relationships between maintenance and system quality, and
identifying the major steps required in implementing a success-
ful maintenance program. Of particular significance is the ap-
proach used to involve managers and employees as partners in
the accomplishment of maintenance program objectives. Finally,
I believe that the concepts discussed are applicable to any type of
system, even though the emphasis here is on the production
process; that is, the factory environment.
I wish to express my appreciation to Mr. Seiichi Nakajima,
the authors of this text, and the Japan Institute for Plant Mainte-
nance (JIPM) for allowing me the opportunity to review and com-
ment on this excellent exposition of aTPM development program.

Benjamin S. Blanchard
Assistant Dean and Professor
College of Engineering
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM
Implementing
Total Productive Maintenance
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 1
An Introduction to TPM

After World War II, Japanese industries determined that to

compete successfully in the world market they had to improve
the quality of their products. To do so, they imported management
and manufacturing techniques from the United States and adapted
them to their circumstances. Subsequently, their products became
known throughout the world for their superior quality, focusing
world attention on Japanese-style management techniques.

FROM PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE (PM) TO

TOTAL PRODUCTIVE MAINTENANCE (TPM)

To improve equipment maintenance, Japan imported the

concept of preventive maintenance (PM) from the United States
more than thirty years ago. Later imports included productive
maintenance (also known as PM), maintenance prevention (MP),
reliability engineering, and so on. What is now referred to as
TPM is, in fact, American-style productive maintenance, mod-
ified and enhanced to fit the Japanese industrial environment.
In most American companies, maintenance crews perform
all factory maintenance, enforcing an “I operate — you fix” divi-
sion of labor. By contrast, many Japanese corporations have
modified American PM so that all employees can participate.
Total productive maintenance (TPM), often defined as produc-
tive maintenance implemented by all employees, is based on the
2 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

principle that equipment improvement must involve everyone

in the organization, from line operators to top management.
The key innovation in TPM is that operators perform basic
maintenance on their own equipment. They maintain their
machines in good running order and develop the ability to detect
potential problems before they generate breakdowns.
TPM was introduced in Japan more than ten years ago and has
since found wide acceptance. For example, TPM provides essen-
tial support for the Toyota production system. TPM has also been
implemented by many Toyota-affiliated companies. According
to its creator, Taiichi Ohno, the Toyota production system is
based on the absolute elimination of waste. In Toyota's just-in-
time production, only “the necessary items are produced, when
needed, and in the amounts needed.” In other words, the Toyota
production system strives to attain zero defects and zero inven-
tory levels.
Figure 1-1 illustrates the relationship between TPM and the
basic features of the Toyota production system. As this matrix
shows, the purpose of TPM is to eliminate the six big losses,
which corresponds to Toyota's absolute elimination of waste.
In striving for zero breakdowns, TPM promotes defect-free
production, just-in-time production, and automation. Without
TPM, the Toyota production system could probably not func-
tion. This is confirmed by the fact that Toyota affiliates are rapidly
implementing TPM.
Nippondenso Co., a well-known Toyota supplier of electrical
parts, began implementing productive maintenance in 1961. In
1969, to keep up with the rapid progress in automated production,
the firm successfully implemented “productive maintenance
with total employee participation” (TPM). Two years later, it was
the first company to be awarded the Distinguished Plant Prize (PM
Prize) for its achievements with TPM. Since then, the PM Prize has
been awarded annually on the basis of TPM implementation.*

* The Japan Institute for Plant Maintenance (JIPM) has been awarding the PM
Prize since 1964 (see Appendix A, p.377). In making its annual awards, the
PM Prize Committee focuses on actual TPM effectiveness, based on complete
elimination of equipment losses, increased productivity, better quality, re-
duced costs, minimal inventory, elimination of accidents and pollution, and
a pleasant working environment.
 Introduction 3

Implementing
flow process

Eliminating
defects

Stockless
production

Reduced
lot size

Standard
cycle times

production
sequence

Standard
idle time

Visual control
andonline-
stop alarm

Improved
machine
operability

Improved
maintainability

Figure 1-1. Toyota Production System and TPM

History of TPM

Preventive maintenance was introduced in the 1950s and

productive maintenance became well-established during the
1960s (Table 1-1). The development of TPM began in the 1970s.
The time prior to 1950 can be referred to as the “breakdown
maintenance” period.
 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Preventive Maintenance Productive Maintenance Total Productive

Establishing maintenance Recognizing importance of Maintenance
functions reliability, maintenance, and Achieving PM efficiency
economic efficiency in through a comprehensive
plant design system based on respect
for individuals and total
employee participation

« PM (Preventive * Maintenance « Behavioral sciences

Maintenance) 1951- prevention 1960-
* MIC, PAC, and F plans’
* PM (Productive * Reliability
« Systems engineering
Maintenance) 1954- engineering 1962-
* Ecology
・MI (Maintainability ・Maintainability
Approach
Improvement) 1957- engineering 1962- * Terotechnology
・Engineering economy + Logistics

1951 1960 1970

Toa Nenryo Kogyo is the First maintenance International convention on
first Japanese company to convention (Tokyo) equipment maintenance
use American-style PM held in Tokyo (co-sponsored
1962
1953 Japan Management
by JIPE and JMA)
20 companies form a PM Association sends mission 1970
research group (later the to U.S. to study equipment Japan attends international
Japan Institute of Plant maintenance convention on equipment
Maintenance (JIPM) maintenance sponsored by
1963
1958 Japan attends international
UNIDO? (West Germany)
George Smith (U.S.) comes convention on equipment 1971
to Japan to promote PM maintenance (London) Japan attends international
1964 convention on equipment
First PM Prize awarded maintenance (Los Angeles)
in Japan 1973
1965 UNIDO sponsors mainte-
nance repair symposium in
Japan attends international
convention on equipment Japan
maintenance (New York) 1973
Major
Event Japan attends international
1969
Japan Institute of Plant terotechnology convention
Engineers (JIPE) (Bristol, England)
established 1974
Japan attends EFNMS3
maintenance congress
1976
Japan attends EFNMS
maintenance congress
1978
Japan attends EFNMS
maintenance congress
1980
Japan attends EFNMS
maintenance congress
‘Management for Innovation and Creation (MIC); Performance Analysis and Control (PAC);
Foreman Plan (F Plan)
2United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO)
3European Federation of National Maintenance Societies (EFNMS)

Table 1-1. History of PM in Japan

 Introduction 5
E thanks here
enR aed

Japanese companies have implemented TPM in stages

roughly corresponding to the stages of PM development in
Japan between 1950 and 1980 (Table 1-2). The information in
Table 1-2 is based on data collected in 1976 and 1979 from 124
plants belonging to the JIPM. In three years, the number of
plants actively practicing TPM more than doubled. Now, over 20
percent of these factories practice TPM.

Breakdown maintenance 12.7%

Preventive maintenance 37.3%
Productive maintenance 39.4%
TPM 10.6%

Table 1-2. Four Stages of PM Development and the Current Situation in Japan

TPM and the Future of Maintenance

Until the 1970s, PM in Japan consisted mainly of preventive,

or time-based maintenance, featuring periodic servicing and
overhaul. During the 1980s preventive maintenance is rapidly
being replaced by predictive, or condition-based maintenance.
The success of TPM depends on our ability to be continuously
aware of the condition of equipment in order to predict (and pre-
vent) failures. Predictive maintenance plays a significant role in
TPM, because it uses modern monitoring techniques to diag-
nose the condition of equipment during operation by identifying
signs of deterioration or imminent failure.

HOW DOES TPM WORK?

TPM is productive maintenance carried out by all employ-

ees through small group activities. Like TQC, which is com-
panywide total quality control, TPM is equipment maintenance
performed on a companywide basis. The term TPM was defined
in 1971 by the Japan Institute of Plant Engineers (forerunner of
6 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Japan Institute for Plant Maintenance) to include the following

five goals:
1. Maximize equipment effectiveness (improve overall
efficiency).
2. Develop a system of productive maintenance for the life
of the equipment.
3. Involve all departments that plan, design, use, or main-
tain equipment in implementing TPM (engineering and
design, production, and maintenance).
4. Actively involve all employees — from top management
to shop-floor workers.
5. Promote TPM through motivation management: autono-
mous small group activities.’
The word “total” in “total productive maintenance” has
three meanings related to three important features of TPM:
¢ Total effectiveness: pursuit of economic efficiency or profit-
ability
* Total PM: maintenance prevention and activity to im-
prove maintainability as well as preventive maintenance
・ Total participation: autonomous maintenance by operators
and small group activities in every department and at
every level
The first concept, total effectiveness (or “profitable PM”), is em-
phasized in predictive and productive maintenance (Figure 1-2).
The second concept, total PM, was also introduced during
the productive maintenance era. It means establishing a mainte-
nance plan for the entire life of the equipment and includes
maintenance prevention (MP: maintenance-free design), which
is pursued during the equipment design stages. Once equip-
ment is installed, a total maintenance system requires preventive
maintenance (PM: preventive medicine for equipment) and main-
tainability improvement (MI: repairing or modifying equipment
to prevent breakdowns and facilitate ease of maintenance).
The last concept, total participation, which includes autono-
mous maintenance by operators and small group activities, is
unique to TPM.
 Introduction i

Productive Preventive
Maintenance Maintenance
TPM features features features

Economic efficiency
(profitable PM)

Total system (MP-PM-MI)*

Autonomous maintenance
by operators (small
group activities)

TPM = Productive Maintenance + small-group activities

*MP = maintenance prevention

PM = preventive maintenance
MI = maintainability improvement

Figure 1-2. Relationship Between TPM, Productive Maintenance,

and Preventive Maintenance

Examples of TPM Effectiveness

TPM has a double goal — zero breakdowns and zero de-

fects. When breakdowns and defects are eliminated, equipment
operation rates improve, costs are reduced, inventory can be
minimized, and as a consequence, labor productivity increases.
As Table 1-3 illustrates, one firm reduced the number of break-
downs to Yo of the original number; some companies show 17 to
26 percent increases in equipment operation rates, while others
show a 90 percent reduction in process defects; labor productiv-
ity generally increased by 40 to 50 percent.
Of course, such results cannot be achieved overnight. Typi-
cally, three years are required from the introduction of TPM to
achieve prizewinning results. Furthermore, in the early stages of
TPM, the company must bear the additional expense of restoring
equipment to its proper condition and educating personnel
about the equipment. The actual cost depends on the initial qual-
ity of the equipment and the technical expertise and experience
of maintenance staff. As productivity increases, however, these
costs are quickly recouped. This is why TPM is often referred to
as “profitable PM.”
8 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Examples of TPM Effectiveness

Labor productivity increased:

140% (Company M)
150% (Company F)
Value added per person increased:
P 147% (Company A)
(Productivity) 117% (Company AS)
Rate of operation increased:
17% (68% —> 85%) (Company T)
Breakdowns reduced:
98% (1,000 —> 20 cases/mo.) (Company TK)

Defects in process reduced:

90% (1.0% —> 0.1%) (Company MS)
Defects reduced:
Q 70% (0.23% —> 0.08%) (Company T)
Claims from clients reduced:
50% (Company MS)
50% (Company F)
25% (Company NZ)

Reduction in manpower:
30% (Company TS)
30% (Company C)
Reduction in maintenance costs:
15% (Company Tk)
(Cost) 30% (Company F)
30% (Company NZ)
・ Energy conserved:
30% (Company C)

Stock reduced (by days):

D 50% (11 days —> 5 days) (Company T)
(Delivery) Inventory turnover increased:
200% (3 —> 6 times/mo.) (Company C)

S ・ Zero accidents
(Company 5 M)
(Safety/
Environment) ・ Zero pollution
(every company)

Increase in improvement ideas submitted:

M 230% increase (36.8/person —> 83.6/person) (Company N)
Small group meetings increased:
200% (2 —> 4 meetings/mo.) (Company C)

Table 1-3. Examples of TPM Effectiveness (Recipients of the PM Prize)

 Introduction 9

Maximizing Equipment Effectiveness

The goal of all factory improvement activity is to increase

productivity by minimizing input and maximizing output. Out-
put refers not only to increased productivity but also to better
quality, lower costs, timely delivery, improved industrial safety
and hygiene, higher morale, and a more favorable working
environment.
The relationship between input and output can be vis-
ualized as a matrix (Figure 1-3). Human workers, machinery,
and material are combined as input, while output consists of
PQCDSM — production (P), quality (Q), cost (C), delivery (D),
safety, hygiene, and environment (pollution-control) (S), and
morale or human relations (M). The right column lists the
method by which each output factor is regulated. The input fac-
tors are determined by manpower allocation, plant engineering
and maintenance, and inventory control.

Management
Method

Production
Control

Quality
Control

Cost
Control

Delivery ie ce 0hele: alee Delivery

(D) Me Control

Safety Safety and

(S) Pollution

Morale Human
(M) Relations

Output _
Plant Input
Aioeation |& Engineering | Control” yee
+ v1 ntor

Maintenance Productivity

Figure 1-3. Relationship Between Input and Output in Production Activities

10 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

This matrix makes it obvious that plant engineering and

maintenance are directly related to all output factors (PQCDSM).
With increased automation and reduction of labor, production
shifts from the hands of the workers to the machinery. At this
point, equipment and machinery are the crucial factors in in-
creasing output. Productivity, quality, cost, and delivery, as well
as safety, hygiene, environment, and morale are all influenced
significantly by equipment conditions.
The goal of TPM is to enhance equipment effectiveness and
maximize equipment output (PQCDSM). It strives to attain and
maintain optimal equipment conditions in order to prevent un-
expected breakdowns, speed losses, and quality defects in process.
Overall efficiency, including economic efficiency, is achieved by
minimizing the cost of upkeep and maintaining optimal equip-
ment conditions throughout the life of equipment, in other
words, by minimizing life cycle cost (LCC).
Equipment effectiveness is maximized and life cycle cost
minimized through companywide efforts to eliminate the follow-
ing “six big losses” that reduce equipment effectiveness:

Downtime

1. Breakdowns due to equipment failure

2. Setup and adjustment (e.g., exchange of die in injection
molding machines, etc.)

Speed losses
3. Idling and minor stoppages (abnormal operation of sen-
sors, blockage of work on chutes, etc.)
4. Reduced speed (discrepancies between designed and
actual speed of equipment)
Defects
5. Defects in process and rework (scrap and quality defects
requiring repair)
6. Reduced yield between machine startup and stable pro-
duction
 Introduction
RIIE 11

The Relationship Between TPM,

Terotechnology, and Logistics

To the extent that TPM focuses on reducing life cycle costs, it

has features in common with the concepts of terotechnology, de-
veloped in the United Kingdom, and logistics.
Terotechnology is a term coined in the United Kingdom in
1970. It combines management, financial, engineering, and
other practices with physical assets to achieve economic life cycle
costs (LCC). It is concerned with the specification and design for
reliability and maintainability of plant machinery and structures;
with their installation, commissioning, maintenance, modifica-
tion, and replacement; and with feedback of information on
design, performance, and costs.
Focusing only on equipment, TPM has the same goal as tero-
technology — economic life cycle cost. Actually, the United
States Department of Defense first articulated the concept of
economic life cycle cost in 1965, when it issued MIL-STD-785 —
Reliability Programs for Systems and Equipment — which mandated
the integration of reliability engineering activities with tradi-
tional engineering activities in design, development, and pro-
duction to eliminate potential reliability problems at the earliest
and cheapest stages in the development cycle. Since 1976, the de-
partment has based its procurement contracts for weapons and
other large-scale systems on LCC.
Logistics is a term borrowed from the Pilitary, meaning aid to
the front line through procurement, storage, transportation, and
maintenance of manufactured goods and systems. This disci-
pline has modernized traditional notions of the life cycle of
goods and equipment through the concepts of LCC, reliability
engineering, and maintenance engineering.
Although it is true that TPM, terotechnology, and logistics
have economic LCC as a common goal, they differ in terms of the
precise target and the assignment of responsibility (Figure 1-4).
Logistics targets an extremely wide field, including manufac-
tured goods, systems, programs, information, and equipment.
12 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Focusing only on equipment (available assets), terotechnology

involves the equipment supplier, engineering firms, and the
equipment user. TPM, on the other hand, is practiced only by
the equipment user.

Logistics
(U.S.)

Pursuit of economical LCC (life cycle cost)

mew| mewg ーー | Eupmen |

Figure 1-4. TPM, Terotechnology, and Logistics

INTRODUCING TPM INTO THE FACTORY

In Japan, three major factors in workplace improvement are

yaruki (motivation), yaruude (competence), and yaruba (work en-
vironment). TPM addresses all three: it leads to fundamental
corporate improvement by improving worker and equipment
 Introduction 13

utilization. To eliminate the six big losses we must first change

people's attitudes or motivation (yaruki) and increase their skills
(yaruude). We must also create a work environment (yaruba) that
supports TPM implementation. Unless top management takes
the lead by tackling this issue, however, the necessary transfor-
mation in attitudes, equipment, and the corporate environment
for change will not progress smoothly.

TPM as Basic Company Policy

TPM combines “top-down” goal-setting by top management

with “bottom-up” small-group improvement and maintenance
activities on the front line. Top management must incorporate
TPM into the basic company policy and establish concrete goals,
such as increasing the rate of equipment operation to more than
80 percent or reducing breakdowns by 50 percent over the course
of several years. TPM can succeed only with the commitment of
top management — if managers are determined to implement
TPM, success is virtually guaranteed.
Once goals have been set, each employee must understand
and identify with them and develop small group activities in the
workplace to ensure their achievement. In TPM, small groups
set their own goals based on the overall company goals.
Figure 1-5 is an example of a companywide TPM policy and
the goals associated with it. In 1981, Tokai Rubber Industries ap-
proached zero breakdowns and won the PM Prize. The firm was
striving not simply to win, but to achieve its company goals —
through TPM.

Developing a TPM Master Plan

To implement TPM over the course of three years, for exam-

ple, one needs a master plan. Once this plan has been de-
veloped, it serves as a schedule for TPM that can be broken down
into distinct stages. Figure 1-6 shows the TPM master plan used
at Tokai Rubber Industries, which structures the development of
TPM around three essential improvement goals:
14 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

¢ Autonomous maintenance through small group activities

in the production department
* Refinement of preventive maintenance by the mainte-
nance department and maintainability improvements to
prevent equipment deterioration
¢ Reduction of startup failures through the application of
maintenance prevention techniques at the equipment de-
sign stage

Basic TPM Policy

・ Maximize equipment effectiveness through TPM
+ Improve quality, increase safety, and reduce costs
・ Raise morale

Goal
・ Win the PM prize by August, 1981
・ Show overall improvement in company conditions

Major Activities
. Increase productivity by reducing breakdowns; assure safety and delivery
. Increase productivity and reduce inventory by reducing setup and
adjustment time
. Improve quality and reduce losses by constantly monitoring equipment and die
precision
. Reduce cost by conserving materials and energy
. Increase existing equipment effectiveness and prolong life span through
improvement activities
. Educate employees to raise morale and keep pace with increasingly
sophisticated equipment

Figure 1-5. Example of Basic TPM Policy (Tokai Rubber Industries)

TPM Promotional Structure

TPM goals are implemented through “bottom-up” small

group activities on the shop floor that must be constantly prom-
oted by management and workers (Figure 1-7). TPM’s organi-
zational structure, similar to Rensis Lickert’s “participative
 Development Program Introduction 10/79 Promotion and Practice
4/80 10/80 Stabilization 4/81 10/81 Final Stage 4/82 9/82
Basic TPM policy set 9/79 TPM = total employee involvement ・ Set annual policy
・ Everyone works to reduce
defects Quality assurance through total employee involvement Judging PM Prize
Basic Policy Organization Eee PM circles formed, headquarters established
and
Organization Set TPM indexes Current equipment conditions = benchmarks for TPM improvement Indexes
Impl
Departmental plans Goals set for TPM indexes ————_» Implementation plans plementation plans ーー 一 Implementation plans 一一 を
————>
Follow up results (Report to TPM committee; calculate results; calculate totals at headquarters)

Improvement Select model equipment, form project ———> (Select model equipment in each plant and Step 4: General inspection (according to 6 categories)
unit)
Activities teams, implement improvements Improve model equipment
Training operators/
(Apply results to all similar equipment)
> education general inspection
eu
Step 1: Initial cleaning Step 1
——__——> 4-1 Bolts, nuts, lubrication Training: 6 hours per
(Model) Step 1 (all equipment)
4-2 Air/water/steam category
Step 2: Action at the source of problems Step 2 1 4-3 Transmission
ーー
ーーーーー*
ーー (Model) Step General inspection —
2(all equipment) 6-10 hours per category
4-4 Electricity
Step 3: Cleaning and lubrication standards Step 3
————> (Model) Step 3 (all equipment) 4-5 Oil hydraulics1
Step4: General inspection Enhance manuals ーーーーーー
ーー iy 4-6 Oil hydraulics 2
Steps for ーーーーーーー Step 4 (all equipment)

・の |
Developing + Prepare inspection training
——
Autonomous ・ Train leaders (leaders train groups) > © ©@-—+ © > © > © Step 6: Inspecting for quality in the workplace
Maintenance Supervisor training Bolts/ Air/ Transmis Electricity Oil Oil
nuts/ water/ sion 6-1 Role of operators 6-4 Maintain pokayoke devices
Step 5: Autonomous inspection hydraulics hydraulics
lubrication steam 1 2 6-2 Review workpiece handling 6-5 Control equipment precision
Step 6: Inspect for quality in the workplace 6-3 control maintenance tools 6-6 Equipment operation and
Activities
Group
Small
through treatment of abnormalities
Develop
Maintenance
Autonomous Step 7: Activities to achieve zero defects

Establish basic equipment conditions

Technical support for autonomous maintenance ————» Resident PM instructors in plants
(cleaning, lubrication, bolting)
Systematize PM organization Annual maintenance schedule Establish maintenance standards
D
Develop Improve reliability and maintainability Monthly scheduling meetings MTBF analysis charts Priority modifications to improve equipment
with MBTF analysis > ロ
Maintenance >
Skills Solutions for worst cases (targeting model equipment) Daily remedial action begins
Refine maintainability
>
M-Q* Analysis and precision control M-Q Analysis Standards for precision control M-Q analysis charts

Effectiveness of maintenance procedures Permanent maintenance crews in plants — Use mini-computers for ———» Maintenance records ———>
1 maintenance records
Prepare Improve maintenance activities recordkeeping Maintenance reports Feedback procedure
Systematize maintenance records
Maintenance >
Control Maintenance cost control Costs by depts and goals Understand losses from downtime
Work
Maintenance
of
Improve
Effectiveness System
Spare parts/lubrication control Systematize inventory Improve lubrication control
>

Course 1 (15
trainees) Course 2 (11 trainees) Course 3 (9 trainees) Course4(9 trainees) Course5(9 trainees)
1-day
Maintenance Basic workshop course — basics courses
110 hours (3 days/mo. x 5 trainees) Course 1 (13 trainees) Course 2 (6 trainees) Course 3 (6 trainees) Course 4 (6 trainees)
Education/Training (1/18) > > >
Systemize early equipment management
Early Equipment Trouble prevention checklist contro! Develop checklist contro! system (based on model)
Management

< Apply to MP design

Formulate common and specific standards
Standardization Formulate and cumulate standards

Study engineering economics —> | Study actual examples of engineering economics ——>
Economic Quest for economic efficiency
Design
Work
Improvements
Efficiency of
Investments
* M-O = Machine-Product Quality

Figure 1-6. Example of TPM Master Plan (Tokai Rubber Industries)

 —

op
ena

| ot
et aowt
 Introduction 17

Top management
(company wide
PM policies; goal-setting;
central TPM promotional committee)

Middle management
(departmental PM policies;
goal-setting; departmental
TPM promotional committees)

Workshop management
(setting PM goals according
to group; PM group activities)

1
1
1
1
'
'
1 ‘
7
'
1
1
11

Figure 1-7. TPM Promotional Structure

18 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

management,” is based on overlapping small groups. TPM small

groups function on every level, from top management to the pro-
duction line. Leaders of individual groups are members of a small
group at the next higher level of the organization to link the differ-
ent groups and enhance vertical and horizontal communication.
Figure 1-8 represents the TPM promotional structure at
Aisan Industries. Note that in addition to overlapping small
groups, there are also six committees or project groups.

Preliminary TPM Education

Most people have an inborn resistance to change — even to

changes that are likely to have desirable consequences. TPM in-
creases productivity, enhances quality, reduces costs, improves
profits, and creates a favorable working environment. Yet top
management in many companies will question the usefulness of
TPM to their firm, even after observing the dramatic results ob-
tained by other companies. Some companies prefer American-
style PM, in which operators run the equipment and maintenance
crews perform the maintenance. At other companies, managers
worry about the additional burden on the operators, and mainte-
nance personnel worry about the ability of the operators to per-
form maintenance. Even those with many years of successful PM
experience may be skeptical about introducing TPM.
Eliminating such resistance requires preliminary education
at every level. In Japan, two-day sessions have been sufficient for
department and section managers, and group leaders, while three-
day sessions have worked well for staff engineers. Employees on
the shop floor attend a slide presentation about TPM and learn
from their supervisors how to participate in small group activities.

OVERVIEW OF THE TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

This book introduces the principles of TPM in the context of

a developmental program designed for the average Japanese
company. The specific steps necessary to develop a TPM program,
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20 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

however, must be determined for each company individually. The

program must be adjusted to fit individual requirements, since
the types of industry, production methods, equipment condi-
tions, special needs and problems, techniques, and levels of
maintenance vary from company to company.*
There are five interdependent goals, representing the mini-
mum requirements for TPM development (Figure 1-9). Briefly
summarized here, they are discussed in greater detail in sub-
sequent chapters:
・ Improving equipment effectiveness (2 and 3)
・ Autonomous maintenance by operators (4 and 8)
* A planned maintenance program administered by the
maintenance department (3 and 5)
・ Training to improve operation and maintenance skills (7)
・ An early equipment management program to prevent prob-
lems occurring during new plant or equipment startup (6)

Improving Equipment Effectiveness

Model projects help demonstrate the potential of TPM during

the initial stages of its development. Several project teams are
formed, consisting of engineering and maintenance staffs and
production line supervisors. Equipment suffering from chronic
losses is selected, preferably equipment that can be improved
significantly in around three months of thorough investigation
and analysis. Each project team targets one of the six big losses as
a focus for their improvement activity.
When positive results are achieved, the project can be ex-
panded to other similar equipment, with project team members
pursuing further small group improvement activities in their
own areas.

* When the JIPM is consulted by a Japanese company wishing to introduce

TPM, it performs a thorough investigation of the industry involved and offers
a program appropriate for the company’s needs and problems.
 Introduction 21

Autonomous Maintenance by Operators

Autonomous maintenance by operators is one of the most

distinctive features of TPM. The longer a company has func-
tioned according to the concept of the division of labor, however,
the more its employees will be convinced that the work of opera-
tors and maintenance workers should be strictly separated.
A company’s established patterns of thinking and atmos-
phere cannot be changed overnight. Changing corporate culture
takes two to three years, depending on company size. Opera-
tors accustomed to thinking “I operate — you fix” will have diffi-
culty learning “I’m responsible for my own equipment.” All
employees must agree that operators are responsible for the
maintenance of their own equipment; in addition, the operators
themselves must be trained in the skills necessary for autono-
mous maintenance.
In many factories, operators already check and lubricate
their own equipment, but they often do so grudgingly, without
enthusiasm or understanding. For example, a worker may fill in
the daily inspection sheet several days in advance or forget to
refill the oil dispenser. Such incomplete care results in abrasion,
wear, vibration, dirt, and deterioration, and it may lead to break-
downs and quality defects in process.
In Japan, the basic principles of industrial housekeeping are
known as the Five SS: seiri (organization), seiton (tidiness), seiso
(purity), seiketsu (cleanliness), and shitsuke (discipline).*
Often these principles are implemented only on a superfi-
cial level (e.g., painting floors and equipment), while actual
maintenance of equipment is inadequate (e.g., neglecting the in-
terior of the equipment, such as revolving parts). This superfi-
ciality is avoided in TPM’s autonomous maintenance by breaking
down training and practice into seven steps (one involves applying

* While these terms have very general meanings in translation, in actual practice
each term refers to a specific principle or a set of established rules of organiza-
tion and housekeeping. These specific meanings vary widely from company
to company. The number of Ss promoted by a company can also vary from as
few as three to as many as seven.
22
Saag eg TPM
a DEVELO
a
PMENT PROGRA
a
M ーー ーー ニーニーニー ニーニーーーーーー

Ideal Conditions

Expansion of
improvement targets

を
6
Improving Six Big Losses
=Reduce
variability
Lengthen
life span
of life span
Restore Correct
neglected design — |—
equipment weaknesses

② Eliminate Eliminate
inferior unexpected
Equipment Preventive equipment breakdowns
failure maintenance
* Basic External
Setup and Pursue ideal maintenance の me
adjustment conditions :
(of equipment)
] + Adhere to
condition of use
Idling and Eliminate
minor stoppages minor defects

Simplify and GB 3
pines eliminate Step 1: Step 4:
adjustment ③ Basic cleaning General
Step 2: inspection

beni etait Skill Autonomous J Address sources of equipment

In process analysis maintenance of problems
Step 3:
Reduced yield PM Set cleaning
from startup analysis and lubrication
standards

Improvement
skills

@
Education and training in operation and
maintenance techniques
Required skills

Figure 1-9. Example of TPM Development

 Introduction 23

Feedback
maintenance
information

⑤
Make Predict
occasional life span
repairs

“>
Project life Predict life
—>| span and plan span using
periodic equipment
renovation diagnostic
techniques Countermeasures at each level
developed by project teams
|・Maintainability
| improvements
Do technical
= analysis
Identify of major =O ©
symptoms of breakdowns aS
deterioration of
a=
Maintain
equipment を
ie} Maintenance
F prevention| |2c
precision = design standards S Oo
(quality) C= Se 86
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ご Cost reduction ee
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1 6
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inspection - and orderliness I
(related to quality) |
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maintenance
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1
!
1
H
Preventive maintenance and_ Maintain new
autonomous maintenance skills | equipment/dies

Skills related to new

equipment/dies
24 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

the principles of the Five Ss). The tasks involved in each step
must be thoroughly mastered before operators are introduced to
the next. For example, at step 1, initial cleaning, operators learn
that thorough cleaning is an inspection process. They learn a set
of rigorous daily cleaning checkpoints as well as basic lubricating
and bolting techniques.

Planned Maintenance

Planned or scheduled maintenance must function in tan-

dem with autonomous maintenance. The first responsibility of
the maintenance department is to deal with demands originating
from the operators quickly and effectively. Maintenance person-
nel must also eliminate deterioration resulting from inadequate
lubrication and cleaning. Then, they must analyze every break-
down to reveal weaknesses in the equipment and modify equip-
ment to improve its maintainability and lengthen its life. Once
maintenance costs are reduced, checkups, inspections, and
equipment standards should also be thoroughly reviewed.
To keep down the cost of planned maintenance, diagnostic
techniques should be used to monitor equipment conditions; a
shift to predictive maintenance is encouraged.

Training to Improve Operating and Maintenance Skills

Some people may argue that operating skills and expertise

become superfluous with increased automation. Unfortunately,
while unmanned production may be possible, fully automated
maintenance is unlikely. The skills of operators and maintenance
personnel must be improved if autonomous maintenance, pre-
dictive maintenance, and maintainability improvement — the
basic methods of TPM — are to be successful. Training in opera-
tion and maintenance skills is vital. To implement TPM, a company
must be willing to invest in training its employees in the use of
their equipment.
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26 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Early Equipment Management

Ideally, equipment should not require maintenance. A system

that helps us approach this ideal is extremely valuable. Figure
1-10 represents a model system to promote maintenance-free de-
sign. On the left side are the design and installation stages; on
the right, the operation and maintenance stages. The life cycle of
a piece of equipment begins with a design aimed at reducing
maintenance as much as possible. The equipment is then fabri-
cated, installed, and tested before being put into normal operation.
Once the early failure period of the equipment is over, operating
data is fed back to the maintenance-free design stage. This data
can be used to design maintenance-free equipment in the future.
Maintenance prevention (MP) is the object of the design-installa-
tion cycle, including startup equipment maintenance.
During the operation-maintenance stage, on the basis of
regularly scheduled inspection, equipment is restored, mod-
ified, or replaced. Maintenance data gathered in this process pro-
vides the basis for research on maintenance prevention.
Information feeds back for three types of improvement: (1) to
improve the maintainability of equipment now in use, (2) to
improve maintenance work and systems, and (3) to facilitate
maintenance-free design in new equipment.

REFERENCES

Eighth Terotechnology Survey Mission to Europe (JIPM) (May 1980).

Kuroda, M. “Achieving zero defects through employee participation (3)”
(in Japanese). Plant Engineer 12 (November 1980) 50.
Ohno, Taiichi. Toyota Production System: Beyond Large-Scale Production.
Cambridge: Productivity Press, 1988.
Okuda, S. “Achieving zero defects through employee participation (1)”
(in Japanese). Plant Engineer 12 (September 1980) 43.
 2
Equipment Effectiveness,
Chronic Losses, and Other
1FM Improvement Concepts

Equipment effectiveness is a measure of the value added to pro-

duction through equipment.*
TPM maximizes equipment effectiveness through two types
of activity:
* quantitative: increasing the equipment’s total availability
and improving its productivity within a given period of
operating time
+ qualitative: reducing the number of defective products,
stabilizing, and improving quality
The goal of TPM is to increase equipment effectiveness so
each piece of equipment can be operated to its full potential and
maintained at that level. Human workers and machinery should
both function steadily under optimal conditions with zero break-
downs and zero defects. Although approaching zero is difficult,

* Simply stated, added value is the difference between the sales revenue and the
cost of resources (material and labor) used to produce a product. The value
added to a product by equipment is significantly reduced by waste and the
six major equipment-related losses. It is increased as equipment availability
and productivity go up and defects in process and rework go down.

OT
28 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

believing that zero defects can be achieved is an important Dre-

requisite for the success of TPM.
The following sections address some of the difficulties in-
herent in maximizing equipment effectiveness.

SIX BIG LOSSES LIMIT EQUIPMENT EFFECTIVENESS

Equipment effectiveness is limited by the following six types

of losses.

Breakdown Losses

Two types of loss are caused by breakdowns: time losses,

when productivity is reduced, and quantity losses, caused by de-
fective products.
Sporadic breakdowns — sudden, dramatic, or unexpected
equipment failures — are usually obvious and easy to correct.
Frequent or chronic minor breakdowns, on the other hand, are
often ignored or neglected after repeated unsuccessful attempts
to cure them. Because sporadic breakdowns account for a large
percentage of total losses, factory personnel invest a great deal of
time and effort searching for ways to avoid them. Eliminating
them is extremely difficult, however. Typically, studies to in-
crease equipment reliability must be conducted and ways found
to minimize the time needed to correct problems when they occur.
To maximize equipment effectiveness, however, all break-
downs must be reduced to zero. This is actually possible without
much effort or investment — although some investment may be
necessary in the beginning. First, however, the conventional
philosophy of breakdown maintenance — the belief that break-
downs are inevitable — must be changed.

Setup and Adjustment Losses

Losses during setup and adjustment result from downtime

and defective products that occur when production of one item
 Other Improvement Concepts 29

ends and the equipment is adjusted to meet the requirements of

another item. Many companies are now working to achieve single-
minute setups (under 10 minutes). Working from an industrial en-
gineering perspective, setup time can be reduced considerably by
making a clear distinction between internal setup time (operations
that must be performed while the machine is down) and external
setup time (operations that can be performed while the machine is
still running) and by reducing internal setup time. (See Chapter 3,
pp. 112-119.)

Idling and Minor Stoppage Losses

A minor stoppage occurs when production is interrupted by a

temporary malfunction or when a machine is idling. For example,
some workpieces might block the top of a chute, causing the equip-
ment to idle; at other times sensors, alerted by the production
of defective products, shut down the equipment. These types of
temporary stoppage clearly differ from a breakdown. Normal
production is restored by simply removing the obstructing work-
pieces and resetting the equipment.
Small problems like this often have a dramatic effect on equip-
ment effectiveness, however, typically when robots, automatic
assemblers, conveyors, and so on, are involved. Minor stop-
pages and idling, while easily remedied, are also easily over-
looked because they are often difficult to quantify. For this
reason, the extent to which minor stoppages hinder equipment
effectiveness often remains unclear.
Zero minor stoppages is an essential condition for unmanned
production. If minor stoppages are to be reduced, operating con-
ditions must be closely observed and all slight defects must be
eliminated. (See Chapter 3, pp. 133-149.)

Reduced Sneed Losses

Reduced speed losses refer to the difference between equip-

ment design speed and actual operating speed. Speed losses are
typically overlooked in equipment operation, although they con-
stitute a large obstacle to equipment effectiveness and should be
30 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

studied carefully. The goal must be to eliminate the gap between

design speed and actual speed.
Equipment may be run at less than ideal or design speed for
a variety of reasons: mechanical problems and defective quality,
a history of past problems, or fear of abusing or overtaxing the
equipment. Often, the optimal speed is simply not known. On
the other hand, deliberately increasing the operating speed actu-
ally contributes to problem-solving by revealing latent defects in
equipment conditions. (See Chapter 3, pp. 150-153.)

Quality Defects and Rework

Quality defects in process and rework are losses in quality

caused by malfunctioning production equipment. In general,
sporadic defects are easily and promptly corrected by returning
equipment conditions to normal. These defects include sudden
increases in the quantity of defect, or other dramatic phenomena.
The causes of chronic defects, on the other hand, are difficult to
identify. Ad hoc measures to restore the status quo rarely solve
the problem, and the conditions underlying the defects may be
ignored or neglected. Defects requiring rework should also
be counted as chronic losses.
Reducing chronic defects, like reducing chronic breakdowns,
requires thorough investigation and innovative remedial action.
The conditions surrounding and causing the defect must be as-
sessed and control limits evaluated. Complete elimination of de-
fects is, as always, the main goal. (See Chapter 3, pp. 153-164.)

Startup Losses

Startup losses are yield losses that occur during the early
stages of production — from machine startup to stabilization.
The volume of losses varies with the degree of stability of proces-
sing conditions; maintenance level of equipment, jigs, and dies;
operators’ technical skills; and so on. In practice, the volume is sur-
prisingly high. Such losses are latent, and the possibility of
eliminating them is often obscured by uncritical acceptance of their
inevitability.
 Other Improvement Concepts 31

Table 2-1 sets out the improvement goals for the preceding
losses. Table 2-2 illustrates the possible levels of overall equip-
ment effectiveness.

Explanation

1. Breakdown losses ee Go Reduce to zero for all equipment

2. Setup and adjustment ae

ミー minimize Reduce setups to less than ten minutes

3. Speed losses Bring actual operation speed up to design speed;

then make improvements to surpass design speed

4. Idli i も
EK i Reduce to zero for all equipment

5. Quality defect and Extremely slight occurrences acceptable

rework losses (e.g., 100-30 ppm)

Table 2-1. Improvement Goals for Chronic Losses

MEASURING EQUIPMENT EFFECTIVENESS

Effectiveness can be measured using the formula:

Overall equipment effectiveness = Availability x Performance rate x Quality rate

・ Breakdown losses ・ Idling and minor ・ Quality defect

・ Setup and adjustment stoppage losses and rework
losses ・ Reduced speed losses
losses ・ Startup losses
・ Others

TPM is not limited to dealing with breakdowns; rather it

raises the level of total equipment effectiveness by improving all
related factors:
- availability (operating rate): improved by eliminating
breakdowns, set-up/adjustment losses, and other stop-
page losses
32 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

1. Breakdown 1. Combination of sporadic and 1. Sporadic breakdowns

losses chronic breakdowns 2. PMBM
2. BM>PM 3. Breakdown losses still
3. Significant breakdown losses significant
4. Autonomous operator mainte- 4. Autonomous maintenance
nance not organized being organized
5. Unstable life spans 5. Parts life spans estimated
6. Equipment weaknesses are 6. Equipment weaknesses well-
unrecognized acknowledged
7. MI (maintainability improve-
ment) applied on above points

2. Setup and . No control — laissez-faire . Work procedures organized

adjustment production by operators (e.g., internal and external
losses 2. Work procedures disorganized setup distinguished
and setup/adjustment time 2. Setup/adjustment time
varies widely unstable
3. Problems to be improved
identified

. Speed losses . Equipment specifications not . Problems related to speed

well understood losses analyzed
2. No speed standards (by ・ Mechanical problems
product and machinery) ・ Quality problems
2. Tentative speed standards set
and maintained by product
. Speeds vary slightly

. Idling and . Losses from minor stoppages . Minor stoppage losses analyzed
minor stop- unrecognized quantitatively
page losses 2. Unstable operating conditions + Frequency and location of
due to fluctuation in frequency occurence
and location of losses ・ Volume lost
2. Losses categorized and outbreak
mechanism analyzed; preventive
Mc taken on trial-and-error
asis

. Quality defect . Chronic quality defect prob- . Chronic quality problems

and rework lems are neglected quantified
losses 2. Many successful remedial + Details of defect, frequency
(startup losses actions have been taken ・ Volume lost
inclu
cluded) 2. Losses categorized and out-
break mechanism explained;
preventive measures taken on
trial-and-error basis

Table 2-2. Assessment of Overall Equipment Effectiveness

 Other Improvement Concepts 33

. Time-based maintenance . Condition-based maintenance

established established
. PM>BM . PM
. Breakdown losses less than 1% . Breakdown losses 0.1% — 0
. Autonomous maintenance . Autonomous maintenance
activities well-established activities stable and refined
. Parts life spans lengthened . Parts life spans predicted
. Reliable and maintainable
design developed

. Moving internal setup operations . Setup time less than 10 minutes

into external setup time . Immediate product changeover
. Adjustment mechanisms by eliminating adjustments
identified and well understood

. Necessary improvements being . Operation speed increased to

implemented design speed or beyond through
. * Speed is set by the product equipment improvements
・ Cause-and-effect relationship . Speed standards set and main-
predicted between the problem tained by product (final standards)
and the precision of the . Zero speed losses
equipment, jigs, and tools
. Small speed losses

. All causes of minor stoppages . Zero minor stoppages (unmanned

analyzed, all solutions imple- operation possible)
mented, conditions favorable

. All causes of chronic quality . Quality losses = 01%-0

defects analyzed, all solutions
implemented, conditions
favorable
2. Automatic in-process detection
of defects under study
34 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

* performance: improved by eliminating speed losses,

minor stoppages, and idling
* quality (rate of quality products): improved by eliminat-
ing quality defects in process and during startup
The operating, performance, and quality rates can be deter-
mined in each work center, but the importance of each factor
varies according to the characteristics of the product, equipment,
and production systems involved. For example, if adjustments
and breakdowns are high, the operating rate will be low, and if
many minor stoppages occur, the performance rate will be low. A
high level of equipment effectiveness can be achieved only when
all three rates are high.
The following principles must bea boplied when improving
equipment effectiveness:
・ Make detailed, accurate measurements.
・ Set firm priorities.
¢ Establish clear directions or goals.

Calculating the Operating, Performance, and Quality Rates

Figure 2-1 illustrates the relationship of the six major losses

to the three rates used for calculating equipment effectiveness.
Loading time refers to the net availability of equipment dur-
ing a given period, such as a day or month. In other words, it is
the total time available for operation minus planned or necessary
downtime such as breaks in production schedule, precautionary
resting times, and daily shop floor meetings. Operating time is the
loading time minus the time the machine is down due to break-
downs, setup and adjustments, retooling, and other stoppages.
In other words, it refers to the time during which the equipment
is actually in operation.
Net operating time is the time the equipment is operated at a
stable or constant speed. Time losses due to minor stoppages
and operating at reduced speed (often estimated) are subtracted
from the operating time to determine the net operating time.
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36 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Valuable operating time is the net operating time minus the es-
timated time required to rework defective products. It is the time
during which acceptable products are manufactured.
Availability, or the operating rate, is the ratio of the loading
time to the net operating time.
The performance rate is based on the operating speed rate and
the net operating time. The operating speed rate is the ratio of the
ideal or design cycle time of the equipment to the actual cycle
time, which reflects reduced speed losses.
Although the design cycle time is often used in this ratio, in
some cases the operating speed must be lower than the design
speed for quality reasons, when design defects produce sub-
standard products, for example, or when operating at design
speed results in equipment problems. In such cases, perform-
ance should be calculated using the lower cycle time. Obviously,
speed must be determined on a case-by-case basis. Depending
on equipment conditions, one of the following methods should
be used:
* cycle time determined by design speed
* cycle time based on current optimal conditions (cycle time
changes according to product)
¢ highest cycle time achieved or cycle time estimated on the
basis of similar equipment
The net operating rate depends on maintaining a certain
speed over a given period of time. Thus, losses from minor stop-
pages, as well as those from correcting small problems and making
adjustments, must be taken into consideration. Ultimately, the
actual speed (regardless of the design or standard speed) is ir-
relevant. Equipment can certainly be operated at a lower speed,
as long as stable, long-term operation can be maintained.
Overall equipment effectiveness is the product of the operating
rate (availability), the performance rate, and the quality rate.
This measurement combines the current availability and speed
of the equipment with its quality rate. It reflects the overall capa-
bility of the plant.
 Other Improvement Concepts 37

Availability (operating rate) = ined ties ath iat

loading time

Peek care output

P X actual ual cycle ti time
cycle i
ideal cycle time
loading time 一 downtime actual cycle time
<> Bak
Net operating rate Operating speed rate
reflects losses resulting reflects reduced
from minor stoppages speed losses

Pete aie number of good products

input

Number of good products =

Input — (startup defects + process defects + trial products)

Overall equipment effectiveness =

Availability X Performance x Quality

Example

Working hours per day: 60 min. x 8 hours = 480 minutes

Loading time per day: 460 minutes
Downtime per day: 60 minutes
Operating time per day: 400 minutes
Output per day: 400 products
Types of downtime:
Setup — 20 minutes
Breakdowns — 20 minutes
Adjustments — 20 minutes
Defects — 2%
Availability (operating rate) = 400 + 460 x 100 = 87%
Ideal cycle time: 0.5 minutes per product
Actual cycle time: 0.8 minutes per product
Operating speed rate = 0.5 + 0.8 x 100 = 62.5%
Net operating rate = 400 pcs. x 0.8 + 400 minutes x 100 = 80%
(100 — net operating rate) reflects losses caused by minor stoppages
Performance rate = 0.625 x 0.800 x 100 = 50%
Quality rate = 98%
Overall equipment effectiveness = 0.87 x 0.5 x 0.98 x 100 = 42.6%
38 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Levels and Targeted Goals for Overall Effectiveness

Levels for overall effectiveness differ depending on the in-

dustry, equipment features, and production systems involved.
Equipment effectiveness averaged from 40 to 60 percent at the
companies investigated by JIPM (Table 2-3). This standard can be
raised to as much as 85 to 95 percent, however, through various
TPM improvement activities. Table 2-4 (see pages 40-41) shows
the actual conditions and figures at one participating firm.

Automated Automatic Automatic

machinery . assemblers packers

1. Overall effectiveness 51.3-78.4 38.0-80.7

2. Availability 95-98 95
3. Performance 54-80

|
Operating speed rate

Net operating rate

20-40% 15-60% 20%

of losses due of losses due of losses due
Remarks
to idling and to idling and to idling and
minor stoppages minor stoppages minor stoppages

Table 2-3. Sample Overall Effectiveness Conditions

CHRONIC LOSSES AND HIDDEN DEFECTS

Chronic losses are caused by hidden defects in machinery,

equipment, and methods. If fundamental conditions in the manu-
facturing environment are to improve, chronic losses and hid-
den defects must be completely eliminated. The remainder of
this chapter describes the nature of chronic losses and outlines a
methodology for detecting and eliminating hidden defects.
Until now, maintenance has typically addressed problems
that can be characterized as sporadic — infrequent or unusual
 Other Improvement Concepts

events that cause a sudden breakdown or obvious loss of quality.

Chronic losses, by contrast, are subtle and much more difficult to
detect. Their causes can be exposed and eliminated, however, by
changing the approach to factory maintenance.

Chronic Losses and Sporadic Losses

The term chronic usually refers to a phenomenon that occurs

repeatedly within a certain range of distribution. Sudden out-
breaks that go beyond this range are referred to as sporadic. These
sporadic outbreaks can take the form of either an increase in the
quantity of a particular phenomenon or a completely different
phenomenon.
The remedy for sporadic losses is restoration, since they are
usually triggered by changes in conditions (e.g., equipment, jigs
and tools, work methods, or operating conditions). They can be
corrected by taking actions to restore conditions to normal levels
(Figure 2-2).

Sporadic loss

Key is restoration
・ To return to previous level
Key is innovation
Optimal ・ To achieve optimal conditions
Chronic loss conditions
(zero defects) Chronic losses become obvious when
compared with optimal conditions

Figure 2-2. Sporadic and Chronic Losses

The key to chronic losses, on the other hand, is innovation.

Chronic problems tend to resist traditional remedies because their
roots are hidden in the structure of the equipment and the
methods used. They arise from conditions that have come to be
perceived as normal, so restorative action or quick-fix remedies
40 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

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have no effect. Chronic losses can be reduced only through break-

through thinking — abandoning conventional tactics for new
and creative methods that pursue and eliminate the hidden causes.
According to J. M. Juran:
A sporadic condition is a sudden adverse change in the
status quo, requiring remedy through restoring the status
quo (e.g., changing a worn cutting tool). A chronic condi-
tion is a longstanding adverse situation, requiring remedy
through changing the status quo (e.g., revising a set of un-
realistic tolerances).*

Differences Between Chronic and Sporadic Losses

Chronic and sporadic losses differ in other ways as well:

Latency. Sporadic losses are conspicuous, because they
create conditions that differ considerably from routine operating
conditions. Chronic problems, by contrast, tend to remain hidden.
Typically, they are hard to measure, easily overlooked, or ignored
because of cynicism or preconceived notions about their causes.
Often, chronic losses can often be brought out into the open
only by comparing present conditions with theoretical or opti-
mal levels. For example, a piece of equipment may be designed
to run at 250 spm (strokes per minute). If it is currently operating
at only 200 spm, the speed loss of 50 spm will remain hidden if
clear standards for equipment capacity have not been specified.
Only when the current speed is compared to the standard speed
does the loss become evident (Table 2-5).
Here is another example. Setup for a particular machine cur-
rently takes an hour. If technical and operational improvements
can reduce the setup time to 30 minutes, then a latent 30-minute
loss is exposed.
Causation. Cause-and-effect relationships are relatively
simple to trace in the case of sporadic losses; in chronic losses, on

* J. M. Juran and E M. Gryna, Jr., Quality Planning and Analysis: From Product
Development through Usage (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1970), 9.
 Other Improvement Concepts 43

1. Sporadic breakdowns
[en
| we |
x
Chronic breakdowns
. Setup and adjustment x

. Idling and minor stoppage

. Speed
NY
W
af. Sporadic quality defects x
Chronic quality defects

Table 2-5. Characteristics of Chronic Loss

the other hand, they are often unclear. A single cause is rare — a
combination of causes tends to be the rule.
Types of remedial action. Measures against sporadic prob-
lems are not very difficult to develop because, as explained
above, their causes are easily determined. Since the causes of
chronic losses are often complex, this type of loss can remain un-
solved even after numerous remedies have been attempted.
Economic impact. A single sporadic problem can be very
costly compared to a single occurrence of a chronic loss. The
cumulative effect and cost of these smaller losses is considerable,
however, because of the frequency of their occurrence.

To summarize, sporadic problems are conspicuous and have

clear causes, so appropriate actions are relatively easy to design.
Chronic problems
* are usually latent
* result in negligible loss per incident
* occur frequently
・ can be easily restored by operators
* rarely come to the attention of supervisors
・ are difficult to quantify
* must be detected through comparison with optimal
conditions
Most companies take some action to solve sporadic prob-
lems while leaving chronic problems essentially untouched.
44 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Characteristics of Chronic Losses

To reduce chronic loss, its characteristics must be grasped

fully. Causes cannot be assigned without a thorough under-
standing of the conditions surrounding a particular loss. The
hasty conclusions based on inadequate investigation that can be
observed in many companies must be avoided. The numerous,
constantly changing causes of chronic problems produce a com-
plex of phenomena that interact in different combinations in
every occurrence. It is therefore more prudent to conclude that
the cause is unknown. An effective remedy can often be de-
veloped for a single cause, but as long as other causes remain
hidden, little or no improvement will result (Figure 2-3).

(Single cause) (Multiple causes) (Complex combination of causes)

Difficulty in pinpointing cause

Figure 2-3. Causes of Chronic Losses

Do not plan remedial action before thoroughly investigating

the peculiarities of a chronic loss. Moreover, do not neglect or elimi-
nate any possible causes. Once all factors that might influence the
loss have been identified, measures should be designed and im-
plemented to control each of them.
 Other Improvement Concepts 45

How Chronic Losses Occur

Chronic losses occur under the following circumstances

(Figure 2-4):

When the Loss is Recognized, But...

Remedial action has been unsuccessful. This is the most

common situation. After various measures have been taken, re-
sults are unfavorable or insignificant, so the investigation is
abandoned.

Remedial action cannot be taken. In this case, an effective

countermeasure is obviously needed, but pressing production
and delivery requirements leave no time to implement any radi-
cal or permanent solutions. Less effective temporary measures
are taken instead, and the problem persists.
Remedial action is not taken. In this case, a chronic loss has
been observed, but the extent of the problem is not recognized
and the phenomena are ignored. Because the magnitude of such
losses is not apparent, many companies underestimate their ef-
fect. The costs required to eliminate chronic losses mistakenly
appear to outweigh the benefits, so the problems are often left
untouched.

‘ + Results poor
A Action unsuccessful | . No signs of improvement
・ Improvement abandoned
Ad hoc measures taken;
B Action prevented no fundamental solutions

・ Scope of loss unclear

Chronic No action. taked because unquantified
losses

* Typically, the chronic loss is unanticipated and unnoticed in cases of

Loss
minor stoppage, speed loss, setup/adjustment loss, startup loss
unrecognized

Figure 2-4. Background of Chronic Loss

46 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

When the Loss Is Unrecognized

Often a chronic loss goes unnoticed, especially when it is

hidden in what appears to be a “normal” operation. Most in-
volve minor stoppages (e.g., temporary overload and blockage
where operation resumes with removal of the obstacles), speed
losses, rework, and startup losses.

Why Chronic Losses Are Neglected

The common reasons for neglecting chronic losses are sum-

marized in Figure 2-5. They are the following:

The Cause Is Unknown

Discovering why a chronic loss occurs is difficult, because so

many types of causes are possible: single causes, multiple causes,
and complex causes, which occur in different combinations at
different times.
Often engineers begin analyzing an equipment problem by
taking an industrial engineering or quality control approach but
fail to identify the cause. Next, they take preventive measures on
a trial-and-error basis, but the problem still fails to improve.
When this happens, the whole team becomes discouraged and
the equipment is set aside because it “cannot be fixed,” because
“only new equipment will show an improvement,” or because
“current technology cannot solve this problem.”
One reason for this pattern is that some engineers tend to
adopt an overly narrow focus on certain details. Effective solu-
tions, however, are the result of a detailed technical perspective
balanced with overall understanding of the workplace (e.s., equip-
ment and production methods).

A Cause Is Known, but Action Taken Is Inappropriate

Because chronic losses are usually caused by a variety of inter-

related factors, single actions provide only partial solutions.
 Other Improvement Concepts 47

Moreover, engineers often take inappropriate measures because

they misunderstand the true nature of the loss after superficial
observation. Or they reach hasty conclusions about its cause by
relying on techniques that worked for them in the past.

Inadequate investigation of operational and

1 Cause is unknown engineering aspects; poor interface between
departments

2 Cause is known, but

Sction ineffective ーー Characteristics of chronic loss not understood

3 Action not implemented Poor followup on preventive measures; conditions not

thoroughly maintained

Numerous stopgap measures; fundamental solution

4 Symptomatic treatment not pursued

5 Misjudgment

a. Underestimation Magnitude and cost of problem considered negligible

・ Assuming improvements are too costly

b. Incorrect assumptions ・ Assuming practice will remove the problem

Figure 2-5. Why Chronic Losses Are Neglected

Remedial Action Is Incomplete

Sometimes an effective solution is identified but the results

of implementation are disappointing because it was not carried
out properly or thoroughly. In other words, simple procedural
errors can trigger chronic problems. For example:
¢ The intended effect of the measure is not clearly communi-
cated to the shop floor, so it is improperly implemented.
・Not all operators are equally well trained and knowledge-
able; newcomers may inadvertently use inconsistent
methods.
* The measures taken produce negative results because
shop floor efforts are not thorough; lack of follow-up
makes the problem worse.
48 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

All these problems are caused by lack of managerial plan-

ning and follow-up to check results.

Symptomatic Treatment of the Cause

Often, tight production and delivery schedules prevent im-

plementation of long-term solutions and favor superficial, short-
term remedies. Failure to treat root causes, however, results in
the recurrence of similar problems, lower productivity, an in-
crease in chronic losses, and production that cannot run
smoothly. The earlier this vicious cycle is broken, the better.

Mistaken Approaches
Underestimation. Sporadic problems often produce drama-
tic losses that attract the attention of managers. The managers
then provide prompt treatment, search for causes, and propose
preventive measures. The scope of a chronic loss, on the other
hand, is typically hard to detect and often underestimated, so
managers are seldom informed of their occurrence.
Incorrect assumptions. Because the causes, magnitude,
and frequency of chronic losses are so often misunderstood, it is
easy to imagine that new equipment or changes in manufacturing
processes, quality standards, or material are the only solutions.
Thus, improving existing equipment and conditions appears
costly and the potential results minimal. This is why chronic
losses are often ignored.
Mistaking lack of training for lack of practice. In some
cases, chronic losses seem inevitable because the work is always
performed by a disproportionally large number of inexperienced
workers. Managers incorrectly assume that practice and experi-
ence will eventually solve the problem. They do not analyze the
skills of seasoned workers so that these skills can be easily
transferred to newcomers. Where skill is a factor in the loss, new
workers typically have not received adequate training in key
 Other Improvement Concepts 49

operational steps, points to watch, and methods for checking re-

sults. Moreover, their work is often unchecked. This accounts for
many chronic losses.

REDUCING AND ELIMINATING CHRONIC LOSSES

Chronic losses can be reduced and often eliminated by in-

creasing equipment reliability, restoring the equipment to its
original operating conditions, identifying and establishing opti-
mal operating conditions, and eliminating small defects that are
often overlooked.

Reliability

Equipment reliability is the probability that equipment,

machinery, or systems will perform required functions satisfac-
torily under specific conditions within a certain period of time. It
can also be thought of as the likelihood that problems (quality de-
fects and breakdowns) will not occur over a given period. Low
equipment reliability is the fundamental cause of chronic losses;
it is also what makes them so difficult to eliminate. Low reliability
leads to the incidence of quality defects and breakdowns, and
these problems must be regarded as chronic when the intervals
between occurrences are brief.

Intrinsic Reliability and Operational Reliability

Equipment reliability is based on two factors: intrinsic relia-

bility and operational reliability. Intrinsic reliability is based on
design and is determined during the design, fabrication, and in-
stallation stages. Operational reliability is determined by the user
and is related to how and under what conditions the equipment
is operated. Total reliability is the product of these two qualities.
Reliability can be further subdivided:
Fabrication reliability. Faulty manufacturing and assembly
of parts may result in poor dimensional accuracy, incorrect
shapes of parts, and poor assembly.
50 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Intrinsic reliability Operational reliability

Design reliability Operation reliability

Manufacturing reliability Maintenance reliability
Installation reliability

Installation reliability. Improper installation results in ex-

cessive vibration, equipment that is not level, and defective
plumbing and wiring.
Design reliability. Faulty design includes jigs mismatched
to workpiece shape, faulty mechanisms, short parts-life, parts
misselection, poor instrumental detection systems, and so on.

Relatively few equipment defects are caused by poor design

reliability, however. Most of them are related to operation, such as:
Operation and manipulation reliability. The following
errors can reduce reliability in operation: manipulation errors,
setup and adjustment errors, incorrect operation standards, and
inconsistency in maintaining basic conditions (cleaning, lubrica-
tion, bolting).

Maintenance reliability. Equipment reliability is also re-

duced by maintenance errors, such as incorrect replacement of
parts and incorrect assembly.
When breakdowns and quality defects occur, the source of
low reliability must be investigated. Often it results from in-
sufficient knowledge of how equipment should be operated and
poor technical expertise in managing and fully utilizing equip-
ment. (Figures 2-6 and 2-7.)

Learning to Use and Manage Equipment

The ability to use a piece of equipment fully is gained by

studying manufacturing technology — learning the optimal
conditions for equipment and auxiliaries, for example, condi-
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Other Improvement Concepts

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ey TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Techniques 1 Restoration
for makin Design reliability
full use oO 2 Search for optimal conditions
equipment
Fabrication reliability
Eliminate minor equipment Intrinsic
reliability
Study of defects
equipment Installation reliability
usage Physical analysis of ; る
phenomena (P-M analysis)
5き Operation and
manipulation reliabilit
Techniques 5 Eliminate trial-and-error from に P y
for managing adjustment operations ge Maintenance reliability
equipment
Analyze veteran workers’
intuitive operational skills

Figure 2-7. Learning to Use Equipment Fully and Make Basic Improvements

tions essential to enhance quality characteristics, to increase

availability (time and speed), and to improve operability.
The ability to manage a piece of equipment is gained by
studying human functions, that is, what people concerned with
equipment can do to maintain optimal equipment conditions in
terms of operation, manipulation, and the detection and restora-
tion of abnormalities.
Even when the level of technical know-how is high, prob-
lems can surface when users ignore fundamental operational re-
quirements or have poor operational skills. On the other hand,
good operating skills and adherence to procedures is of little avail
when the equipment itself is faulty. Clearly, the technologies of
equipment utilization and management should be pursued
simultaneously.
Equipment can be purchased, but the know-how necessary
for its proper operation is not so easily obtained. It becomes avail-
able only when the company commits to training everyone in-
volved in the use and maintenance of equipment. If training is
inadequate, equipment is often neglected and operation is poor
because of frequent problems. When new, sophisticated machin-
ery is purchased, operators will be slow to master its operation
since they lack fundamental knowledge and training. Problems
similar to those experienced with the old equipment are likely to
develop before long.
 Other Improvement Concepts 53

Restoration

All equipment changes slowly, over time. The timing and ex-
tent of the changes depend on the particular features of the
equipment and its component parts. Often the changes are ex-
tremely small and easy to overlook. Large changes that cause un-
expected breakdowns when they are not restored immediately
are rarely neglected. When small changes are repeatedly neg-
lected, however, they, too, can develop into major breakdowns
over time. Even if they don't lead to breakdowns, they cause
chronic losses. These changes are referred to as deterioration.
When equipment breakdowns recur in short cycles, the re-
medies sought often involve substitutions or replacements in
mechanisms, parts shape, or material. These efforts are rarely
effective because the breakdowns are not directly caused by the
mechanism, part shape, or material, but by the neglect of smaller
changes in conditions, such as abrasion, finishing precision, as-
sembly methods, and precision. Only when these conditions are
restored can breakdowns be prevented.
Restoration means returning the equipment to its original,
proper, or ideal conditions (Figure 2-8). Since restoration pre-
vents breakdowns by treating their fundamental causes, it
should be performed before changing mechanisms or parts. If re-
storation does not eliminate the breakdowns, then efforts should
be made to improve the equipment. This does not apply, how-
ever, to equipment that cannot satisfy current technical or market
requirements.
Equipment can function to its full potential only when parts
and component strength and precision are balanced. Restoration
attempts to regain this balance throughout the equipment. If only
some parts are restored and altered, losses will continue to occur.

Accelerated Deterioration

There are two types of deterioration: natural deterioration

and accelerated deterioration. Natural deterioration is the normal
wear-out that occurs in spite of proper use and maintenance.
54 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Detection methods

・ Cleaning ・ Measurement
・ Measuring methods
P rme criteria ・ Appropriate
Restoration roper CO| nditio 6
Biinapedton iti
conditions
methods ・ Predictive
・ Return to Conditions required to methods
original, proper sustain equipment
2 IO “Cleaning is inspection”
・ What are proper “Deterioration causes deterioration”
conditions?
Reduce gap between
proper and current How to achieve
conditions
proper restoration
Deterioration varies
as time passes; note
natural vs. accelerated ・ Equipment modifications are
deterioration ineffective without prior restoration
・ Detect deterioration as ・ Partial restoration also yields poor
early as possible results

Figure 2-8. Restoration

Accelerated deterioration is caused by human factors and occurs

over a much shorter period. It results from neglect of vital re-
quirements for maintaining equipment functions, such as clean-
ing or essential lubrication. It also results from neglect of natural
deterioration.
When neglected, deterioration tends to increase over time
and spread to other parts. Indeed, unchecked deterioration can
trigger a chain reaction that leads to an avalanche of problems.
This situation is not uncommon on the shop floor. For example,
a single loose bolt may cause some vibration. If it goes un-
checked, however, the vibration gradually increases and other
bolts begin to loosen.
Obviously, deteriorating conditions must be identified
through inspection and corrected as soon as possible (Figure 2-9).
Unfortunately, efforts to halt deterioration and restore equip-
ment to its original operating conditions are often hindered be-
cause the following information is unavailable:
・ original, optimal conditions
* methods for detecting deterioration
* criteria for measuring deterioration
* appropriate restoration procedures
 Other Improvement Concepts 575)

Such problems can be avoided by establishing criteria and proce-

dures in advance.

How do we detect
this drop in performance?
How do we establish
control limits? Breakdown

Performance
————> Performance curve is decided by
・ characteristics of parts
* usage conditions of parts

————> Time

Figure 2-9. Development of Deterioration

Cleaning

Cleaning is an effective way to check and control equipment

deterioration. JIPM encourages companies to use cleaning as a
primary form of inspection for several reasons (Figure 2-10):
* During cleaning, each part of the equipment is touched or
handled.
+ In the course of touching each part, the worker can discover
problems such as overheating, vibration, abnormal noises,
looseness, and so on.
+ Removing dust, dirt, and grease (and applying proper
lubrication) slows deterioration.

Cleaning is inspection to detect deterioration, it lengthens

component parts life and maintains equipment precision and
quality requirements (Figure 2-11).
56 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

|Object of
of Cleaning:
Cleaning: ase
Remove dirt, and | Reece
Prevent
| ase
contaminants and.. | Reece

By means of cleaning... Touch every part of

the equipment

Discover malfunctions in each

part (overheating, vibration,
By means abnormal noises, breakdowns)
of touching

Constantly check changes

Prevent problems
from occurring

Figure 2-10. Cleaning Is Inspection

Physical Aspects Psychological Aspects

Quality ・ Develop ability to detect malfunctions

・ Reduce quality defects ・ Promote respect for equipment
・ Stabilize quality ・ Adhere to rules (discipline)
・ Increase motivation
Equipment
・ Work in clean, sanitary workplace
・ Detect malfunctions early
・ Prevent abrasion ・ Enhance purchaser's confidence
・ Lengthen parts life
・ Maintain equipment functions
・ Prevent misoperation
・ Maintain parts precision

Figure 2-11. Effects of Cleaning

Consider, for example, the difference between washing a

car in an automatic car wash and washing it by hand at home.
In terms of gross appearance, the effects are the same: the car is
clean, that is, dirt has been removed. Other less obvious physical
defects, however, are revealed only by personal inspection of the
various parts (e.g., tire wear-out, presence of nails, cracks in the
finish, body scratches, rust, etc.). This type of cleaning or inspec-
tion of factory equipment is important for the same reasons.
 Other Improvement Concepts 57

Predictive Maintenance

Deterioration can be detected through predictive mainte-

nance as well. Diagnostic techniques measure the typical chemi-
cal and physical indications of the extent of deterioration in
equipment. They also regularly compare current and normal
operating conditions. If conditions are beyond the specified control
limits, corrective measures are taken (e. g-, an overhaul or ex-
change of parts) to prevent a breakdown.
To conduct predictive maintenance, the following informa-
tion must be known:
* how to measure deterioration
* how to detect signs of abnormality
・ what “normal” conditions are
・ where the line between abnormality and normality lies
(when to intervene)

For example, to detect deterioration in high-speed bearings,

vibration and other indications are periodically measured and
compared to normal levels. If this comparison reveals a certain
deviation from the normal level, an appropriate time for replac-
ing the bearing can be estimated or predicted.

Optimal Conditions

Optimal conditions are those essential for optimal functioning

and maintenance of equipment capabilities. Often, standards for
parts and units are not established. Even when standards are
available, there may be problems resulting from the way they
were developed, or they may be simply ignored. When equip-
ment is operated without understanding optimal conditions, the
breakdowns and defects that occur are slow to be corrected.
By comparison, when individual units or parts of equip-
ment are maintained at optimal levels (determined in accordance
with appropriate engineering principles or functionally by obser-
vation), the equipment can be fully utilized over an extended
period of time.
58 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

What Are Optimal Conditions?

Consider what is involved in determining the limits of

precision and use for a single part in a machine: What are the
dimensional control limits? What shape is acceptable? How
much abrasion is allowed? All too often, tolerances of preci-
sion and control limits for operation are not established or are
neglected, and the equipment is operated without understanding
these requirements. Only by determining the conditions men-
tioned above and maintaining them based on function, mech-
anism, and usage of part can chronic problems and losses be
eliminated (Figure 2-12).

Optimal conditions Types of oeOptimal

P Conditions

Conditions necessary to achieve and 1 Conditions of use

maintain optimal function and
performance of equipment
2 Installation precision

i 3A | isi
Desirable conditions (based on engineering See
principles and theories or ideal conditions
(based on equipment functioning)
4 Function

5 Environment
Optimal Optimal
conditions known conditions unknown
6 External appearance

if Dimensional
precision
Standards are Standards are
not followed too loose

8 Material/strength

Figure 2-12. Optimal Conditions

 Other Improvement Concepts 59

Necessary Versus Desirable Conditions

The functon of a V-belt, for example, is to transmit torque.

What are the conditions for its operation? First, separate neces-
sary from merely desirable conditions: Necessary conditions are
the minimum requirements for operation; desirable conditions sur-
pass the minimum or standard levels of operation.
Necessary conditions for the V-belt include
* conformance to specifications
* atleast one belt installed (in the case of a triple-belt drive)
Desirable conditions include

* three belts installed

* all three belts at the appropriate tension
* no scratches, dirt, cracks, abrasion, grease marks
* proper alignment between motor and speed reducers
Desirable conditions are not directly linked to breakdowns
and defects, but they influence the process indirectly. We tend to
focus only on the necessary conditions, but desirable or optimal
conditions should also be identified and maintained, since their
neglect (i.e., inadequate cleaning) often leads to the occurrence
of chronic losses.

Establishing Optimal Conditions

Optimal conditions can be used to discover defective condi-

tions. The gap created when current conditions are compared
with optimal values highlights areas needing improvement. The
following questions can be used to identify optimal conditions
(Figure 2-13):
・ Dimensional precision: Are parts accurately machined
and measured?
・ Outer appearance: What is the condition of the surface of
parts and units (e.g., dirt, seizure, uneven abrasion)?
・ Assembly precision: If parts or components are precise,
how is the precision of the integrated assembly? Poor inte-
gration can result from either poor assembly or faulty parts.
60 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

* Installation precision: Is equipment installed properly?

Does it shake? Is it level?
・ Operational precision: Are operating conditions optimal?
Are the processing and manipulation conditions optimal?
Be aware that operational conditions, in general, are sim-
ply based on past experience, without regard to what the
optimal levels might be. Don’t assume that “normal” is
the same as “optimal.”
Functioning parts: Are critical parts functioning properly?
Is actuation normal? Are the parts compatible with the
equipment and system? Is the tolerance reasonable?
・ Environment: Is the equipment environment favorable? Is
the atmospheric temperature appropriate? Is the area free
of dust and dirt? Are there other environmental require-
ments to maintain equipment?
Materials/Strength: Is the material adequate? Is a more
durable material available? Is the rigidity or strength
sufficient?

When Optimal Conditions Are Not Known

Basic conditions such as those referred to above may not be

known. Some information can be found in vendors’ specifica-
tions, drawings, instruction manuals, and other technical re-
sources, but it may or may not be adequate. Often, detailed
parts, assembly instructions, or installation manuals are unavail-
able or misplaced. In such cases the equipment must be disman-
tled and analyzed in order to prepare in-house drawings and
specifications. Examine and decide optimal conditions on a trial-
and-error basis, and set control limits.

Differentiate Between Normality and Abnormality

Optimal equipment conditions are difficult to define when

the boundary between normality and abnormality is ambiguous
(Figure 2-14). Such cases are often neglected because
 Other Improvement Concepts 61

mw | w | | smsトー| mr ]
KOI)
〇

ne

Y Level examined Level examined

Level examined

Operational Assembly External

conditions precision appearance

・ Processing conditions + Precision of assembled ・ Dirt

* Operation
and manipulation unit/parts + Scratches
conditions ・ Vibration and looseness of ast
a
・ Conformance to specific unit/parts ESraieanahon
equipment requirements ・ Datum plane 3 .
・ Position and angle for : pe oe
assembly ・ Seizure
・ Connecting mechanism ・ Uneven abrasion
between units/parts * Cracking
* Timing + Roughness
・ Angle

Installation 7 Dimensional
precision precision

・ Vibration ・ Range of operation (within ・ Dimensions

・ Levelness lmite) and lower control ・ Required precision
・ Finished surface
・ Compatibility of parts roughness
・ Actuating conditions ・ Life span
・ Reliability of the system ・ Cleaning methods

Materials/
Strength

・ Dust/dirt
・ Heat
・ Cleaning methods
・ Piping layout

Figure 2-13. Establishing Optimal Conditions

62 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Normal |Abnormal

ary Narrow the regions

! of normality
Normal | Abnormal

・ Can be interpreted
as normal or abnor-
mal depending on Normal Abnormal
the perspective
・ Events falling in grey Grey area Set a boundary be-
area tend to cause leh aay: tween normality and
problems abnormality or narrow
| Abnormal the grey area

Figure 2-14. The Boundary Between Normality and Abnormality

¢ the boundary between normal and abnormal is unclear

¢ the cause-and-effect relationship in the problem is obscure
・ repair results cannot be predicted
* results cannot be considered successful

Clearing up this ambiguity can reduce chronic losses. While such

problems rarely occur in major units, they tend to go unnoticed
in auxiliary equipment. The zone between normality and abnor-
mality must be either clarified or minimized. Trial-and-error testing
can be helpful.
Sometimes, chronic losses fail to decrease even when a clear
boundary between normality and abnormality can be discerned.
In such cases the existing boundary must be reevaluated. For
example, when an equipment part with a tolerance of 0.05 mal-
functions, production might return to normal when the toler-
ance is upgraded to 0.03.

Focus Targeted Area and Scope of Investigation

Before conducting detailed analyses to identify optimal con-

ditions, think carefully about where and how far to look. It is
difficult — and unnecessary — to check every single compo-
 Other Improvement Concepts 63

nent part. Focus the investigation on only those areas directly re-
lated to the problem. Factors may vary according to
* the details of a specific problem's occurrence and its physi-
cal analysis
* the relationship between the occurrence and the equipment
* the machine mechanism and function/precision of com-
ponent parts
* processing and operational conditions
These factors must be reviewed thoroughly and systemati-
cally, from both theoretical and technical perspectives. In TPM
product quality is determined by machine quality; the statistical
approach common in quality control studies should be avoided.
These factors must be reviewed thoroughly from both theoretical
and technical perspectives (Figures 2-15 and 2-16).

Changing Conditions to Expose Latent Defects

Changing conditions can help expose latent defects. For

example, when equipment speed is raised above the current level,
increases in the quality defect rate and decreases in the operating
rate (e.g., stoppages and breakdowns) prevent an actual increase
in speed. The defects, breakdowns, and vibration that occur
when the speed is raised are the result of poor precision of parts
and components and their assembly conditions.
That such defects do not occur at the present speed and level
of precision is irrelevant. What should interest us is their latency.
When such defects eventually surface they not only display a
cumulative effect but are often magnified exponentially (Figure
2-17). Therefore, raising the speed helps determine the optimal
conditions for parts and components by prompting a reevalua-
tion of their current precision.

Chronic Losses and Slight Equipment Defects

Equipment defects are not clearly defined, generally, but

they are often divided into three broad categories:
64 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Equipment Quality
specifications standards

Study functions of each unit

What conditions does each

component part require to
maintain these functions?

Instruction
manuals for
purchased goods
Experience
and know-how

Instruction
manuals provided
by the
manufacturer

Examine optimal conditions Study measurement techniques/

investigation methods

Measurement/
investigation
Theories/
principles

Classify Experiment
problems planning

Implement Trial-and-
improvements error testing

Reexamine
Check results optimal Experience
of improvements conditions and know-how

Figure 2-15. When Optimal Conditions Are Not Known

 Other Improvement Concepts 65
i ee

Confirm phenomenon

1
Relationship
between phenomena
and the equipment

ape Bel

Physical analysis M Operating principles

of phenomena of machine: mechanism, theory
component parts,
Outbreak and functions
mechanisms

Check machine in
dynamic and static Processing
conditions conditions
1 oe Se Se 4

Study malfunctions

Study area of focus (in equipment)

:
Consider optimal conditions

— interms —in terms of

of material human activities
ee RA

Examine on basis of engineering

principles and theories

List factors and corrective actions

Confirm results

1
Reevaluate processing conditions

Figure 2-16. Relationship Between Phenomena and the Equipment’s

Optimal Conditions
66 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Defect rate (%)

Based on similar
equipment

Speedup rate (%)

Figure 2-17. Defects Aggravated by Speedup

¢ Significant defects cause breakdowns and stoppages,

stopping operation.
・ Moderate defects reduce quality and productivity, but op-
eration continues.
¢ Slight defects have negligible effects individually, but
cumulatively or simultaneously they reduce quality and
machine availability.
Traditionally, significant and moderate equipment defects
receive the most attention in problem-solving, while slight de-
fects are neglected. Targeting the larger defects may be effective
in the early failure period, but it will not eliminate chronic losses.
For this, eliminating all slight defects is the key.

Slight Equipment Defects

Slight defects are traditionally considered harmless, because

individually their effect on breakdowns and quality defects is
 Other Improvement Concepts 67

minimal. Dirt, grime, vibration, and 1 to 2 percent abrasion fall

into this category, for example. Who imagines that a shift from 3
to 4 percent abrasion will cause an immediate breakdown? In
general, however, slight defects include any suspicious factors
that appear to have an effect on the result — regardless of their
probability (e.g., .01 to .001 percent).
Prevent dramatic cumulative effects. One important object
of focusing on slight equipment defects is to prevent the poten-
tially dramatic effect they produce cumulatively. Each defect
should be dealt with thoroughly and patiently, because the over-
all effect is often greater than the sum of the individual defects.
Even when the individual factors are extremely small,
* they can trigger other factors
* they can overlap with other factors to magnify the effect
* combined with other factors they can cause a chain reaction
Highlight causes. The second object in focusing on slight
defects is to highlight causes by uncovering clues that may point
to solutions for chronic problems. The cause-and-effect relation-
ships of chronic problems often remain vague despite persistent
analysis of recurring phenomena, experimental plans, or quan-
titative analysis. If slight defects are involved, a different method
must be used to determine what causes are present and what to
do about them.
Although all problems have both direct and indirect causes,
human intellectual processes alone cannot always discover
them. In other words, we can rarely “think” our way to a solution.
The analytical approach fails whenever a single cause, multiple
causes, or primary and secondary causes are overlooked or mis-
takenly eliminated as insignificant (Figure 2-18). A better approach
is to assume that cause or causes are unknown, because
* asingle original cause may trigger numerous other factors
¢ there may be multiple causes
・the combination of causes may change with every occur-
rence
68 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Eliminate all slight defects. Since no purely analytical ap-

proach can guarantee that we have identified precisely which de-
fects are causing various problems, the more practical solution is
to eliminate all potential slight defects.
Obviously, when causes are distinct and independent, an
approach that investigates and proves specific hypotheses can be
more efficient. When there are numerous and minute causes,
however, the slower method recommended here is more certain
to eliminate chronic equipment defects. Although time-consum-
ing, this approach has proven highly effective in eliminating
chronic problems: even if the problem is not solved immediately,
it reduces the complexity of the phenomenon (by eliminating
contributing factors) and exposes hidden conditions that may
lead to a solution.

Often, attempting to
X |_ isolate a root cause
does not work
Cause is unknown

An approach which Problem is solved

eliminates a// suspicious
factors is desirable
Problem is not solved, but
the factors are reduced; new
clues lead to solution of
・ The “eliminate-all-suspicious-factors” approach is time- the problem
consuming but highly effective in practice

* The “hypothesis-proof” approach is quick and effective but

does not work when there are multiple small causes

Figure 2-18. Approaches to Elimination of Chronic Losses

Prevent significant equipment defects from developing.

The third aim of focusing on slight defects is to prevent small
problems from turning into larger ones. If slight defects are ig-
nored in their early stages, they often develop into large and fatal
defects that cause breakdowns and major problems. Therefore,
they must be removed as quickly as possible. Even when they do
not lead to major problems, they contribute to accelerated de-
terioration and occurrence of moderate defects.
 Other Improvement Concepts 69

Eliminating Slight Defects

Keep the following two principles in mind when attempting

to eliminate slight defects.

1. Evaluate the relationship between slight defects and

equipment. When looking at slight defects from an engineering
perspective, be sure to review the relationship between the de-
fect and the equipment. This does not require a sophisticated
theoretical analysis but a simple rethinking of basic principles
and a review of all related factors.
2. Do not be misled. Keep in mind that the probability of
any single defect’s contribution to the overall problem is basically
irrelevant. A defect that plays a minor role, for instance, may
occur frequently. In any case, once the defect has occurred it
ought to be eliminated. In other words, regardless of our precon-
ceived notions about their importance, all suspicious defects
must be eliminated, whether large or small. The size of the role is
important only during the early failure period, when there is a
high rate of defects and breakdowns. In such cases, it is most effec-
tive to identify and eliminate major defects first. The individual
contributions of slight defects to chronic losses are almost impossi-
ble to determine, however, so targeting slight defects during this
period will not be productive.

Case Study on Slight Equipment Defects

At factory O, incidents of pyrolysis (carbonization) occurred in

a vinyl chloride extrusion process. Carbonization occurs when
resin in the cylinder head is overheated. The equipment was de-
signed to continuously regulate the flow of heat, but carbonization
occurred when an abnormality in the flow of resin produced partial
clogging.
Whenever this happened, the die, connected parts, and
screws were disassembled and the carbonized part was cleaned so
that operation could be restored to normal. Instead of improving,
however, productivity continued to fall, and the operation stag-
70 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

gered. To restore productivity, the following three measures were

proposed to eliminate certain slight defects that had been observed
to contribute to the carbonization:
¢ Thoroughly clean each part.
¢ Increase the precision of each part.
¢ Increase the precision of the parts assembly.
At first the company was hesitant, stating that such measures
“could not lead to good results,” “have little purpose,” and “are a
waste of time.” The measures were implemented with reluctance.
Gradual improvement encouraged operators to implement the im-
provement measures more diligently. Four months later, the prob-
lem had been entirely eliminated. Moreover, the causes were now
understood:
¢ Thorough, regular cleaning of parts removed all dust or dirt
that could quicken the conduction of heat and cause
pyrolysis.
¢ Increased precision of individual parts eliminated scratches
and abrasion that inhibited proper assembly and inter-
rupted the flow of resin. Even if the individual parts had
been normal, improper assembly had led to poor func-
tioning and flow. This caused clogging and resulted in
carbonization.
This case illustrates the tendency of companies to dismiss
measures as ineffective because their potential effectiveness
cannot be estimated. Such short-sighted thinking inhibits re-
duction of chronic losses. Implemented individually, the three
measures might not have been effective. Together, however,
they thoroughly prevented pyrolysis. Obviously, each meas-
ure was directly or indirectly related to the phenomenon of
pyrolysis, yet each had only a minor effect on the overall re-
sult, and its relationship to the phenomenon could not be
quantified. This example shows how important it is to control
all variable factors simultaneously.
 Other Improvement Concepts 71

P-M Analysis and Chronic Loss

P-M analysis is a technique developed to promote the

thorough, systematic elimination of defects that contribute to
chronic losses. It provides a more effective approach than methods
traditionally used in quality control activities.

Factor Analysis Inadequate for Eliminating Chronic Losses

Factor analysis (the cause-and-effect diagram) is a traditional

quality control method used easily and effectively to solve many
types of problems. Its weaknesses surface, however, when it is
used to analyze the complex causes related to chronic problems.
The major weakness in factor analysis is in the listing and treat-
ment of factors.
Insufficient confirmation and classification. Conclusions
are often based on insufficient observation and analysis. Al-
though several events or phenomena may resemble each other,
further observation often makes differences clear. It is important
to consider carefully and compare the conditions under which
the phenomena occurred and the results. If this process is incom-
plete, the wrong factors may be emphasized and ineffective re-
medial measures taken. Confirming the true nature of a problem
is crucial.
Insufficient analysis of the phenomenon. When potential
causes are listed without a practical, systematic approach, unre-
lated factors may be included and vital factors overlooked. An
approach based on sound physical analysis is required.
Factor analysis often begins without a complete understand-
ing of the physical conditions. The analysis is typically applied to
a limited group of factors, while other factors are consciously ig-
nored. It also does not consider information about similar cases,
so the factors are often biased and limited. All efforts are focused
on corrective action; the mystery of the phenomenon remains
unsolved and the number of chronic losses does not decrease.
ip TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

P-M Analysis Procedure

P-M analysis was developed to make up for these deficien-

cies in conventional analysis. P-M is an acronym of words start-
ing with the letters P (“phenomena,” “physical,” “problem”)
and M (“mechanism,” 7/ //
“machinery,” “manpower,” “material”).
Through P-M analysis, all pertinent factors in a chronic loss are
efficiently identified and eliminated. It includes the following
steps:

Step 1: Clarify the Problem

Carefully investigate the problem and compare its appear-

ance, conditions, and affected parts with those of similar equip-
ment. Determine whether the phenomena are the same or slightly
different.

Step 2: Conduct a Physical Analysis of the Problem

Consider the natural laws behind the phenomena observed.

For example, when two objects come into contact, the weaker
material will be scratched. Thus, if scratches occur frequently ina
process, look for evidence of friction. Observing the points
where the two parts come into contact clarifies the specific prob-
lem areas and factors.
This step is essential for several reasons:
* Physical analysis provides a unique perspective on the
phenomenon and pinpoints causes.
* A logical and systematic investigation ensures that factors
will not be overlooked.
* It discourages reliance on intuition and hunches.
・ It forces us to reevaluate the basic causes, corrective ac-
tions, and control points for chronic losses unsuccessfully
addressed in the past.
 Other Improvement Concepts |

Step3: List Every Condition Potentially Related to th

Consider what conditions must be present to produce the

phenomenon. Once these conditions are known, all situations
that might develop into disorders can be prevented. A physical
analysis of the outbreak mechanism allows us to study these un-
derlying conditions systematically.
Under traditional factor analysis, corrective action addresses
only some of the many contributing conditions. Losses cannot
be completely reduced when some conditions are overlooked.
Take care to avoid setting priorities or approaching the analysis
with any preconceived ideas that may limit the analysis.

Step 4: Evaluate Equipment, Materials, and Methods

Consider each condition identified in step 3 in relation to

such factors as the equipment, jigs and tools, material, and work
methods involved. List all possible factors that influence the con-
ditions. The relationship between these factors, the phenomena,
and conditions must be made clear.

Step 5: Plan the Investigation

Carefully plan the scope and direction of investigation for

each factor. Decide what to measure and how to measure it, and
select the datum plane.

Step 6: Investigate Malfunctions

All items planned in step 5 must be thoroughly investi-

gated. Keep in mind optimal conditions to be achieved and the
influence of slight defects. Avoid the traditional factor analysis
approach, and do not ignore malfunctions that might otherwise
be considered harmless.
274 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Step 7: Formulate Improvement Plans

On the basis of the preceding investigations, plan improve-

ment strategies for each factor and implement.
Table 2-6 (see pages 76-77) is an actual example of PM
analysis.

THE QUEST FOR SKILL

TPM developer and consultant Masakatsu Nakaigawa de-

fines skill as the “ability to perform a task as if it were a reflex ac-
tion.” Skill assumes a level of expertise and experience that allows
one to respond almost instinctively to problems; it is also an abil-
ity that is retained for a long time.
Manufacturing skill enables a worker to perform daily oper-
ations efficiently and correctly. It enables a person to judge a
problem quickly and correctly, determine its causes, and take
corrective action that will restore the status quo. For example, a
skilled worker, hearing an unusual noise or vibration in the revolv-
ing part of machine, will decide whether it constitutes an abnor-
mality, locate its source, and determine whether action is needed
immediately or can be delayed. Skilled people react to such
phenomena in the workplace reflexively.
Trained reactions become reflexes when they are used often.
For example, a driver suddenly encountering an obstacle in the
road automatically steps on the brake or swerves to avoid it. The
speed with which the driver is able to respond determines
whether an accident will occur or not. The more skilled the
driver is, the shorter the reaction time will be.

Five senses ~ Brain ~ Body

! |
Perception ~ Judgment ~ Action (a function of time)
 Other Improvement Concepts 75

Raising Skill Levels through TPM

An important goal of TPM (and of factory improvement in

general) is to raise workers’ skill levels. The workplace will im-
prove dramatically when everyone becomes more skilled. Skills
of particular value in the workplace include
* attention (ability to observe and discern phenomena)
* judgment
* correct action and treatment
* restoration
* prevention
・ prediction

Attention

The ability to concentrate and discover abnormalities re-

quires attention and discernment. These skills are developed
through basic education and training related to abnormal signs,
judgment criteria, and detection methods.

Judgment

After discovering a problem, a worker needs the ability to

think logically and make sound decisions. Making the wrong de-
cision in response to an uncommon phenomenon is the result of
inadequate knowledge and training. Many problems in the work-
place are caused by undeveloped judgment skills.

Action, Treatment, and Restoration Skills

Prompt, appropriate, and informed action is valuable in

any situation. The worker should always be able to restore the
conditions within the time specified, with minimum losses. When
restoration skills are undeveloped, the worker cannot take ap-
propriate corrective action. This exacerbates the problem or
creates a chain of errors.
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Other Improvement Concepts

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78 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Preventive Skills

A worker must be able to prevent as well as correct prob-

lems. When basic preventive knowledge and methods are lack-
ing, preventable problems are often overlooked. For example,
many problems can be prevented when the proper conditions
for jigs and tools are known (e.g., required precision, assembly
methods) and when measurements are performed periodically
to check for abnormalities and the need to replace parts.

Prediction Skills

A problem may be predicted on the basis of subtle signs,

minor occurrences, or even a slight suspicion. The operator who
knows equipment well and observes it skillfully can detect and
eliminate many potential problems before they become serious.

Why Skills Must Be Taught

Are the following statements true? You can’t do operation X

unless you're a veteran. It takes time to become an expert. Production is
unstable when the number of new workers is greater than the number of
seasoned workers.
Certainly, some complicated operations and jobs require
high skill levels. On the other hand, equipment improvements
and adjustments that have been streamlined and simplified
eliminate the need for some skills. In most companies, questions
like the following are rarely answered with any certainty: What
is the difference between new and experienced workers? Do they
make different kinds of mistakes? How do skilled workers differ?
How does production differ?
In general, some operations are performed incorrectly
whether new or experienced people are doing the work. Skills
that need to be taught are not analyzed well enough to be pre-
sented; education and training are thus inadequate. Often,
knowledge has been communicated but results and perform-
ance are not checked.
Skill differences emerge for different reasons:
 Other Improvement Concepts 79

Don’t know. Workers don't know the principles behind

proper equipment operation, adjustments, and corrective action
against abnormalities. In other words, there is a lack of knowl-
edge and training.
Cant do. Although workers understand proper equipment
operation, adjustments, and corrective action in theory, they
cannot make the operation run smoothly in practice. Sometimes
it works, sometimes it doesn’t. These problems are caused by a
lack of training and practice.
Won‘t do. Workers have the necessary ability, but they fail
to maintain the set standards. Their neglect develops from over-
confidence; they change procedures arbitrarily. Generally, this
type of problem is caused by low morale and supervisors’ neglect
rather than lack of education or training.

Aims of Skill Analysis

Skill analysis has the following aims:

・ Review current work methods and distinguish between
methods that need improvement and those that require
special skills.
* Clarify essential skills (and purge superficial skills).
¢ Provide the basis for instruction manuals that can pro-
mote skill and speed up education and training.
・ Prevent repetition of the same mistakes.
・ Teach individual skills to all workers and standardize the
quality of production.
¢ Prevent the decline of skill levels with periodic checkups.
In other words, make sure everyone can deal with all
types of problems and check those skills regularly.

The Four Stages of Skill Development

A worker passes through four stages in the process of be-

coming skilled:
80 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

1. Don’t Know (No Education)

At this stage, workers’ knowledge of work methods, equip-

ment, and production principles is minimal. This is the lowest
level of skill.

2. Have Knowledge, But Can’t Perform (Education, But

No Training)

Workers possess theoretical knowledge of equipment and

production principles but have not been trained to put it into
practice.

3. Can Perform, But Not Well (Insufficient Training)

The worker's performance is poor and inconsistent because

of lack of practice and incomplete training.

4, Can Perform With Confidence (Fully Trained)

The worker has knowledge and training and is practiced in

the work. Performance on this level is error-free and consistent.

Importance of Skills

Workers should be able to progress from one level of skill to

the next with reasonable speed. Ideally, everyone must attain a
high level of skill and confidence in their performance. Maintain-
ing these levels over time will lead to dramatic improvements in
the workplace.
To raise the level of skill, the following steps are crucial:

Organize Necessary Skills and Education

Knowledge plays a key role in enhancing skill. An educa-

tional program must organize the basic knowledge that workers
need. Basic knowledge controls action; lack of knowledge leads
 Other Improvement Concepts 8]

to incorrect actions and operations, faulty cause analysis, and in-

effective corrective action. It generates outbreaks of new prob-
lems and exacerbates old problems. As the degree of automation
increases, the area of relevant basic knowledge also expands.
Table 2-7 lists some examples of basic knowledge that should be
taught in an education and training program.

What knowledge is required of the average worker?

1 Key points of work
2 Criteria for judgment
3 Check results of work
4 Major equipment design data
な Operating principles of the equipment
6 Managing equipment based on the operating principles (key points)
a Main component parts function and precision to be maintained
8 Method for measuring precision
〇 Parts replacement and checkup methods
10 Adjustment methods
11 Control methods and system
12 Detection and treatment of abnormalities
支 lfinformation is disorganized and training is not thorough, workers’ lack
of knowledge will result in:
・ Incorrect actions and work
・ Incorrect assumption about causes and ineffective corrective action
・ Aggravation of existing troubles

Table 2-7. Examples of Basic Knowledge

Provide Training and Practice through Constant Repetition

“Knowing” is quite different from “doing.” Training is

based on the fundamental knowledge acquired through educa-
tion. Training and practice transform that knowledge into skill
(Figure 2-19). How much practice is required depends on the
characteristics of the operation, but in every case it is important
to practice diligently and patiently. With persistent practice, per-
formance becomes accurate and efficient.
Typically, education is actively provided (although often in-
completely) but rarely checked in practice. To enhance training
82 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

・ Education
Repeat
Training/practice

Bes
Check results

Sse
Correct weaknesses

・ Four Stages of Skill

Don’t know ———— > Lack of knowledge
Know, but can’t perform ———————_» No training
Can perform, but not well ie dS Not enough practice
Can perform with confidence —————_» Mastery

Figure 2-19. Training (1)

1 Classify basic
knowledge and training
・ Teach basic knowledge on
which work should be based

3 Grade skills 2 Constant training and skill checkups

・ Evaluate and grade results ・ Using basic knowledge,
of training in actual work practice repeatedly to master
・ Check skills during training
and overcome weaknesses

Figure 2-19. Training (2)

effectiveness, observe trainees to ensure that they are perform-

ing the required actions properly. If they are not, correct and
check their work again (Figure 2-20). Moreover, checking the per-
formance of operating procedures, sequences, standards, and
other points may bring to the surface problems in the training
 Other Improvement Concepts 83

Constant Training and Skill Checkups

Training is based on fundamental knowledge acquired

through education. Skills are mastered by repeating
the action over and over again to increase
speed and precision

Thorough and continuous training

Evaluation of Skills

* Check to see whether the operation is being carried

out faithfully and accurately
・ Don't check the results; check the process

1 Monitor training over a short period to hasten the

development of workers’ expertise
2 Observe the results of workers’ self-training
3 Make operators aware of their own level of skill
4 Guide each worker in developing his/her own skills
5 Teach production line leaders how to guide their workers
effectively

Figure 2-20. Building and Mastering Skills

program, machinery, and so on. If there are equipment prob-

lems, for example, the locations, causes, frequency, and condi-
tions can be clarified and the information passed on to future
trainees.

Evaluation of Skills

Check trainees’ skill levels for accuracy and speed in produc-

tion tasks such as setup and adjustment, treatment of abnor-
malities (quality and equipment), daily cleaning, inspections,
lubrication, and so on. Then set standards for performance
levels. For example, set level 1 at 90 percent or more (i.e., for indi-
viduals who can perform 90 percent of the tasks), level 2 at 60 to
90 percent, and level 3 at less than 60 percent. Setting achievement
levels gives individuals targets to work toward and improves the
quality of instruction by requiring trainers to provide construc-
tive evaluation.
84 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

REFERENCES

The ideas on equipment efficiency presented in this chapter are based

on concepts developed by the Japan Management Association. The
concepts of slight defects and measuring overall effectiveness were
adapted from Masakatsu Nakaigawa, Japan Management Association.

Nakaigawa, Masakatsu. Skill Management Text. Tokyo: Japan Manage-

ment Association, 1977.
ー__ . “Skill management as a management system” (in Japanese).
IE Magazine 20 (November 1978): 23.
. “Skill management and changing attitudes in the factory” (in
Japanese). IE Magazine 22 (March 1980): 28.
 9
Ehminating the Six Big Losses

This chapter reviews TPM improvement activities aimed at

eliminating the six big equipment losses: breakdowns, setup and
adjustment time, idling and minor stoppages, reduced speed,
process defects, and yield losses.

TAKING ACTION AGAINST BREAKDOWNS

Most people recognize that breakdowns are a major form of

loss in manufacturing, but fora variety of reasons few companies
do much to reduce the scope of that loss. To take this loss seriously
and begin reducing it requires, first of all, new thinking about
breakdowns.

Changing How We Look at Breakdowns

In Japanese the original meaning of the term breakdown

(kosho) is “to deliberately destroy something old.” In other
words, breakdown meant damage caused by willful human ac-
tions. As this suggests, equipment breakdowns are often caused
by human assumptions and actions.

85
86 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Many people assume that

¢ itis not the operator’s responsibility to perform inspection
・ all equipment eventually breaks down
・ all breakdowns can be fixed
It is not surprising, then, that breakdowns are difficult to elimi-
nate. Eliminating breakdowns for all equipment is possible only
if people change how they think about and use equipment.

Begin by Cultivating New Attitudes

First, people concerned with equipment must replace their

assumption that “all equipment eventually breaks down” with
the conviction that “equipment should never break down.” Then
everyone else, including operators, is more likely to accept the
idea that equipment can be used in a way that actually prevents
breakdowns. Moreover, when people accept the view that every-
one is responsible for equipment, operators will want to learn
how to use their own equipment so it wont break down.

Two Types of Breakdown

According to the Japan Industrial Standards (JIS), a failure or

breakdown is the “loss of a specified function in a certain object
(e.g., system, machine, part).” Since the phrase “specified func-
tion” is vague, however, the meaning of breakdown remains elu-
sive. Therefore, it helps to divide breakdowns into two categories:
function-loss breakdowns and function-reduction breakdowns.
Function-loss breakdown. For most people, the term break-
down means a sudden, dramatic failure in which the equipment
stops completely. Such unexpected breakdowns are clearly losses,
because production is stopped. This is called a function-loss break-
down, or a breakdown in which all equipment functioning stops.
Even if the cause lies in a single specific function, the breakdown
results in the cessation of all equipment functions. Not all equip-
ment failures are of this type, however.
 Eliminating the Six Big Losses 87

Function-reduction breakdown. Deterioration (not failure)

of equipment causes other losses even when the equipment can
still operate. Long setup and adjustment times, frequent idling
and minor stoppages, reduced manufacturing speed and cycle
times, and increased defects in process and during startup are all
possible losses of this type. Problems related to deterioration are
considered function-reduction breakdowns, or breakdowns result-
ing in various losses (defects, minor stoppages, etc.). They are
caused by deterioration in specific parts of the equipment and
are considered less serious than function-loss breakdowns.
Generally, people tend to overlook function-reduction break-
downs. In many cases, however, function-reduction breakdowns
account for the largest proportion of overall equipment losses.

Poor Equipment Management Promotes

Chronic Breakdowns

Breakdowns become chronic for two reasons: organiza-

tional problems and technical problems related to the equip-
ment. Figure 3-1, a relations diagram based on the experience of
several companies, illustrates some common deficiencies in
equipment management.

Organizational Weaknesses

There are many structural reasons for an ineffective re-

sponse to the problem of chronic breakdowns. For example, in
many production departments, operators accept the traditional
strict division of labor between production and maintenance (“I
operate — you fix”) and have no interest in maintenance. In
maintenance departments, workers are not adequately trained
in the specialized skills needed to keep increasingly sophisti-
cated equipment in good repair. Moreover, in engineering de-
partments, overdependence on subcontractors and lack of time
and money results in poorly designed equipment.
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TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

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 Eliminating the Six Big Losses 89

These problems occur when management is not sufficiently

aware of the importance of productive maintenance. As weak-
nesses in the equipment and management structure become
more and more evident, they produce a decline in morale and an
increase in chronic breakdowns.

Hidden Magnitude of Equipment Losses

Management is often unaware of the scope of losses result-

ing from poor equipment maintenance. In addition to break-
downs, these losses include the five other major equipment
losses: increased setup and adjustment time, frequent idling
and minor stoppages, reduced speed and cycle time, deteriora-
tion in quality and yield, and energy and manpower losses.
Often these losses make up 30 to 50 percent of processing costs.
Before improvement can begin, such weaknesses in a com-
pany’s equipment management must be clearly identified. Break-
down reduction activities cannot be started until managers and
supervisors understand the fundamental role of preventive
maintenance in corporate improvement. Unless their support is
assured, technical efforts will be useless.

Basic Principles for Zero Defects: Exposing Hidden Defects

Equipment defects are equipment disorders that cause

breakdowns. Hidden defects remain invisible for one reason or
another and untreated. Many breakdowns are caused by these
unnoticed equipment defects; exposing and correcting them can
reduce breakdowns to zero.
Breakdowns caused by hidden defects are chronic in nature,
occurring so often that they seem “normal.” For instance, a
speed reduction loss in equipment is often difficult to discern,
but it is a kind of breakdown or failure all the same — a form of
chronic loss.
90 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Hidden Defects Are a Major Cause of Breakdowns

Conventional maintenance efforts focus on sporadic, unex-

pected breakdowns and significant, highly visible equipment
defects. Total productive maintenance, however, addresses both
function-loss breakdowns and the function-reduction break-
downs caused by hidden defects. While a single, significant defect
can trigger a breakdown, a combination of small hidden defects,
which may seem completely unrelated to the breakdown (e.g.,
dust, abrasion, vibration, loose bolts, scratches, warping), is
often the major cause.
Such slight defects can develop into larger defects. Sometimes
they overlap, magnifying the effect and triggering a dramatic
loss (such as a sudden breakdown). Just as one unextinguished
cigarette may cause a large fire, hidden defects spark break-
downs and should be stamped out while they are small. This is
the fundamental principle behind preventive maintenance.

Defects Can Be Physically or Psychologically Hidden

Becoming aware of hidden defects is the first and most

difficult step in eliminating breakdowns. Hidden defects do not
have to be small to be hard to see. Even significant defects can be
physically or psychologically obscured.
Defects can be physically hidden by
* poor inspection and analysis of deterioration
・ poor layout and assemblies that are difficult to inspect
・ dust and contamination
Defects can be psychologically hidden because
* defects are consciously ignored, even when visible
・the problem is underestimated
* the problem is overlooked, even though concrete symp-
toms are visible
For example, defects are hidden when equipment perform-
ance is poor but no effort is made to improve it. Suppose the
 Eliminating the Six Big Losses 91

equipment effectiveness rating reveals speed losses in the equip-

ment, but both operations and maintenance say, “There’s noth-
ing we can do about this — it’s the nature of the machine and the
process.” This defect will remain both physically and psycholog-
ically hidden until those involved acknowledge the opportunity
and need for improvement.

Focus Attention on Hidden Defects

Eliminating breakdowns caused by hidden defects demands a

new approach. If problem-solving efforts focus narrowly on the
breakdown occurrence or on obvious individual defects, the
wrong factors may be targeted, carrying the investigation even
further from a solution.
Instead, focus improvement efforts on hidden defects and
eliminate them as a class, since individually they are hidden. Be-
cause their contribution to losses is complex and continuous, it is
not enough to simply treat or “fix” the visible effects of hidden
defects. Thus, the purpose of autonomous maintenance and
maintenance-prevention design is to foster an environment for
equipment in which hidden defects simply cannot develop.

Stop Equipment for Inspection and Prompt Treatment

To eliminate defects — to expose and correct hidden de-

fects — equipment must be stopped at reasonable intervals for
inspection and maintenance. Production departments typically
grumble (under the pressure of production) when the mainte-
nance department requests a stop. The production lost from an
hour’s stop for inspection and servicing is minimal, however,
compared to that lost in the dozens or more hours needed to
treat a breakdown. In other words, the loss of production from
planned stops can be turned into profit.

Five Requirements for Zero Breakdowns

Five types of action are necessary to uncover hidden defects

and treat them properly:
92 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

・Maintain basic equipment conditions (cleaning, lubricat-

ing, bolt tightening).
・ Adhere to operating conditions.
・ Restore deterioration.
・ Correct design weaknesses.
¢ Improve operating and maintenance skills.

1. Maintain Basic Equipment Conditions

Three factors are involved in maintaining basic equipment

conditions: cleanliness, proper lubrication, and bolting (7.6.
keeping bolts and nuts properly tightened). Maintaining these
basic conditions prevents equipment deterioration and helps
eliminate potential causes of breakdowns.
Cleaning. Cleaning removes from equipment the dust and
contamination that cause friction, clogging, leaking, defective
running, electrical defects, and reduced precision in the moving
parts. Thorough cleaning prevents the breakdowns, quality
problems, and accelerated deterioration these defective condi-
tions can produce.
Cleanliness requires more than superficial cleaning. Every
nook and cranny of the equipment, jigs, and tools must be
explored. This not only removes dirt and dust, but also uncovers
hidden defects such as abrasion, loose nuts and bolts, scratches,
overheating, vibration, abnormal sounds, and so on. In effect,
cleaning is inspection. A trained worker can often find 200 to 500
hidden defects in the course of thoroughly cleaning a long-
neglected piece of equipment. Significant defects, such as those
listed in Table 3-1, may also be found.
Lubrication. Equipment cannot operate effectively without
proper oiling and lubrication. In many factories, however, the re-
servoir or lubricator is left empty and is covered with dust and
sludge. Often even the oil supply pipe is clogged or leaking.
Neglect of lubrication causes various losses (Figure 3-2). For
example, it may be the direct cause of sporadic, unexpected break-
downs such as seizure. It also hastens equipment deterioration
by causing abrasion and overheating, which affect the overall
condition of the equipment.
 Eliminating the Six Big Losses 93

No.6 No.1 No.6

Intermixer Banbury Mixer D Extruder

Location Attachment bolt Pedestal of Pusher casing

on latch cylinder outlet door

Estimated losses Replaced screw liner Fabricated and Fabricated and

due to delayed installed new pedestal installed new casing
discovery Sh ris い *= で dee
utdown time: Shutdown time: Shutdown time:
3days 4months 1 month
Potential loss: Potential loss: Potential loss:
$25,750 $70,000 $17,000

Bolt replaced Repaired by metal- Temporarily repaired;

and tightened locking method new casing fabricated
($3,000) and installed
($3,750)

Table 3-1. Hidden Defects Discovered during Equipment Cleaning at Tokai

Rubber Industries Plant

Failures/month

60

'79 Ap Jl O '80 Ap Jl O 81Ja Ap Jl

Figure 3-2. Reduction in Equipment Failures Due to Poor Lubrication

(Topy Industries)
94 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Bolting. Broken and loose connecting parts such as bolts

and nuts play a large role in equipment breakdowns. A single
loose bolt (e.g., an assembly bolt in a bearing unit, die, jig, or
limit switch or a flange bolt in a pipe joint) can directly cause a
breakdown. Moreover, a loose bolt can increase shaking, which
in turn loosens other bolts. This creates more vibration, trigger-
ing a chain reaction that can result in a serious breakdown before
anyone is aware of a problem.
Faulty bolting is acommon form of hidden defect. One com-
pany discovered that defects in bolts and nuts accounted for 60
percent of all breakdowns. Table 3-2 lists the hidden defects un-
covered in an overall inspection.

Table 3-2. Hidden Defects Found through Overall Inspection

2. Maintain Operating Conditions

Operating conditions are those that must be met for equip-

ment to operate at its full potential. In oil hydraulic systems, for
example, oil temperature, quantity, pressure, purity, and level of
oxidation must be controlled. In control panels and instrumen-
tals, atmospheric temperature, humidity, dust, and vibration
must be regulated. For limit switches, the assembling position
and methods, the shape of the cam, and the angle and strength
of the connection between the roller lever and cam must also be
considered (Figures 3-3 and 3-4).
 Eliminating the Six Big Losses 95

1. Reduction in Hydraulic Machinery Breakdowns

Hydraulic equipment breakdowns 58 8

Total breakdowns 434 88

2. Changes in Treated Oil and New Oil Used

kl/month

Electrostatically
treated

Yr/Mo
79O 880Ja Ap Jl O

Figure 3-3. Effect of Electrostatic Cleaning of Hydraulic Oil

Unclear or incomplete conditions result in hidden defects.

For example, if equipment is operating at below its standard
speed, one or more hidden, nonstandard conditions may be the
cause. To eliminate such defects, standard operating, manipulat-
ing, and loading conditions should be set and maintained for
each piece of equipment and its individual parts. If equipment
problems are treated without regard to these operating stan-
dards, the precision of operation and manufacturing conditions
will not be stable, and breakdowns will continue to occur.

3. Restore Deterioration

Typically, when equipment breaks down, only the parts di-

rectly involved in the breakdown are restored; deterioration of
the equipment, jigs, and tools is not treated. Therefore, even
though a broken or worn part is replaced, breakdowns will recur
96 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

(Measured by replacements and adjustments per month)

Equipment monitored: heat-treatment lines Nos. 1-4
(Approx. 250 limit switches)

60

Improvement activities begin

40 / Autonomous Maintenance Step 4

begins (electrical inspection)

20
/

79Ap Jl OS80Jg コ Ap O "81Ja

Figure 3-4A. Effect of Improving Limit Switch Usage Conditions on

Their Breakdown and Adjustment

(Measured by breakdowns per month)

Equipment monitored: heat-treatment lines Nos. 1-4

Improvement activities begun

75

60 Autonomous maintenance step 4 begun

(drive unit inspection)
45
の
30

15

'79 Ap Jl O '80Ja Ap JI O 81Ja

Figure 3-4B. Effect of Improving Usage Conditions of Sprockets and Chains on

Their Breakdown Rate
 Eliminating the Six Big Losses 97

because the balance of precision and strength in the equipment

and tools has not been restored. Obviously, an imbalance caused
by design or fabrication errors in machinery must be corrected by
correcting design defects. If, however, the breakdown is caused
in part by hidden deterioration of structural parts, partial restora-
tion and design changes will not eliminate the breakdowns.
For example, if a driving shaft breaks off at a notch position
in a machine, make sure that defects such as vibration caused by
bearing abrasion, loose fit of the bearing, and backlash caused by
abrasion between gears are considered and treated before chang-
ing the shaft or redesigning the notch.
Equipment slowly deteriorates over time and breakdowns
occur as fatigues develop. Therefore, even if a broken part is re-
stored and improved, breakdowns will continue to occur in
other fatigued parts. At that point, before thinking about
changes in design, return to the original drawings and use in-
spection and checkups to uncover deterioration.
Restoring the balance of equipment precision and strength
on the occasion of equipment failure is an important strategy, but
it is only a shortcut to breakdown elimination. To properly re-
store equipment, standardize the steps taken to discover and
predict deterioration as well as the methods used to restore the
deterioration. Discovery and prediction can be performed through
periodic checkups, applying suitable inspection standards, and
machine diagnostic techniques. Restoration carried out must be
based on maintenance standards; it can also be realized through
the skills and accumulated experience of maintenance personnel.
(This is consistent with the TPM approach to preventive mainte-
nance discussed in Chapter 5.)

4. Correct Design Weaknesses

Even when basic conditions (cleaning, lubrication, bolting)

are strictly controlled, the costs of maintenance become enor-
mous when equipment life is short and inspections, checkups,
and restorative treatment cannot keep pace with the occurrence
of defects. In such cases the problem may be caused by a design
weakness requiring changes in equipment design, such as alter-
ations in material, dimensions, and shape of component parts.
98 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Avoid easy improvements. It is tempting to jump to conclu-

sions, to oversimplify the problem (by assuming it is the same as
other problems), or to rely strictly on instruction manuals with-
out studying the breakdown data and equipment structure. This
may lead to misinterpretation of the original design weakness
and thus to failure of the alternative design. To comprehend the
true source of the weakness and develop an improvement plan,
do the following:
1. Take steps to properly understand the defective occurr-
ence and the surrounding conditions (before and after
the breakdown).
2. Confirm the equipment structure and functions.
3. Confirm the proper maintenance of basic equipment
conditions, operation, manipulation, and loading condi-
tions; confirm the restoration of deterioration on related
functions.
4. Clarify the outbreak mechanism of the phenomenon.
5. Search for causes (design or other weakness, or both?).
6. Plan an improvement strategy.
7. Implement the improvement strategy.
8. Follow up and evaluate the results of improvement.
Correcting design weaknesses improves maintainability
and lengthens equipment life (see Chapter 6).

5. Improve Operating and Maintenance Skills

In thinking about solutions to breakdowns, we tend to em-

phasize objects — equipment, jigs and tools, materials, and so
on — and to forget the human factors. In fact, extensive educa-
tion and training of operators, maintenance workers, equipment
designers, and managers support any effort to achieve zero
breakdowns.
 Eliminating the Six Big Losses 99

Many breakdowns are caused by lack of skill. Human errors

often go undetected, which makes them difficult to eliminate.
The responsibilities of operators and maintenance workers must
be clarified and their skill levels raised through education and
training. Furthermore, TPM requires new ways of thinking about
breakdowns and defects. Therefore, all education and training
has two aspects: to improve skills and to improve understand-
ing. Training to improve operating and maintenance skills is ad-
dressed in detail in Chapters 4 and 7 respectively; improving the
understanding of everyone in the factory through small group
activity is discussed in Chapter 8.

Pursue All Five Zero Breakdown Activities

All the five activities described above must be conscientiously

pursued. Neglect of any one of them can directly trigger a break-
down; neglect of more than one area often causes malfunction in
equipment indirectly and in hidden ways (Figure 3-5). Thus, one
or two of these activities are usually insufficient against break-
downs caused by hidden defects. Even when several improvement
strategies are used, breakdowns often continue to occur. Figure
3-6 (see pp. 102-103) reviews the five activities in detail. Remember
that eliminating all hidden defects is the only way to eliminate all
breakdowns.

Production Versus Maintenance

Why do breakdowns occur? At their root, breakdowns are

the result of human factors — the erroneous assumptions and
beliefs of engineers, maintenance personnel, and equipment
operators. Breakdowns cannot be eliminated until those as-
sumptions and beliefs are changed, particularly those regarding
the traditional division of labor between production and mainte-
nance departments. Operators and maintenance personnel must
reach a mutual understanding and share responsibility for equip-
ment. In fact, everyone concerned with the equipment must
cooperate with and understand the role of everyone else. Each
department must implement the actions against breakdowns
mentioned in the previous section.
100 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Basic
conditions
neglected

Operating
Inadequate
standards
skills
not followed

Inherent
Deterioration
design
unchecked
weakness

Figure 3-5. Combination of Breakdown Causes

Operators must do the following:

・ Maintain basic equipment conditions (cleaning, lubrica-
tion, bolting)
・ Maintain operating conditions (proper operation and vis-
ual inspection)
¢ Discover deterioration, mainly through visual inspection
and early identification of signs of abnormalities during
operation
・ Enhance skills such as equipment operation, setup, and
adjustment, as well as visual inspection

These activities constitute operators’ autonomous main-

tenance responsibilities and are discussed in greater detail in
Chapter 4.
 Eliminating the Six Big Losses 101

Maintenance personnel must do the following:

* Provide technical support for the production depart-
ment’s autonomous maintenance activities
・ Restore deterioration thoroughly and accurately, using in-
spections, condition monitoring, and overhaul
* Clarify operating standards by tracing design weaknesses
and making appropriate improvements
* Enhance maintenance skills for checkups, condition
monitoring, inspections, and overhaul
These activities have traditionally been responsibilities of
the maintenance department (Figure 3-7).

Expose Hidden Defects

Maintain Maintain Restore Improve Increase

basic operating deterioration design technical
equipment standards weaknesses skills
conditions

Operations Maintenance

Figure 3-7. Role of Operations and Maintenance Departments

Zero Breakdowns: A Four-Phase Implementation Program

The five activities for zero breakdowns are not short-term

programs, nor should they be implemented simultaneously.
They are more effectively introduced in four consecutive phases
(Table 3-3). Each phase has its own theme:
1. Stabilize equipment failure intervals (mean time between
failures — MTBF).
102 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Five Activities for Zero Breakdowns

3
Restore Deterioration
Maintain Basic Maintain
Equipment Operating
Conditions Standards

Equipment cleaning — Set design capacity and Detect and Establish N

eliminate sources of load-limiting value Predict Repair
contamination Deterioration Methods
Standardize operating
. Tightening — prevent methods
looseness Visually inspect items Standardize disassemDbh
Set and improve operating reassembly, measure-
common to all units (five
Lubrication — highlight conditions for units ment, and replacement
senses); expose
lubrication points; and parts methods
deterioration
improve methods
Set and improve Visually inspect items Standardize parts
Prepare cleaning and construction standards unique to individual units
lubrication standards Improve tools and
Installation, piping, wiring (five senses); expose
deterioration apparatus and restrict to
Prevent dust and moisture particular uses
in revolving and sliding Prepare daily inspection
Improve equipment
parts standards
structures for ease of
・ Set environmental ・ Part-by-part MTBF repair
conditions — dust, analysis; estimate
idi
temperature, humidity, lifetimes * Set
partsstandards
storage for spare
vibration, shock Set limiting values for
parts replacement
Prepare inspection,
testing, parts replacement
standards
Learn to interpret
abnormal signals
Study deterioration
prediction parameters
and measurement

3
methods

Operating Skills 5B Maintenance Skills |5C

・ Operation/manipulation ・ Inspection
・ Setup and adjustment Testing (measurement)
・ Inspection/lubrication Diagnosis
・ Detection of abnormal signs
Repair
Servicing
Troubleshooting
Failure analysis

Figure 3-6. Five Activities for Zero Breakdowns

 Eliminating the Six Big Losses 103

5A

Prevent Human Error

Improve
Design
Weaknesses

Strengthen parts to extend Prevent

Prevent
lifetimes: mechanisms Repair Errors
Misoperation
and structures, materials
and shapes, dimensional
accuracy, assembly
accuracy, assembled Analyze
6 causes
と of Analyze causes of repair
parts strength, wear misoperation errors
resistance, corrosion . Improve design of control Improve confusing part
resistance, surface panels shapes and fitting
roughness, capacity, etc. methods
Provide interlocks
Take measures to reduce Spare parts storage
kinetic stress Foolproof operations
methods
Design safety relief Visually control
Improve repair tools and
against excess stress equipment conditions
apparatus
* Treat weak points to Standardize operating
Simplify and standardize
prevent overloading and adjustment methods
troubleshooting proce-
dures (visual controls for
equipment conditions)

Operating Skills 5B Maintenance Skills | 5C

・ Operation/manipulation ・ Inspection
・ Setup and adjustment Testing (measurement)
+ Inspection/lubrication ・ Diagnosis
・ Detection of abnormal signs ・ Repair
・ Servicing
・ Troubleshooting
Failure analysis
 104 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Stabilize Mean Lengthen Periodically Predict

Time Between Equipment Restore Equipment
Failures (MBTF) Life Deterioration Life

Restore unchecked Correct design Restore deterioration Predict equipment life

deterioration weaknesses at regular intervals using diagnostic
・ Deal with visible defects ・ Correct weaknesses in ・ Estimate life span of techniques
strength and precision equipment ・ Clarify and adhere to
Prevent accelerated * Select parts conform- * Set standards for perio- operating standards
deterioration able to operating dic inspection and
* Set basic equipment conditions testing Perform technical
conditions ・ Correct weaknesses to * Set standards for perio- analysis of catas-
prevent overloading dic parts-replacement trophic failures
・ Improve maintainability ・ Analyze rupture faces
Eliminate sporadic ・ Analyze material
breakdowns Use the senses to fatigue
* Improve operating and detect internal ・ Analyze gear tooth
maintenance skills deterioration flanks, etc.
・ Prevent misoperation + Identify deterioration ・ Take measures to ex-
・ Prevent repair errors that gives warning tend equipment life
signs * Conduct periodic res-
Restore external ・ Identify types of warn- toration based on
appearance of ing signs given predicted life
equipment ・ Learn to detect warning
signs

Table 3-3. Zero Breakdowns in Four Phases

2. Lengthen equipment life.

3. Periodically restore deterioration.
4. Predict equipment life.

Phase 1: Stabilize Failure Intervals (MTBF)

Restore unchecked deterioration. First, restore equipment

to its original condition. Generally, any maintenance worker
asked to list problem areas that need immediate attention can
come up with 30 to 40 problems. Usually these problems have
been left untreated because of cost and lack of personnel, pres-
sing production schedules, or inadequate engineering efforts.
Carefully study the existing problems and set up an expedited
treatment schedule to eliminate them, evenif this means budget-
ing additional expenses and using subcontracted labor.
Prevent accelerated deterioration. Accelerated deteriora-
tion is the main reason for a large variation in equipment failure
intervals. It is caused by poor maintenance of basic equipment
conditions and neglect of operating standards — in other words,
by people. Maintenance of basic equipment conditions and
 Eliminating the Six Big Losses 105

adherence to the operating standards will prevent accelerated

deterioration and reduce the variability in equipment failure
intervals.

Phase 2: Lengthen Equipment Life

Correct design weaknesses. If accelerated deterioration is

checked, a piece of equipment (its component parts) will func-
tion for the length of its inherent life span, as determined by nat-
ural deterioration. The more a piece of equipment is limited to
natural rather than accelerated deterioration, the smaller the
variation in failure intervals and the longer its life. If equipment
life remains too short in spite of the efforts mentioned above,
there is probably a weakness in the design itself. Implementing
improvements to ameliorate such weaknesses will lengthen
equipment life. This strategy is generally referred to as “main-
tainability improvement” (increasing reliability).
Eliminate chance or accidental breakdowns. Although
most chance breakdowns are caused by human operating errors,
they can also be caused by repair errors. Moreover, chance failure
in one part of the equipment often stresses other parts. Since this
type of breakdown cannot be prevented by inspection or checks,
operation and maintenance skills must be improved to eliminate
the human errors that cause them.
At the same time, poka-yoke (mistake-proofing) devices
should be used creatively at the sources of operating errors to
stop them from generating defects or equipment breakdowns.
Restore visible deterioration. In phase 2 all visible external
deterioration must be restored to original conditions. Generally,
more than 50 percent of all breakdowns can be avoided by persis-
tently restoring external deterioration.

Phase 3: Periodically Restore Deterioration

Estimate equipment life. Deterioration must be restored
regularly to maintain the reduced level of breakdowns attained
in phase 2, and to lowerit even further. To do this, equipment life
must be estimated as precisely as possible. Standards for
106 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

periodic inspections, checkups, and part replacement must also

be established and followed. At this stage thorough maintainability
improvement is important. If standards are set without improved
maintenance, the time, labor, and costs of analytic inspection
and replacement of parts will balloon, and restoration will be-
come impossible.
Learn signs of internal deterioration. Periodic restoration
of external deterioration cannot prevent every breakdown.
Operators must be trained to perceive the signs of abnormalities
caused by internal deterioration. Although symptoms of inter-
nal deterioration are not always obvious, in many cases a trained
operator can detect abnormalities in temperature, vibration,
noise, light, color, smell, or movement. Operators and mainte-
nance workers must analyze breakdowns thoroughly — on a
daily basis, if necessary — to enhance their understanding of
these abnormal signs. The following questions will facilitate this
analysis:
・ Were abnormal signs observed before the breakdown?
・ Does this type of breakdown usually show abnormal signs?
・ What types of signs typically precede such breakdowns?
・ Why werent the signs noticed in this case?
* How can the signs be noticed more easily?
・ What additional knowledge and skill does the operator
need to notice the breakdown signs?

Phase 4: Predict Equipment Life

Use machine diagnostic techniques. The actions described

above will be very effective in preventing breakdowns and other
losses in most equipment. In some equipment, however, life span
remains unstable; breakdown signs cannot be detected by the
five senses, or they are unreliable or too late. In such cases,
machine diagnostic techniques can be used to detect otherwise
invisible signs of incipient breakdown such as vibration, over-
heating, or precision problems.
 Eliminating the Six Big Losses 107

Many types of diagnostic devices (both hardware and soft-

ware) are available or are being developed. Superficial applica-
tion is likely to be ineffective, but patient research should reward
the user.
Analyze catastrophic breakdowns. Catastrophic break-
downs are completely unpredictable breakdowns causing total
loss of all equipment functions. When breakdowns are reduced
as a result of the four-phase program, only catastrophic break-
downs remain. If cost were not an issue, it might be possible to
predict such catastrophic breakdowns, but in practice this is not
reasonable.
Therefore, in the event of a catastrophic breakdown, a tech-
nical analysis of the underlying causes is still useful (e.c., location
of breakdown, equipment fatigue, mismatched gears, location
of stress, and so on). With this knowledge, appropriate improve-
ments can be made to maintain and lengthen the equipments life.

Why the Four Phases Are Necessary

The four-phase program described above is effective in

eliminating breakdowns for the following reasons:

From Accelerated Deterioration to Natural Deterioration

Breakdowns cannot be significantly reduced until the lives of

component parts are lengthened and maintained in that condition
at low cost (using periodic maintenance). This is accomplished in
two steps: first, by eliminating accelerated deterioration so that
only natural deterioration is influencing the equipment, and sec-
ond, by correcting design weaknesses that shorten equipment life.
Accelerated deterioration must be eliminated first, for the
following reasons:
・ Accelerated deterioration must be eliminated so the po-
tential life span, determined by natural deterioration, can
be estimated.
108 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

It is more economical to lengthen equipment life by

eliminating accelerated deterioration than by attempting
to lengthen the potential life span.
Once accelerated deterioration is eliminated, equipment
with a reasonably long life span does not need design
improvements.
Until accelerated deterioration is eliminated, true de-
sign weaknesses usually remain invisible.
Even if equipment weaknesses are corrected, the overall
effect is undermined or nullified if accelerated deteriora-
tion is still influencing the equipment.

Periodic Maintenance Begins with Longer, Stabler Life Spans

Economical, effective periodic maintenance begins with

equipment life spans that have been stabilized and lengthened.
When periodic maintenance is performed before the equipment
life span is stable, maintenance costs are more expensive and the
process is not effective. For example, consider a typical equip-
ment life span distribution. Figure 3-8(a) shows a short life span
spread over a wide range characteristic of accelerated deteriora-
tion. If periodic maintenance is applied under these cir-
cumstances, maintenance cycles will be short (thus expensive)
and probably ineffective. The wider the range of equipment life
spans, the harder it is to apply effective periodic maintenance.
Figure 3-8(b) illustrates the effect of phase 1: When life
spans are stabilized and lengthened through the elimination of
accelerated deterioration, the life span curve is closer to that de-
termined by natural deterioration. Eliminating accelerated de-
terioration lengthens maintenance cycles (reducing maintenance
costs) and reduces the likelihood of breakdowns.
Figure 3-8(c) shows the shift after phase 2, and the resulting
change in life span distribution. As illustrated here, taking action
against specific design weaknesses narrows the variation and ex-
tends life still further. This figure shows that switching to
periodic maintenance in phase 3, after life span has been extended,
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TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMSS ーー

is extremely effective. The maintenance cycle is even longer,

maintenance costs are reduced further, and at each stage fewer
breakdowns occur.
Figure 3-8(d) illustrates the shift to the condition-based
maintenance of phase 4, or predictive maintenance, based on
breakdown prediction. This lengthens the maintenance cycle
even further.
To eliminate breakdowns through preventive maintenance
(periodic maintenance + predictive maintenance) at reasonable
cost, the following steps must be taken: First, lengthen equip-
ment life by eliminating accelerated deterioration (so that life
span is determined by natural deterioration only); then conduct
periodic maintenance and predictive maintenance.

Applying Machine Diagnostic Techniques

The shift to predictive maintenance using machine diagnos-

tic techniques is delayed until phase 4 for the following reasons:
1. Equipment must be serviced and calibrated. Machine
diagnostic techniques employ shock pulse meters, vibration
analyzers, ultrasonic detectors, and other techniques to measure
deterioration parameters and perform quantitative analyses.
The measured data must be reliable to be useful, however. This
means the equipment itself must be serviced and well-calibrated.
Reliable data cannot be obtained when accelerated deterioration
is a factor in equipment behavior.
2. Equipment must have a reasonably long life. Predictive
maintenance is meaningless unless deterioration is observed
through specific parameters over a long period of time. The life
of equipment with short life spans (less than one year) must be
extended before machine diagnostic techniques will be successful.
3. Determine the value to be measured before selecting a
diagnostic method. “Let's use a shock pulse meter — where can
we use it?” Engineers adopting machine diagnosis techniques tend
to decide which diagnostic device or method to use before decid-
ing what to measure. A diagnostic method designed without a
problem in mind is likely to be ineffective, however.
 Eliminating the Six Big Losses ila

Each company should develop its own simple diagnostic

methods, selecting devices from those available to suit its own
unique needs. To use machine diagnostic techniques more effec-
tively, first study the signs of abnormality in machinery and de-
cide which characteristics of the machine should be measured.
When the most useful parameters are clear, select appropriate
devices or methods.

Case Study 3-1 — Four-Phase Development

Figure 3-9 shows the reduction in the number of break-

downs at Tokai Rubber Industries as each phase was introduced
and developed. This company operates approximately 1,000
pieces of automatic equipment. Before improvement, the com-
pany experienced 1,000 breakdowns every month. After two
years, at the end of phase 3, the rate had dropped to 90 cases per
month. Eight months later, in phase 4, the number of break-
downs had been reduced to 20 cases per month.

Failures/Month

011212345678 910n1212345678910N121234567 8

78 79 "80 "81

Figure 3-9. Reductions in Equipment Failures (Tokai Rubber Industries)

112 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Maintenance Costs

Between phase 1 and phase 2 maintenance costs at Tokai

Rubber Industries increased 10 percent over costs before the in-
troduction of TPM. This increase funded efforts to lengthen
equipment life. In phase 4, however, both maintenance costs
and maintenance personnel were reduced by 15 percent. This
company’s experience demonstrates that while an initial invest-
ment is sometimes required, achieving zero breakdowns
through preventive maintenance need not be expensive.

Distribution of Labor

Operators’ involvement in autonomous maintenance is a

key factor in implementing the four phases and eliminating
breakdowns at reasonable cost. Operators’ autonomous mainte-
nance eliminates accelerated deterioration in phase 1 and
sporadic breakdowns caused by operator errors in phase 2.
Operators detect external deterioration in phase 2, although
most treatment is performed by maintenance personnel. In
phase 3, operators detect abnormal signs of internal deteriora-
tion using the five senses. Maintenance personnel carry out all
other activities in phases 1 through 4.

IMPROVING SETUP AND ADJUSTMENT

Setup and adjustment downtime begins when the produc-

tion of one product is completed and ends when standard qual-
ity is attained on production of the next product. In other words,
it may include the time required to remove dies and jigs for one
product, clean up, prepare dies and jigs for the next product,
reassemble the equipment, adjust the equipment, perform trial
runs and make further adjustments (if necessary), and so on,
until products of acceptable quality are reliably produced. Setup
and adjustment ought to be performed quickly and accurately.
This requires planning and a systematic inquiry into ways of re-
ducing setup and adjustment time without reducing accuracy.
 Eliminating the Six Big Losses 113

Common Problems with Setup and Adjustment

With the widespread dissemination of Shigeo Shingo’s

single-minute exchange of die (SMED) techniques, and a growing
reliance on an industrial engineering approach to factory prob-
lems, setup and adjustment times have been effectively reduced.
[Editor’s note: Because setup times of under 10 minutes are the
standard in Japan today, this section assumes the reader has a
basic familiarity with Shingo’s techniques for reducing setup
time. For a book-length treatment of this important subject, see
Shigeo Shingo, A Revolution in Manufacturing: The SMED System
(Cambridge: Productivity Press, 1985).]
Although setup times have been shortened, there is still
room for improvement in many cases, particularly in the area of
adjustments. For example, optimal reductions in setup time
have been achieved when adjustments are simple, but less prog-
ress has been made on more complicated equipment.
The following discussion highlights some common problems.

Confused Procedures

People often complain about the length of setup and adjust-

ment time, but few understand the relationship of the variables
well enough to make real improvements. Uncertainty and incon-
sistency create obstacles to improvement in the following areas:
¢ working method (procedures, method, operator skills)
* jigs and tools (shape, mechanism, precision)
* precision (precision to be maintained, relationship be-
tween precision and adjustment)
* technical problems (technical improvements required)
* supervision (need for evaluation)
When these items are not treated and standardized and
operators are left on their own, setup and adjustment times are
inconsistent, and the causes remain uncertain.
114 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Inconsistent Performance

Standardizing procedures can be difficult when equipment

is operated inconsistently; if methods, procedures, and adjust-
ments differ from worker to worker, setup and adjustment times
fluctuate and troubles crop up later in production. Setup may have
to be repeated if procedures have been standardized but not fol-
lowed, or if appropriate procedures have not been standardized.

Adjustment Operations Unimproved

In general, adjustments account for 50 percent of setup time

(Table 3-4). Often adjustments are not studied properly and
problematic adjustments are left untreated.

Table 3-4. Adjustments as a Percentage of Total Setup Time

Improving adjustment operations can reduce overall setup

time considerably. First, unnecessary adjustments are elimi-
nated. Then the time involved in performing unavoidable adjust-
ments is reduced by various improvement strategies discussed
in the next section.

Improving Setup

The first step in improving setup is distinguishing activities

that can be performed while equipment is running from those
that can be performed only when it is shut down.
 Eliminating the Six Big Losses 115

The Difference Between Internal and External Setup

External setup activities are those that can take place while
the equipment is running. They include preparing jigs, dies, and
tools; preparing workbench and storage area for items to be re-
moved; partial pre-assembly; and preheating. External setup
activities can be performed in advance to save time when setting
up the machine.
Internal setup activities can be performed only when the
equipment is stopped, for example, when replacing dies and
jigs, centering, and adjusting. Equipment downtime is reduced
by eliminating from internal setup time all tasks that can be per-
formed while equipment is running. This is the first step in setup
improvement. (The terms internal and external setup were coined
by Shigeo Shingo.)
Many external setup tasks are hidden in internal setup time.
For example, when an essential tool or bolt is missing during the
changeover operation, the operator must search for a substitute;
when defects are found, time is taken to make partial repairs.
Operators see these delays as normal occurrences, but an objec-
tive observer can see them as losses. The accumulation of small
delays (1 to 2 minutes each, for example,) increases the overall
time significantly. To eliminate these small losses, consider the
following questions:
« What preparations need to be made in advance?
* What tools must be on hand?
・Are the jigs and tools to be installed in good repair?
* What type of workbench is needed?
* Where should jigs and dies be placed after removal? How
will they be transported?
* What types of parts are necessary? How many are needed?
Simply considering these items in advance and making the
necessary preparations substantially reduces setup time.
116 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Seiri and Seiton in Setup Improvement

Three simple rules should be kept in mind in improving

setup and adjustment:
¢ Don't search for parts or tools.
* Don't move unnecessarily; establish appropriate work-
benches and storage areas.
¢ Don't use the wrong tools or the wrong parts.
These rules are related to the Japanese industrial house-
keeping principles of seiri (organization) and seiton (tidiness),
which are also important in setup improvement activities.* Seiri
refers generally to the removal of unnecessary items (clearing)
and the allocation of needed space (setting things in order)
through workplace standards for placing, stacking, and storing.
Seiton refers to the development of control techniques to ensure
strict adherence to organizational standards (e.g., visual controls).
In setup operations, these principles of organization deter-
mine what preparations are done while the machine is running
to ensure that necessary items and tools will be available when
and where needed, and in the right numbers. Operators apply
the principle of tidiness in making sure the standards are fol-
lowed, for example, developing checklists, designing visual con-
trols on tool boards and parts containers, improving layout and
position of workbench, and so on.

Separating Internal and External Setup

The first step in developing optimal setup operations is to

study the current distribution of internal and external setup
functions:

* Seiri and seiton (organization and tidiness) are two of the “Five S’s” —
organization or housekeeping concepts in Japanese industry. The cleanliness
and orderliness of the best Japanese factories are the result of floor-level
adherence to these concepts.
 Eliminating the Six Big Losses 117

* Which tasks should be performed during external setup

and what methods should be used?
・ Which tasks should be performed during internal setup
time and what procedures should be followed?
The following issues should be addressed for each task or
unit of work:
1. Effectiveness of function served by the task
* Is this task necessary? Can it be eliminated?
・ How redundant is it?
2. Effectiveness of work procedure (how task is performed)
・ What are the main points of the work procedure?
・ Are current procedures appropriate?
* Is the procedure stable? (Can it be repeated consis-
tently?)
* How difficult is the procedure?
・ How can it be improved?
・ Can it be standardized?
3. Evaluation of work procedure
* Is the current procedure optimal?
* Should the order in which tasks are performed be
changed?
・ Can some tasks be combined?
・ Can any functions be performed simultaneously?
4. Distribution of tasks (division of labor)
・ Is the distribution of tasks optimal?
* Is the number of personnel adequate?
Implementing improvements discovered through this kind
of inquiry can reduce setup time by 30 to 50 percent.
To minimize losses attributable to setup and adjustment,
make certain that no problems with quality occur after restart
and that procedures are standardized so everyone can perform
them in the same amount of time. All mechanical, procedural,
and technical problems should be well understood, and areas
needing further study should be clearly identified.
118 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Converting Internal to External Setup

Many functions currently performed during internal setup

can be performed during external setup time, or modified to re-
duce their duration, using an analysis similar to one in the previous
section. For example, a jig that is typically changed, assembled,
and adjusted while the machine is stopped can be preassembled
while the machine is still running. Adjustments that must be
made during internal setup time can be reduced through partial
adjustment during external setup time according to predeter-
mined standard procedures.
The following methods can be used to convert internal to ex-
ternal setup:
1. Preassemble. Rather than attaching each part separately
during internal setup, preassemble the parts during external
setup and then position the assembly during internal setup.
2. Use standard and “one-touch” jigs. Compare the shapes
of the tools and jigs for different products and consider preparing
a standard jig that can be shared by all. Consider jigs that quickly
position workpieces without the operator’s help (quick-fitting or
“one-touch” jigs).
3. Eliminate adjustments. Wherever possible, avoid making
adjustments during internal setup time. For example, eliminate
the need for adjustment by establishing constant values that can
be set in one touch without trial-and-error adjustment.
4, Use intermediary jigs. Whenever a cutting tool is
changed, it must be centered and adjusted. By presetting the
tool on a precise and standard intermediary jig, the tool and de-
vice can be attached directly to the base, eliminating the need for
centering.

Shortening Internal Setup Time

Internal setup time itself can often be reduced by using

quick-fitting jigs and improved assembly and fastening methods,
and by eliminating adjustments.
 Eliminating the Six Big Losses 119

1. Simplify clamping mechanism. Reduce the number of

bolts, use more efficient clamping devices, or replace bolts with
an oil hydraulic or cam-operated clamp to attach jigs to machin-
ery.
2. Adopt parallel operations. Two people working together
simultaneously can perform a setup faster and more effectively
than a single person performing each step in sequence. Al-
though timing and coordination are crucial in such operations,
in the best cases, setup times can be halved with the same
number of work hours.
3. Optimize the number of workers and division of labor.
Large, complicated setups must sometimes be performed by
dozens of people. In such cases, considering the following
points can reduce setup and adjustment time drastically:
* What is the optimal number of workers for each task?
¢ How should the work be divided or shared?
¢ What are the critical paths? Can they be reduced?
・ How can manpower be used more effectively?
Table 3-5 is an example of strategies for improving setup.

Eliminating Adjustments

Many adjustments can be performed without trial-and-

error experimentation. Only unavoidable, essential adjustments
should remain.
To eliminate adjustments, analyze their purpose, causes, ac-
tual methods employed, and effectiveness.

Purpose of Adjustment

Adjustment accomplishes the following basic purposes:

* Positioning: setting position on X, Y, or Z axes
* Centering: centering cutting tools on workpieces, for
example
120 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

External Setup Preparations * Tools (types, quantities)

Locations ・ Don't search
Position ・ Don't move
Workplace organization * Don't use
and housekeeping
Preparation procedure

Preparation of Check jigs

ancillary equipment Measuring instruments
Preheating dies
Presetting
Internal Setup

Internal Setup Operation phase Standardize work oo

procedures and methods Zi
Allocate work procedures
6 pOppa8 + Inculcate basic
’ operations
Parallel operations
Simplify work
Number of personnel
Simplify assembly
Assembly/integration
Elimination

Dies and jigs Clamping methods

Reduce number of clamping parts
Shapes of dies and jigs — consider
mechanisms
Use intermediary jigs
Standardize dies and jigs
Use common dies and jigs
Weight
Separate functions and methods
Interchangeability

Adjustment Precision of jigs

Precision of equipment Eliminate
Set reference surfaces adjustment
Measurement methods
Simplification methods
Standardize adjustment procedures
Quantification
Selection
Standardization
Use gauges
Separate out interdependent adjustments
Optimize conditions

Table 3-5. Improving Setup and Adjustment

eg Eliminating the Six Big Losses 121
ERE SEI Res «eve ttt =nh heh

・ Measuring: adjusting the cutting depth to design dimen-

sions, for example
・ Timing: adjusting timing on various equipment functions
・ Balance: adjusting pressure, balance of springs, or bal-
ancing with setting screws

Causes of Adjustment

Adjustments are needed in the following circumstances:

Accumulation of errors. When precision in equipment is
poor and when there are no specific control limits to maintain,
the effects of small errors begin to multiply and must be cor-
rected periodically through adjustment. Furthermore, imprecise
adjustment of jigs and tools often combines with lack of equip-
ment precision to magnify adjustment problems. Correcting
accumulated errors accounts for a large percentage of total
adjustment time.
For example, equipment is often provided with fitted shims
that correct the effect of abrasion on guides. This procedure should
be avoided, however, because while easy to perform, it is ulti-
mately time-consuming. Clearly defined control limits and mainte-
nance of precision will prevent the effect of accumulated deviations
and eliminate altogether the need for this type of adjustment.
Lack of rigidity. If everything checks out when the machine
isn't running, but errors are produced during operation, the
equipment or parts may be flexing.
Lack of standards. Adjustments are required when there
are no standards, when standards are inadequate, or when not
enough data is available to permit standards to be set. Adjust-
ment is always necessary when no datum plane has been speci-
fied. Even when reference marks are available, they will not be
useful if there is surface roughness or oil buildup, for example.
Lack of measuring method. Adjustments are required when
measuring methods are not available or when inability to quan-
tify prevents a method from being established.
122 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Measuring methods may be inadequate because the com-

pany is unaware of appropriate methods already used at other
companies. In such a case, existing measurement methods and
devices should be researched and adopted. Sometimes, how-
ever, appropriate methods have simply not been developed. In
those cases, an appropriate method must be developed in-
house. Adjustments may or may not be necessary.
Unavoidable adjustments. Some types of equipment
mechanisms require human intervention and adjustment for
proper functioning. Unless the mechanism is redesigned, adjust-
ment is required.
Improper work methods. Some adjustments are necessary
because work methods and procedures are unclear. Even when
they are clear, they may be performed incorrectly because the re-
sults are not checked adequately. Such cases can easily be avoided.

Analyzing Effectiveness of Adjustment Operations

Use the following analysis to study the effectiveness of ad-

justment operations and to determine which adjustments are
essential and which can be eliminated (Table 3-6 and Figure 3-10).

Purpose
What function is apparently served by adjustment?
Current Rationale
Why is adjustment needed at present?
Method
How is the adjustment performed?
Principles
What is the true function of the adjustment operation as a whole?
Causal Factors
What conditions create the need for adjustment?
Alternatives
What improvements will eliminate the need for adjustment?

Table 3-6. Conceptual Steps for Analyzing Adjustment Operations

 Eliminating the Six Big Losses 123

Analyze adjustment
operations methods in detail

Identify reasons
for present adjustments

Analyze principles
behind adjustments
・ Accumulation of errors
・ Insufficient rigidity
Why are the * Positioning
adjustments needed? ・ Mechanical deficiency
・ Insufficient standardization

Related analysis Investigation of effects

Equipment mechanism Interdependence

Equipment precision Independent ・ Interrelated
Jig precision

Consider alternatives

Can be Cannot be
eliminated eliminated

・ Accumulation of errors ・ Optimize by trial-and-error

・ Standardization ・ Mechanical deficiency
・ Mechanical deficiency ・ Insufficient rigidity
・ Insufficient rigidity

: Improve
Increase 8 Set Set fixed i
precision | Standardize |ea|procedure | values た っ2

Figure 3-10. Analysis of Adjustment Operations

124 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

a. Identify purposes. Identify the apparent purpose of

each adjustment (centering, positioning, measuring, etc.), pay-
ing particular attention when the purpose served by the adjust-
ment is unclear. Note that some procedures will have more than
one purpose.
b. Analyze methods. Analyze the details of the current ad-
justment operations, considering the following points, where
appropriate:
order of steps
general methods and criteria
number of repetitions
distinctions between initial (rough) adjustments and final
(fine) adjustments
attachment methods
reference surfaces
functions of specific adjustments (whether each opera-
tion has one or more functions)
measurement methods
method of handling materials
whether adjusted parts are independent or interconnected
c. Clarify reasons. Use the insights gained in the preced-
ing analysis to clarify why each procedure is currently needed.
Consider the operations individually and in groups, and investi-
gate the aims of each in detail. List and organize the apparent
reasons for the procedures.
d. Analyze principles. Look beyond the procedures again,
to the principles behind them. What is the real function served
by the adjustment operation? For example, does it balance heights,
make left and right parallel, make something horizontal, align
the X and Y axes, or perform some other function?

e. Investigate causes. Use the results of step d to identify

why the adjustment is necessary. Is the adjustment caused by an
accumulation of errors, lack of rigidity, insufficient standardiza-
tion, mechanical deficiency, or something else? The adjustment
may be caused by one or more sets of circumstances.
 Eliminating the Six Big Losses 125

f. Consider alternatives. Finally, consider improvements

that will eliminate the need for any of the adjustments.

Improving Unavoidable Adjustments

When adjustments cannot be eliminated, several strategies

to streamline them may be adopted.

Set Fixed Values

Use constant value settings to avoid adjustments wherever

possible. Otherwise, consider measuring methods that might
make numerical values possible, or try using a different attribute
for determining the adjustment.

Establish a Procedure

Establish a standard procedure for performing the adjust-

ment and make sure each step is thoroughly understood. After
each step the worker should ascertain that the correct result was
produced and that the adjustment was within the correct range
before going on to the next step.
Also consider how adjusting one part of a machine affects
other parts. Find ways to minimize an adjustment’ effects on other
quality characteristics and to facilitate subsequent adjustments.

Improve Skills

To avoid errors, increase workers’ skills by having them

practice the procedures. Skills perfected through repetition are
retained over a long period.

Steps for Improving Setup and Adjustment Operations

Figure 3-11 is a systematic overview of the program for im-

proving setup and adjustment operations.
126 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Progress in reducing setup times

Analyze Variable factors
setup data
Problems
Points requiring improvement

Equipment mechanism/system
Study equipment Characteristics
characteristics Scope of setup operation
Scope of adjustments
Shape, mechanism, and precision of jigs/tools
Effect on ancillary equipment

Methods and sequence

Analyze Time
work methods
Adjustment methods and details
Effectiveness of each operation
Pareto analysis (ABC)

Targets based on equipment restrictions .

Set improvement Targets based on desired improvement
targets

Tools
Preparatory Locations
steps
Transport devices

External setup work

Separate internal Internal setup work
and external setup
operations

Methods, timing
Establish work Workers, spare parts
sequences for
external setup Practice thoroughly

Coordinate work sequences and methods

Establish work
sequences for
internal setup

Figure 3-11. Improving Setup and Adjustment .

 Eliminating the Six Big Losses 127

* Stabilizing setup times

Identify obstacles * Quality problems
to stabilizing
setup times * Startup stability
・ Attainment of targeted times
* Identify problems (man/machine/method)
・ Identify points for improvement

* Select targeted tasks

Reduce internal ・ Effect of improvements
setup times
・ Theme/direction of improvement work

Study adjustments Study equipment

and jigs
i
・ Details of adjustments
・ Reasons for adjustments
+ Alternatives to adjustments * Investigate jig
+ Relation between adjustments function and
and equipment/jigs consider shape
changes
・ Consider
mechanisms
- ・ Consider using
Adjustment can Adjustments cannot common jigs
be eliminated be eliminated for different work
・ Preset jigs
128 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Case Study 3-2 — Eliminating Adjustment

In a flash butt-welding process the working faces of the

upper and lower chucks had to make close contact with the work-
piece to prevent level differences, gaps, uneven contact, and
slipping in the chucks. This adjustment was carried out by
clamping the workpiece in the chucks and checking its contact,
then filing the chuck faces by hand and inserting a shim in one of
the chuck holders.
Most of the setup time was taken up by this adjustment opera-
tion, and the improvement team decided to investigate possible
time reductions. The chucks were roughly set to match the shape
of the work in the external setup procedure, but the final adjust-
ment was considered unavoidable since it had to be carried out
with the workpiece in position.
The team investigated the differences in the shape of work-
piece within lots and from lot to lot. It also checked the precision
of the chucks (die blocks and cooling chucks), including preci-
sion of parallel edges and dimensional precision.
Results showed that the shape of the work varied to a certain
degree within lots and from lot to lot, but not enough to be a seri-
ous problem. The team did find a problem related to the precision
of the die blocks, cooling chucks, and other parts.
The adjustment was needed to correct the accumulated errors
in the parallel edges of the chucks and die blocks, both left-to-
right and upper-to-lower. The team increased the precision of
the blocks, standardized the shims, and conformed the shape of
the chucks to the median shape of the work. With these improve-
ments, the adjustment operation was no longer necessary (Fig-
ure 3-12 and Table 3-7).

Case Study 3-3 — Improving Unavoidable Adjustments

This example concerns a cold forging plant for automobile

screws. Adjustments were extremely difficult, since the various
adjustment procedures were interdependent and had complex
effects on the quality characteristics. There was no problem
when adjustment work went well, but when it did not, which
 Eliminating the Six Big Losses 129
eee

was often, adjustments took several hours. The improvement

team adopted the following measures to remedy this problem
(Table 3-8): First, the team identified the conditions under which
the adjustment went smoothly. Then, it quantified as many of
these conditions as possible and established standard settings. The
optimal adjustment procedure was firmly established, and the
standard settings for conditions were always used in setting up.
These improvements greatly reduced the number of trial
runs (as shown in Figure 3-13), cut the overall setup time drasti-
cally, and reduced the variation in setup times.

REDUCING IDLING AND MINOR STOPPAGES

Idling and minor stoppages occur when equipment idles

(i.e., continues to run without producing) or stops as a result ofa
temporary problem. For example, a minor stoppage occurs when a
workpiece is jammed in a chute or caught on an obstruction (cut-
ting off the supply), or when a sensor activates and shuts down
the machinery. These troubles are usually noticed quickly; normal
operation can be restored by simple measures such as removing
or reinserting the jammed workpiece correctly or by switching
the equipment back on.

pressure set screw

welding
bracket

cooling-water upper chuck

pipe (disconnect work motor
release coupling) j rs wheel

reference block
(align front-to-back
and insert rear shim)

a. Bol contact fixed |slide-—

- ザ lower chuck block side | side

Ren die block

slide side rear shim
(a) Perspective view (b) Sectional view

Figure 3-12. Upper and Lower Chucks in Flash Butt-Welding Process

130 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

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 Eliminating the Six Big Losses 131

Setup Work Procedure Date:

Machine: Time of operation: Operator:

Important Points

Total length of die holder

is 82 + 0.1mm
die holder special products( m/m)
2. Attach and
Beatie a Sc No. of die (
3. Attach and
Wire drawing die Die holder
center 2 cutters

ン ( ムン m/m) 3 ( m/m)

resent / absent

Table 3-8. Setup Work Procedure

Since breakdowns cause a loss or reduction in normal equip-

ment functions, restoring normal conditions requires repair
work, parts replacement, and adjustment. This takes time. Since
idling and minor stoppages interrupt functions, they can also be
categorized as breakdowns. Even so, the two are essentially dif-
ferent. A minor stoppage can be dealt with quickly, as soon as it
is noticed. On the other hand, if the equipment is idle or stopped
frequently, the factory’s output may drop. This occurs more fre-
quently in factories with a large number of automatic machines.
If not detected quickly, a minor stoppage soon turns into a major
stoppage and a major cause of reduced operating rates.
In factories with many automated production systems, idling,
minor stoppages, and associated defects prevent individual
132 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Adjust
head shape

adjustment
of external
appearance

Figure 3-13. Test Runs during Setup

machines from being used to their full capacity. Operators try to

keep automated machinery running smoothly so as not to waste
its capacity, but they are also kept busy coping with problems.
Since their efforts are too diffused to produce any improvement,
the machinery is automated in name only. We might say that the
operators, rather than using the machines, are used by them.
Many companies aiming at complete automation have set
up unmanned plants. In many of these, however, even a single
minor stoppage will bring the factory to a halt, halving the effect
of the automation and reducing the operating rates.

Definitions

Stoppages occur when a problem is detected by an instru-

ment and the equipment stops automatically.
 Eliminating the Six Big Losses 133

Stoppages due to overloading. Some stoppages are caused

by overloading, often found in automatic packers and assem-
blers. They occurs when workpieces collide, for example.
Stoppages due to quality abnormalities. These occur in
automatic assemblers, other automatic machinery, and transfer
machines. For example, sensors trip and stop equipment auto-
matically when assemblers fail to pick up parts correctly and mis-
assembly occurs.
Idling. Idling occurs when the flow of workpieces stops but
the equipment continues to run without processing. If the
mechanism of the equipment prevents this from being observed,
or if sensors are too costly to install, idling may not be noticed for
some time. Idling occurs in all kinds of automatic machinery
when there are defects in the mechanisms that feed or transport
the work.

Characteristics of Idling and Minor Stoppages

A number of characteristics of idling and minor stoppages

make them difficult to address systematically.

Easy to Restore

Idling and minor stoppages are easily restored, so little ef-

fort is made to eradicate them. Typically, production and mainte-
nance personnel do not regard idling and minor stoppages as
problems but simply tolerate them.

Conditions of Occurrence Vary Widely

Idling and minor stoppages may occur with certain prod-

ucts or parts but not others, or with all products or parts but only
under certain conditions. They may occur only on certain days,
or only with certain machines. These varying conditions inevita-
bly make them easy to ignore (Figure 3-14).
134 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Occurrences

80

60

40

20

Day
WetQWeeS +42 95 8 7 の 8 MI9 UhAO Tt

Figure 3-14. Variation in Idling and Minor Stoppages with Same Product

Location Constantly Changes

Idling and stoppages seldom occur at the same location in

the machine. Often an outbreak in one area is followed by sepa-
rate outbreaks in different areas, making their true nature
difficult to grasp; the problem may be chronic, or a sporadic prob-
lem may occur along with a chronic problem.
In the first case, the idling and minor stoppages are concen-
trated in a certain portion of the machine. Various actions reduce
their occurrence; then they break out at another location. As a re-
sult, there is no overall improvement. The concentration of oc-
currences in a particular location focuses attention exclusively on
that area while the real problem — a hidden defect — is located
elsewhere in the machine. Since it is invisible, that hidden cause
is overlooked.
Thus, a key strategy in reducing idling and minor stoppages
is the single-minded pursuit of hidden defects. Improvement
teams must be determined to eradicate them wherever they
might occur — regardless of their frequency.
In the second case, a sporadic, unexpected stoppage occurs
simultaneously with a chronic stoppage. The sporadic stoppage
may be caused by a faulty part or an incorrectly installed jig; but
 Eliminating the Six Big Losses 135

whatever its cause, the sporadic problem is a different phenome-

non from the chronic problem and manifests itself differently. It
is therefore important to notice that difference quickly and take
corrective measures.

Scope of the Loss Unclear

The losses caused by idling and stoppages are difficult to

quantify over long periods. Such factors as location, frequency,
time required for correction, and so on, are difficult to measure
continuously, although longer periods might be tracked if each
operator were responsible for a single piece of equipment.
Operators in charge of large numbers of machines, however, can
only determine the net operating time and estimate the idling and
minor stoppage time losses from the production figures. Unfor-
tunately, this gives no information on the number of occurrences.

Common Problems

Typically, the losses due to idling and minor stoppages are

not adequately measured, treated, or observed.

Losses Remain Unnoticed

Even though a minor stoppage is easily corrected each time

it happens, the losses in production resulting from frequent oc-
currences or from stoppages that are not discovered quickly are
surprisingly high. Since the losses are unnoticed and unmeasured,
however, the problem is not acknowledged. Thus, a preliminary
step in solving the problems of idling and minor stoppages is to
measure the losses they cause.

Remedial Actions Are Inadequate

Typically, operators and maintenance personnel treat idling

and minor stoppages superficially, applying stopgap measures
136 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

or remedies that deal with only part of the problem. They treat
the symptoms but do not take the fundamental measures needed
to eradicate the causes.

The Phenomena Are Not Observed Closely Enough

Seeing what actually takes place when idling and stoppages

occur is an important key to their solution. Being in the right
place at the right time is difficult, however, and the phenomenon
may be too brief to be clearly observed. This contributes to the
tendency to treat results rather than causes.
To attack the basic causes of idling and minor stoppages, an
improvement team should observe them happening on the shop
floor and then analyze and classify the results. The roots of the
problems must be identified and understood before remedial ac-
tion is taken.

Strategies for Reducing Idling and Minor Stoppages

This section reviews basic TPM strategies for reducing idling

and minor stoppages.

Correct Slight Defects in Parts and Jigs

To begin reducing idling and minor stoppages, search out

and correct all the slight defects in parts and jigs involved in the
transfer of work. These slight defects often consist of minute
irregularities in the external appearance and shape of parts. Use
magnification and scientific observation methods that enhance
the power of the five senses. Analytical precision is important
in detecting the small differences leading to these problems,
and sometimes requires the development of new measuring
methods. Evaluation criteria are particularly important for un-
measurable phenomena since these can only be judged through
the five senses.
 Eliminating the Six Big Losses 137

The typical approach to equipment problems can be a major

obstacle to improvement. We cannot unearth the roots of chronic
problems and find new solutions until we are able to see details
we never noticed before and to consider innovative solutions.
Use the following strategies to change the way groups think
about equipment problems:
* Acknowledge that problems are there to be found, in
other words, that room for improvement exists.
・ Uncover hidden problems by comparing things as they
are with how they should be.
・ Investigate anything out of the ordinary — anything that
might be a potential factor — in accordance with sound
engineering theories and principles.
Correcting slight defects minimizes the variation in location
and frequency of idling and minor stoppages from lot to lot and
day to day. In other words, it

* narrows down the causes of idling and minor stoppages

* reveals differences in the occurrence of idling and minor
stoppages before and after the correction of slight defects
* brings hidden defects to light
Table 3-9 shows the results of careful investigative analysis of
minor stoppages and idling. Table 3-10 organizes various ap-
proaches to improvement that ensure systematic and thorough
investigation.

Ensure that Basic Equipment Conditions Are Maintained

Idling and minor stoppages are frequently caused by failure

to maintain basic equipment conditions (cleaning, lubrication,
bolting), so make certain these standards are scrupulously ob-
served. If equipment is left dirty because no one has bothered to
clean it, or if play and looseness are not corrected, stoppages are
inevitable. It is vital that workers understand and maintain the
basic conditions of their equipment.
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 Eliminating the Six Big Losses 139

Approach to

Reliability of use 1. Correct minor a. External appearance (surface damage, wear)

defects
ど. Dimensions (necessary dimensional precision,
clearances)
. Actuation (play, eccentricity)

Reliability of use . Apply basic . Cleaning (dirt, play)

principles of shop-
floor operations b. Lubrication (dirt, wear)
. Bolting (loose bolts and nuts)

Reliability of use . Adhere to basic . Correct manipulation

work procedures b. Setup (adjustment methods, settings)
and standards
c. Observation of equipment (methods of detecting
abnormalities)

Reliability of use . Identify optimal a. Installation conditions (angle, position, resonance,

and equipment conditions compressed-air pressure, degree of vacuum, vibration
fabrication amplitude, etc.)
. Processing conditions (optimum feed rate, etc.)

Reliability of use . Identify required a. Limits of required precision (parts precision,

and equipment configuration assembly precision)
fabrication b. Conditions of use (optimal range of use)

Inherent o. Investigate design a. Designs conformable to shape of parts (shape-

reliability weaknesses design change)
b. Selection of parts (change resulting from material
quality/function)
. Consideration of mechanisms and systems

Table 3-10. Six Approaches to Improving Idling and Minor Stoppages

Review Basic Operations

The frequency of idling and minor stoppages is often af-

fected by the way equipment is set up or adjustments are carried
out. The same operator may produce different results on differ-
ent days depending on how he or she set up the equipment.
Make certain that setup, adjustments, and other operations
are being carried out correctly. Even if basic operations have been
taught, it pays to inspect periodically for proper performance. A
thorough review of procedures may be necessary to prevent
problems caused when basic operations are carried out incor-
rectly or not at all. ;
140 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Conduct Physical Analysis of Phenomena (P-M Analysis)

Thoroughly implementing the three strategies described

above (correcting slight defects and maintaining basic equip-
ment and operating conditions) alters the occurrence, frequency,
and location of idling and minor stoppages. These improve-
ments alone cannot reduce problems to zero, however. To reduce
their occurrence still further, they must be analyzed according to
physical principles, using P-M analysis (see Chapter 2).
For example, an assembly shop at factory C experienced
production losses of 40 to 50 percent as a result of idling and
minor stoppages. The assembly machine was installed on a six-
station index table and the parts were supplied automatically. In
the next process, they passed through parts feeders and were
assembled by a vacuum gripper. The assembly was then in-
spected automatically, and final assembly was performed in the
last step.
The sensor was set to shut down the equipment if a part was
not picked up by a suction nozzle. Idling and minor stoppages
occurred when the nozzles failed to pick up parts and when the
sensor did not operate correctly. The first problem is treated in
this example of P-M analysis.
As shown in Table 3-11, a reduction in suction pressure was
the physical cause of the nozzles’ failure to pick up parts. When a
temporary suction drop, for whatever reason, prevents the noz-
zle from picking up a part, a sensor shuts down the equipment.

Adopt an Analytical Approach

To conduct a P-M analysis in this case, consider the conditions

needed to produce a drop in suction pressure. Take a systematic
approach to identify all the conditions that would be certain to
produce such a drop. If the analysis is not well organized, the
main cause of the problem is likely to remain hidden. The most
important strategy at this point is to avoid reaching for what ap-
pears at first to be the most obvious cause.
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142 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Analyze each possible set of conditions in relation to the

machines, tools, jigs, and materials, without omitting any factor.
Then, think through the causes producing each set of conditions
and determine what would happen if the causes were to change.
For example, poor contact between a suction nozzle and the
workpiece might cause air to be taken in, reducing the suction.
Contributory causes might be nozzle wear, a worn workpiece
supply jig, misalignment of the workpiece with the supply jig,
and irregularities on the workpiece surface in contact with the
nozzle. These factors, singly or in combination, could certainly
cause the intake of air at the suction nozzle.
After this kind of analysis, consider each factor, listing un-
satisfactory points and small telltale signs of trouble, and then
plan appropriate corrective actions. When this systematic ap-
proach is used, the actions taken are certain to affect the problem.

Determine Optimum Conditions

The next strategy for reducing idling and stoppages is ad-

dressing equipment reliability. Taking the existing equipment,
jigs, and tools as the starting point, review the installation and
processing conditions of all parts and units and consider how
these conditions can be optimized. Installation conditions in-
clude every factor related to the way the equipment is installed,
such as position of parts, angles, and resonance. Processing con-
ditions are the physical properties relating to processing, such as
pneumatic pressure, vacuum pressure, vibration amplitude,
and workpiece supply volume.
Installation and processing conditions are often established
based on past experience. Whether or not they are optimal is a
separate question that is not always addressed. For this reason —
an experimental, trial-and-error approach must be adopted in re-
viewing the existing conditions.

Eliminate Design Weaknesses

If the preceding approaches do not reduce stoppages, the

root of the problem is often design weaknesses in equipment,
 Eliminating the Six Big Losses 143

jigs, tools, or detection systems. Weaknesses and possible prob-

lems can be found in the design of equipment mechanisms, parts
materials and shapes, the construction and shapes of jigs, and
detection systems (both the sensors and the systems them-
selves). Frequently, idling and minor stoppages are caused by
mismatching jigs to workpiece shapes.
Another common cause is using existing equipment contain-
ing hidden defects without treating it as such. This produces fre-
quent stoppages and makes adjustment procedures extremely
difficult, with the frequency of stoppages depending on the skill
with which adjustments are carried out. In such cases, look long
and hard at the inherent weaknesses of the equipment and take
steps to improve it. The problems making this kind of investiga-
tion necessary are not normally common to the whole range of
products. They usually apply only to particular products.
The role of equipment design weaknesses in idling and stop-
pages should be explored last — after correcting slight defects
and usage problems, applying P-M analysis to particular prob-
lems, and correcting unsatisfactory conditions. To do otherwise
is to court failure. It is virtually impossible to pinpoint design
weaknesses when they are mixed up with a variety of other fac-
tors that can be corrected through restoration. It is essential to
follow the improvement steps in the proper sequence.

Key Points and Cautions

The following points should be kept in mind when conduct-

ing activities aimed at eliminating idling and minor stoppages:

Two Approaches Are Needed

Two approaches can be adopted to reduce idling and minor

stoppages. The first approach is positive and has already been
outlined: track down all the main causes and take steps to pre-
vent stoppages from occurring. Reducing stoppages to zero is
difficult, however, even when a variety of remedial measures are
144 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

employed. The second approach is negative; it involves the crea-

tive use of detection techniques to detect and signal the occur-
rence of stoppages so they can be dealt with immediately.
Both approaches should be used together. In areas where
operators manage many machines, stoppages are particularly
difficult to detect without special warning systems.

Address Common Problems Before Particular Problems

Some problems are common to every machine regardless of

the product or workpiece processed. Other problems are related
to particular products or workpieces. In any program for reduc-
ing idling and minor stoppages, the best and quickest results are
obtained by tackling common problems first. Particular prob-
lems require improvements to the equipment, such as better
machines, jigs, and tools, and are likely to take time.

Beware of Complex Solutions

Problems often emerge at the interface between specific

technologies and the systems in operation on the shop floor. En-
gineers tend to make judgments from limited technical stand-
points, failing to consider in their analysis what actually happens
on the shop floor. If this tendency is not avoided, solutions quickly
become too complex and waste valuable improvement efforts.

Take Action Against Every Type of Occurrence

Idling and minor stoppages characteristically move from

one location to another on a machine. Do not neglect any type of
stoppage, no matter how infrequent its occurrence. In many
cases, when attention is drawn exclusively to that portion of the
machine where frequent stoppages occur, action is taken and the
number of occurrences there drops. Stoppages then increase in
another part, however, and there is no overall improvement. To
avoid this, take action against stoppages wherever they occur in
the machine, regardless of the relative frequency of occurrence.
 Eliminating the Six Big Losses 145

Steps in Reducing Idling and Minor Stoppages

An overview of the improvement program for reducing idling

and minor stoppages appears in Figure 3-15.

Case Study 3-4 — Reducing Blockages

by Correcting Slight Defects

Idling and minor stoppages were occurring in a rolling

machine using thread-rolling dies to make screws. Blockages
were particularly common
* at the transfer point between the hopper and the chute
* on the chute
* at the transfer point between the chute and dies
Blockages occur as a result of high frictional resistance. To
overcome this problem the improvement team redesigned the
configuration of the transfer points by going back to first principles
and eliminating all slight defects. The following improvements
were carried out:
・ The chute was cleaned (eliminating all dirt).
¢ The chute surface was improved (treating scratches, ir-
regularities, wear, roughness).
・ Chute installation was improved (treating gaps, clearances).
* The surfaces of butted plates were improved (uneven
wear, irregularities).
¢ The attachment of butted plates was improved (control-
ling play, vibration, movement).
As a result of the team’s efforts, idling and minor stoppages
were reduced and higher operating speeds became possible
(Figure 3-16; see p. 148).

Case Study 3-5 — Correcting Blockages

Idling and minor stoppages were occurring in machinery

that supplies parts from a feeder, selects them on a chute accord-
TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Location and number of

Investigate
occurrences
occurrences
Types of occurrences and
phenomena
Intervals between
occurrences
Estimate from ratio of
operating time to output

Indicate how phenomena

Analyze occurred
phenomena
Categorize phenomena
Consider cause-and-
effect relationships

Common problems occur

Separate common irrespective of product or
problems from machine type
specific problems
. Machine-specific
problems
Product-specific
problems
Prioritize common
problems

Thorough cleaning
Detect and
correct minor Condition of installation
defects

Check results

Location of
Confirm
occurrence
phenomena
How it appeared

. What conditions
Analyze
* re produce the
phenomena
phenomena?
actuation hysical
Principles ees
・ Mechanism,
component parts Connection between
Consider equipment parts and
・ Functions relation to conditions for occurrence
equipment

Figure 3-15. Improving Idling and Minor Stoppages

Eliminating the Six Big Losses 147

. ldentify
List and
suspicious
investigate
factors
possible causes
systematically
Compare with
ideal conditions

Organize
problems,
devise and apply
remedies

Check results

Installation
Consider optimal
conditions
conditions
Conditions
of use

Positions and
Consider performance
detection system of sensors
System itself

Weaknesses in
Investigate equipment, jigs,
design and tools
weaknesses

Consider
solutions

Implement
148 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

% Loss due
to idling

40

Correction of minor defects

30
A Review after speed increase

20

Revolutions
150 rpm 170 rpm
Month
O° “2. 3. 4 5 Guero 0 H10 al 2

Figure 3-16. Reducing Blockages by Correcting Minor Defects

ing to their orientation (top/bottom, crosswise/lengthwise), and

feeds them to an automatic processing machine. The cutting cap-
acity of an automatic processing machine is one every 3.5 seconds,
or 17 to 18 per minute; the parts feeder must supply at a rate
of 18 x (4+ a) per minute (the parts must be sorted in four
directions).
The stoppages occurred in the following points:
¢ the transfer point between the parts feeder and chute
* the orientation selecting section
・on the chute and at inlet of the automatic processing
machine
The stoppages resulted from parts jamming because of their
positioning at the transfer points, overlapping, and so on. This
happened at high output rates from the feeder, when the parts
emerged in a mass instead of separately. The following steps were
taken to give a constant feed rate:
* A constant quantity of parts was kept in the feeder via an
automatic supply system with buckets.
* The vibration amplitude of the chute was set to the opti-
mal value to give a smooth flow of parts (at the required
rate but without overlapping).
・ Resonance was corrected.
 Eliminating the Six Big Losses 149

Blockages in the orientation selecting section of the chute

also occurred at high feed rates. They were greatly reduced by
stabilizing the feed rate, as described above, and by improving
the angles, positions, and shapes of the chute installation (Fig-
ure 3-17).

parts feeder

overflow

long chute

ン のEz
x VY

ae SF ra
(S short chute

Detail of magazine Location of idling

and minor stoppages

Drop section from parts feeder

Sectional view
ウン ンプ blank

Figure 3-17. Improvements to Prevent Blockages

150 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

REDUCING SPEED LOSSES

A speed loss is the lost production caused by the difference be-

tween the designed (or standard) speed of a machine and its actual
operation speed. This loss can be prevented by keeping the
machine operating at the speed set by the operating standards.
While this often proves impossible in practice, reducing speed
losses can significantly increase the overall efficiency of the plant.
As a practical matter, there are often problems associated
with the speeds set at the design stage. For example, lack of care
may have generated inherent weaknesses in the design that pre-
vent the equipment from maintaining the rated speed. Changes
in the product line or increased complexity in product shapes
since the equipment was designed may also prevent equipment
from maintaining the rated speed.
For these reasons, a standard speed is set for each type of prod-
uct. The standard speed is used instead of the designed speed to
determine the speed loss.
The following steps are involved in reducing speed losses:
1. Achieve standard speed for each product.
2. Increase standard speed for each product.
3. Achieve design speed.
4. Surpass design speed.

Common Problems Related to Speed Losses

Efforts to increase speed are hindered by various problems:

Vague Equipment Specifications

Lack of care at the design stage may result in a speed specifi-

cation that is unclear. As a result, the equipment is either operated
beyond its speed limits, producing defects and breakdowns, or
at a speed that is unnecessarily low. This is often the case with
older equipment or in-house designs. It is usually profitable to take
a fresh look at the speed specifications of these types of equipment.
 Eliminating the Six Big Losses 151

Specified Speeds Are Attainable But Not Achieved

Some equipment may not be operated at the specified speed

because of past quality or mechanical problems that were never
solved. Such problems are often regarded as intractable; no effort
is made to trace their real causes, which are often accelerated de-
terioration or slight defects left unchecked. The speed loss may
be eliminated simply by correcting these minor problems.
In other cases, technical levels and control techniques have
advanced since the equipment first experienced speed prob-
lems. Now, although it may cause no problems at current levels
of in-house technology, the specified speed is still not being used.

Inadequate Investigation of Problems

Exposed Through Speed Increases

As speeds are gradually increased over the present levels,

quality or mechanical problems may appear immediately, or
they may break out suddenly when a certain speed is reached.
The defects causing these problems are latent at the lower
speeds, surfacing only with an increase in speed.
Increasing the speed of a piece of equipment brings its latent
defects to the surface all at once. Increasing speed is therefore a
simple, productive way of exposing defects. Most companies,
however, do not investigate and sort out the phenomena and
problems produced by speed increases. They merely observe
that defect rates, breakdowns, and adjustment frequencies are
increased. The reasons for these increases are not tracked down,
the problems remain hidden, and the operating speed is reduced
to its former, less than optimal value.

Approaches to Increasing Speed

A vital first step, then, is to expose the hidden problems and

determine whether they correspond to any of the following:
* unresolved defects due to insufficient debugging during
the engineering stage
152 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

・defects in equipment mechanisms or systems

* inadequate daily maintenance
* insufficient precision, and so on
Once the causes are identified, measures can be devised to
correct them. Solutions to these problems may help increase cur-
rent technical capabilities and may have a beneficial effect on main-
tainability improvement and maintenance-prevention design.
Generally, improvement activities to increase speed should
be organized with the same understanding, using the same
methodology recommended for reducing breakdowns, idling
and minor stoppages, and defects. The sections on these sub-
jects should be consulted. A systematic improvement program
for increasing speeds is outlined in Table 3-12.

Determine present levels Speed

Bottleneck processes
Downtime/frequency of stoppages
Conditions producing defects

Check difference between What are the specifications?

specification and present situation Difference between standard speed and present speed
Difference in speeds for different products

Investigate past problems Has the speed ever been increased?

Types of problems
Measures taken to deal with past problems
Trends in defect ratios
Trends in speeds over time
Differences in similar equipment

Investigate processing theories Problems related to processing theories and principles

and principles Machining conditions
Processing conditions
Theoretical values

Investigate mechanisms Mechanisms

Rated output and load ratio
Investigate stress
Revolving parts
Investigate specification of each part

Investigate present situation Processing time per operation (cycle diagram)

Loss times (idling times)
Cp value of quality characteristics
Check precision of each part
・ Check using five senses

Table 3-12. Strategies for Increasing Speed

 Eliminating the Six Big Losses 153

List problems + List problems and identify conditions that should exist
・ Compare with optimal conditions
・ Problems with mechanism
・ Problems with precision
・ Problems with processing theories and principles

List predictable problems ・ Mechanical

* Quality

Take remedial action against ・ Compare predictable problems with present conditions
predictable problems ・ Take action against predictable problems

Perform test runs

Confirm phenomena ・ Mechanical

Quality
Change in Cp values

Review analysis of phenomena Physical analysis of phenomena

and cause-and-effect relationships Conditions producing phenomena
and carry out remedial actions ・ Related causes

Perform test runs

Table 3-12. Strategies for Increasing Speed

REDUCING CHRONIC QUALITY DEFECTS

When a production system regularly produces totally or par-

tially defective products despite various improvement and control
measures, these defective parts are termed chronic quality defects.
Irreparably defective products are obvious losses; less obvious
are the losses generated by partially defective products requiring
an additional investment of manhours in rework or repair. Be-
cause they can be repaired, partial defectives are often not
counted as defects. In a successful program to reduce chronic
losses, however, all defective outcomes should be met with
equal concern.
154 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

General Characteristics of Chronic Quality Defects

To successfully reduce chronic defects, improvement teams

must learn to recognize them and to avoid the most common traps.

Improvement Efforts Have Been Unsuccessful

Even the most determined efforts can seldom trace the

causes of chronic quality defects. In desperation, quality teams
may adopt trial-and-error measures without knowing the causes,
but these often have no effect. Eventually, team members simply
give up, and the problems remain uncorrected.
Various justifications are advanced for abandoning the ef-
fort to correct chronic quality defects: “Implementing effective
preventive measures is impossible when we don't know the
causes of the defects,” or, “There’s no way to solve this prob-
lem 一 it’s inherent in the nature of the equipment.” Usually,
however, avoidable mistakes along the way have led the investi-
gation astray.

The Problem Is Approached in the Wrong Way

Because we typically approach a problem with the goal of

identifying its cause, we may jump to the wrong conclusions or
narrow down the causes too quickly. Then we develop remedies
to address the few causes we have identified. Unfortunately,
chronic quality defects are often produced by an ever-changing
combination of causes. Every suspicious factor must be tackled,
because little progress is possible when only a few are pursued.

Thinking Is Limited to Specific Technical Fields

Top staff engineers in most companies are experts in particular

technical fields. In problem-solving for chronic defects, they
tend to overlook solutions outside their own areas of expertise
and favor complex over simple solutions. As a result, many prob-
lems remain unsolved.
 Eliminating the Six Big Losses 153

For example, consider the problem of broken punches in a

punch press machine. An engineer might propose changing the
heat-treatment conditions or increasing the average hardness
of the punches without considering the wide range of punch
lifetimes — why it exists, where it originates, or how it might be
addressed. People are often attracted to the more interesting
technical solutions, overlooking the reality that the causes of dis-
persion lie in much simpler factors — the way the punches are
installed, the installation precision, the machine precision itself,
and surface roughness of the punches.
The solutions to some chronic quality defects can be found
in specific technical areas, but most problems require a wider
viewpoint that considers causes in actual operations on the
shop floor.
In practice, a single defect phenomenon often has many in-
terdependent causes, all of which are likely to undergo changes.
The phenomenon can occur immediately as a result of any of these
changes. For example, setup produces different results depend-
ing on the method used, the way adjustments are carried out,
gap dimensions, installation methods, the setting of processing
conditions, and so on. Whether defective products are produced
depends on the combination of factors in the setup.
Engineers must learn to spot the variables related to opera-
tions and equipment by observing and studying
* actual operations carried out on the shop floor
・ setup and adjustment operations
* the equipment itself
When determined efforts to find technical solutions do not
produce the expected results, or when the results vary widely,
the actual causes of quality defects on the shop floor are probably
not constant. Solutions that take into account the interface be-
tween engineering and the shop floor are more likely to succeed.

Identifying and Investigating Causes Is Difficult

Quality improvement teams encounter two common prob-

lems: mistaken identification of the causes of chronic quality
156 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

defects and inadequate investigation of causes once they are

correctly identified.
First, true causes are obscured by deficiencies in the observa-
tion and analysis of defect phenomena, mistakes in analytical
methods, thinking based solely on past experience, and jump-
ing to hasty conclusions.
Second, improvement efforts are thwarted by lack of thor-
oughness and other deficiencies in the way managers and en-
gineers observe equipment and work methods. Hidden defects are
not recognized as such and causes that are noted are disregarded
as having no effect on the phenomena being investigated.
As a result of these deficiencies, hidden defects and their
warning signs often go unrecognized. When these causes are left
unchecked, quality defects recur. Real progress in reducing
chronic quality defects requires an entirely new approach to the
discovery and investigation of hidden defects. Figure 3-18 shows
the relationships among the typical problems associated with
chronic quality defects.

Sporadic Problems Versus Chronic Problems

According to J. M. Juran, sporadic defects result from sud-

den, adverse changes in the status quo, for example, in current
control points or causal factors. They require treatment that re-
stores the status quo, bringing the variables back to their original
state — by replacing a worn tool, for example (Table 3-13).
Chronic defects result from adverse conditions that have
been accepted as normal over time. They require breakthrough
solutions that change the status quo. Breakthrough thinking is
needed to tighten the control ranges of existing factors, develop
control methods that prevent even slight defects from escaping
notice, and give special consideration to factors not presently
controlled.

Strategies for Reducing Chronic Problems

Solving sporadic problems requires an essentially conserva-

tive approach involving the following strategies:
 Eliminating the Six Big Losses 157

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158 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

¢ restoration by maintaining or controlling current conditions

* targets set to current standards
* comparisons with current standards
¢ checking control points
* responsibility on the part of both operators and managers
Solving chronic problems requires breakthrough thinking
involving a different set of strategies:
* improvements that change the status quo
* targets set according to company improvement goals
・ review of existing standards
・ review of existing control points
* responsibility on part of managers

Nature of sporadic defects Nature of chronic defects

Tangible economic Minor Major

loss
Extent of irritations Substantial. Sudden nature of Small. Continuing nature of
caused trouble attracts supervisory trouble leads all concerned to
attention acceptit as unavoidable
Type of solution Restore the status quo Change the status quo
required
Types of data needed Simple data showing trend of Complex data showing relation
quality with respect to one or of quality to numerous
two variables such as time or variables
lot number
Plan for collecting Routine Specially designed
data
Data collected... By inspectors, service representa- Often through special experi-
tatives, etc., in the usual course mental procedures
of their work
Frequency of analysis Very frequent. May require Infrequent. Data may be accu-
review every hour or every lot mulated for several months
before analysis is made
Analysis made by... Line people such as a design or Technical personnel
production supervisor
Type of analysis... Usually simple Possibly intricate. May require
correlation study, analysis of
variance, etc.
Action bywhom... Usually by line personnel in Usually by personnel other than
design, manufacturing, etc. those responsible for meeting
the standard

From Quality Planning and Analysis: From Product Development through Usage by J.M. Juran and
FM. Gryna, Jr. (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1970), 9

Table 3-13. Distinguishing Between Sporadic and Chronic Defects

 Eliminating the Six Big Losses 159

Stabilize Causal Factors

To reduce chronic problems we must stabilize all variable fac-

tors, identify significant differences between normal and abnor-
mal conditions, and study ways to prevent defects from being
generated in the first place.
Causal factors are all factors that might conceivably affect re-
sults (i.e., the defect phenomena), including those that are logi-
cally proved to produce the phenomena. Causes are those causal
factors that are proven or deduced to produce the phenomena,
directly or indirectly.
To stabilize something is to prevent it from changing; stabiliz-
ing causal factors means preventing them from changing.
Although causal factors may appear stable in factories and
workshops, work is actually carried out under extremely unstable
conditions, in a tangled mass of varying causal factors. Remedial
action taken while causal factors are changing is likely to fail.
Moreover, the actual results of such action are impossible to judge.
To reduce chronic problems, these tangled, fluctuating vari-
ables must be stabilized one by one. For example, a single opera-
tion may proceed differentiy from day to day, depending on the
operators who carry it out. Their adjustment methods and judg-
ments, the ranges they use, and the mistakes they make when
dealing with quality abnormalities will vary considerably.
This variability is caused by lack of standardization in the
workplace or failure to observe set standards. In such cir-
cumstances, managers may be unaware or negligent; operators
may not appreciate the significance of certain aspects of their
work, or they may assume that their methods are correct.
The only realistic solution is to pinpoint the sources of
trouble through a process of elimination by stabilizing the causal
factors one by one. Stabilize every causal factor that might logi-
cally have an effect on the outcome:
・ processing principles
・ mechanisms
* operation and adjustment
* precision of equipment, jigs, and tools
・ work methods
160 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Comparative Studies

In any program to reduce quality defects, normal conditions

(no defects) should be compared systematically with abnormal
conditions (defects) to identify significant differences. Problems
that would be easy to solve with simple solutions very often re-
main unsolved when this step is omitted, even if the defects and
phenomena are acknowledged.
Once comparative studies identify the location, nature, ex-
tent, and causes of significant differences, they should be
analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively. Several methods can
be used:
Compare products (results). Compare defective and non-
defective products in terms of shape, dimensions, and func-
tions. Also investigate the variation in defects over time and in
terms of their location in the product.
Compare processes. Compare the machines, jigs, tools,
and dies producing defective products with equipment produc-
ing good products to identify any differences in shape, dimen-
sions, surface roughness, and so on. Make a special effort to
develop new measuring methods for factors that do not appear
to be quantifiable.
Compare the effects of changing parts. With assembled
products, study the effects of interchanging parts that might be
related to the defects. Also exchange machines parts, jigs, and
tools to determine any differences.
Comparative studies should be used to organize the follow-
ing factors:
Objects by shape
; : ・ Normal conditions with
by dimensions
' : respect to dimensions?
Locations by part
と - ・ Normal conditions with
Times SE by period of occurrence respect to shape?
at setup times

Processing conditions In terms of operating characteristics + What conditions

In terms of processing conditions are normal?
Equipment —-—-———_ static precision ・ dynamic precision ・ What conditions
Jigs and tools static precision ・ dynamic precision produce conforming
| products?
surface roughness
 Eliminating the Six Big Losses 161

To increase the effectiveness of comparative studies consider

the following methods:
Increase analytical precision to detect more subtle differ-
ences. Increase analytical precision by using a magnifying glass,
microscope, or other apparatus to detect differences too small to
be seen with the naked eye.
Nonquantifiable factors can pose obstacles; consider ana-
lyzing nonquantifiable shape differences.
Investigate new measuring methods. Often measurements
are not performed because appropriate methods have not been
developed. If that is the case, consider developing new measuring
methods. New measurements can often clarify significant differ-
ences. Even if the differences are not made completely clear,
telltale signals showing their existence can often be detected.
For example, surface roughness gauges and microscopes
with projectors can be effective when localized uneven wear and
surface roughness do not show up as dimensional differences.

Review Causal Factors

Review the current causal factors and control points and

consider a new approach to their selection and study. The best
approach is P-M analysis: conduct a physical analysis of the
phenomena, identify the conditions needed for the occurrence
of the phenomena, list the relevant causal factors and sources of
trouble, and analyze them (see Chapter 2).

Study the Relationship Between Equipment

Parts and Quality Characteristics

Analyzing the phenomena actually creating defects is im-

portant in defect reduction, but it cannot promise continuing
improvement. Because these phenomena suddenly appear and
disappear, or are replaced by different phenomena, we should
also consider methods that prevent defects from occurring in the
162 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

first place. This is even more advisable for products that, while
not actually defective, barely meet standards and have large dif-
ferences in quality or low C, values (process capacity indices).
To reduce defects, a deductive as well as an analytical ap-
proach to investigation should be adopted. The analytical ap-
proach, already presented, focuses on the status quo, while the
deductive method approaches from first principles the functions
of equipment components, jigs, and tools. These are considered
in relation to the quality characteristics of the product, with the
aim of determining what their basic functions should be and
how they should be configured. For example:
How do the precision and shapes of parts, jigs, and tools af-
fect and relate to the quality characteristics? Are the qualitative
and quantitative relationships between equipment parts, jigs,
and quality characteristics fully understood? How close are these
relationships? What are the current limits on the precision re-
quired to maintain the quality characteristic values?
What effect do the precision and shapes of parts, jigs, and
tools have on the C, values, separately and in combination?The
precision and shapes of parts, jigs, and tools may affect the C,,
values, both separately and in combination. Have these relation-
ships been considered fully? Are the factors controlling the C,
values and their quantitative relationships fully understood?
What is the optimal configuration considering the func-
tions of parts, jigs, and tools? Has the configuration required to
satisfy the quality characteristics been clarified? Have the re-
quired static and dynamic precision and the external shapes of
the parts been considered? What would be the effect on the qual-
ity characteristics if these were to change?
These issues must be investigated to determine the current
state of equipment functions and configurations and whether
they are being correctly maintained. Through a comparison of
the present state of the equipment with the ideal state of the
equipment, continual improvement targets can be identified
(Table 3-14 and Figures 3-19 and 3-20).
 Eliminating the Six Big Losses 163

REFERENCES

Shingo, Shigeo. A Revolution in Manufacturing: The SMED System.

Cambridge: Productivity Press, 1985.
Shirose, Kunio. “Minor Stoppages” (in Japanese). Plant Engineer
13 (April and May 1981): 44.

Relation to Quality

回 SI 時間
Targeted Characteristics Relation
To Optimal Moe

Table 3-14. Relation between Main Parts and Quality Characteristics

Quality characteristics
to be maintairied

Physical analysis Equipment components

Functions of parts
Processing principles
Relation between processing
conditions and quality
Conditions for occurrence characteristics
(clarify mechanism)

List relevant factors

Pursue optimal
conditions for each part

Identify sources
of problems Check to see whether
quality characteristics
are being maintained
(daily inspections)

Remedial actions
C, control Deductive a :
|Scone | maintain rayhity
Analytical approach: characteristics;
reduce chronic prevent sporadic
defects Maintain zero defects defects

Figure 3-19. Analytical and Deductive Approaches

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Autonomous Maintenance

Ideally, whoever operates equipment should maintain it,

and originally, these two functions were combined. Gradually,
however, the maintenance and production functions were sepa-
rated as equipment became more sophisticated, as businesses
grew larger, and as American-style PM was widely adopted.
During Japan’s postwar period of rapid industrial growth, most
equipment was replaced by newer, unfamiliar equipment.
Responding to demands for increased production, production
departments concentrated on output, while maintenance de-
partments gradually assumed responsibility for almost all
maintenance functions. The resulting bipolar specialization
continues today.
During the present low-growth era, however, companies are
increasingly under pressure to boost competitiveness and reduce
costs. Today, many managers are keenly aware that a decisive
factor in increasing competitiveness is more efficient equipment
utilization.
Maintenance performed by equipment operators, or auton-
omous maintenance, can contribute significantly to equipment
effectiveness. At the heart of autonomous maintenance is deterio-
ration prevention, which has been neglected in most factories until

165
166 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

recently. Considering the importance of this activity in manufac-

turing today, it is surprising that autonomous maintenance was
not promoted earlier.

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE ARE INSEPARABLE

Efficient production depends on both production and

maintenance activities, but the relationship between operators
and maintenance personnel is often somewhat adversarial. No
matter how hard maintenance personnel work, they can make
little progress in maintenance and equipment improvement as
long as the operator’s attitude toward maintenance is “I operate
— you fix.”
If, on the other hand, operators can participate in the mainte-
nance function by becoming responsible for the prevention of
deterioration, maintenance targets are more likely to be
achieved. This cooperative effort allows maintenance personnel
to focus their energies on tasks requiring their own technical exper-
tise; it represents the first step toward more efficient maintenance.
The two departments must do more than share the responsi-
bility for equipment — they must work together in the spirit of
cooperation. Maintenance cannot simply wait passively for orders
from the production department. Nor can production expect
miracles, when maintenance is overwhelmed with work orders.
Operators are responsible for production, and it is only human
for them to become impatient if repairs are not done right away.
There is no way maintenance targets will be achieved, however,
if the two groups fail to understand each other’s situation or, in
extreme cases, if they are at odds with one another.

CLASSIFICATION AND ALLOCATION

OF MAINTENANCE TASKS

This section classifies maintenance activities and allocates

tasks in the autonomous maintenance program (Figure 4-1; see
pp. 168-169).
 Autonomous Maintenance 167
ee

Two types of activities are required to increase equipment

effectiveness:
1. Maintenance activities prevent breakdowns and repair ailing
equipment. They occur in a cycle consisting of normal
operation combined with preventive maintenance (i.e.,
daily, periodic, and predictive maintenance) and correc-
tive maintenance.
2. Improvement activities extend equipment life, reduce
the time required to perform maintenance, and make
maintenance unnecessary. Reliability and maintainability
improvement, maintenance prevention, and mainte-
nance-free design are all maintenance improvement
activities.
Maintenance and improvement activities must be carried
out simultaneously in three areas of deterioration: prevention,
measurement, and restoration. Maintenance goals cannot be
achieved if any one of these areas is neglected; the methods used
and the priority, however, may differ from department to depart-
ment or factory to factory.
Although deterioration prevention is the most basic mainte-
nance activity, it is often neglected in favor of periodic inspection
and precision tests. If efficient maintenance is the goal, however,
this practice is rather like putting the cart before the horse.

Program for the Production Department

The production department must carry out the following

three deterioration-prevention activities:
1. Deterioration prevention:
・ Operate equipment correctly.
・ Maintain basic equipment conditions (cleaning, lubri-
cation, bolting).
¢ Make adequate adjustments (mainly during operation
and setup).
¢ Record data on breakdowns and other malfunctions.
* Collaborate with maintenance department to study and
implement improvements.
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170 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

2. Deterioration measurement (using the five senses):

・ Conduct daily inspections.
・ Conduct certain periodic inspections.
3. Equipment restoration:
¢ Make minor repairs (simple parts replacement and
temporary repairs).
¢ Report promptly and accurately on breakdowns and
other malfunctions.
・ Assist in repairing sporadic breakdowns.
These activities, particularly maintaining basic equipment
conditions (cleaning, lubrication, bolting) and daily inspection,
help prevent deterioration but cannot be addressed adequately
by the maintenance staff alone. They are most effectively handled
by those closest to the equipment — the operators.

Program for the Maintenance Department

The maintenance department performs periodic mainte-

nance, predictive maintenance, maintainability improvement, and
other activities involving deterioration measurement and equip-
ment restoration. Maintenance specialists should be concentrating
their efforts on work requiring a high level of technical skill.

Improve Maintainability

An important but often neglected focus for maintenance

departments is improving maintainability. Production depart-
ments typically fight to cut seconds from working times; by com-
parison, the attitude and activities of maintenance departments
toward improving maintenance efficiency are poor. Correcting
this situation should be a top priority for maintenance depart-
ment managers.

Guide and Assist Operators with Autonomous Maintenance

Autonomous maintenance can only become established

with the proper guidance and assistance from the maintenance
 Autonomous Maintenance 171

department. Maintenance departments often overlook the need

to instruct operators in the maintenance procedures they are
asked to carry out. For example, they may request daily inspec-
tions and prepare and enforce inspection standards without
teaching inspection methods, set standard lubrication proce-
dures that take 30 minutes when only 10 minutes are available at
startup, or require inspection and lubrication without helping to
develop easier ways of doing them.
When autonomous maintenance is not progressing, main-
tenance personnel should consider whether they have given
adequate guidance and instruction in turning over maintenance
responsibilities to operators.

Other Activities

Other important activities for the maintenance department

include
* research and development of maintenance technology
* setting maintenance standards
* keeping maintenance records
* evaluating results of maintenance work
* cooperating with engineering and equipment design
departments

ESTABLISHING BASIC EQUIPMENT CONDITIONS

Establishing basic equipment conditions is an important ac-

tivity in autonomous maintenance. This activity includes cleaning,
lubrication, and bolting.

Cleaning and Cleanliness

As the word implies, cleaning means removing dirt, stains,

dust, chips, and other foreign matter adhering to machines, dies,
jigs, tools, raw material, workpieces, and so on. During this ac-
tivity operators also look for hidden defects in their equipment
and take action to treat them.
1 の42 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Harmful Effects of Inadequate Cleaning

The harmful effects of inadequate cleaning are too numerous

to list here. Typically, however, they appear directly or indirectly
in the following ways:
¢ Foreign particles enter sliding machine parts, hydraulic
systems, or electrical systems, producing frictional resis-
tance, wear, clogging, leakages, and electrical faults. This
causes losses in precision, equipment malfunctions, and
breakdowns.
In certain types of automatic equipment, the presence of
particles or dirt on the supply chutes or workpieces ad-
versely affects the flow of work, causing malfunctions,
idling, or minor stoppages.
Often product quality is affected directly. For example, in
plastic extrusion molding machines, foreign matter adher-
ing to the dies or other attachments or contaminating the
plastic pellets (feed material) causes carbonizing inside
the cylinder or other attachments or causes resin to leak
from the die-mounting face. This interferes with the proper
resin flow, makes die changeovers difficult, or causes the
resin to burn and stick.
In the assembly of relays and other electrical control parts,
dirt and dust on jigs and tools adhering to contacts causes
lethal electrical faults.
・ In precision machining, dirt adhering to jigs, tools, and their
mountings slows down centering operations and causes ec-
centricity during machining, producing defective products.
In electroplating, contaminated workpieces or dirt or
foreign particles in the electrolyte can produce defects in
the plating.
Defects in dirty equipment are hidden for both physical and
psychological reasons. For example, wear, play, scratches, defor-
mation, leaks, and other equipment defects may be concealed on
dirty equipment. Moreover, operators may have some psycho-
logical resistance to inspecting dirty equipment carefully.
 Autonomous Maintenance 173

Cleaning Is Inspecting

Cleaning is not simply making the equipment look clean,

although it has that effect. Cleaning also means touching and
looking at every part of the equipment to detect hidden defects
and abnormalities such as excess vibration, heat, and noise. In
other words, cleaning is inspecting. In fact, if cleaning is not done
in this way it loses its meaning.
When operators thoroughly clean a machine left to run
by itself for a long time, they may find as many as 200 to 300 de-
fects, occasionally including serious defects presaging serious
breakdown.
Dirt, dust, play, abrasion, surface damage, looseness, defor-
mation, and leaks in machinery, dies, jigs, and tools combine
synergistically to cause deterioration and running problems.
Cleaning is the most effective method of detecting such faults
and preventing trouble. Checkpoints for cleaning are listed in
Table 4-1.

Activities That Encourage Equipment Cleaning

Operators engage in three types of activity that promote

cleaner equipment: they gain greater awareness and respect for
their equipment by giving it an initial thorough cleaning; they
eliminate the sources of dirt and contamination and make equip-
ment easier to clean; and they develop their own cleaning and
lubrication standards.

Start with Initial Cleaning

Cleaning equipment and touching every part of it can be a

new experience for the operator. The activity yields many dis-
coveries and questions. Although operators may do the work
grudgingly at first, subsequent TPM group meetings and the
cleaning itself will naturally encourage them to keep equipment
clean, if only because they worked so hard to get it that way.
Many questions will surface:
174 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

What kinds of malfunctions (quality or equipment) will

occur if this part is dirty or dusty?
What causes this contamination? How can it be prevented?
Isnt there an easier way to clean this?
Are there any loose bolts, worn parts, or other defects?
How does this part function?
If this part broke, would it take a long time to repair?
TPM operator groups follow up these questions as they arise
and every member takes part in addressing them. This kind of
group problem-solving helps foster the growth of autonomous
maintenance.

1. Cleaning Main . Check for dirt, dust, oily sludge, scraps, and other foreign matter
Body of adhering to equipment
Equipment * Sliding parts, parts contacting workpiece, positioning parts, etc.
・ Frames, beds, conveyors, transfer lines, chutes, etc.
・ Gauges, jigs, dies, and other assembled parts of equipment
. Check for loose or missing nuts, bolts, etc.
. Check for play in sliding parts, jig fittings, etc.

. Cleaning . Check for dirt, dust, grease, scraps, and other foreign matter
Ancillary adhering to equipment
Equipment ・ 10 Air cylinders, solenoid valves, 3-unit FRLs
・ Microswitches, limit switches, proximity switches, photoelectric
tubes
・ Motors, belts, covers, and their surroundings
・ Surfaces of instruments, switches, control boxes, etc.
. Check for loose or missing nuts, bolts, etc.
. Check for buzzing in solenoid valves and motors

. Lubrication . Check for dirt, dust, and sludge on lubricators, grease cups,
lubricating devices, etc.
. Check lubricant levels and drip feed
. Cap all lubricating points
. Make sure lube pipes are clean and leak-free

. Cleaning . Make sure tools are in their assigned places and that none are
around equipment missing or damaged
. Check for bolts, nuts, etc., left on the machine
. Check all labels, nameplates, etc., for cleanliness and legibility
. Check all transparent covers, windows, and view plates for dirt, dust,
and misting-up
. Make sure all piping is clean and leak-free
Check surroundings for dirt and dust and for dust fallen from top
of equipment
. Check for dropped parts, workpieces, etc.
. Check for defective workpieces left lying around
i. Clearly separate conforming products, defective products, and scrap

Table 4-1. Cleaning Check Points Ss

 Autonomous Maintenance 175

5. Treat causes of . Are the causes of dirt, dust, oil leaks, etc., clearly shown on
dirt, dust, oil a chart?
leaks, etc. . IS action being taken to prevent the generation of dirt and dust?
. ls action being taken to prevent oil leaks and other types of leaks?
. Are there plans to deal with longstanding problems?
. Have any causes been overlooked?

. Improving . Are inaccessible areas clearly shown on a chart?

access to hard- . Are there any special cleaning tools or other signs of ingenuity
to-reach areas and effort?
. Have covers been made easier to remove to facilitate cleaning?
. Are there plans to deal with longstanding problems?
. Have any inaccessible areas been overlooked?
. Is everything kept tidy and in good order to facilitate cleaning?

. Cleaning .
Are there separate standards for each piece of equipment or area?
Standards .
Have cleaning duties been clearly assigned?
.
Are the types of cleaning and areas to be cleaned classified?
.
Have cleaning methods and tools been specified?
.
Have cleaning times and intervals been specified?
Are the standards clear and easily understood by everyone?
. Are the cleaning times appropriate?
. Can the cleaning be completed within the times specified?
Are all important cleaning items included?
ls too much time specified for cleaning less important areas?
の . Are inspection points that can be covered during cleaning clearly
ゴロ
"デー
Or
described?

Table 4-1. Cleaning Check Points

Base training on operators’ questions. Authoritarian-style

training divorced from the operators’ activities has little effect.
Discovery-based training is more effective. It answers questions
that surface naturally when operators clean their equipment and
links the answers to the next stage of action.
Emphasize important objectives of cleaning. In promoting
equipment cleaning, supervisors and group leaders should em-
phasize the following points:
・the importance of basic equipment conditions (require-
ments) and how to achieve them (e.g., cleaning, lubrica-
tion, and bolting)
* major cleaning checkpoints
¢ the meaning of the phrase “cleaning is inspection”
176 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Prevent Contamination and Make Cleaning Easier to Perform

The more effort operators initially put into cleaning equip-
ment, the more they want to maintain its hard-won cleanliness.
At the same time, operators begin to feel a desire for improve-
ment. For example, they may say:

« “No matter how many times I clean this part, it becomes

dirty again quickly — what can I do to prevent that?” Or,
“I can't bear to spend this much time on cleaning and
lubricating — something must be done about it!”
* “The problems I managed to find and correct will crop up
again if we just leave them like that. We ought to be doing
regular inspections.”
・“Tve finished the cleaning for the moment, but Ineed help
to cut down the number of breakdowns and faults.”
Supervisors and group leaders can make good use of oper-
ators’ ideas and eagerness to improve equipment. Actively en-
courage operators to propose practical ways of improving the
equipment and to learn particular improvement methods. Their
involvement will increase the satisfaction they feel when im-
provements are successful and build their confidence to go on to
the next step.
Eliminate sources of contamination. After the initial
thorough cleaning, sources of dirt, dust, and foreign matter, and
their effects on equipment and product quality are easy to see.
Their harmful effects have already been mentioned; eliminating
their sources is a prerequisite for shortening cleaning times and
preventing future problems.
There are various sources of contamination, such as chips,
filings, dust, flashes, scale generated in processing, foreign par-
ticles contained in delivered materials, oil, water, and dust gen-
erated by equipment, or dirt and dust coming in from outside.
Taking action against these contaminants means suppressing
their sources, preventing dust and dirt from spreading, and pre-
venting their infiltration into machinery with the use of covers
and sealings, and so on.
 Autonomous Maintenance 177

Improve access to all areas to be cleaned. Inaccessible

areas are time-consuming to clean or lubricate. If sources of con-
tamination cannot be completely suppressed, improve cleaning
methods so that cleaning takes as little time as possible.
Improve methods. Often after identifying all the points
needing lubrication, operators discover that they don’t have
enough time to lubricate them all. They must find ways to over-
come this obstacle. Many inspection standards prepared by the
engineering staff disregard actual shop-floor conditions; operators
must propose improvements based on the reality of the shop floor.
To deal with these and other related problems, promote the
attitude that the shop floor is responsible for its own improve-
ments. The engineering staff should then assist by answering
questions raised at the shop-floor level. This approach to improve-
ment generally turns out to be the quickest and most practical.
Think through and evaluate improvement plans. Some-
times costly plans are proposed that eliminate only a few min-
utes from cleaning time because of the difficulty of the cleaning
operation. This approach to improvement is not cost-effective
and ought to be discouraged.
Check results. Remember that even if their object is to reduce
cleaning times, these types of improvements may also affect
product quality, breakdown frequencies, setup, maintainability,
and other factors. Study the ideas suggested by TPM autonomous
maintenance groups from this perspective and expose their hid-
den, unexpectedly beneficial effects on these factors.
For example, a rubber-curing press (consisting of eight indi-
vidual presses in a single frame) was wasting hydraulic fluid at
rates of 300 to 500 liters per month, although there were no leaks
from the piping, rams, valves, and so on.
Thorough initial cleaning revealed cracks in the fillet weld-
zone at the bottom of the cylinders. Dismantling and repairing
these cracks reduced the amount of hydraulic fluid consumed
(Figure 4-2).
In another case, workpieces were falling off a production
line (cure-molding, painting, and assembly), mainly while being
conveyed between processes. Naturally, it took time to sweep
178 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Hydraulic Fluid Consumption

(liters per month)
jammed by
press
rubber scrap
cylinder —

‘foundation —crack in
the bottom 78/12. 44-2 CUAL AR Oee

crack

Figure 4-2. Eliminating the Source of Hydraulic Fluid Leaks in Line Press

the workpieces up, and they had to be discarded as defective.

Along with actions against breakdowns, the autonomous main-
tenance group chose to look for ways of preventing this problem
as the theme of their step 2 improvement activities. Their success
is documented in Figure 4-3.

Pcs./day

300
Workpieces damaged
in breakdowns

200

100 Dropped workpieces

e-_

'78 (1st V2) 10 11 12 7971 2

Figure 4-3. Preventing Dropped Workpieces

 Autonomous Maintenance 179

Prepare Cleaning and Lubrication Standards

Using the experience gained through cleaning and prevent-

ing contamination, operators identify the optimal conditions
(cleaning, lubricating, bolting) for their equipment. The autono-
mous maintenance group must then set the operating standards
required to maintain these conditions.
Shop-floor supervisors, attempting to promote the ideas of
cleaning, lubrication, tidiness, and organization throughout the
workplace, invariably come back half-despairing, with ques-
tions like this one: “I've tried any number of times to make
operators follow the standards, but they won't. If there’s a good
method of making them do it, I want to know it.”

Why operators don’t follow standards. These supervisors

have not really understood why operators fail to adhere to the
standards. The biggest obstacle to adherence occurs when those
who set standards are not the same people who must follow
them. This promotes the attitude that “I (supervisors or en-
gineering staff) set the standards and you (operators) obey
them.” When supervisors see standards as rules that must be
obeyed, they typically overlook the need to explain why they are
necessary, or how to follow them properly or to provide enough
time. Rather than trying to force operators to follow standards,
supervisors should support their effort in the following ways:
・ Clarify the standards and how to follow them.
¢ Explain clearly why standards should be followed, that is,
what will happen if they are not followed.
* Make sure operators have the necessary skills to follow
the standards.
・ Provide the necessary environment by making certain
there is sufficient time, for example.
In other words, if the motivation, ability, and opportunity
are not present, standards cannot be obeyed no matter how hard
the supervisor tries to enforce them. Most activities related to
autonomous maintenance depend on the skills and motivation
180 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

of the operators actually performing them. Most supervisors will

experience the anxiety of knowing what ought to be done but
not communicating it adequately to the operators.
Self-set standards are best. The best way to ensure adher-
ence to standards is to have them set by those who must follow
them. Indeed, this is the first step in establishing autonomous
control. The following actions are required:
¢ Clearly explain the importance of following the standard.
・ Teach the skills needed for setting standards.
・Ask operators to develop and set the standards.
Operators who have been involved in initial cleaning and
subsequent improvement activities will want to maintain the
conditions they have established — otherwise, all their efforts
will go to waste. Operators are more likely than anyone else to
feel this need keenly. They should be taught the basic significance
of standards through examples and given a method for defining
standards by using the 5W’s and 1H: who, what, when, where,
why, and how. Thereafter, the operators can set standards based
on their own experience in group meetings. Standards set in this
way are certain to be obeyed.
Preparing standards enhances role-awareness. As auton-
omous-maintenance group members prepare their own standards,
they define their own roles and make commitments to fulfill
them. This is a significant developmental step. Through this
process, group members begin to understand the real meaning
of teamwork.
Set time targets for cleaning and lubrication and accumu-
Jating improvements. Only limited amounts of time can be
spent on cleaning (including bolting and detecting minor equip-
ment defects) and lubrication. Groups must prepare standards
and individual time targets based on the limits established by
management. For example, typical targets might be set at 10
minutes daily (or per shift), 30 minutes at the end of each week,
and one hour at the end of each month.
 Autonomous Maintenance 181

If the group develops standards that cannot be completed

within the targeted times, they must look for ways to reduce the
times. Obviously, managers and engineering staff must cooper-
ate wholeheartedly to simplify and improve cleaning, lubrication,
and bolting procedures through measures such as centralized
lubrication, extended lubrication intervals, relocating lubrica-
tors, improved lubrication instruction labels, limit marks on oil-
level gauges, matching marks on bolts and nuts, use of locknuts,
and various actions against contamination sources.
Example of cleaning and lubrication standards. In prepar-
ing standards, be sure to clarify the answers to the 5W’s and 1H
(although they need not all appear on the written standards) and
keep in mind the concept of cleaning as inspection (Figure 4-4).

Promoting Lubrication

Ensuring proper lubrication is the second way operators can

help establish basic equipment conditions. Lubrication prevents
equipment deterioration and preserves its reliability. Like other
hidden defects, inadequate lubrication is often neglected, be-
cause it is not always directly connected with breakdowns and
quality defects.

Inadequate Lubrication Causes Losses

Losses caused by inadequate lubrication naturally include

those resulting from seizures, but insufficient lubrication also
leads to indirect losses such as reduced operating accuracy in
sliding parts, pneumatic systems, and so on, and to accelerated
wear, which hastens deterioration, produces more defects, and
increases setup and adjustment times. These indirect losses can
often be more significant than seizures. For example, one company
found that the application of thorough lubrication control methods
reduced its electricity consumption by 5 percent. Furthermore,
the equipment overloading and loss in actuating accuracy pro-
duced by insufficient lubrication can readily be imagined.
182 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Expiration date: 12/81

Cleaning and lubricating
standards for 3-S/RL

Friction gear :
Cleaning areas

ご Oil level
2 Around main frame

NN ery Main body and surroundings

J2 [owes |
4 Oil supply pump and
distribution valves

回 Inside rollerpit

Cleaning check points

Large gearwheel

Automatic oil supply pump

(for drive shaft and metal
parts of rollers)

Lubrication checkpoints

Figure 4-4. Cleaning and Lubrication Standards (Tokai Rubber Industries)

 Autonomous Maintenance 183

Plant manager:
Cleaning and lubricating Section chief:
standards for 3-S/RL PM engineer: Raw materials
Foreman:
plant

; Cleaning Cleaning Cleaning の © 回 2. 5 a ご o る

©< Led

No rubber scrap Remove with steel :

に ml
ap with broom

SiGo ee
1. Tighten the automatic supply pump ring joint bolts
2. Tighten oil supply valve and check for leaks
3. Tighten the stock guide fixing bolts
ees as ae Lubrication cycl @
ae Lubrication Lubrication Lubrication
Lubrication standards methods tools time
Oil level must be between
upper and lower limit
(#220)

Oil level half-way up

gear teeth (#32)

Drip in through oil

Gearwheel well-lubricated supply port with
(open gearwheel)

te oil (as measured

eprint (R50)

1. Secure large gearwheel cover (no rattling)

2. Secure attachment bolts for automatic oil supply pump

3. Check 3-unit FRL and drip rate

184 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Reasons for Inadequate Lubrication

The following are the most common reasons for lack of proper
lubrication, apart from inadequate cleaning:
* Those performing lubrication have not been taught its
basic principles or importance or shown concrete evidence
of the losses caused by inadequate lubrication.
¢ Lubrication standards (lubrication points, types and
quantities of lubricants, lubrication intervals and tools)
are incomplete or not well taught.
¢ There are too many different types of lubricants or lubri-
cating points.
・ Not enough time is allowed for lubrication.
¢ Many lubrication points are inaccessible, so lubrication
takes too much time.

Improving Lubrication

At one factory the maintenance manager prepared lubrica-

tion standards that actually took 30 minutes for the operator on
the morning shift to perform, when only 10 minutes had been al-
lowed. Obviously, anyone who prepares standards should test
the procedure personally before giving it to the operators to
make sure it can be completed in the specified time. To reduce
the time, it may be necessary to make various improvements,
such as changing the location of lubricators, setting up a cen-
tralized lubricating system, attaching instruction labels, and
making oil levels clearly visible.
On the other hand, lubrication will serve no purpose if lubri-
cation devices are not working or are not in good repair. A walk
around a factory floor will reveal many dirty or sludgy oil reser-
voirs, lubricators or grease nipples, or clogged pipes in centralized
lubricating systems. If this is the case, lubrication will be useless
no matter how often it is done. Checkpoints for lubrication are
shown in Table 4-2.
 Autonomous Maintenance 185

. Are lubricant containers always capped?

. Are lubricant stores tidy, clean, and in good order?
. Are required lubricants always kept in stock?
. Is all equipment labeled with lubrication instructions? Are the instructions
legible?
. Are lubricators clean inside and out and working correctly? Are oil levels always
clearly visible?
. Are all centralized lubricating systems working properly?
. Do the reservoirs contain grease or oil, and is the system normal?
. Are all grease and oil cups working properly?
. After lubrication, is lubricant emerging normally from between revolving parts?
. ls there always an oil film on revolving parts, sliding parts, and driving gears
(chains, etc.); is equipment free of excess lubricant?
. Do lubrication standards specify appropriate types and quantities of lubricants
and intervals and allocation of lubrication work?

Table 4-2. Lubrication Checklist

Promoting Proper Bolting

Operators are in the best position to ensure daily that all

fasteners are properly tightened. Proper bolting is the third way
in which operators help establish basic equipment conditions.

Losses Caused by Improper Bolting

Loose or missing nuts, bolts, and other fastenings can cause

major losses, either directly or indirectly. For example:
・ Loose bolts cause fractures of dies, jigs, and tools and the
production of defective products.
* Loose bolts on limit switches, dogs, and the like, and
loose terminals in distribution panels and control panels
cause damage and malfunctioning.
¢ Loose bolts in pipe flanges cause leakage.
Typically, even a single loose bolt can be the direct cause of a
defect or breakdown. In most cases, however, a loose bolt causes
increased vibration, producing further loosening of bolts. Vibra-
186 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

tion feeds on vibration, play feeds on play. Deterioration spreads,

actuating accuracy drops, and eventually parts are damaged.
One company closely scrutinized the causes of breakdowns
and found.that 60 percent could be traced to faulty bolts and
nuts. In another case, an inspection of all bolts and nuts revealed
that out of 2,273 sets, 1,091 — an amazing 48 percent — were
loose, missing, or otherwise defective.
Problems also occur frequently when dies, jigs, and tools
are fastened during setup. Operators often ignore the correct
torque and bolting order. Trouble results when bolts are over-
tightened and when attachments are installed with immoderate
force or tightened unevenly.

Assuring Proper Bolting

To eliminate loose bolts, eliminate vibration and use lock-

nuts or other locking devices. In addition, place match marks on
major bolts and nuts to help make loose bolts easy to spot during
cleaning, and conduct inspections using test hammers.
Table 4-3 lists the checkpoints for bolts and nuts, and Figure
4-5 illustrates how to check looseness using match marks.

GENERAL INSPECTION

In an autonomous maintenance program operators are

trained to conduct routine inspections. They are expected to be
able to identify the often subtle evidences of deterioration.

Why Inspections Fail

Many companies ask their operators to conduct some form

of inspection, but they fail to produce significant results for three
familiar reasons:
・ Inspection is demanded but workers are not encouraged
to prevent equipment deterioration (lack of motivation
through lack of direction).
 Autonomous Maintenance 187

・ Inspection is demanded but insufficient time is allowed

for it (lack of opportunity).
* Inspection is demanded but the necessary skills are not
taught (lack of ability).

. Loose bolts No looseness

and nuts

. Proper installation Bolts with nuts in all bolt-holes; no missing nuts

of bolts and nuts

. Use of flat washers Flat washers used in all slots (limit switch (LS) base plates, etc.)
in slots

. Use of spring No haphazard use of spring washers in similar locations

washers

. Loose nuts No looseness in top and bottom nuts of jack bolts holding frames
used with level- in position
adjusting bolts

. Installation of Where possible, bolts inserted from below with nut on top (as a rule, nuts
bolts and nuts to be in the most visible place)

8. Installation of LS LS base plates to be fixed with at least 2 bolts

oe leeeeeere
base’plates

Action
In principle, TPM groups should handle defects that do not require machining
(submit work orders to the maintenance department for removal of broken-off
studs, screw-tapping, etc.)
・ Mark faulty bolts and nuts and repair them right away if possible
+ Identify those that might require equipment to be stopped, (e.g., cannot be re-
paired while equipment is running or unsafe to handle). Decide how to deal
with these after discussing with supervisor
* Identify items the group cannot handle. Submit work orders for these as part of
improvement list
x Check marks: if OK, mark in white. Mark loose bolts and nuts or places lacking
bolts and nuts in yellow

Table 4-3. Checklist for Bolts and Nuts

188 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

(1) (2)
matchmarks matchmarks
not aligned

(not loose) (loose)

Figure 4-5. Checking for Looseness with Matchmarks

Inspection Functions Are Not Well-Defined

Problems with inspection are inevitable when maintenance

engineers prepare inspection checksheets and simply hand
them to the operators. The engineers invariably want too many
items inspected and tend to consider their job finished when
they have prepared the checksheets. They do not indicate which
items are most important to check and how much time is needed;
nor do they consider that inspection procedures might be stream-
lined or that operators may need to be taught certain skills in
order to perform them.

Operators Need Inspection Skills

Asking operators to perform inspections for which they do

not have the necessary skills is probably the biggest problem.
Typically, operators are asked to perform visual inspections, but
these are often quite difficult because deterioration cannot be
identified or measured visually in many cases. Operators need
considerable training before they can perform inspections prop-
erly; simply handing them a checksheet does not enable them to
do the job.
Even trained operators should not rely exclusively on
checksheets to perform inspections. Their most important function
is to make judgments based on their knowledge of the ongoing
condition of their equipment and to identify malfunctions dur-
ing cleaning and lubricating. Line managers and engineering
staff must realize that checksheets cover only a small portion of
the operators’ work. (For example, it is impossible to make a
checksheet listing every single nut and bolt to be inspected!)
 Autonomous Maintenance 189

The first requirement for autonomous general inspection is

operators who are knowledgeable and confident about their
equipment. Once operators have had instruction in inspection
skills and practice in conducting general inspections, they can
prepare checksheets that meet their own requirements.
Determining inspection intervals and times is also critical,
since the work must be done while equipment is operating.

Inspection Intervals

Suitable inspection intervals for autonomous maintenance

can be daily, every ten days (or bi-weekly), monthly, and every
three months. Very little time can be spared for daily inspection
on the production line because considerable time is already
spent daily preparing for startup, clearing up after shutting
down, as well as in cleaning and lubrication. Thus, daily inspec-
tions should focus only on equipment deterioration directly
affecting safety and product quality.

Keep Daily Inspections Simple

Many factories ask their operators to follow a very detailed

inspection procedure (i.e., checklists with many items). Often,
however, many of the items listed need not be checked every day.
In addition, insufficient time is allowed. This only antagonizes
operators and renders the checklists meaningless.
Limit daily inspections to the few items necessary to prevent
serious safety and quality problems and let operators practice
them thoroughly until they become part of each individual’s
routine. Avoid putting the items on a checklist 一 if they must be
listed, there are probably too many.

Allow Adequate Time for General Inspection

General inspection is far too important to be carried out

hastily and haphazardly in daily procedures loaded with inessen-
tial items. Consider, instead, setting aside a block of time to devote
190 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

full attention to it, even if the interval between inspections must

be extended. (For example, set aside an extra fifty minutes every
ten days in place of five minutes a day.)
In an extended block of time, operators are sure to perform
all the required checks thoroughly and reliably, with time to
spare. Moreover, as they practice this activity, operators gradu-
ally develop the ability to read the condition of their equipment
during operation and to detect signs of trouble while cleaning or
lubricating — even without setting aside special time.

Establish Realistic Inspection Intervals

The interval for each inspection item can be determined

only through experience. Taking into consideration the time re-
strictions, the responsible production and maintenance staff
should agree on a suitable time based on their own experience
and on the likelihood and possible consequences of equipment
breakdown. Of course, inspection intervals are subject to modifi-
cation in light of the subsequent inspection record. Figure 4-6 is
an example of inspection intervals at company C.

Inspection Times

Whether to inspect and how much time can be spent on

each inspection item depends on the equipment and its environ-
ment as well as on the inspection interval. This question is af-
fected by factors such as whether the operator merely supervises
the equipment or is continually working on it (the degree of auto-
mation), whether the equipment is critical to the speed of the
production line, whether most of the inspection can be per-
formed while the equipment is running, and so on.
In most cases, inspections are limited by the amount of time ©
that can be spared, so it is best to start by considering the factors
mentioned above and work out temporary time targets as a guide-
line. Determine inspection items and intervals in advance and
prepare checksheets for each interval. Carry out inspections fol-
lowing these checksheets and record the differences between the
 Autonomous Maintenance 191

General Inspection Training Topics mepecion se np Ae geBOR

Pneumatics 1 Piping, 一 FRL (filter, Daily Lubrication, drain plugs,

regulator, lubricator) temperature, quantity,
pressure of hydraulic fluid
Pneumatics 2 Pneumatic cylinders and
valves /

1
Lubrication Types and functions of | Every 10 days Hydraulic and pneumatic
lubricants cylinders and valves, limit
Switches, proximity
Switches
Basicoperation | Correcttightening of bolts
and nuts
/
Monthly Driving gears, sliding
Electrical Limit switches, proximity iN parts
switches

Drive systems Motors, transmissions,

reduction gears,
sree chains, pulleys, Every 3months Hydraulic valves

Hydraulics Hydraulic valves,

cylinders, and fluids

Figure 4-6. Relation Between Inspection Training and Periodic Inspection Items

time targets and the times actually taken. At this point it may be
necessary to simplify inspection procedures and reduce cleaning
and lubricating times; inspection intervals and allocations will
also have to be reconsidered. Although certain inspection items
may take time at first, times will be considerably reduced as
operators become familiar with the procedures. Figure 4-7 out-
lines inspection times at company C.

Time
required

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& BIB 2B BIB

串 須 %詳: |
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10 days ニー = = = = = 15-20 min.

el ae ee eee |
Figure 4-7. Required Inspection Times
192 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Checkpoints for Daily Inspections

In determining checkpoints for daily inspections, it is conve-

nient to consider the units common to most machines. The
pneumatic, steam, hydraulic, drive, and electrical units referred
to here can be found on almost all automated equipment. Since
they break down frequently, they should be emphasized in daily
inspections. Tables 4-4 through 4-7 are checklists for pneumatic,
steam, hydraulic, drive, and electrical systems. Figure 4-8 (see
pp. 197-198) is an example of autonomous maintenance stan-
dards.

. Pneumatics . Are FRLs being used correctly?

. Are solenoid valves over-heating? Check for loose and damaged
wiring.
. lsthere slackness in air cylinders, foreign matter on cylinder rods, or
damage to cylinder rods?
. Are speed controllers correctly installed (in flow direction)?
. ls any pneumatic equipment leaking?

. Piping and . Are there any loose bolts, vibration, or bent pipes?
Equipment . Are there any steam, air, or water leaks, or leaking steam drains?
. Has any discarded piping been left in place?
. Are there any loose hose clips orjoints?

. Valves and . Are there any damaged valves, missing handwheels, stopcocks, or
Insulation loose bolts?
. Do all valves shut the flow off completely when closed?
. Do handwheels turn easily? Are they difficult to open or close?
. Are all steam and air pressure gauges clean and undamaged? Do
they have maximum and minimum marks?
. Is any piping or equipment insulation hanging loose or torn?

. Inspections and . Have efforts been made to make inspecting easier?

Inspection . Areinspection frequencies, intervals, and allocations appropriate for
Standards autonomous maintenance?
. Do the inspection standards take into account safety, breakdowns,
and product quality?

Table 4-4. Pneumatics/Steam Checklist

前Autonomous Maintenance 193

1. Hydraulic Units . Do reservoirs contain the specified quantities of hydraulic fluid?

Are maximum and minimum levels displayed?
. How hotis the fluid in the reservoirs? Can it be touched?
. Is the reservoir cooling water flowing properly?
. Are filters unclogged? Are indicators blue?
. Are pressure-gauge zero points accurate? Are needles free from
deviation? Are maximum and minimum marks displayed?
. Are there any unusual noises or smells?
g. Is there any play in devices or piping? Is there any leaking fluid?
. Are any units contaminated by water, oil, dust, or other
foreign matter?
i. Are the name plates on each device easy to read?

. Piping and . Are there any leaking joints or hoses?

High-Pressure . ls there any looseness or play in clamps?
Hoses . Are piping pits free of spilt fluid?
. Are any high-pressure hoses dirty or damaged?

. Hydraulic . ls equipment free of damage (covers, lids, etc.?)

Equipment . ls equipment securely installed, without play or looseness?
. Are pressure gauge needles correctly zeroed and free
from deviation?
. ls equipment actuating correctly? (speed, breathing, chatter)
. Are pressure gauges calibrated regularly and registered in the
instruments store?

. Are press stroke speeds the same as usual?

. Are relief valves set to the correct pressures?
. Are relief-valve spring-adjusting screw locknuts securely tightened?

. Are inspection intervals and work allocations appropriate for

autonomous maintenance?
. Dothe standards take into account safety, breakdowns, and product
quality?

Table 4-5. Hydraulics Checklist

AUTONOMOUS INSPECTION TRAINING AND EDUCATION

Educating operators about their equipment is cost-effective

but time-consuming because training must be detailed, and it
must begin with the basics (e.g., equipment functions,
mechanisms, and operating principles). Moreover, operators
should be trained on the equipment they use, which complicates
production scheduling. Many companies are discovering, how-
ever, that thorough technical training is the key to establishing
TPM and obtaining significant benefits. The training programs
described in this section reflect this understanding.
194 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

. V-Belts . Are any surfaces damaged, split, contaminated by oil, or badly worn?
. ls tension of multiple V-belts uniform?
. Are any non-standard belts in use?

. Roller Chains . ls lubricant penetrating between pins and bushes?

. Is there poor meshing because of stretched chains or worn sprockets?

. Shafts, Bearings, . Are there any overheated, vibrating, or noisy bearings due to bent
Keys and or off-center shafts, loose bolts, lack of lubrication, etc?
Couplings . ls there play in bosses due to loose keys or set screws?
. Are there any deflected flange coupling shafts or loose bolts?

. Gears, Speed . Are there any noisy, vibrating, or unusually worn gears?
Reducers, and . Are oil gauges provided with maximum and minimum marks? Are all
Brakes oil levels between the marks?
. Are brakes operating correctly?
. Are any safety covers in contact with rotating parts?

. Inspection . Are inspection frequencies, intervals, and work allocations

Standards appropriate for autonomous maintenance?
. Dothe standards take into account safety, breakdowns, and product
quality?

Table 4-6. Checklist for Drive Systems

Developing Operators Who Understand Their Equipment

Since operators use their equipment to make products, they

might be expected to be reasonably familiar with it. Managers in
many companies believe, however, that their operators merely
need to know how to fit and remove appropriate attachments
and follow instructions. At such companies, no effort is made to
develop operators’ understanding of their equipment. On the
other hand, other companies are finding that increasing operators’
knowledge and skills can transform the way a factory or shop
floor is run and produce outstanding benefits.
A knowledgeable operator does not need the repair skills of
a maintenance worker. Rather, the operator’s most important
skill is the ability to spot abnormalities. Operators must know
enough about the equipment to pinpoint small signs of trouble
whenever anything out of the ordinary occurs.
 Autonomous Maintenance 195

. Areall wiring, conduit piping, and flexible connectors securely fixed?

. Are all grounding cables securely fixed?
. ls any vinyl or rubber-sheathed cable loose on walkways or damaged?

2. Control Panels . Is there any deviation in voltmeters, ammeters, thermometers, or

other instruments?
. Are there any burnt-out bulbs in pilot lamps and display lamps?
. Are push-button switches and other types of switch firmly fixed?
. Are there any unnecessary holes? Does the door open and close
properly?
. Is the wiring inside panel boxes tidy?
. Are the interiors of panel boxes free from dust, dirt, etc.?
. Do panel boxes contain anything other than diagrams?

3. Electrical .ls any equipment damaged? Are any motors overheating?

Equipment .Are any bolts loose?
. Are there any unusual noises or smells? Are bearings well lubricated?
.Are heaters securely fixed?
.Are all grounding cables securely fixed?
. Arelimitswitches, proximity switches, and photoelectric tubes clean
and free from play in main body and fixing bolts?
. Are wires to equipment in contact with steam, oil, or water?
. ls all electrical equipment free of water, oil, dust, and other foreign
matter?

Inspection Standards Are inspection frequencies, intervals, and work allocations appropriate
for autonomous maintenance?
Do the standards take into account safety, breakdowns, and product
quality?

Table 4-7. Electrical Checklist

Operators Should Be Able to Detect Causal Abnormalities

The word abnormality in this context does not refer to abnormal

effects. If a machine breaks down and stops or produces defective
products, these are effects that every operator must be able to rec-
ognize. More difficult to recognize, however, are causal abnor-
malities — conditions that can lead to a breakdown or result in
defective products. These abnormalities manifest before break-
downs or defects occur, at points where they can be prevented. A
truly skilled operator can detect causal abnormalities and deal
with them promptly. |
Developing operators with these skills is not easy, but it is
essential as long as we need equipment to make products. Such
operators not only change the way equipment is managed, they
196 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

make possible sweeping changes in all shop-floor management

practices. The autonomous inspection skills and training dis-
cussed here should be regarded as the first step in developing
knowledgeable and skilled operators — operators who can rightly
be called “human sensors.”

Preparing for General Inspection Training

If we accept the challenge of developing operators with

these skills, we must train them well (see Figure 4-9; p. 199). An
important part of that training prepares operators to conduct
general inspection. |

Identify General Inspection Items

The curriculum to be taught will depend on what operators

need to know — for example, how to set conditions, how to set
up and operate equipment correctly, and how to conduct a thor-
ough inspection. This is determined in accordance with the design
specifications of the particular equipment and the incidence of
breakdowns, defects, and other problems. The program should
also cover (at least) the basic functional components of the equip-
ment (e.g., bolts and nuts, lubrication, pneumatics, hydraulics, .
drive system, electricity, and instrumentation).

Prepare Checksheets and Manuals

The most important training materials are the general in-

spection checksheets and manuals. First, sort out the items that
operators should inspect using the senses and incorporate them
in general inspection checksheets.
Then consider what technical information operators will
need to know to master the skills required to inspect the items.
Include this information in inspection manuals aimed at group
leaders. Be sure to provide relevant details such as the basic func-
tions, mechanisms, and components of the units to be inspected,
Te
Procedures
Autonomous Maintenance (Cleaning, Lubrication,
and Inspection) Standards Effective until: September, 1981
10. p! Vibration-Proof roof
Dept.: Rubber —— Plant 1, Group 3
Rubber Equipment: No. 61-1

a
Main body of injection molder
re aa
a ten a = ome a
hae,
ee ee ee ea
i
Cleaning
Vicinity of mold disassembler

有用
| LALA
Rubber flash and chips within limits re eae ees ee oe 5min |o |

Work area
Paintresidues not affecting product quality, rotating parts Remove paint residues, replace jigs Residue-removing jig, brush
|
eomn |
No dust and dirt
| svew | eemw ||
5mn |
Pit

Lubrication Point
Cooling water not overflowing
es |
omm |
Criteria Lubricant Type |Time |
Hydraulic unit reservoir Level within range marked
Earesozeo |uecewo | im
Injection molder sliding base Oil slick present
に bewaer |iml
FRL Level within range marked
1
ssssss 1 坪 |
1mn |
Heating plate cooling water tank
で eee |
tin. |
LubricationCentralized greasing unit
_
Hydraulic clutch screw gear
|
tin. |

i
Press block rotating parts

Cylinder temperature regulator tank

Revolving parts not dry

Level within range marked Exxon Essotherm #500

|
3mn |
Location Criteria Action |
Hydraulic Hydraulic
unit fluid level Within range marked Visual inspection

Cylinder temperature regulator pressure 1.0 — 2.0 kg/m?

7 | Hydraulic Hydraulic unit temperature 33°C — 55°C Shut down (request maintenance) 1 min
Hydraulic Hydraulic pump indicator In ‘filter clean’ position
Bolts and nuts Die assembly hook bolts No looseness Tap lightly Tighten
Lubricator oil level, air filter drainage Within range marked Visual inspection Lubricate supply and/or drainage

Mold disassembler bearing wear No damage

Fan belt
Safety door limit switch
=f:
No looseness in attachment bolts
No damage or failed bulbs

|23| Hydraulic/Pneumatic Hydraulic/pneumatic pipings No large fluid or airleaks

Table rotation safety pins Atleast three unbroken

re4-8. Autonomous Maintenance Standard (Tokai Rubber Industries)

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 Autonomous Maintenance 199

(e.g., bolts, nuts, lubrication,

Establish inspection categories air pressure, hydraulic pressure,
drive systems, electrics)
(Maintenance staff)

Prepare training materials

General inspection |
(Maintenance staff) checksheet
General inspection
Schedule | manual

Maintenance staff; workshop supervisors (Cutaway

slides, models,
charts, etc.)

Train leaders トペ
ーーーーーー-
ーーーーー
ニニ
ウー
Prepare (Maintenance staff)

Prepare group members

Train training
Group leaders; workplace supervisors

Train General inspection

group members of model equipment
Group leaders

Conduct general inspection General inspection for all equipment

Group members

Group meetings, defects list,

action plan
Defects list
Group members

ドーーー
ーー
General
Inspection Take action Deteriorating parts;
against defects inaccessible areas

Group members; maintenance

department supervisors

Establish tentative daily }

inspection standards
Group members Tentative standards |

: (Set by category)
Inspection skill checkup

Group leaders

Self-diagnosis and Skill-check chart

application for audit
Testing (to confirm competence
Group leaders 9( -

Audit
Inspection
General
Workplace supervisors; maintenance staff
Move to next inspection category
Treat problem areas indicated (approximately one month per category)

Group members;
maintenance supervisors

Figure 4-9. Procedure for Developing Inspection Training

200 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

together with the names and functions of the parts, inspection

criteria and methods, and appearance, causes, and treatment of
deterioration.
Covering these topics thoroughly will teach operators the
importance of the basic equipment conditions (cleaning, lubrica-
tion, bolting), the necessity for inspections, and the risks involved
in not inspecting. They will know what to look out for in routine
operation and how to report trouble.
Manuals alone may not communicate a full understanding
of these subjects, so make use of other training aids, such as cut-
away models, easily understood wall charts, and slides of deteri-
orated or broken parts.

Establish Training Schedules

While the training curriculum and materials are being pre-

pared, the maintenance staff must prepare training schedules in
cooperation with production department managers. The train-
ing schedule cannot be decided by the maintenance staff alone
because many factors are involved, such as determining when
trainees can spare the time, when planned overtime would be
appropriate, the availability of suitable training facilities, managing
group leaders’ work, and preparing training cost estimates and
budgets. Figure 4-10 is a sample general inspection schedule
from Chuo Spring Company.

Implementing the Training Program

Inspection training programs extend over a long period and

involve considerable expense. They must be carefully planned
and thoroughly approved by top management so they do not
come to a halt halfway through.

Education Should Be Group-Based

Inspection training is most effectively carried out using a

two-step method. Group leaders are taught first by the mainte-
nance staff. Then they take on the role of teachers, communicating
what they have learned to their group members (Figure 4-10).
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202 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

The rationale behind this group-based approach is not to

spare the maintenance staff from having to teach all the
operators directly. Rather it fosters leadership skills in group
leaders and team spirit within groups by locating the learning
process in the group environment. In educating their own group
members, leaders learn the responsibilities of leadership. Assum-
ing responsibility for group education forces leaders to take their
own skill development seriously. Group members feel their lead-
ers’ enthusiasm, sympathize with their burden of responsibility,
and make a greater effort to cooperate. The TPM groups become
even more active as a result of this teaching and learning process.

Group Leaders Must Learn How to Teach

The maintenance staff instructors must do more than ensure

that leaders understand the content of their instruction. If the
group-based educational process is to succeed, they must also
teach the leaders how to teach — how to present information
effectively, using wall charts or other visual aids to clarify impor-
tant points.

Leaders Must Prepare for Group-Based Education

The leaders must also do more than simply pass on what

they are taught. Ideally, they should plan their training sessions
by discussing important points with their own managers and
preparing training materials that are keyed to the equipment in-
stalled in their group’s work area.

Conduct Training Outside the Classroom

Group-based education should not be confined to the class-

room. Meetings should be held near equipment whenever
possible, to let group members examine their own equipment
during instruction and to let leaders answer questions using the
equipment itself.
 Autonomous Maintenance 203

Make Learning Enjoyable

Everyone learns more when the training is enjoyable. Have

group members actually dismantle simple units or ask them to
do case studies of problems actually occurring on the shop floor.
Introduce an element of friendly rivalry by dividing the mem-
bers into groups and having them compete against each other to
find equipment defects.

Conducting General Inspections

The goal of inspection education is to give operator groups

the ability to inspect and restore their equipment. The groups
use the knowledge they have gained to conduct general inspec-
tions of all their equipment. Then in their meetings they discuss
the results, deal with the malfunctions they have discovered,
and develop ways to inspect less accessible areas more easily.
Practicing this type of activity over time gradually increases
group members’ inspection skills and improves the reliability of
their equipment.
During this activity, the cooperation of the maintenance de-
partment is crucial. At this stage in the TPM development process,
operators discover a considerable amount of deterioration. More
than half of the malfunctions found will have to be restored by
the maintenance department, which will be flooded with work
requests. If the work cannot be carried out promptly, operator
groups’ morale will drop and the inspection training may fail.
The maintenance department must therefore do everything
in its power to respond to these work orders while carrying out
its standard workload.

Completing the General Inspection Step by Step

As each general inspection item is completed, groups

should consider what kind of inspection routine will be required
to maintain the improved state of the equipment and prepare
204 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

preliminary autonomous inspection standards. At the same

time, the leaders should assess group members’ inspection skills
and give further training in weak areas.
Management groups should audit the autonomous mainte-
nance program after the completion of each general inspection
item. They should assess the extent of improvement by measur-
ing the results of inspections on the shop floor, point out any
problems, and give further guidance and encouragement.

SEIRI AND SEITON —

KEYS TO WORKPLACE MANAGEMENT

Seiri (organization) and seiton (tidiness) are fundamental

principles of workplace management. They are easy to promote
but notoriously hard to put into practice. Although many com-
panies have posted these concepts in large letters on their factory
walls, most still find it hard to instill the good habits the words
imply. Doing so requires role-awareness and unrelenting im-
provement efforts based on the attitudes described below.

Seiri and Seiton = Standardization

Seiri (organization), introduced earlier in Chapters 1 and 3,

involves the identification of objectives to be managed and the
setting of relevant standards, for example, height standards for
stacking containers. One object, therefore, is to minimize the
number of items or conditions to be managed and to simplify
them as much as possible. Managers and supervisors are respon-
sible for guiding this activity.
Seiton (tidiness) refers to adherence to set standards. This is
primarily the operators’ responsibility. Since they must ensure
adherence to standards, group activity regularly focuses on im-
provements that make the standards easier to obey, typically
through the creative use of visual controls.
Seiri and seiton are thus improvement activities designed to
simplify and standardize what must be organized and controlled
 Autonomous Maintenance 205

and to find creative ways to improve adherence. In this way,

managers and workers cooperate to ensure that standardization
and visual control reach into every part of the factory.

Seiri and the Operators’ Role

In addition to maintaining basic equipment conditions and

inspecting the equipment, the operators’ role in autonomous
maintenance includes the following:
* correct operation and setup/adjustment (setting opera-
tion conditions and checking product quality)
* rapid detection and prompt, reliable treatment and report-
ing of abnormal conditions (breakdowns, quality defects,
safety, etc.)
recording data on operation, quality, and processing
conditions
・ minor servicing of machines, dies, jigs, and tools
control of any other items required to reliably accomplish
the above
To improve the standardization process, managers and super-
visors must take into account current losses due to breakdowns,
defective products, and so on, and take the lead in answering the
following questions:
・ What are operators required to do?
・ Are operators performing well in all areas?
¢ If they are not performing well, what are the reasons?
・ What standards must be set?
・ What skills do operators lack?
・ What can be done to increase operators’ skills?

Organization and Management of Materials and Tools

In addition to machinery, a factory must manage large

numbers of dies, jigs, tools, work-in-process, finished products,
defective products, measuring instruments, material-handling
equipment, auxiliary apparatus, ancillary materials, and so on.
206 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

To eliminate losses and to detect and deal with abnormalities

rapidly, all these items must be organized and maintained opH-
mally in terms of both quality and quantity.
Ideally, everything we need should be where we want it,
when we want it, at precisely the time we want it, in exactly the
right quantity, and fully equipped with the required functions.
To achieve this the following conditions must be fulfilled:
・ Decisions have been made as to what will be used, when it
will be used, who will use it, and how much will be used.
・ Both quality (can it perform the required functions well?)
and quantity have been checked.
Items have been assigned locations and quantity levels
that can be seen at a glance; they are available when needed
without searching.
Locations and methods of storage have been selected
according to frequency of use, so that items occupy the
minimum space and can easily be removed and trans-
ported to where they are needed.
Appropriate individuals have been put in charge of
routine control, and methods of supply and disposal have
been established.
Table 4-8 is an example of a workplace management (seiri
and seiton) program.

ASSURING CORRECT OPERATION

Operators must operate equipment correctly, and most

companies have “work procedures,” “operating standards,”
or other similar manuals that specify operating methods. Seri-
ously asking the question, “What is correct operation?” will
usually expose a variety of problems, however.
Progress in hydraulics, pneumatics, microelectronics, and
instrumentation has made equipment more sophisticated and
complex. Some equipment has become more difficult to operat
e
and some has become more simple. In either case,
the damage
caused by misoperation has become immeasurably greater than
 Autonomous Maintenance 207

SS eee

Operator's Organize standards for operator responsibilities; adhere to

responsibility them faithfully (including data recording)

Promote organized and tidy operations as well as visual

control of work-in-process, products, defects, waste, and
consumables (such as paint)

Keep dies, jigs, and tools organized and easy to find through
Dies, jigs and tools
visual control; establish standards for precision and repair

Gauges and Inventory gauges and defect prevention devices and make sure
defect prevention they function properly; conduct general inspection and correct
devices deterioration; set standards for inspection

Equipment Operators must check precision of equipment (as it influences

precision quality) and standardize procedures

Operation and Establish and monitor operation, setup/adjustment, and

treatment of processing conditions; standardize quality checks; improve
abnormalities problem-solving skills

Table 4-8. Sample Workplace Organization and Housekeeping Program

it was when machine mechanisms were simple. Thus we must

teach operators why equipment must be operated in the specified
way, by explaining the equipments construction, mechanism,
and functions, and the principles behind the processing of a
product or the chemical changes it undergoes. We must also train
operators to operate their equipment efficiently and correctly in
any situation.
Unfortunately, this instruction is often inadequate, and
many operators do not understand their equipment well enough
to avoid causing equipment failures and accidents.
Table 4-9 lists the autonomous-maintenance checkpoints
concerned with correct operation.
208
a cag nar
TPM 8DEVELOPME
eae
NT PROGRAM
a ee

1. Machine Operation . Are operating procedures and pre- and post-operations set down?
Are they taught and observed?
・ Startup + Setting conditions * Adjusting conditions
・ Cycle modification » Emergency shutdown
・ Routine shutdown
. Have efforts been made to simplify operation and minimize the
possibility of error?
. Is information on problems caused by operating errors gathered
and fully used?
. Has it been decided when and how adjustments should be made?
. Can equipment be started by mistake even when it should be
impossible for safety reasons?
. Are operating procedures to be taught to new operators clearly
set down?
. Are operators’ positions correct?

2. Dealing with . Are there clear rules for reporting and dealing with operating errors?
Problems . Are abnormal conditions clearly defined?
. Have efforts been made to make abnormal conditions easy to detect
visually?
. Are there definite procedures for dealing with problems? Are they
followed?
. Are operators taught and encouraged to practice the above
procedures?
. Are operators actually detecting problems in equipment, product
quality, and safety?

3. Equipment . ls there any looseness or play in levers and wheels? Are they hard
Functions to operate?
. Are controls and other parts requiring manipulation accessible and
well lit?
. Does equipment start and stop correctly?
. Are all measuring instruments operating properly? Are maxima and
minima shown?
. Are emergency shutdown devices operating correctly?
. ls there any abnormal noise, heat, or vibration?
. Are valves marked with functions and open/close arrows?

Table 4-9. Autonomous Maintenance Checklist for Machine Operation

IMPLEMENTING AUTONOMOUS MAINTENANCE

IN SEVEN STEPS

Table 4-10 (see pp. 210-211) outlines the seven developmental

stages of an autonomous maintenance program. These stages
or steps are based on the experiences of many companies that
have successfully implemented TPM. They represent an optimal
division of responsibilities between production and mainte-
nance departments in carrying out maintenance and improve-
ment activities.
 Autonomous Maintenance 209

Each stage in the implementation of autonomous mainte-

nance emphasizes different developmental activities and goals,
and each builds upon thorough understanding and practice of
the previous step. Step 1 (initial cleaning), step 2 (action against the
sources of dust and contamination), and step 3 (cleaning and lubrica-
tion standards) promote the establishment of basic equipment
conditions that are essential to effective autonomous maintenance.
Step 4 (general inspection) and step 5 (autonomous inspection)
stress thorough equipment inspection and subsequent mainte-
nance and standardization. Furthermore, these steps promote
the development of operators who are knowledgeable and sensi-
tive to their equipmentS needs. During these periods, the com-
pany is likely to see substantial reductions in equipment failures.
Steps 6 and 7 (seiri and seiton and full autonomous maintenance)
stress improvement activities informed by operators’ increasing
knowledge and experience and extending beyond the equip-
ment to its surrounding environment. These activities increase
the vitality of operators’ involvement as well as the skills they
acquired in the earlier stages. Operators become strongly iden-
tified with company goals and assume responsibility for the
maintenance and improvement activities that are essential for ef-
fective self-management on the shop floor.

KEYS TO SUCCESSFUL AUTONOMOUS MAINTENANCE

To implement autonomous maintenance successfully, con-

sider the following important elements:

Introductory Education and Training

Before initiating any of the early autonomous maintenance

activities, make certain all related departments and personnel
(from top management to shop-floor supervisors) understand
the objectives and benefits of TPM development. Require everyone
to attend an introductory seminar that spells out the details of
TPM implementation and, in particular, the functions of auton-
omous maintenance.
 210 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Goals for Equipment

(workplace diagnosis)
1. Initial Cleaning Thoroughly remove dust and con- + Eliminate environmental causes of
taminants from equipment (remove deterioration such as dust and dirt;
discarded equipment parts) prevent accelerated deterioration
Eliminate dust and dirt; improve quality
of inspection and repairs and reduce time
required
Discover and treat hidden defects
. Eliminate Sources Eliminate the sources of dust and dirt; Increase inherent reliability of equipment
of Contamination improve accessibility of areas that are by preventing dust and other contami-
and Inaccessible hard to clean and lubricate; reduce time nants from adhering and accumulating
Areas required for lubrication and cleaning Enhance maintainability by improving
cleaning and lubricating

. Cleaning and Set clear cleaning, lubrication, and Maintain basic equipment conditions
Lubrication bolting standards that can be easily (deterioration-preventing activities):
Standards maintained over short intervals; the cleaning, lubrication, and bolting
time allowed for daily/periodic work
must be clearly specified

. General inspection Conduct training on inspection skills in Visually inspect major parts of the equip-
accordance with inspection manuals; ment; restore deterioration; enhance
| find and correct minor defects through reliability
general inspections; modify equip- Facilitate inspection through innovative
ment to facilitate inspection methods, such as serial number plates,
colored instruction labels, thermotape
gauges, and indicators, etc.

. Autonomous Develop and use autonomous main- Maintain optimal equipment conditions
Inspection tenance checksheet (standardize once deterioration is restored through
cleaning, lubrication, and inspection general inspection
standards for ease of application) Use innovative visual control systems to
make cleaning/lubrication/inspection
more effective
Review equipment and human factors;
clarify abnormal conditions
Implement improvements to make
operation easier
fs OhDlacs 3 plandarize various 4 workplace regu- Review and improve plant layout, etc.
rgan ion an ations; improve work effectiveness, 1 -in-process
Housekeeping product quality,
. : and the safety of the Standardize control dies,
defective products, of work-in-p
jigs, tools, mea-i
Sade sg ira environment: suring instruments, cals handling
・ Reduce setup and adjustment time; equipment, aisles, etc.
eliminate work-in-process Implement visual control systems through-
・ Material handling standards on the out the workplace 7
shop floor
* Collecting and recording data;
standardization
* Control standards and procedures for
raw materials, work-in- , prod-
ucts, spare parts, dies, jigs, and tools
. Fully implemented Develop company goals; engage in Collect and analyze various types of
Autonomous Main- continuous improvement activities; data; improve equipment to increase
tenance Program improve equipment based on careful reliability, maintainability, and ease of
recordingand regular analysis
of MTBF rere 3
Pinpoint weaknesses in equipment
based on nee aante,implement
improvement plans gthen equi
ment life span and inspection erg

Table 4-10. Developing Autonomous Maintenance Small-Group Activities

 Autonomous Maintenance 211

Goals for Group Members

(TPM group diagnosis) Management's Leadership
ロ Develop curiosity, interest, pride, and care for ・ Teach control of dust and dirt, equipment deteriora-
equipment through frequent contact tion, and related maintenance work
Develop leadership skills through small group activities Identify priority areas to be cleaned and the impor-
tance of the maintaining basic equipment RGD6
(according to cleaning, lubrication, and bolting
standards
Teach what “cleaning is inspection” means

Learn equipment improvement concepts and tech- Offer guidance that is easy to understand in response
niques, while implementing small-scale improvements to operators’ questions
. Learn to participate in improvement through small- . Make sure maintenance work orders are carried out
group activity promptly
Experience the satisfaction of successful improvements Promote visual control systems (e.g., use of lubrica-
tion labels and match marks, etc.)

Understand the meaning and importance of mainte- Provide guidance on the content and form of cleaning
nance by setting and maintaining our own standards standards
(What is equipment control?)
Provide technical assistance in the development of
Become better team members by taking on more lubrication standards
responsibility individually

Learn equipment mechanisms, functions, and inspec- Prepare general inspection manuals and problem case
tion criteria through inspection training; master studies; provide inspection training to group leaders
inspection skills Prepare schedules for general inspection
Learn to perform simple repairs Provide prompt action against work orders issued
° Leaders enhance leadership skills through teaching; through general inspection
group members learn through participation Teach simple treatment for minor defects
Sort out and study general inspection data; under- Simplify inspections through creative use of visual
stand the importance of analyzed data controls
Provide instruction in data collection and analysis
Invite group leaders to participate in planned main-
tenance scheduling

Draw up individual daily and periodic checksheets Provide guidance in developing inspection priorities
based on ral inspection manual and equipment and intervals based on data analysis
data and develop autonomous management skills Give advice on the content and form of inspection
・ Learn importance of basic data-recording cl
・ Learn proper operating methods, signs of abnor- Provide technical assistance in developing operation
mality, and appropriate corrective actions standards and troubleshooting manuals

Broaden the scope of autonomous maintenance by Provide technical assistance as needed to TPM
standardizing various management and control items groups and departments
・ Be conscious of the need to improve standards and Teach improvement techniques, visual control
procedures continuously, based on a standardization systems, IE, and QC methods
practice and actual data analysis
・ Managers and supervisors are primarily responsible
for continuously improving standards and procedures
and promoting them on the shop floor

* Gain heightened awareness of company goals and Provide technical assistance for equipment
costs (especially maintenance costs) improvement
+ Learn to perform simple repairs through training on Provide training in repair techniques
repair techniques Participate in equipment improvement meetings; en-
・ Learn data collection and analysis and improvement courage groups to strive for continuous improvement
techniques ・ Standardize improvement results
212 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Cooperation Between Departments

The managers of all relevant departments (production,

maintenance, engineering, design, personnel, general affairs,
and accounting, etc.) must meet and agree on how the depart-
ments will cooperate to support the efforts of the production de-
partment to achieve autonomous maintenance.

Group Activities

Most activities are performed in small groups in which all

personnel participate. Group leaders at every level are part of the
company management structure. For example, TPM groups at the
shop-floor level are organized around the production super-
visors. If there are too many group members, the group can be
divided into sub- or mini-groups of approximately five to ten
members. The leaders of these groups form a group themselves
under the leadership of a shift superintendent, who in turn
works in a group under a department manager. These managers
also participate in a group lead by the plant manager, who is part
of a TPM promotional group. This group may be composed of
other plant managers and division managers.
Thus, the TPM promotional structure is organized along the
lines of the company hierarchy. Group leaders at each level be-
come members of upper-level small groups and serve as links
between levels.
To manage such a promotional structure effectively may
require an administrative office for the TPM promotional com-
mittee. PM administrators may be assigned as needed to special
committees or individual groups at any level to provide addi-
tional support.

Autonomous Maintenance Is Not a Voluntary Activity

All participants must understand that autonomous mainte-

nance activities (at all stages) are mandatory and necessary.
Some managers and supervisors imagine “autonomous” main-
tenance to be synonymous with “voluntary” or “unregulated
 Autonomous Maintenance 213

and unchecked” maintenance. If this misunderstanding is not

corrected, it can undermine group activities. The autonomous
maintenance work done by operators is designed to support and
complement the maintenance department's planned mainte-
nance effort. Once begun, the activities of both departments
must continue side by side.
Moreover, these activities are a vital, necessary part of daily
work. Their purpose is to achieve company goals through the
implementation of operator-initiated daily maintenance consist-
ing of cleaning, adjustment, and regular inspections, as well as
improvement activities.
Autonomous maintenance requires skilled, highly moti-
vated operators working in a supportive, rational work environ-
ment. Management must provide workers with the leadership
and guidance they need to enhance their skills and motivation
and must cooperate at every level to maintain a favorable work-
ing environment.

Practice

Understanding comes through practice rather than intellec-

tual rationalization. Use the activities themselves for primary in-
struction to avoid being misled by purely conceptual manipulation
or empty exercises in logic.

Education and Training Should Be Progressive

Successful implementation of autonomous maintenance

depends on a combination of gradual skill development, experi-
ential learning, and expanding awareness or attitudinal change.
Each step in autonomous maintenance builds on the knowledge,
experience, and understanding acquired in the previous step.
For this reason, education and training must be designed to
progress step by step, and must be carefully tailored to meet the
changing needs of operators and the manufacturing environment.
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216 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Always Aim for Concrete Results

Clear, appropriate, and concrete improvement themes and

goals must be articulated at each stage to generate concrete results.

Operators Should Determine Standards to Follow

Operators must set their own standards and criteria for

cleaning, lubrication, inspections, setup and adjustment, opera-
tion, and housekeeping. Moreover, they must acquire the skills
needed to perform these tasks autonomously.

Management Should Audit Autonomous-Maintenance Progress

Managers and staff should audit autonomous-maintenance

small group activity at every step and offer guidance and support
in pinpointing problem areas. While managers are responsible
for evaluating conditions in the workplace, they must also pro-
vide leadership and support to each TPM group. As each step in
autonomous maintenance is successfully implemented, they
should encourage operators to feel a sense of accomplishment
(Figure 4-11; see pp. 214-215).

Use Model Projects

Select pieces of equipment or individual TPM groups to

serve as models for the TPM development program as a whole.
By allowing work in these groups (or on this equipment) to pro-
ceed one step ahead of other groups, managers and supervisors
can anticipate important instructional and resource needs. The
use of model projects will facilitate understanding at each stage
of overall development.

Correct Equipment Problems Promptly

Most malfunctions that surface as a result of autonomous

maintenance activities must be dealt with by the maintenance
 Autonomous Maintenance 217

department. Treatment of these newly discovered problems and

implementation of equipment improvement plans must be per-
formed quickly, however.
Often, maintenance departments are swamped when they
attempt to meet such large-scale demands in addition to con-
ducting its own planned maintenance activities. If they cannot
meet the new demands promptly, however, shop-floor conditions
will not improve, autonomous maintenance will not progress,
and the small groups will falter.
To avoid this potentially serious problem, the maintenance
department must plan in advance to meet these increased de-
mands effectively — by reevaluating their manpower alloca-
tions, scheduling, overtime, and the use of outside contractors.

Take Time to Perfect Autonomous Maintenance

It is vitally important to perfect each stage of autonomous

maintenance before advancing to the next. If the activities in-
volved in a particular step are rushed, some superficial progress
will appear to have been made. The skills needed to maintain
that progress will not be mastered, however; serious problems
will surface later and the program may collapse.

REFERENCES

Goto, Fumio. “Promoting autonomous maintenance” (in Japanese).

Plant Engineer 11-12 (June 1979 to December 1980).
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Preventive Maintenance

Preventive maintenance is periodic inspection to detect con-

ditions that might cause breakdowns, production stoppages, or
detrimental loss of function combined with maintenance to
eliminate, control, or reverse such conditions in their early
stages. In other words, preventive maintenance is the rapid de-
tection and treatment of equipment abnormalities before they
cause defects or losses. It is preventive medicine for equipment.
Preventive maintenance consists of two basic activities: (1)
periodic inspection and (2) planned restoration of deterioration
based on the results of inspections. Daily routine maintenance to
prevent deterioration is usually considered a part of preventive
maintenance as well.
This chapter contains a discussion of intermediate and long-
term planned maintenance activities conducted by the mainte-
nance department: setting maintenance standards, preparing
and executing maintenance plans, keeping maintenance records,
and carrying out scheduled equipment restoration activities. It
covers subsystems such as spare parts control, lubrication con-
trol, and control of maintenance budgets. The chapter concludes
with a summary of equipment diagnostic techniques for predic-
tive maintenance.

219
220 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

STANDARDIZATION OF MAINTENANCE ACTIVITIES

Maintenance activities ought to be standardized for several

reasons:
1. The diverse maintenance activities — from routine
maintenance and inspection to repair and maintainability
improvement — cannot be performed effectively if indi-
viduals are left to carry them out in any way they like.
2. Maintenance techniques and skills take a long time to
master. On the other hand, when only experienced work-
ers are able to apply them, demands on the maintenance
department exceed its capacity and maintenance goals
cannot be achieved.
3. Maintenance work is generally less efficient than pro-
duction work because it is essentially nonrepetitive and
requires lengthy preparation and large margins for error.
It relies heavily upon individual skills and is performed
under difficult conditions. Individual workers must trans-
port equipment and move around the factory frequently.
Standardization addresses each of these problems and is
necessary for the consistent, efficient performance of mainte-
nance activities. For these reasons, comprehensive maintenance
standards and manuals incorporating a company’s past experi-
ence and technology are indispensable. Such documents enable
large numbers of workers, including new recruits, to do work
that previously could be done only by experienced workers. This
capacity to train and involve many individuals in maintenance
work is the key to the development of a high-quality, efficient
maintenance program.

Types of Standards

Equipment design standards, or simply equipment standards, are

company standards for common equipment elements (e.g., bear-
ings, gears, valves, and flanges), standard methods of calculating
equipment capacity, and so on.
 Preventive Maintenance 221

Equipment performance standards, or equipment specifications,

apply to equipment performance during operation. They indi-
cate how equipment is to be operated and include its principal
dimensions, capacity and performance, precision, functions,
mechanisms, the materials its main parts are made of, the quan-
tities of electric power, steam, and water needed for operation,
and so on.
Equipment materials procurement standards cover the quality of
equipment materials and parts. They are based on the equip-
ment design standards and equipment performance standards.
Equipment materials inspection standards provide standard testing
and inspection methods for determining whether materials and
parts used in equipment meet the standards.
Test run and acceptance standards indicate the acceptance and
operating tests to be performed on equipment that has been
newly installed, modified, or repaired.

Maintenance Standards

Equipment maintenance standards indicate methods for

measuring equipment deterioration (inspection and test), arrest-
ing the progress of deterioration (daily routine maintenance),
and restoring equipment (repair). There are separate standards
for each maintenance function, including equipment inspection
standards (inspection), servicing standards (daily routine
maintenance), and repair standards (repair work).
Maintenance work procedures are the work procedures,
methods, and times for inspection, servicing, repairs, and other
types of maintenance work.
Equipment maintenance standards and maintenance work
procedures are referred to collectively as maintenance standards
(Table 5-1).

Equipment Maintenance Standards

As mentioned above, equipment maintenance standards in-

clude inspection, servicing, and repair standards.
222 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

1 Inspection Standards :
(for measuring equipment deterioration)
Equipment
Maintenance 2 Overhaul Standards
Standards (for preventing equipment deterioration)

3 Repair Standards
Maintenance
Standards (for restoring equipment)

Maintenance 4 Work Procedures

Work Procedures (showing maintenance work procedures
and times)

Table 5-1. Types of Maintenance Standards

Inspection standards. These are standards for inspecting

equipment, in other words, techniques for measuring or other-
wise determining the extent of deterioration. They specify the
areas and items to be inspected, the inspection intervals,
methods, measuring instruments, evaluation criteria, corrective
action to take, and so on. They should include illustrative
sketches and photographs where necessary.
Depending on the type of inspection, inspection standards
can be classified by interval, as in routine inspection standards
(for intervals of less than a month) and periodic inspection stan-
dards (for intervals of more than a month). They can also be class-
ified by the item to be inspected (performance inspection standards
and precision inspection standards) or by type of equipment
(mechanical and electrical equipment inspection standards, piping
inspection standards, and instrument inspection standards).
Table 5-2 (see pp. 224-225) is an example of a performance inspec-
tion standard.
Servicing standards. These standards specify how servicing
and routine maintenance done with hand tools will be carried
out. They include methods and guidelines for different types of
servicing, such as cleaning, lubrication, adjustment, and parts
replacement. For example, lubrication standards will indicate
the parts to be lubricated, methods of supplying lubricants,
types and quantities of lubricants, lubrication intervals, and so on.

Repair standards. Repair standards specify conditions and

methods of repair work. They may be drawn up separately for
 Preventive Maintenance 223

specific equipment or parts, or classified according to the type of

repair work (e.g., turning, finishing, piping, or electrical work).
Repair standards usually include repair methods and available
work hours and can be used as maintenance work standards.
Maintenance work standards. These standards are prepared
for frequently performed work. They are helpful in measuring
the efficiency of maintenance crew, estimating available work
hours and reserve capacities, setting schedules, and training
new workers.

Revision of Standards

Maintenance standards must be revised as equipment is

updated and improved. Methods will change naturally as equip-
ment is restored, revamped, or otherwise improved. Maintenance
results should therefore be reviewed and the standards revised
at least once a year.
Maintenance standards serve as a barometer to the technical
level of the maintenance department. They should be continuously
improved through practice. As better and better maintenance re-
sults are obtained, the data should be used to upgrade standards.

MAINTENANCE PLANNING

This section reviews the criteria for effective planned

maintenance. Routine and periodic maintenance must be well
planned and reasonable. In other words, it must be based on ac-
curate assessments of equipment conditions and systematically
mapped out, taking into consideration current and future
priorities and resources and building in steps to ensure that the
appropriate resources are available when needed. Cost-effective
and efficient planned maintenance requires the close coopera-
tion of all departments involved.

Types of Maintenance Plans

Maintenance plans are classified by period or project.

224 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Performance Criteria for Centrifugal Pumps

Measuring Interve
Instrument | Specified Control After
value limit repair

Vibration 10, 40 15 1 x pe
1 indicator Or lesS 6 montt
Vibration

Surface Atmospheric |Atmospheric |Atmospheric

2 Measure temperature of bearing temperature | temperature | temperature
thermometer
Bearing with surface thermometer during + 20°C + 40°C + 25°C
temperature operation (3 + hours after startup) orless

3 Read indication and deviation on Discharge-

Discharge discharge-side pressure gage side
pressure (fully opened discharge valve) pressure
gage

Control
4 panel
Read indication and deviation
ammeter
Motor on control panel ammeter
current (fully opened discharge valve)

500-V 0.2M2 0.4M2 10MQ2

megger

5
Motor
coil
insulation

Measure resistance between

coil terminals and earth using
500-V megger insulation tester
before dismantling motor

Table 5-2. Sample Performance Criteria for Industrial Machinery

 Preventive Maintenance 225

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Notes on preparation and
execution of criteria
1. Specified values represent the
rated capacity of the equipment
2. Control limits are set from

=
considerations of product
quality and repair costs. They
cannot always be decided in
advance and must then be
determined from experience
. The accuracy and performance Nei
re he
after repair are those that can be
restored economically. It is not
always necessary to achieve the
specified values
. Ifinspection shows the values to be
within the control limits, no repairs are
needed. In this case, the “after repair”
column on the inspection record can be

te
left blank
. This inspection standard can also be used as
a repair standard during periodic repairs and

a
as an equipment record
226 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Annual maintenance plans should guarantee the reliability of

equipment over its predicted lifetime, from installation to scrap-
ping. Their preparation requires the coordination of production
plans, subcontracting, and procurement of cost-effective spare
parts. For this reason, inspection and maintenance plans should
be drawn up from a long-range perspective.
Monthly maintenance plans are based on the annual mainte-
nance plans and include improvement activity as well as specific
actions to prevent breakdowns. Their purpose is to evenly allo-
cate the required work among the available maintenance workers
and firmly guide the work assignments and progress.
Weekly maintenance plans help manage the work of individual
maintenance personnel.
Major maintenance project plans are individual plans for turn-
around, large-scale revamping, or overhaul of specific equipment
or plant areas. This type of plan includes procurement plans for
maintenance spare parts, equipment, and other materials, as
well as prudent arrangements for subcontracting, acquiring
cost-effective spare parts or foreign-made equipment.

Equipment Maintenance Standards

and Maintenance Planning

Effective maintenance planning is impossible without an ac-

curate understanding of equipment conditions. Obtaining a
comprehensive view of actual equipment conditions is difficult,
but it is helpful to follow the equipment maintenance standards
in conducting inspection. Both daily routine inspection and
periodic inspection will contribute to this effort. Routine inspec-
tion uses the senses (mainly looking, listening, and touching) to
detect abnormalities and prevent breakdowns before they can
take place. It is usually carried out by operators while the equip-
ment is in operation, as part of their autonomous maintenance
activities.
By contrast, periodic inspection is usually carried out by
maintenance workers while equipment is shut down. Using
 Preventive Maintenance 221:

various measuring instruments, they measure equipment de-

terioration, maintain precision, and replace parts before failure.
The intervals for overhauls, parts replacement, and so on,
are determined on the basis of this inspection data. Maintenance
plans can then be prepared that specify when and how periodic
servicing and repairs are to be executed.
Inspecting every item of equipment and replacing parts in-
discriminately will not result in zero breakdowns, however. On
the contrary, the cost of production losses and parts replacement
would be far greater than the amount saved. Better and more
economical maintenance results are achieved by concentrating
on the most important items of equipment. Collect data from the
past one or two years, estimate future production and equip-
ment plans, and draw up maintenance plans starting with the
equipment items that will yield the best results. Table 5-3 is an
example of an equipment priority ranking chart.
Bear in mind that priorities, once decided, will not necessarily
remain the same. They may change in response to altered pro-
duction plans, new equipment installation or revamping, and
the results of maintenance improvement activities. Therefore,
plan to revise priorities every one to two years.

Preparing Annual Maintenance Plans

Annual maintenance plans are designed to ensure equip-

ment reliability over the long term. They should not be limited to
one year but should incorporate servicing items spanning two to
three years (Table 5-4).
To prepare annual maintenance plans:

1. Determine What Work Is Required

The most important task in preparing maintenance plans is

identifying all the work that must be done over the year. This list
must be revised annually. Required work may include
¢ statutory regulations: work required for safety, pollution
control, and so on.
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230 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

・ equipment maintenance standards: work determined by Dre-

cision control requirements and the results of deterioration
measurement
¢ breakdown records: maintenance work to prevent recur-
rence of breakdowns
° previous year’s annual plan: outstanding work due to
schedule changes
* work orders received from shop floor: work deemed necessary
based on abnormalities records
2. Select Work to Be Done

Rank work in the order of its importance and establish

priorities. Focus on the most important items.

3. Tentatively Estimate Maintenance Intervals

Make trial estimates of the life spans of all equipment, com-

ponent by component and part by part, and decide the mainte-
nance intervals (the TBO, or time between overhauls), preferably
using breakdown records (MTBF analysis charts, etc.).

4. Estimate Work Schedules and Maintenance Times and Costs

Use the annual production plans and equipment perform-

ance targets to estimate the number of shutdown days and the
time required for maintenance work, and confirm these figures
against the budget.

5. Check Procurement and Work Arrangements

Confirm the arrangements for materials and hard-to-get

spare parts and for work to be done by outside manufacturers
and contractors. Determine whether specially qualified person-
nel are needed.
 Preventive Maintenance 231

Preparing Monthly Maintenance Plans

Monthly maintenance plans are action plans for carrying

out the work required by the annual maintenance plans.
Prioritize work. For the best results, rank the work in the
following order of priority:
1. monthly work indicated by the annual maintenance plan
2. work indicated by an analysis of breakdown and inspec-
tion records
3. work indicated by daily inspection and improvement
requests from the production department
4. layout changes and installation plans for jigs and tools
5. plans for improving product quality and safety
Other work should also be included in the plan, such as
work orders from various departments, salvaging reusable parts,
preparing for maintenance work, and cleaning up afterward.
These needs should be addressed at monthly PM meetings. At
meetings, each department must be willing to take on whatever work it
can do.
Estimate labor and costs. Once the details of the work have
been determined, estimate the manhours and costs. If the main-
tenance work is organized by occupational category, estimate the
manhours separately for each occupation, calculate the totals, and
adjust the workload accordingly.
Balance workloads and prepare schedules. To level out the
workload over the month, split the work into weekly units, start-
ing with the work to be done on designated days or during plan-
ned shutdowns. Apportion the remaining work by its estimated
duration and by other considerations. Table 5-5 is an example of
a monthly maintenance plan.
Weekly plans should spell out the work assignments for indi-
vidual maintenance staff. To simplify progress control, they should
be designed so that work can be checked off as it is completed.
2292
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TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM
SS ーー

M/c Type of work

3 “tine” fwTe[>[+[i[omer
Details of work

Rolling | Z calendar Change strip field at No. 1, 2 roller side

unit roller Change position of fixed roller for winding
replacement

ビィ Install air bleed device at No. 3 roller

(see drawing)
】に

Install monorail for replacement of calender

roller beam, plus related work
Check oil cooler of main body crossing-roller
hydraulic unit
ーー Check insulations of high voltage, booster MG
and D motors
Perform sampling and calibration of B-ray
thickness gage (annual plan)

1 Check performance of heat-exchanger shell

Zcalendar side (check safety valve) (annual plan)
roller 2 Make endless seams in No. 1, 2, 3, 4 roller belts

1 Improve cutter
2

Sheet Replace feed calender drive motor

calendar Improve drive unit for top roller adjustment
(north side)

Operator-side monorail (cost estimation and

vendor negotiation)

Periodic inspection 1 x /6 months—11 units

ーー Flush out calender roller metal circulating tank

and reuse oil
】
に

ey Replace oil in speed reducer gears as per

sampling result
ae sini に:
TSukui, “Annual Maintenance Calendar,” Plant Engineer (June 1980)

Table 5-5. Sample Monthly Maintenance Plan

 Preventive Maintenance

上 35
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XX
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234 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Planning for Major Maintenance Projects

Major maintenance projects are large jobs, such as periodic

repairs or turnaround work, that require equipment to be shut
down for an extended period. Since this kind of project often
means large production losses, separate work plans and progress
control methods are needed to ensure that the project proceeds
efficiently.

Characteristics of Major Maintenance Projects

Major maintenance projects are time-consuming and expen-

sive, so the most important objective is to reduce their duration
as much as possible. Plans are needed for materials, manpower
mobilization, and subcontracting. The work volume varies with
the degree of equipment deterioration, and work quality must be
closely monitored.

Preparing Work Plans

Plans for major maintenance projects should be detailed

and take into account inspection results, revamping, and im-
provements. Since the work consists of a series of smaller jobs,
detailed procedures should be prepared for each job. To facilitate
progress control, draw up detailed schedules with milestones,
using PERT or CPM networks.

Project Management

Projects typically consist of periodic overhaul and preven-

tive maintenance to maintain consistent equipment performance
as well as construction of new facilities, expansion of existing
facilities, revamping, replacement, and so on. Project management
means performing the work in a planned and cost-effective fash-
ion. For better project management, focus on these four key
points in the execution of monthly maintenance plans and major
maintenance project plans:
 Preventive Maintenance 235

1. Identify Problems

To ensure that planned work proceeds on schedule and with-

out waste, it is important to anticipate problems that may arise and
clarify any limitations under which the work must be done. The
following types of limitations may need to be considered:
equipment shutdown schedules and designated mainte-
nance days determined by production plans
available maintenance manpower and capacity
maintenance cost targets and budgets
capacity by skill level (number of experienced and inex-
perienced workers)
whether work is to be done ona work day or over holidays
whether the work is subcontracted or done in-house
whether critical spare parts can be delivered and in-
spected when needed

2. Confirm Administrative Details

The most common reasons monthly plans fall behind sched-

ule are administrative: forgetting to order, delays in ordering, in-
sufficient expediting of orders, and so on. Time is also lost when
checking specifications of parts after they have been delivered and
deciding where to store them has not been arranged in advance.
Confirm subcontracted work well in advance and take care
in arranging for maintenance equipment, jigs, and tools. Contact
everyone involved when changes in the plan require cancellation
or postponement of work and coordinate with the production
control department when work requires equipment shutdown.

3. Implementing Major Maintenance Projects

Major maintenance projects require the cooperation of a

number of different departments (e.g., maintenance, production
engineering, purchasing, subcontractors). Appoint representa-
tives from each department to monitor the project progress and
236 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

identify problems, and hold coordination meetings to discuss

corrective action. Keep an eye on inspection results and modify
or change the project plan as the occasion demands.

4. Progress Control

The maintenance supervisor's most important job is to ensure

that the work proceeds according to schedule. The following key
points of progress control should be observed:
¢ Estimate the manhours required and cumulate individual
workloads.
* Identify the difference between estimates and actual man-
hours and use this data to increase the accuracy of future
estimates.
・ Confirm and follow up administrative arrangements.
* Assign work according to the individual skills of the
workers.
・ When workers are in groups of two or three, mix the skill
levels so that they can learn from each other.
・ To keep workers from standing idle if breakdowns occur,
plan improvement work or work that can be done at any
time.
* Analyze other requirements for keeping the work on
schedule and take appropriate action.

Increase Maintenance Efficiency

by Improving Maintainability

Improving equipment maintainability increases the effi-

ciency of maintenance work and reduces repair times. Consider
the following strategies for increasing maintainability:
* division into appropriate subassemblies for ease in dis-
mantling and reinstalling
* prefabrication
* speedy and accurate communication
* improved transportation and material-handling equipment
 Preventive Maintenance 237
ENT Spt mle etl i Ae I rl

* standardized parts and improved jigs and tools

* maintenance intervals that are balanced by scheduling
related projects together
* worker awareness of the key factors in quality of main-
tenance

KEEPING AND USING MAINTENANCE RECORDS

Documenting the results of maintenance is one of the most

important maintenance activities. Routine maintenance work is
so varied, however, that keeping records on each task would be
extremely difficult. Such comprehensive documentation may
not be necessary.

Why Keep Maintenance Records?

The quality of a factory’s maintenance is revealed by its

maintenance records. Some factories maintain and use many
kinds of organized maintenance records; others lack proper
routine maintenance reports and make little use of those they
do have.
The format for maintenance records is not fixed; the types
and contents of maintenance records can be arranged to dovetail
with a particular plant’s management standards. However,
everyone must understand the purpose of keeping records —
why they are kept, what is being controlled, and how they
should be used.

The Flow of Maintenance Records

Always feed back the results of maintenance activities

quickly into the records system so the results can be incorporated
in subsequent maintenance plans. Maintenance quality and per-
formance levels can be continually raised by repeating the Plan-
Do-Check-Action (PDCA) management cycle.
Figure 5-1 shows how maintenance records can be classified
according to the types of maintenance activities and the stages of
the management cycle.
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240 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Types of Maintenance Records

How maintenance activities are carried out depends on

plant policies, managerial levels, and so on. Thus, the variety in
types of maintenance records prevents generalization about
which are needed in particular cases. The following discussion
outlines the basic maintenance functions and the types of records
minimally required in the practice of TPM.

Routine Maintenance Records

Operators record routine maintenance aimed at preventing

equipment deterioration and maintaining basic equipment con-
ditions in the departments where the equipment is used. For
example:
Routine inspection records are checked off daily, weekly, or
monthly according to the equipment, part, or item to be inspected
as required by the daily inspection standards. If an abnormality
is discovered in the course of an inspection, it is dealt with ac-
cording to a specified procedure.
Lubricant replenishment and replacement records are required,
because intervals between replenishing and replacing lubricants
vary from part to part. It is easy to overlook some lubricating
points, especially when there are a lot of them. Therefore, it is
best to keep daily lubrication records. (See Tables 5-6 and 5-7.)

Periodic Inspection Records

The results of equipment deterioration measurements are

typically recorded by designated maintenance department per-
sonnel. In periodic inspections (statutory inspections, disassembly
inspection, precision checks, etc.), criteria are needed to indicate
how much wear is allowable before repairs must be made. The in-
spection standards lay down the dimensional tolerances, usable
maxima and minima, inspection methods, and other conditions.
Such inspections are usually carried out as part of annual main-
tenance schedules. The measurement data obtained form the
periodic inspection records.
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242 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Maintenance Reports

These record repairs and servicing performed to restore

equipment to its original condition. They are usually kept by the
responsible maintenance department personnel. At the intervals
specified in the annual maintenance plan, the work is performed
and recorded in accordance with repair and maintenance stan-
dards. Breakdown repairs, the only type of work that must be
performed immediately, are also recorded on maintenance reports.
Although the duties of the maintenance department in-
clude planned maintenance, maintainability improvement,
breakdown repairs, and so on, a single report format should be
used for each type of work (Table 5-8; see pp. 244-245). Occasion-
ally, serious breakdowns may be reported separately to the rele-
vant departments on an accident report form, but this should be
done only when necessary.

Maintainability Improvement Records

Maintainability improvement modifies equipment to increase

its reliability or maintainability. This activity is furthered by col-
lecting and analyzing breakdown data from maintenance reports,
implementing improvement proposals submitted by line workers,
identifying equipment that breaks down frequently, and consid-
ering ways to prevent recurrence.
The results of maintainability improvement activity should
always be compared with data obtained before improvement to
see whether or not the anticipated effects were achieved. For this
reason, it is more convenient to keep maintainability improve-
ment records on separate forms.

MTBF Analysis Records

The purpose of equipment improvement is to reduce the

maintenance work required and to increase its efficiency. To pro-
mote this, record each type of work performed on a particular
piece of equipment on a separate card and organize the informa-
tion on an MTBF analysis chart (Table 5-9).
 Preventive Maintenance 243

MTBF analysis charts help to clarify and classify the occur-

rence of breakdowns. They show at a glance the breakdown
frequency of each machine and part.

@) Date maintenance performed

@® Work done by (name)
@ Name of equipment and part
@) Breakdown details
©) Describe action taken
(maintenance details)
© Manhours (personnel x min.)
@ Equipment downtime (min.)

Analysis duration:
Start: End:

* Post maintenance work cards on MTBF analysis chart.

Table 5-9. MTBF Analysis Chart

Equipment Logs

Equipment logs are maintained over the lifetime of the

equipment and are the equivalent of a doctor’s medical charts.
They offer an up-to-date history of a piece of equipment that begins
with its dates of purchase and installation and records all acci-
dents and major repairs from startup to the present. A complete
log will include the dates, location, details, and costs of all major
breakdown repairs, periodic maintenance, and maintainability
improvements, as well as the names, models, sizes, numbers,
244 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Daily Inspection Report

Date:

eau | A Malfunction oo Talay |8Aamenvunonena

justment/Minor |

Work Manhours

Table 5-8. Daily Maintenance Record

 Preventive Maintenance 245

Sup.:

ee
Jun ーーニーニー ーーニーー

Symbol

Repair pending until to next shift

Repairs pending until holiday work

Inspection pending

Holiday work (other section)

Holiday work (section in charge)

Spare parts ordered

Remarks

Monthly report Inspection error

Down-time reports Lubrication error
Major work reports Replacement error
Accident reports, etc. Repair error
Maintenance records W Installation error
Machine history X Acceptance error
Work control list X, | Design error or fault
Revisions and additions ry’ Deterioration
to standards Managerial error
Improvement suggestions Unforeseeable event
Minor repair
Spare parts error
Operator error
Other group’s error
Other To
OZ=S=
mmoeowvor

Fukunaga, “Introduction to PM,” Plant Engineer 11 (August 1979)

246 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

and manufacturers of spare parts. Individual equipment logs

should be kept in a form that will last until the equipment is
scrapped. (See Table 5-10.)
Lost performance can be restored by repair work, but this
costs money. When a machine has deteriorated past the limit of
its economic life, it must be replaced. Thus, an important func-
tion of the equipment log is to help set standards for equipment
replacement.

Maintenance Costs Records

Maintenance costs include labor, materials, subcontracting

costs, and so on. To control maintenance budgets, each mainte-
nance expenditure must be recorded by item and by usage as it is
made. Since these records help control the annual maintenance
budget, a running total of the amount of budget consumed is
also entered as each item of work is completed. Maintenance ac-
tivities are carried out according to repair orders (maintenance
requests or work orders), and the costs are totaled after passing
through the company’s accounting system.

Using Maintenance Records

The types and contents of maintenance records have been

discussed above. Their uses are summarized in Table 5-11.

Record-Keeping Precautions

The following precautions should be taken when keeping

records:

Clarify the 5Ws and 1H

Sometimes maintenance records are not used effectively be-

cause they are poorly written and hard to understand. It is vital
that the forms answer the 5W’s and 1H (who, what, when,
where, why, and how). The records must show clearly who is to
 Preventive Maintenance 247

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Daily record of presence or

absence of abnormalities (visual
Daily inspection inspection of equipment during
checksheet operation)

Prevent equipment
deterioration
Record replenishment of lubricants
and replacement of contaminated
Lubrication record lubricants

Record of measured degree of

deterioration and wear
Measure equipment Periodic inspection Analyze as necessary
deterioration record

Details of repair of sporadic break-

downs, planned maintenance,
and maintainability improvement
Maintenance report

Record of maintainability im-

Restore equipment provement plans, execution, and
Maintainability improve- results
ment record

Record of all types of mainte-

nance work, e.g., repair of
MTBF analysis chart sporadic breakdowns, replenish-
ment and replacement of lubri-
cants, periodic maintenance, etc.

Details and cost records for major

breakdown repairs, periodic
Document equipment maintenance, and maintainability
lifetimes Equipment log
improvement

Breakdown of maintenance labor

costs, materials costs and sub-
Control maintenance contracting costs
budget Maintenance cost record
Cost breakdown for each piece of
equipment

Table 5-11. Maintenance Records and Their Uses

 Preventive Maintenance 249

Deal with abnormalities and report Line operator Can also be used for
to superiors and maintenance lubrication records
department

Improve lubricating methods and Line operator

check lubricant consumption

Carry out repairs and mainte- Designated maintenance Control limits are specified
nance if measurements show that personnel in inspection standards
control limits have been reached

Obtain breakdown statistics and Maintenance personnel

decide priorities for maintenance responsible
work
Infer causes of breakdowns and
take measures to prevent their
recurrence

Promote standardization of Maintenance or engineer- Deal with similar items of

improved procedures and ing personnel or staff equipment together
revise original drawings
Use as improvement case study
material

Extending maintenance intervals Line operators, mainte-

and improving efficiency of repair nance department, resi-
work . dent subcontractors, etc.

Provide cost data on which to Maintenance department

make decisions about equipment personnel or staff
replacement and investment
based on life cycle costs

Control maintenance budget, iden- Maintenance, materials Data forwarded to

tifying priorities for reducing costs, and purchasing depart- accounting dept.
and planning countermeasures ment personnel and staff
250 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

fill them out (maintenance staff or operator), what should be re-

corded (description or cause of breakdown), when they should be
filled out (daily or as necessary), where they should be filled out
(in the maintenance department or on the production line), why
they should be filled out (what they will be used for), and how
they should be filled out (using words, numbers, or sketches). If
the answers to any of these questions are unclear, it will be im-
possible to use the records effectively.

Record Breakdowns

Describe conditions at breakdown. Describe the condition

of the relevant part in the equipment where the breakdown oc-
curred (e.g., breakage, deformation, breaking off). Because the
causes of a breakdown are inferred from the visible signs of the
breakdown and are not always easily identified, treat the break-
down and its causes separately and describe the breakdown in as
much detail as possible.
Identify abnormal conditions leading up to breakdown.
Some breakdowns appear suddenly and without warning, but
most are preceded by warning symptoms such as unusual noise,
excessive vibration, or overheating. Identifying these abnormal
conditions makes it easier to infer the causes of the breakdown
and helps in planning action to prevent recurrence.
Illustrate with diagrams or sketches. The location of a
breakdown may be difficult to describe in words. Indicating the
location and description of the breakdown through sketches or
diagrams makes the report easier to understand. Another good
method is to photocopy the original equipment drawings and in-
dicate the location and nature of the breakdown on the copies.
This is easy to do and is easily understood by anyone seeing the
drawings.

Computerization of Maintenance Records

The collation and analysis of maintenance records takes

many administrative manhours, but summary reports cannot be
 Preventive Maintenance 251

used effectively if they are delayed. Computerization permits

the rapid analysis of large numbers of maintenance records and
can provide the appropriate information when it is needed.
The first step in computerizing records is to simplify and
standardize the current administrative procedures. Thereafter,
proper use of computers reduces administrative manhours and
makes needed data more accessible. It is also aids in planning ap-
propriate action.

SPARE PARTS CONTROL

Everyone has a favorite horror story about large production

losses caused when a warehouse full of unnecessary materials
and spares lacked one essential part. Unfortunately, breakdown
analysis often overlooks the poor management of parts control.

Purpose of Spare Parts Control

In reviewing the factory’s spare parts control, ask why spare

parts must be stocked and why control is necessary; ask whether
the following three purposes of parts control are being fulfilled:
・ Promote increased equipment reliability and extend equip-
ment lifetimes through the purchase, fabrication, and
storage of spare parts.
・ Ensure that necessary spare parts are available whenever
needed and thus minimize planned maintenance down-
time and production stoppages due to breakdowns.
・ Reduce inventories, ordering and acceptance costs, and
storage costs.
Establish a parts control system suited to the production
characteristics of the company that fulfills these purposes and re-
view it periodically.

Classification of Maintenance Materials

Classification is the first step in management and control.

First, identify the current status of the inventory and begin to
252 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

classify it. The classification of maintenance materials is shown

in Figure 5-2. Operating materials include measuring tools and
consumables, for example. The production department is re-
sponsible for stocking, storing, and controlling these materials.

Maintenance materials can include necessary and unneces-

sary materials. Unnecessary materials should be scrapped and
disposed of quickly (e.g., broken parts, old equipment that is no
longer useful or usable, and replaced parts that are no longer
needed). Necessary parts come under maintenance store control
or central store control, depending on where it is most conve-
nient for easy control.
Maintenance stores are best located near the production line
for the convenience of maintenance activities. Materials to be
stored in maintenance stores include
・ spare equipment for regular replacement
* spare parts for sudden breakdowns
・ reserves always kept in stock
* reusable parts salvaged by the maintenance department
・ maintenance tools
Spare equipment may include pumps, motors, speed reduc-
ers, and so on. The maintenance department should service and
keep historical records on these items. Spare parts should be
classified as priority parts or common parts. Priority parts are the
most important parts of the most important equipment — in
other words, parts whose unavailability would cause serious
production stoppages. Very expensive parts also fall into this cat-
egory. The maintenance department's parts-control system must
place the greatest emphasis on priority parts.
Common parts such as bolts, nuts, and other low-cost parts
should be supplied automatically. Tools should be kept in a tool-
room and loaned out. They should be restocked by ordering
from the tools section.
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Ordering Methods

Methods for ordering spare parts can be broadly classified

into individual orders and permanent stock methods. Individual
orders are for parts that are only ordered as they are needed.
Permanent stock is material kept on hand continuously, and
permanent stock methods restock automatically whenever des-
ignated quantities for such parts drop below a certain inventory
level. Permanent stock methods are either based on a fixed quan-
tity or a fixed period, depending on the method of restocking.

Individual orders 7
(order as required)

Permanent stock
systems

Fixed-quantity
order method

@ Order-point method
(basic purchasing method)
@ Double-bin method
(order point and order quantity are equal)
@ Package method
(simplifies administration)
@ Batch issue method
(issue parts in batches and store on site)
の
ions“beatae (Check stock at fixed intervals and
issue order. Order quantity varies)

Fixed-
Ae Hes! (Reorder quantity used each time parts
are issued. Stock level constant)

Special contracts
with suppliers

Partial-delivery
method based on
unit-price contract (Check stock continuously and receive
deliveries in small batches)

Deposit system (Vendor deposits parts in warehouse.

Purchaser only pays for parts used)

Figure 5-3. Restocking Methods

 Preventive Maintenance 255

Other new methods of replenishing permanent stock include

the partial delivery and deposit systems, which are arranged
through special contracts with suppliers. These new systems
simplify ordering, delivery, storage, and administrative proce-
dures. Figure 5-3 summarizes the various ordering methods.

Permanent Stock Methods

Figure 5-4 shows the basic types of permanent stock methods:

how inventory levels vary, how much to order at what inventory
level, how long delivery takes, and how much spare stock is left
for different rates of consumption.
The different methods are explained below:
Order-point method. This basic fixed-quantity method is
the most common method of ordering. It is suitable for small
spare parts with a fairly stable rate of consumption. A fixed quan-
tity of stock is ordered when the inventory has dropped to a pre-
set level (the order point P), with the aim of taking delivery when
the minimum stock level (m) is reached.
Double-bin method. In this method, also called the double-
box or double-shelf method, the order point and the quantity
ordered are the same. Two containers, each holding the order
quantity (the order point), are prepared for each part, and an
order is issued when one container becomes empty. This method
is suitable for bolts, nuts, and other low-cost parts stocked in
large quantities.
Package method. In this method, parts are kept in packages
(paper packages, boxes, or bundles) holding a quantity equiva-
lent to the order point. The loose parts are used first, and an
order is issued as soon as a new package is opened, using the
order form attached to the package.
Since no record of parts issued is kept in either the double-bin
or the package method, administration is simplified. Both methods
are limited to low-cost items, however, since they do not permit a
continuous check on the number of parts left in stock.
 256 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Average Low High |

Fixed-Quantity consumption consumption consumption
Ordering rate rate rate

Order quantity (E) Order point

E/2

Average stock level 、

E/2 (m+ E/2)

Delivery - Delivery Delivery

time time time
(D) (D) (D)

Fixed-Number
Ordering Order Quantity Order Quantity
quantity used quantity used

Quantity
me Order
quantity
Fixed | -—-————— Aue as
Average stock level
ho (fixed number x x%)

Fixed-Period Delivery Delivery Delivery

Ordering time time time

Predicted Low consumption High consumption rate

consumption rate rate
Average
PS cycle stock
E/2

Order
E/2° quantity

Uy Y
クン
お
ンクry
Delivery time Delivery time Delivery time Delivery time
Order cycle Order cycle Order cycle

Figure 5-4. Permanent Stock Ordering Methods

 Preventive Maintenance 257.

Batch issue method. In this method, the person requesting

the parts receives a batch to store at the shop floor where they
will be used. Another batch is requested when the parts are used
up. Batches contain a standard number of parts. This is a suitable
method for reducing the administrative costs of handling cheap,
frequently used parts such as bolts and nuts.
Fixed-quantity ordering method. In this method, the
maximum inventory quantity is set to as small a value as possi-
ble, and an order is issued each time a part is used. Thus a fixed
number of parts is always kept in stock. This method is suitable
for expensive, infrequently required parts such as shafts or other
high-priced metal parts.
Fixed-interval ordering method. In this method, the order-
ing interval is set to a fixed period such as once a year or once
every six months. The amount to be ordered varies as necessary.
This method is suitable for parts whose frequency of use remains
fairly constant, such as tools. It is convenient to coordinate the
ordering dates with the financial schedule.

Methods Based on Special Contracts with Suppliers

These methods are based on special contracts with the

suppliers to simplify ordering, delivery, and storage, and to
make administrative procedures more efficient.
Partial-delivery method based on unit-price contract. Under
this method, the unit price of the parts is determined from the aver-
age quantity used over the order period. A watch is kept on the
stock level, and the parts are delivered in small batches. This is an
effective method for permanently stocked parts with a fixed rate of
consumption.
Deposit system. In this system, the warehouse is in effect
loaned to the supplier, who retains possession of the materials de-
posited in it. Only the materials used are paid for, which is an éffec-
tive method for parts with a constant rate of consumption and
specifications that rarely change. Because it is so convenient,
258 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

however, the inventory level tends to increase and storage can

become a problem. It is also difficult to switch to another vendor.

Selecting Permanent Stock

Consider each item and size of spare part to see whether it is

possible to estimate when and in what quantity it should be
used. In principle, if estimation is possible, that part should not
be treated as permanent stock. If the part is required often, how-
ever, it may be treated as permanent stock to make ordering
more efficient.
If the use of a spare part cannot be estimated, it must be
treated as permanent stock. While this may result in high inventory
costs, the decision must take into account possible production
losses due to stoppages. It is usually less costly to keep a perma-
nent stock of the parts whose unavailability will cause serious
production stoppages.
Spare parts with the following characteristics should be desig-
nated as permanent stock whether or not they can be estimated:
* Parts that must be available in the event of breakdown un-
less backup machinery or equipment is available.
* Parts that must be purchased three or four times a year.
(Those that must be purchased two to three times a year
can be planned for and should not be treated as perma-
nent stock).
・ Parts that are likely to fail between maintenance periods.
These should be treated as permanent stock in readiness
for breakdowns.
・ Replacement parts salvaged for emergency repairs, such
as compressor cylinder valves.
* Parts with delivery times longer than the planned service
intervals.
Fixed-quantity ordering is the most common method for
maintenance spare parts. When selecting permanent stock
items, consider what those who will be affected by the decision
have to say and decide the ordering method at the same time.
 Preventive Maintenance 259

Establishing Order Points and Quantities

For daily control of permanent stock, two standards are

needed: the order point (when to order) and the order quantity
(how much to order).
Using the same method to control all the permanent stock
often leads to overstocking. Therefore, order spare parts in the
following three ways depending on how the parts are consumed:
Fixed quantity. A fixed quantity is ordered when the order
point is reached. The order quantity is based on the economic lot
(Figure 5-5).
Fixed number. When parts are used, the number used is or-
dered immediately, thus keeping a fixed number always in stock.
Since this method results in frequent ordering, it is only suitable
for expensive, infrequently used parts.
Salvaged parts. These parts are repaired, stored, and
reused. If the item is expensive, try to increase the turnaround
efficiency.
Issues to be discussed regarding salvaged parts are as follows:
* How many parts, both new and salvaged, should be read-
ily available?
¢ At what inventory level (new parts + salvaged parts)
should an order be issued?
¢ What quantity should be ordered?
These are calculated by either the fixed-quantity or fixed-
number method.

MAINTENANCE BUDGET CONTROL

AND MAINTENANCE COST REDUCTION

Equipment budgets are generally classified and controlled

according to the purpose of the expenditure or the type of work,
either as capital expenditure or running costs or as a period ex-
pense. Since capital expenditures (generally categorized in a
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 Preventive Maintenance 261

fixed-asset account) and running costs (generally expensed) are

treated completely differently for accounting purposes, they
must be clearly distinguished.

What Are Maintenance Costs?

Capital expenditures, such as the cost of new, expanded, re-

placed, or revamped equipment, are purchases that are treated
as fixed assets. Depending on the company, they are part of a
capital-improvement budget, construction budget, expansion
budget, or new-product budget.
Running costs, on the other hand, are expenditures that are
treated as the cost of maintaining and restoring equipment to its
intended use. These are maintenance costs and are generally re-
ferred to as overhaul costs, repair costs, restoring costs, and so on.
Maintenance costs are usually treated as running costs from
an accounting standpoint and are identified by their grouping
into categories such as maintenance material costs, maintenance
labor costs, and disbursed maintenance costs (subcontracting
costs). To help control the maintenance budget, however, they
should be classified in one of the following ways to provide effec-
tive control data:

Classification by Purpose

The following costs are classified by their purpose:

Routine maintenance costs include labor and material costs for
routine maintenance activities designed to prevent equipment
deterioration such as cleaning, lubrication, inspection, and ad-
justment.
Equipment inspection costs include labor and material costs for
inspections to discover abnormalities and determine whether
equipment is serviceable or defective.
Repair costs include labor and material costs for repairs to re-
store equipment to its original condition.
262 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Classification by Maintenance Method

Costs are also classified by the type of maintenance per-

formed:
・ preventive maintenance costs (PM)
¢ breakdown maintenance costs (BM)
・ maintainability improvement costs (MI)

Classification by Constituent Elements

Other costs are classified by their elements:

Maintenance material costs cover the costs of materials used
for maintenance, such as spare parts, general materials, consum-
ables, lubricants, jigs, tools, and so on. It is important to identify
and analyze these items in detail.
In-house labor costs include the labor costs of operators per-
forming autonomous maintenance as well as the labor costs of
the maintenance department.
Subcontracting costs are maintenance costs paid to outside
contractors.

Other Cost Classification Methods

Other ways of classifying costs include

・ scale of work, (e.g., large-scale, major maintenance pro-
jects, and miscellaneous, small jobs)
・ type of work, (e.g., mechanical, electrical, piping, instru-
mentation)

Estimation and Control of Maintenance Budgets

The following cost classifications are helpful in estimating

and controlling maintenance budgets (Table 5-12):
 Preventive Maintenance 263

Expenditure Description

Costs generated when new parts are issued

pe 9 Ra 2 on

Parts repair, Costs of processing parts for re-use, e.g.,

restoration, and replacing rubber linings, overlaying, machining, salvaged parts
overhaul costs and welding

Maintenance labor Inspection, adjustment, repair, parts replace-

costs ment, and other labor costs

Steel materials, cleaning oil, cotton waste,

General materials
rubber, paint, seals, and miscellaneous
costs
materials costs

5|Lubricant costs Lubricating oils, hydraulic fluids, etc. sihataons serited

Costs of accident prevention, lifetime extension,

Maintainability Maintainability
breakdown reduction, and other improvements
improvement improvement cost
for maintenance purposes

Costs to improve productivity, such as product Production

Production quality and yield increases, energy consump-
improvement costs improvement cost
tion, and so on

回 Jig and tool costs Costs ofjigs and tools for maintenance work ieee |

Costs of repairing design weaknesses and These costs are

breakdowns in newly-installed equipment. Such essentially different
Commissioning problems often occur during the commissioning from normal repair
costs phase due to problems running in process costs, so identify
or lack of familiarity of operators and mainte- separately as com-
nance staff missioning costs

From Hibi, Maintenance Economy (Tokyo: Nikkan Kogyo Shimbunsha, 1968)

Table 5-12. Classification of Maintenance Costs for Effective Budget Control

Methods of Estimating Maintenance Budgets

Various methods for estimating maintenance budgets are

generally used:
Estimate based on actual expenditures. Since mainte-
nance costs, unlike material costs, do not increase or decrease in
proportion to operating ratios, they can be estimated on the basis
of the previous year’s actual expenditures. In this method,
264 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

changes in operating rates and other conditions are considered

and the budget is estimated by slightly adjusting the previous
year’s figures upward or downward.
Repair-cost rate method. In this method, the equipment
cost is multiplied by a maintenance-cost percentage calcu-
lated from past expenditures. For example, if the maintenance
costs amounted to 6 percent of the equipment acquisition cost,
the budget for equipment costing $50,000 would be
$50,000 x 0.06 = $3,000.
Unit-cost method. In this method, charts are prepared corre-
lating production amounts, operating times, electricity consumed,
or other variables, with data on actual repair costs. These charts
are then used to calculate the maintenance budget. In the formula
y =ax + b, y is the budget amount, x is the production amount,
operating time, electricity consumed, or other yardstick, a is the
maintenance cost per unit of the yardstick, and bis the fixed cost.
Zero-base method. This is a detailed method of accumulating
material, labor, and other maintenance costs. The maintenance
budget is estimated by reviewing every item of equipment on the
annual maintenance plan (the maintenance calendar) and cal-
culating the amount of material and labor needed.
Mixed methods. The four methods described above can be
combined as appropriate.

Compiling Maintenance Cost Budgets

Maintenance costs are treated as running costs for accounting

purposes and are dealt with separately from equipment budgets,
which constitute capital expenditures. For tax purposes, capital
expenditures representing fixed-asset purchases must be clearly
differentiated from maintenance costs. Technically speaking,
however, maintenance work is often a mixture of revamping, re-
placement, repair, and other work, and is related to equipment
budgets for capital expenditure. Therefore, equipment budgets
and maintenance budgets should be considered together.
 Preventive Maintenance 265

Figure 5-6 shows what happens in practice. Budget alloca-

tions are derived from management policies and plans, while
budget demands are calculated from totals for major maintenance
projects, estimated from historical data. This process is called
budget reconciliation. Once budget allocations are reconciled to
budget demands, the budget has been compiled.

Management policy

Management plans
Term Profit plan ・ Sales plan
Plans Production plan ・ Equipment plan
Personnel plan ・ Financial plan
Maintenance costs ratios:
Maintenance costs/sales amount
Maintenance budget allocation --| Maintenance costs/production amount
Maintenance costs/manufacturing costs
Maintenance costs/fixed assets

Adjustment

Budget requested

Total maintenance co: imal

PR Sine wdicee

Preventive maintenance Po Replacement

Major maintenance project plans トー-| Breakdown maintenance interval
Maintainability improvement

1970), 545
S. Nakajima, Introduction to Plant Engineering (Tokyo: Japan Management Association,

Figure 5-6. Maintenance Budget Compilation Flowchart

Maintenance Budget Control

Maintenance budget control means controlling maintenance

activities so that the fiscal year (or period) budget targets are
achieved. For effective control activity, consider the following
points:
266 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Make everyone aware of the need for budget control. Explain

the period’s maintenance budget and plans to all maintenance
department personnel and everyone else concerned. Make cer-
tain everyone understands and accepts current industrial
trends, the company’s industrial position, its customers’ require-
ments, and other background information. Persuade them of the
need for budget control and press for their cooperation.
Monitor maintenance expenditures closely. As the fiscal
year progresses, review the status of the budget commitments
and expenditures at regular intervals. Establish clear systems for
issuing, sorting, and totaling payment vouchers indicating actual
maintenance expenditures, and for issuing formal maintenance
records and reports, so that the status of the maintenance budget
can be readily determined.
Deal effectively with problems. Those responsible for con-
trolling the maintenance budget should keep a close watch on its
progress. Use the methods for monitoring the status of the
budget outlined above to identify and quantify any deviation
from the maintenance cost totals. After identifying any devia-
tion, target its source and take appropriate action.

Reducing Maintenance Costs

Every company has room to reduce its maintenance costs.

The priorities are different for different industries and types of
equipment, but several general points can be noted.

Review Periodic Maintenance Intervals

No two components or parts in a machine deteriorate at the

same rate, so periodic maintenance or overhaul intervals should
be determined by the parts with the shortest lives. Maintenance
is often set at six-month, ten-month, or other scheduled inter-
vals. All intervals should be reviewed at least once a year. It is
also important to introduce equipment diagnostic techniques
and to switch over, step by step, from time-based to condition-
based methods.
 Preventive Maintenance 267

Switch from Outside Contracting to In-House Fabrication

The biggest item in the maintenance budget is preventive

maintenance work, and disbursed costs usually account for most
of it. If too much reliance is placed on outside contractors, valu-
able in-house maintenance techniques and skills will flow out,
making it impossible to develop the necessary PM experience.
Subcontracted maintenance should be gradually brought in-
house so that all work currently contracted out is eventually per-
formed internally.

Review Spare Parts

A look inside most spare-parts stores will show that inven-

tory levels are higher than necessary. Valves, flanges, V-belts,
and gaskets are sometimes stored for two or three years con-
sumption and, in some cases, deteriorate before they are used.
Even when order-point control is being exercised, the order
point in use may no longer suit present conditions. Reduce the
number of permanent stock items and increase the number of
planned-purchase items.

Use Idle Equipment Effectively

Longstanding throwaway habits encourage the discarding

of old equipment as soon as it has been replaced. Try instead to
conserve resources and consider whether an article can be sal-
vaged and reused before discarding it.
Often, plants have many unused pumps, motors, and other
equipment. Contact other plants in the company to see if these
can be used elsewhere.

Reduce Energy and Resource Use

A tour of any plant usually reveals energy waste. Obvious

waste includes leaking oil, compressed air, steam, and water;
lights left on unnecessarily; and idling furnaces and motors, for
268 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

example. Scattered parts, raw materials fallen from the line, and
other forms of waste are also easy to find.

Eliminate Equipment Losses

Considerable losses are generated by equipment — for

example, energy and yield losses during repair and restoration
and product defects due to deterioration in equipment func-
tions. These can be greatly reduced by maximizing equipment
efficiency through the introduction of TPM.

Companywide Cost Reduction Activities

Maintenance costs are often hard to reduce in spite of daily

efforts by maintenance personnel. More dramatic cost reduc-
tions are achieved when operators and other indirect personnel
are also involved in companywide activities. These group activities
can be organized in the following manner:
Form a project team. Form a project team combining the
maintenance, engineering, and production departments with
purchasing and accounting staff.
Identify current maintenance costs. Examine the mainte-
nance expenditures for the previous year or period. Establish
how much each department spent on each item of equipment,
whether the work was done by outside contractors or in-house,
and what kind of work was performed. Table 5-13 (see pp. 270-271)
is an example of a maintenance costs survey form.
Set targets. Set improvement targets after examining the
maintenance costs for the whole factory from the totals columns
on the costs survey forms. In particular, look beyond outside pay-
ments and consider in-house labor costs, especially management-
personnel costs.
Prepare progress plans. After setting targets, prepare
detailed progress plans showing when individual targets are to
be achieved and who will be responsible for them.
 Preventive Maintenance 269

Select priority equipment. Prepare pareto analyses for each

item of equipment from the maintenance-costs survey charts
mentioned above, and designate A-ranked equipment as prior-
ity equipment. The number of priority items should be no larger
than the number of people on the project team.
Select priority cost items. Select priority cost items from
the cost types and uses shown on the survey forms. Determine
the order of priority by preparing pareto analyses for each. To
maximize effectiveness, select a single item initially and tackle it
thoroughly, checking the results before moving on to the next item.
Carry out appropriate improvement measures for each
item. Once the targeted equipment and items have been deter-
mined, plan and take the appropriate action. Analyze the
sources of maintenance costs and prepare improvement plans
for tackling them. A good way to produce new ideas is to bring
project team members together with others concerned and con-
duct brainstorming sessions.
Measure results and follow up. As the work is carried out,
the project leader should ensure that results are measured and
evaluated properly at each step of the process. If only a tenuous
connection exists between targets set and actual progress, and if
results are not clearly measured and evaluated, little practical ef-
fect is achieved.

Follow-up action is also important. For example, decide

what should be done about targets that could not be met; find
out when such targets can be achieved realistically, and so on.

LUBRICATION CONTROL

Lubrication control ensures that equipment is properly

lubricated and that lubrication problems such as leakage and
contamination are prevented. Lubrication control increases
equipment cost-effectiveness by raising productivity and reduc-
ing operating and maintenance costs.
Lubrication control is generally split into control of the lub-
ricant materials themselves and control of the techniques used.
270 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Maintenance Cost Breakdown

ーー ニー ニニーー

Year Type of Costs

Year (period)
Process (period) | In-house In-house Materials/
Budget | cost and spare
expenditure

Ishii, “How to Reduce Maintenance Costs”, Plant Engineer (February 1978)

Table 5-13. Maintenance Cost Breakdown

Materials control covers the purchase, acceptance, storage, and

issue of fresh lubricants and the disposal of spent lubricants;
technical control covers the actual use of the lubricants, that is,
the type, quantity, method, and timing of application.
 Preventive Maintenance 271

ma
Preventive Breakdown
Total maintenance maintenance
costs costs

Types and Uses of Lubricants

The lubricants used in most ordinary mechanical equipment

can be grouped in the following three categories, depending on
their use: lubricating oils, greases, and solid lubricants.
272 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Lubricating Oils
General lubricating oils. There are many lubricating oils
— from mineral-oil-based, animal-based, and vegetable-based
to synthetic and compound oils. The main types are mineral-oil-
based and compound oils.
Cutting oils. These reduce friction between cutting tools
and the materials being machined, prevent the tool from de-
positing on the work, and reduce tool wear. They increase the
machinability of the workpiece, the accuracy of the finished
surface, and the lifetime of the tools.

Greases

Greases are lubricating oils mixed with soap or inorganic

thickening agents, making them semisolid or semiliquid at normal
temperatures. Greases do not drip, splatter, or become contami-
nated easily. While they adhere well to surfaces to be lubricated
and have excellent load-bearing capacity, their disadvantages
include considerable mixing resistance and consequent easy
heating, poor thermal dissipation and cooling, and large viscosity
changes produced by changes in temperature and shearing force.

Solid Lubricants

Various types of solid lubricant have come into use recently.

Most of these are used in conjunction with oils and greases, to
which they may be added under certain limited conditions.
Molybdenum disulfide is a typical example.

Lubricating Methods

Lubricating methods may be classified broadly into disposa-

ble, or once-through, methods and self-contained methods. The
characteristics and uses of these methods are shown in Figures
5-7 and 5-8.
 Preventive Maintenance 273

Lubrication Method Characteristics Practical Examples

Hand-lubrication method Oil supplied by hand- Spinning machines,

held oil can printing machines,
machine tools, and other
equipment with low
rotation speeds

Oilis held in a glass Engines, pumps, com-

reservoir and supplied pressor crosshead
Oil feed-rate
「 〕 ーーーーー
ペ adjusting screw at an adjustable rate guides, machine
tools, etc.
Cap

This device utilizes the Locomotive engines,

syphon action of a wick, small electric motors,
drawing up oil from one etc.
end and dripping itfrom
the other

Oil dripping down from Used for steam

force-feed a sight gage is sent cylinders, internal
method through the oil supply combustion engines,
Non-return valve pipe by a plunger pump and horizontal
compressors

Oil seeps evenly through Used for open half-

a felt pad from an oil bearings
basin above the shaft

Asmall amount of oil is High-speed bearings,

mixed with air under plain or anti-friction,
pressure forming a mist enclosed gears, chains,
that lightly coats the slides, etc.
contact surfaces

Figure 5-7. Once-Through Lubrication Methods

274 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Lubrication Method Characteristics Practical Examples

Bottom pad method The packing soaked Wheel bearings, etc.

in lubricant absorbs
through capillary ac-
sy] tion and lubricates
the rubbing surfaces
by contact
vy)

(woolen yarn)

Oil-chain method Oilis lifted up and Crankcases of low-

supplied to the contact speed, intermediate or
Oil-ring method surfaces by a rotating high-load compressors,
ring or chain pillow blocks, general
machinery bearings, etc.

Worm-gear oil Oilis lifted up to the Low and intermediate-

bath method rubbing surfaces by speed sealed gears,
the rotating action speed reducer bear-
ings, etc.

The oilis sent from the Steam turbines, diesel

oil tank to the contact engines, bearings of
surfaces by pumps and rolling mills, screens,
returns to the tank after speed reducers, and
completing its lubricat- other large machines
ing action. Heat gener-
ated at the contact
surfaces is carried
away by the oil

Figure 5-8. Self-Contained Lubrication Methods

 Preventive Maintenance 275

Once-through Methods
Hand lubrication. In this method oil must be added at
short intervals because too much oil is present just after applica-
tion and too little after time has passed. The method should be
restricted to high-viscosity oils and used where there is little
movement.
Sight-feed oiler. In this method oil is drop-fed by gravity.
The amount of oil is proportional to the aperture of the feed valve
and to the square root of the valves distance below the surface of
the oil in the supply tank. Thus the rate at which the oil is
supplied varies with time. For example, if the tank is refilled
when the oil level has dropped by 40 percent, the drip rate will be
two-thirds its original value. The rate is also easily affected by
vibration and changes in the atmospheric temperature, however,
and valves are easily clogged by dust or other foreign matter. For
this reason, the equipment used in this method requires careful
maintenance.
Syphon-type wicker oiler. Since this method makes use of
the siphon action of a wick, the supply rate varies with changes
in the oil level even more than in the sight-feed oiler. The same
care should be taken in maintaining the equipment used in this
method. This method is unsuitable for high-viscosity oils.
Mechanical force-feed lubricator. In this method, the sup-
ply of oil is controlled by varying the stroke of a plunger with an
adjusting screw. The lubricator can be checked during operation
by means of a sight tube. If no oil drops can be seen, the cause
may be wear of the plunger cam, blockage in the oil supply pipe,
or a low supply of oil. When this occurs, the unit must be dis-
mantled and inspected immediately.
Pad oiler. In this method, even lubrication is achieved
through a felt pad in the oil reservoir that also acts as a filter.
However, when there is only a small amount of oil present, the
felt tends to harden at the contact points and wear away, leading
to insufficient lubrication. The equipment should therefore be in-
spected frequently.
276 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Oil mist. This method injects oil drop by drop in a stream

of pressurized air, creating a mist that applies just enough oil to
wet the operating surfaces. It has various advantages and has re-
cently been widely adopted. The equipment has relatively few
parts and is easy to maintain. If chosen to match the equipment,
it is an efficient method of lubrication. Only the air carrying the
oil must be controlled.

Self-contained Methods

Bottom-feed wick oiler. In addition to protecting the

equipment from dust, the packing helps to filter the oil. It must
therefore be cleaned periodically.
Ring oiler. In this method, the oil is circulated and reused
over relatively long periods and should therefore be of inter-
mediate quality or higher. Take care when using high pour-point
oils at low temperatures, since their flow resistance will be high
and this will check the rotation of the ring or chain and increase
the likelihood of insufficient lubrication.
Worm-gear bath oiler. Here, the oil is recycled over a long
period and inevitably becomes contaminated by metal particles
from the contact surfaces and by dust and other foreign matter
from outside. It should therefore be analyzed periodically and re-
placed as necessary. Also, check the oil level as part of routine
inspection procedures.
Pressure-circulating system. When this method is used to
supply oil to many lubrication points on large items of machinery,
insufficient lubrication will have very serious consequences. For
this reason, and because the same oil is circulated over long
periods of time, use an oil with excellent antioxidation, antifoam-
ing, anticorrosion, and moisture separation properties. Analyze
the oil regularly and recondition it, replace it, or adjust its viscos-
ity at suitable intervals. The circulating equipment itself must
also be carefully maintained. In addition to checking oil gages,
cleaning and inspecting filters and strainers, and dismantling
and inspecting coolers and heaters to prevent any loss of efficiency,
routinely inspect all oil supply rates, levels, and pressures.
 Preventive Maintenance 277,

In self-contained systems of lubrication, the lubricant is in

constant contact with metal surfaces over long periods and is af-
fected by air, moisture, heat, and the like, each of which contrib-
utes to deterioration of the lubricant. It turns brown, its viscosity
increases, and eventually it gives off a pungent odor and loses its
lubricating properties.

Controlling Deterioration and Contamination of Lubricants

Lubricants deteriorate or become contaminated for a variety

of reasons that must be well understood if lubrication is to be ef-
fectively controlled.

Oxidation

A lubricant deteriorates because its unstable constituents

absorb oxygen from the air and form oxides. The following fac-
tors accelerate this process:
Heat. The rate of oxidation generally doubles when the
temperature rises by 10° C.
Contact with metals. All lubricants exercise their lubricat-
ing action by contact with the surfaces of metals. The lubricants
become contaminated by metal particles produced by friction.
Since these particles are extremely small, they present a large
surface area to the lubricant and promote oxidation through
catalytic action.
Contact with moisture. If moisture is present ina lubricant,
it forms an emulsion when agitated, initiating corrosion of the
metal surfaces and promoting oxidation of the lubricant.

Contamination

Lubricants become contaminated both by metal particles

from the contact surfaces and by foreign matter from outside. In
practice, the effect of this contamination is greater than the effect
278 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

of deterioration of the oil through oxidation. Contamination pro-

duces seizure, scuffing, abrasion, cavitation, fatigue of contact
surfaces, noise, vibration, deterioration of the lubricant, and so
on. The contamination may consist of a fine residue of sand,
carbon, metal, fiber, or other materials. This is an extremely
troublesome problem, since 70 to 80 percent of these particles are
less than 10, in diameter, while particles visible to the naked eye
are at least 100, in diameter.
Although the rates are different for different types of lubri-
cants, they all gradually deteriorate and become contaminated.
Methods of combating this are summarized in Table 5-14. The
points listed in the table should be observed carefully and efforts
made to preserve the lubricant’s properties over long periods.

. Use oils with viscosity and other properties suitable for the operating conditions.
Under severe operating conditions, use high-grade oils with appropriate additives.
. Avoid unnecessary agitation caused by oversupply of oil and, as much as
possible, keep oils away from contact with air.
. Analyze oils regularly during use and periodically recondition them or adjust their
viscosity to avoid hastening deterioration.
4. Do not raise the temperature of the lubrication system unnecessarily.
. Clean the lubrication system regularly and periodically remove contamination
from within the system.
. Toprevent the introduction of moisture, steam and dust, use appropriate sealing
devices and covers and ventilate the lubrication system.
. Use lubrication devices suited to the equipment and maintain them scrupulously.

Table 5-14. Actions to Prevent Deterioration and Contamination of Lubricants

Key Points for Daily Inspection

No matter how high the quality of the lubricant and lubri-

cating devices used, they should be maintained and used under
optimum conditions. It is vital to detect abnormalities quickly
and take the right corrective action. Key points for routine in-
spection of lubricants are listed below:
Control lubricant level. Checking levels is one of the most
important points in maintaining proper lubrication. Set appro-
priate levels for each item of equipment and take steps to ensure
 Preventive Maintenance 279
ーー

that the levels established can be properly maintained. Although

conditions of application vary, general standards for the differ-
ent lubrication methods are shown in Table 5-15.
Check lubricant temperature. Since increases in temp-
erature reduce the viscosity of a lubricant and accelerate its
deterioration, rigorous routine checks are needed to ensure that

Oil Level
Lubrication Maximum Oil level Minimum Oil Level
Method

Drip method Full height of oil reservoir Va of height of oil reservoir

Pad Method 5
Full height 5 : Minimum height whiechwill
of oil basin completely immerse pad

: : 76 of ring diameter above ¥% of ring diameter above

Maximum height at which no

oil will spill from oil basin Height which fully immerses
Chalr-oller during operation lower part of chain in oil

F 2 height of collar from bottom

Oil-mist method Strictly observe level specified on oil supply receptacle

Mechanical force-feed Full height of oil reservoir or 8 of height of oil reservoir

method level gage or level gage

Oil-bath method Level that immerses a suspended weight to a depth of 3-5cm

* Compressor crankcases without any oil touching the stuffing box

+ Roller bearings: No more than 1‘/o of ring

ina diameter
di above bottom of rin g

* Roller bearings: 1Ve—4/s

ら一 4 of roller diameter
i above bottom of rollers

¢ Chains: sprocket bath Height that completely immerses one sprocket tooth

* Chains: chain bath Height that immerses ring plate of lowest part of chain

F : 94o of tank height when Ye tank height when in

Table 5-15. Oil Level Standards for Different Lubrication Methods

280 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

temperatures do not rise above the specified values or remain

there for long periods.
Control lubrication rate. Applying the correct amount of
lubricant is the most important aspect of lubrication control. In-
sufficient lubricant naturally means insufficient lubrication, but
excess lubricant is also undesirable because spillage can also bea
problem. Make sure the specified amount of lubricant is being
supplied to the equipment as part of routine inspection proce-
dures. This must be done very conscientiously, since if lubricant
is not being supplied at the proper rate, mechanical wear or break-
down will occur in a very short time.
Lubrication control means ensuring that the correct amount
of a suitable lubricant is supplied to the required parts of the
equipment in the exact quantity needed. It is important to instill
the habit of first checking the state of lubrication whenever any
problems are encountered with equipment.

PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE AND

MACHINE DIAGNOSTIC TECHNIQUES

The maintenance methodologies known as predictive mainte-

nance and condition-based maintenance are attracting attention as
highly reliable replacements for conventional periodic mainte-
nance and overhaul. Gradually, more and more Japanese factories
are beginning to use these new methods.

The Need for Predictive Maintenance

The methods constitute a new type of preventive mainte-

nance that uses modern measurement and signal-processing
techniques to accurately diagnose the condition of equipment
during operation and determine when maintenance is required.
To remain competitive, companies must switch from periodic
maintenance to predictive maintenance for equipment that is ex-
pensive to repair or that causes serious losses if it breaks down.
 Preventive Maintenance 281
sata a ath aes SS PN Re RUS a t

Machine Diagnostic Techniques

The intervals for conventional periodic maintenance and

overhaul are usually decided by determining the maximum
operating times from breakdown statistics and from visual in-
spections. As modern equipment has become more advanced
and complex, however, its performance can no longer be judged
through conventional intuition and experience based on the
senses. Moreover, as equipment systems grow in size and com-
plexity, the numbers of widely varying operating conditions also
increase. Maximum operating times calculated from breakdown
statistics and probability computations are increasingly subject
to large experimental errors.
If possible, overhaul and maintenance intervals should be
derived scientifically, based on an accurate grasp of machine con-
ditions. This is where the need for machine diagnostic technology
comes in.
Machine diagnostic technology measures the stress on
equipment and its malfunctions, deterioration, strength, per-
formance, and other properties without dismantling. It helps
diagnose and predict equipment reliability and capacity by dis-
tinguishing and evaluating the cause, location, and degree of
danger of any malfunction, and indicating a method of repair.
Equipment diagnosis naturally centers on identifying current
conditions, but it is not simply a question of determining present
symptoms. It is a technology for monitoring continuous change.

Application and Aims of Predictive Maintenance

The types of breakdown to which predictive maintenance is

applicable are limited to those in which changes in previously set
parameters can be detected and used to forecast breakdowns. It
is not suitable when there is no means of detecting malfunctions
in advance. It is also unsuitable when the costs of monitoring will
be higher than the savings in repair costs or production losses.
282 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Predictive maintenance aims

・ to reduce breakdowns and accidents caused by equipment

・to increase operating times and production
* to reduce maintenance times and costs
* to increase the quality of products and services

Condition Monitoring Techniques

Condition monitoring is the application of machine diag-

nostic technology. The following seven techniques are used:
Thermal methods. These include the use of thermal paint
to render motor overheating visible and thermography to monitor
the temperature of furnaces and the condition of power lines.
Lubricant monitoring. Methods range in sophistication
from monitoring lubricant color, oxidation, and metal particle
content to spectrochemical analysis.
Leak detection. Leaks from pressure vessels are detected
using ultrasonics or halogen gases.
Crack detection. Cracks are detected using magnetic flux,
electrical resistance, eddy currents, ultrasonic waves, or radiation.

Vibration monitoring. Shock pulse and other methods are

used, mainly on machinery with moving parts.
Noise monitoring. Various types of devices monitor the
condition of equipment through the noise it generates.
Corrosion monitoring. Acoustic emission and other methods
are used to monitor the condition of metals.
Of the above seven methods, thermal monitoring, lubricant
monitoring, and vibration monitoring constitute the most fre-
quently used condition-monitoring techniques related to pre-
dictive maintenance.
 Preventive Maintenance 283

Condition Monitoring and Machine Diagnosis

The condition-monitoring techniques considered suitable

for monitoring the general condition of a machine using a
number of measuring points are vibration monitoring, thermal
monitoring, and lubricant monitoring. These correspond to
monitoring a person’s pulse, temperature, and blood pressure.
Machine diagnosis starts with quantitative measurement of
the machine's condition during operation. Condition monitor-
ing is extremely important, and the key to the rapid detection of
malfunctions is selecting the correct technique. In rotating and
reciprocating machinery, for example, vibration and noise
monitoring are the most effective condition-monitoring
techniques. Even under normal conditions, rotating machinery
generates vibration and noise because of slight mechanical
irregularities or the properties of fluids being processed. This
vibration and noise will often increase, however, as a minor in-
ternal malfunction develops into a major problem.
Therefore, the vibration and noise levels of the equipment are
measured under normal conditions, and the changes in the levels
are measured periodically. This reveals the onset of malfunctions
and permits the prediction and prevention of deterioration and
breakdowns. Moreover, since particular malfunctions generate
unique patterns of vibration and noise, an analysis of these will
help identify the location and cause of the malfunction.

Case Study 5-1 — Predicting Life Span

through Vibration Monitoring

At Fuji Photo Film's Ashigara plant, the life span of blowers

was predicted through the use of vibration meters. Vibration
meters are useful for diagnosing rotating parts and are generally
available.
284 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

One thousand blowers were targeted for preventive main-

tenance. Since they operated 24 hours a day, a breakdown seri-
ously affected the associated equipment. Repairs took as long as
five or six hours. When the preventive maintenance system was
introduced, the blowers were overhauled once every two years.
No malfunctions were detected in most of the blowers during
these overhauls, however; on the contrary, many malfunctions
were actually caused by the overhauls. After considering whether
to extend the overhaul intervals, the project team decided to
measure the deterioration of the blowers and use vibration meters
to help judge when overhauls were needed. This was accom-
plished after two years of experiments and trials.
Figure 5-9 shows the measurement points on the blowers.
At first, the acceleration (g) and the vibration amplitude (x) of the
specified points were measured at six points — A through F —
giving a total of twelve measurements. As the frequency of mea-
surement increased, adding even one measuring point resulted
in a large number of measurements. For this reason, and to reduce
the number of measuring manhours required, the measurement
points were later reduced to two (A and B), and to A only for less
important blowers.

Kagiwada, “Predicting Equipment Lifetimes

through Vibration Measurements”, Plant
Engineering (July, 1974)

Figure 5-9. Measurement Points

Figure 5-10 shows the trends in the vibration measurements.

・ Blower A is normal
* Blower B: During routine inspections, Blower B was
found to be vibrating more than normal. On measuring
 Preventive Maintenance 285

the vibration, only the acceleration was higher than be-

fore, with a value of 0.6 g. Ten days later it reached 1.0 g.
Overhauling the blower disclosed that the bearing and
the shaft on the pulley side were rubbing. The shaft was
worn by approximately ‘oo of its diameter.
* Blower C: Routine inspection revealed that Blower C was
vibrating abnormally in the same manner as Blower B.

(H) (9 Blower A
60 0.6 Amplitude (x) Acceleration (g)
40 0.4 a
- ンー つ
20 02 nn つ ーー

1970 1112 1/29 213 3/2 3717 43 4/9 6/22 8/71 4/72 6773 2/74

Measurement day

Blower B

Overhaul
テッ 『 Acceleration (9)
60 』 Amplitude (x)

“ =e pn ae て ーー こそ
20

1970 | 1/12 1/29 2/13 3/2 3/5 37 3/14 3/15 3/16 3/17 4/3 6/22 8/71 4/72 6/73 2/74

Measurement day

(#) (9) BlowerC

80 18
160 1.6 1
生か / PR

3 ^J |
> Amplitude (u) 7

80 0.8 Acceleration (9) 1

60 06
40
20
1970 1/12 1/29 2/13 3/2 3/17 4/3 4/9 6/22 7/2 7/3 7/11 8/71 4/72 6/73 2/74
Measurement day
(July,
M. Kagiwada, “Predicting Equipment Life through Vibration Measurements”, Plant Engineering
1974)

Figure 5-10. Results of Vibration Measurements

286 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Measurements indicated that the vibration amplitude was

higher than normal, at 85, while the acceleration had not
changed. Overhauling the blower revealed that the bear-
ings were normal but the attachment bolts were loose.
The use of vibration meters to predict blower life as de-
scribed above allowed a switch from conventional time-based
maintenance to condition-based maintenance. As a result, the
number of overhauls has been halved and maintenance labor
greatly reduced. Furthermore, since the method of inspection
has been quantified and no longer relies on the senses, even inex-
perienced workers can judge whether a machine is malfunction-
ing or not.

REFERENCES

Hibi, S. Maintenance Economy. ( in Japanese) Tokyo: Nikkan Kogyo

Shimbunsha, 1968.
Japan Management Association, ed., Basic Equipment (Facility) Main-
tenance (Course and Text). (in Japanese) Tokyo: JMA, Nakajima,
Seiichi. Promoting Equipment Maintenance (in Japanese). Tokyo:
Japan Management Association, 1969.
. Introduction to Plant Engineering. (in Japanese) Tokyo: Japan
Management Association, 1970.
. Terotechnology. (in Japanese) Tokyo: Japan Institute of Plant
Maintenance, 1975.
Ota, F. Practical Machine Maintenance I-II. (in Japanese) Tokyo: Tech-
nology Evaluation, Ltd., 1975.
Takahashi, Giichi. Production Maintenance Promotion Manual. (in
Japanese) Tokyo: Japan Institute of Plant Maintenance, 1975. n.d.
 6
Maintenance Prevention

WHAT IS MAINTENANCE PREVENTION?

Equipment management can be roughly divided into project

engineering and maintenance engineering. Maintenance preven-
_ tion (MP) is a significant aspect of project engineering that serves
as the interface between project and maintenance engineering.
The goal of maintenance prevention activities is to reduce
maintenance costs and deterioration losses in new equipment by
considering past maintenance data and _the latest technology
when designing for higher reliability, maintainability, operability,
safety, and other requirements. In other words, it means designing
and installing equipment that will be easy to maintain and operate.
In the model illustrated in Figure 6-1, equipment engineer-
ing is systematized using the following four subdivisions:
1. Equipment investment planning (techniques for eval-
uating the economics of equipment investment)
2. Early equipment management (MP design technology)
3. Operation and maintenance (technology for maintain-
ing and improving existing equipment)
4. Rationalization measures (technology for equipment
development and modification)
Note that MP activities are positioned here as early equipment
management (from design to commissioning; see Figure 6-1.)

287
 288 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

| Evaluation of }
equipment investment

Managerial planning Equipment Ea ipment management

: investment planning 0 の control)
md (cost planning)

* Equipment investment Early equipment

…】 budgets for priority management targets
+2} projects (cost, capacity,
applicable
technology, etc.)

Plan equipment
investment
Record of Design and
investment debug
evaluation
Compile equipment
investment budgets Fabricate and
RG
oe.
Feedback
Set specifications, Feedback to Install, test run, pristine
ag: es t i in

basic design, cost standards and debug y

rough cost estimates and evaluation
criteria
Commission and
debugging
Evaluate investment

Cost standards SA Design DWE

Economic evaluation
criteria
| a
N Consider outside technical
information and feedback
to equipment development
and modification

Compare planning and actual

results of economic evaluation
yy,
MMMM
Wi
and feedback to standards
NN
NNNNNN ヾ ささ
Draft countermeasures and budget application
WLLL
Important annual targets for quality,
ググ productivity, running cost reduction, and safety
POs MX IN

Figure 6-1. Equipment Technology Outline

 Maintenance Prevention 289

Maintenance
ー prevention (MP) design —}—______ Equipment improvement 一 ーー

Gp ZZZgg Z Z te
To normal production
based on operation and
maintenance standards
Equipment
performance and
efficiency logs
Document effect Maintain
Feedback to on equipment normal
operation and performance operation
maintenance and efficiency
Early equipment standards
management
records
Maintain and improve
シンシン
シンシン
ン
シンング
Measurement accuracy Increase operability
and reliability Ztiti
Product quality
Reduce equipment
Energy consumption breakdowns
Production output Increase maintain-
ability

Identify current
operating conditions

NNN

Rationalize countermeasures
Feedback (equipment development
to design and modification)
standards

Outside technical
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290 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

At the equipment investment planning stage the following

restrictions and aims are considered and decided:
* technology to be used (production technology, equip-
ment technology)
* quantitative and qualitative capacity of the equipment
* basic specifications of the equipment
* amount to be invested
* running costs (operation manpower, materials and yield,
maintenance costs, energy costs, etc.)

Aims of Maintenance Prevention

Maintenance prevention activities are conducted during

equipment design, fabrication, installation and test run, and
commissioning (establishing normal operation with commercial
production). They include debugging at each stage (detecting
and correcting errors and malfunctions) (Figure 6-2).
These activities are intended to reduce the period between
design and stable operation and to assure efficient progress
through this period with minimum labor and without imbalance
in the workload. They are also intended to ensure that equip-
ment is designed to perform at high levels of reliability, main-
tainability, economy, operability, and safety, and to achieve these
aims within the restrictions set out at the equipment investment
planning stage.
To achieve the aims of MP, the engineering and design en-
gineers responsible for equipment development must be highly
skilled. They must also make full use of all available technical
data, combining the application of this data with technology
based on in-house research and development. This technical
data includes operating and maintenance records, records of im-
provements to existing equipment, equipment development
and modification records, outside technical data, records of past
MP activities, and design standards and checklists based on
these data. Analyzing and applying this information should lead
to new equipment that requires less maintenance and produces
higher quality products.
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 Maintenance Prevention 293

Figure 6-2 shows the MP design methodology used at Tokai

Kubber Industries.

Why Is MP Important?

Without maintenance prevention activities, problems

emerge when new equipment is installed during test-run and
commissioning, even if design, fabrication, and installation appear
to have gone smoothly. Normal operation is difficult to establish,
and production and maintenance engineers may have to make
many changes before achieving full-scale operation.
Even after the equipment is operating normally, minor re-
pairs and inspection, adjustment, lubrication, and cleaning to
prevent deterioration and breakdowns are so complicated that
everyone involved becomes thoroughly discouraged. Under
such circumstances, inspection, lubrication, and cleaning may
be neglected; equipment downtime is prolonged for no good
reason, even over very minor breakdowns.
These kinds of trouble often occur at the startup stage, and
subsequent equipment modifications consist of tying up loose
ends left at the design and fabrication stages. If these phenomena
were truly inevitable in the process of increasing scale, speed,
and automation, dealing with them would be far too problemat-
ical. The role of MP is to minimize these problems, however, by
designing safeguards and countermeasures into the equipment
before its fabrication and installation.

BRIDGING THE INFORMATION GAP

The quality of subsequent productive maintenance is deter-

mined largely by whether the latest technology of equipment
reliability and maintainability is brought in from outside or devel-
oped in-house through the efforts and experience of production,
design, and maintenance staff. It is also determined by whether
full use is made of the company’s accumulated technical expertise
and the exhaustiveness of in-house research and investigations.
294 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

The quality of a company’s MP program depends on the fol-

lowing three factors:
* technical skills and design sense of the engineering and
design engineers
¢ quality and quantity of technical data available
* ease with which this technical data can be used

Increasing Technical Skill

An increase in engineering ability is developed through the

engineer's own creativity and effort, but it is unproductive for the
individual to rely entirely on theoretical study and pure engineer-
ing experience. Engineers from equipment-related departments
should gather technical data from actual operating conditions for
use in reliability and maintainability design. This data can be col-
lated and developed into engineering and design standards.

Increasing Availability of Technical Data

Far too often, however, the technical improvement data ob-

tained by maintenance engineers from routine PM activities is
not used in reliability and maintainability design. The mainte-
nance engineers do not present this data in a form that is accept-
able to design engineers. Moreover, design engineers do not
standardize general technical and maintenance data, so the
maintenance department cannot apply it.
More effective communication between the maintenance
and design engineers is the obvious first step. Maintenance engi-
neers should consider how to compile useful MP data to support
the design department in planning and designing their equip-
ment. In return, design engineers should be responsible for
equipment they have designed, even after it is fabricated and
installed. They should follow up with the understanding that to-
morrow’s technology will be developed from today’s mistakes.
 Maintenance Prevention 295

Collecting and Using MP Data

Figure 6-3 shows a method for collecting and standardizing

MP data. Safety, quality, maintenance, engineering, and other
types of data are gathered, analyzed, and codified. The data is
arranged chronologically and stored in equipment or line history
files. Common technical data that can be used in many types of
equipment is accumulated and standardized in the form of
equipment design standards and safety standards. The data is
available for use throughout the company.

Eyewitness reports
Investigate
Equipment- conditions
related at time of
accidents accident

(At commissioning)
Technical
Process Equipment
Process review and design
performance design
。 capacity
investigations test report (early changes
change
commercial records
operation)
Equipment
files
history

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feedback reports (line)
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future
for
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commercial operation)

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Machine
shop
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commissioning control checklist Analyze conditions
control of operation and
defect occurrence

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Routine control condition and defect operating condition
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commercial operation)
files
history
Line

Parts lifetimes Analyze

MP questionnaires for lifetimes of
investigation critical parts (during critical parts
early commercial
Revise production
operation)
methods

Figure 6-3. Feedback and Standardization of MP Data (Nippondenso)

296 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Classifying Maintenance Data

Maintenance data is a short title, but it covers a large variety

and quantity of data, including equipment improvement records,
breakdown repair records, periodic maintenance records, preci-
sion inspection records, and so on. The engineering department
cannot use this data easily in its original form. It must be putina
form that is useful for design, so data can be retrieved when it is
needed. For breakdown repair records, for example, consider
using hole-sort cards or other record-keeping methods that place
priority on use and allow data to be retrieved through key words
describing the location or cause of the breakdown.

Equipment Improvement Record

Figure 6-4 is an example of an equipment improvement

record. In this example, improvements on a press die are explained
through sketches and graphs. The reason for the improvement,
the situation before and after the improvement, the effect of the
improvement, and the standardization details are all indicated.
The standardization column also directs the design department
to apply the results to similar parts.

Periodic Maintenance (Overhaul) Record

Table 6-1 is an example of a maintenance record. It shows the

locations and details of the maintenance work to be performed
according to established maintenance procedures. The record is
designed so that the result of each maintenance item can be re-
corded simply and completely. Care has been taken to facilitate
subsequent use.

MTBF Analysis Record

The required MTBF data is recorded on small cards, which

are posted on a chart. This alleviates the difficulty of using
 Maintenance Prevention 297

August 10, 1978

Dept: Die maintenance
Category: Die MP Improvement Name: Masuoka Shiro

Subject: Improvement of draw/pierce punch for sheet metal

Reason for improvement: frequent breakage of draw/pierce punch and frequent

breakdowns of 600-ton transfer press

Before improvement: After improvement:

Simultaneous drawing/piercing Separation into drawing and
process piercing processes

Outline sketch after processing と “=

(lower dead point) Drawing: 2nd process Piercing: 3rd process

upper die
block

punch
holder
draw/pierce
Punch
punch
breakage
workpiece

lower draw die lower pierce die

lower die

Effect of improvement: Standardization:

Downtime (hrs) Production:

Revise press process drawing
Reduction in downtime from Maintenance:
pierce/draw punch breakage Revise spare parts drawings

Engineering:
・ Revise die drawings
・ Do the same for similar parts

Cost:
29 manhours
$30.00

June July Aug Sept Oct

Distribution: Maintenance, Engineering, Other

Figure 6-4. Example of MP Improvements (Toyota Steel Works)

 298

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 Maintenance Prevention 299

maintenance records. Breakdown details can be seen at a glance

and problems and improvement priorities are easily identified.

Feedback Record During Equipment Fabrication

Table 6-2 is a sample form for feedback to equipment design,

recording the details of trouble encountered and the action to
be taken.

MP DESIGN STANDARDIZATION

When new equipment is designed or existing equipment is

modified, reliability and maintainability requirements cannot be
effectively incorporated if technical data is not properly collated
and communicated. Maintenance data filed away before it is put
into usable form is worthless; it cannot be considered accumu-
lated technology. Inexperienced engineers cannot increase their
technical skills if the technology they require exists only in the
heads of the more experienced staff.
The data and technical know-how representing a company’s
accumulated experience must be standardized and put in the
form of guidelines to increase designers’ technical skills and pre-
vent mistakes.

The Need for Parts Standardization

One of the most annoying obstacles to efficient maintenance

work is overabundance of parts in use. Multiple parts with differ-
ent designs from different manufacturers are used even when
they have identical functions. This not only increases parts in-
ventories, it also results in repair mistakes and long stoppages
when parts run out.
Since the use of multiple parts is sometimes the result of de-
signers’ enthusiasm, it cannot be condemned out of hand. “Cata-
log mania” or novelty-hunting should be discouraged, however.
Standardize parts wherever possible to halt their proliferation.
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302 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Sample Design Standard

Table 6-3 is a design standard for set screws. It is not merely

a copy from the industrial standards (JIS) but a living standard
growing out of problematic conditions (Table 6-3, paragraph 1:
“Motive for preparing new standard”). The scope of application
and the schematic explanations of the design and use are simple
and clear enough for anyone to understand.

Using Design Standards and Checklists to Eliminate Errors

Standards will not be used if they are too bulky or if informa-

tion is hard to find, difficult to understand, or out of date. Incor-
porate standards in training materials, put them in a form that is
easy for engineers to use, and revise them in a timely fashion to
reflect new data.
Checklists based on design standards can be used effec-
tively for early verifications (debugging). Prepare checklists
based on the standards of the most important items at each stage
(design, fabrication, installation, test run, and commissioning).
Then use these checklists to detect and correct — as early as
possible — out-of-standard parts, design and fabrication errors,
and other defects. Delay in correcting these items until the com-
missioning stage increases the cost and makes it difficult to
achieve the aim of commissioning, which is to stabilize equipment
operation as quickly as possible.

Checklist for Design Stage

Table 6-4 is a checklist for the design stage. Note that, in

addition to general checkpoints for carrying out design work,
separate checklists for preventing design errors are also pre-
pared, and an item is included to ensure that these lists have
been used.
 artMainten
er
ance Preventon
menses
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s
303

Machine Standard: K-3702

1. Reason for preparing this standard:

Arecent series of equipment breakdowns was caused by fixed subassemblies shifting
as a
result of loosened set screws. This standard is intended to prevent this problem.
Example:
CM-5 Shifting of sprocket of elevator unit led to abrasion and breakdown (July 23,1974)
CM-D Shifting of TR part led to abrasion and breakdown (October 5, 1974)

. Scope of application:
This standard applies to set screws used with the parts described below:
1) Parts requiring no further adjustment after initial positioning
2) Permanently fixed parts that might cause a mechanical breakdown if they shifted

. Design and method of use:

The present standard specifies set screws of the hex socket head type following JIS.
1) When removal is unnecessary ...hex socket head set screws with knurled cup point
2) When removal and adjustment are required...hex socket head set screws with cup
point or cone point

Note: Since hexagonal socket head set screws are suitable for the scope of applications listed in para.
2, they have been limited to these. For parts outside this scope, other types of screws indicated in JIS may
be used. See reference materials.

approx. 45°

ルム Ca Se
knurled cup point cup point cone point

Table 6-3. Design Standard for Set Screws (Fuji Photo Film)

Acceptance Standard for Equipment Completion

Table 6-5 is a sample standard for lubricating devices. It first

asks whether standard parts (from the design standards) have
been used and then lists criteria for the most important tasks to
be checked at the time of equipment completion, such as installa-
tion, pump assembly, piping, and so on.
304
ee
TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Design standard: Y-0302

Design Checklist (Preconditions)

1. Tackle the task positively. Use sound technical knowledge and a scientific approach to
achieve the best results.
2. Work in active collaboration and cooperation with other departments concerned.

Check Details

1. Planning and design:

1. Do you know the object of the design? (reason, conditions set by originator of
design request relevant conditions)
2. Are the design procedures appropriate? (method of execution, completion date,
priority schedule planning)
3. Is there satisfactory contact with the originator of the design request?
4. Has the site been thoroughly investigated?
5. Arereference materials adequate? (technical data, introduction of new tech-
nology use of existing technology)
6. Are the most suitable and optimal methods and systems being applied? Has
complacency been avoided?
7. Aredesign calculations error-free? (strength, functions, capacity) Have all
problems been fully considered?
8. Are maintenance prevention considerations adequate? (Was the maintenance
department consulted and did they confirm in advance; will they check the
design afterward?)
9. Willthe design be cost-efficient? (within budget, operating costs) Is operability
good; has safety been considered?
10. Has the optical sensitivity of materials been checked? (Has a request for the
photographic characteristics test been issued?)
11. Have related departments been contacted?(maintenance engineering,
electrical and instrumental, packing engineering, fabrication departments,
safety department)

Drawings
1. Have the drawings been reviewed? Are they error-free? (dimensions, number of
parts, accuracy, materials, procurement of spare parts, use of checklists to
prevent design errors)
2. Has microfilming been considered?
3. Have cost reduction checklists been used?
. Have the drawings been checked and approved?

Ill. Purchasing
1. Are specifications of equipment to be purchased satisfactory? (use of standard
documents, selection of equipment)
2. Are purchasing arrangements satisfactory? (no mistakes in the arrangements,
delivery times, prices, selection of manufacturers)
3. Have RI estimates been thoroughly reviewed? (prices, delivery times,
details

Table 6-4. Design Checklist (Fuji Photo Film)

 Maintenance Prevention 305

Nippondenso Mechanical Engineering Standard DMS 1-025001 B

i Issued: August 25, 1969

Lubrication Device Standard 4th revision: March 19, 1977
__th confirmation:

Items to be performed by manufacturer

In principle, the parts used in lubricating devices must be those specified in
DMS standards.
Installation
(1) (a) Lubricating devices must be installed or protected so that they cannot be
damaged by falling objects, careless material handling, or careless actions
of workers.
(b) Lubricating devices must not be installed where they may overheat.
(c) Lubricating devices must be installed where they can be easily adjusted,
repaired or replaced.
(d) Alllubricating devices must be installed so that they do notinterfere with the
adjustment or maintenance of plant equipment. They must also not be
installed where they may hinder normal work.
(2) Lubricating devices must not be installed in locations where operators will have
to reach over rotating main shafts or tools in operation to supply oil or otherwise
attend to the devices.
Unless specifically required by their dimensions or function, control devices must
be installed between 30 cm and 180 cm from the work floor.
Installation of pumps
(1) Pumps and associated equipment must be installed in easily-accessible
positions for maintenance.
(2) Pumps should be installed on the outside of lubricating reservoirs.
Piping
Piping joints must be designed and installed for rapid assembly and disassembly
using hand tools.
Piping from the end of one lubrication part to the next must not be jointed on the way
by welding or any other method. Joints must not be used except when required for
length adjustment or assembly. Piping must also be removable without removing
any plant equipment parts.
Piping must not be installed where it will interfere with normal operation, adjustment
and repair of equipment or with replacement of lubricating devices and cleaning of
oil reservoirs.
Construction of oil reservoirs
Oil reservoirs must be constructed so as to prevent the ingress of water or other
foreign particles and to prevent oil leaks and bleeding.
Oil reservoirs must be constructed for easy cleaning and draining.
Oil reservoirs must have an oil supply port. Oil supply ports must be fitted with a
strainer and have a suitable cap or cover. Methods must be devised to prevent the
cap or cover from being lost.
Oil reservoirs must be fitted with a level gauge positioned so that the oil level can be
seen from where the oil is supplied.
Filters and strainers
(1) Filters and strainers must be fitted with filter media which are easily replaced
without stopping equipment.

Table 6-5. Lubrication Device Standard (Nippondenso)

306 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Equipment Standard K-4412

1. Major dimension check (compare with dimensions specified on drawings)

・ Radius of rotation
・ Arm
・ Chucking nose
・ Dimensions of bed and position of anchor bolt holes, etc.
2. Finished precision check (as per precision specified in relevant drawings)
・ Horizontality of chucking nose (within 5/100)

Chucking Unchucking

Chucking Unchucking

・ Horizontality of auxiliary rollers (within 5/100) ・Horizontality一(

・ Parallelism ¢ Parallelism 一 (
3. Assembly condition, check
4. Actuation check

Table 6-6. Designed Function Checksheet (Fuji Photo Film)

Checklists for Installation and Test Run

Table 6-6 is a design capacity checklist to inspect newly in-

stalled equipment in loaded and unloaded conditions. Table 6-7
is an example of a data sheet for use during testing, requiring
that the dynamic precision of the rollers be measured and re-
corded. Table 6-8 (see p. 309) is a detailed list of reliability and
maintainability check items. Great care is taken to ensure that
not a single minor defect is overlooked.
 Maintenance Prevention 307

Roller Speed Check Sheet 1) Date of measurement: November 20, 1975

Counter 39.6 — 40.1 m/min 70.0 — 70.1 m/min. (m/min.)

Measuring Measuring Measuring | Measuring | Measuring | Measuring

instrument | instrument | instrument | instrument | instrument | instrument
A(m/min) B (rpm) A(m/min) B (rpm) A(m/min) B (rpm)

a 120 | 39.3-39.4 105-106 68.7-68.8 185-186

5 90 Se

io 100 leos-eg| 106-127 |ea.0-01 |222-220 |

es-e4 86
Hs 120 39.3-39.4 | 126-127 | 69.2-69.3 |222-223|
39.0-39.1 | 105-106 | 68.7-68.9 | 185-186

15 。 120 | 39.2-39.3 | 105-106 | 69.2-69.3 | 185-186

SG ーーー | に マニーーー! いで ーー
( ): Minimum value
[ ]: Maximum value

Table 6-7. Sample Test Run Data Sheet (Fuji Photo Film)

Predicting Problems and Preparing Checklists

for Subsequent Stages

Debugging will be incomplete if only standard checklists

such as those described above are used. Items unique to a par-
ticular machine will not be covered by a standard checklist and
may cause problems. Study the details of the checks and the re-
sults of actions taken at each stage and identify priority items for
checklists to be used at subsequent stages.

COMMISSIONING CONTROL

Commissioning is the stage when salable products can be

produced, following installation and test running to detect and
308 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

correct outstanding errors in the equipment and attain stable op-

eration quickly. (Installation and testing are sometimes included
in early commercial operation control and are together called
“test run.”) After the equipment is debugged and operating
correctly, it is handed over to the operation and maintenance
departments for normal operation.

The Importance of Control

Prior to commissioning, check after check is performed and

every effort made to prevent defects from being carried over into
the commissioning stage. Commissioning is the last opportunity
to detect and correct design defects that are impossible to pre-
dict. Frequent breakdowns at this stage indicate that debugging
in the previous stages has been less than thorough.
Debugging at the commissioning stage should only identify
problems of product quality stabilization, feeding raw materials,
and material handling on the shop floor. At this stage, prepare
operation and tooling manuals and routine maintenance stan-
dards for lubrication, inspection, routine servicing, and so on.
Train the relevant production and maintenance personnel to take
over the equipment when it is handed over.

Commissioning Control System

Figure 6-5 (see pp. 311-312) is a flow chart for a commissioning

control system. In this system the roles of the production, main-
tenance, and planning (engineering) departments are clearly de-
fined and the activities are carried out on a cooperative basis. Com-
missioning is most successful when this type of system is used.

Commissioning Initiation and Cancellation

In this system the initiation and cancellation procedures for

commissioning control are clearly defined. At the initiation of
commissioning control, cancellation criteria such as production
performance, stoppage frequency, stoppage loss time, quality
 Maintenance Prevention

1. Are screws fitted with Are locknuts, spring lock washers, and locking compounds
locking aid? inuse?
. Are welds of satisfactory ls weld overlay adequate? Examine cut welded portion with
strength? special care.
. Are shock-absorbing Is there any shock that will affect parts lifetimes? Do shock
devices effective? absorbers work, and are they controlled?
. Are parts adequately ls there any chance of scuffing or defective movement through
finished? inadequate finishing? Compare with drawings and modify
if necessary.
. Can parts be replaced? Give priority to examining areas where deteriorated parts or
consumable items must be replaced.
. Are there any easily-fatigued Have any such parts or dangerous parts become obvious during
or damaged parts? testrun?
. Are any geared belts subject Check during test running.
to pitching?
. Are positioning methods Can positioning be secured accurately through the use of
adequate? positioning notches, guides, and so on?
. Are any parts rusting? Check rusted parts or parts that seem likely to rust. Is surface
treatment adequate?
. Are springs properly Are any springs subject to unreasonable strain due to assembly
assembled? method, compression, or tension?
. Are arms, brackets, and Is any bending or twisting observed during test run? Are these
studs properly attached? parts securely assembled?
. Hydraulic cylinder assembly, Is there any oil leakage from hydraulic cylinder? Is assembly
oil leaks method as designated and of adequate strength?
. Installation and locking of Are speed controllers installed properly? Are speed gauges and
speed controllers locks attached?
. Rollerand bearing Can rollers and bearings be replaced?
replacement
. Are there any places where Can tools be used in places where adjustments are required?
tools cannot be used? (guides, arm positions, shearing machines, packing machines,
etc.) Or are special tools needed?
. Are covers easy to handle? Are the safety covers of drive mechanisms and edged parts
securely fixed, safe, and easily handled?
. ls wiring securely fixed? js all wiring inside machinery securely fixed, out of contact with
moving parts, and properly sheathed?
. Are all cable connectors Are all cable connectors firmly inserted and not loose?
properly prevented from
loosening?
. Are brush and commutator Are commutator surfaces, brush contacts and attachment
properly contacted? methods satisfactory? Is there any slackness?
. Are foreign particles ls any powder or other foreign matter being thrown onto the
being thrown up by gears workpiece from plastic gears, synchronous belts, etc.?
and belts?
. Limit switches Are limit switches installed in easily visible positions? Is there
proper contact with the toggles?
. Are shafts and couplings Can these be dismantled and assembled without affecting other
easily replaced? parts or their accuracy?
. Replacement of clutches As above. Is the wiring securely fixed?
and brakes

Table 6-8. Maintainability Checklist (Fuji Photo Film)

310 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

defect rate, and so on, are specified in advance. Table 6-9 (see p. 313)
is an example of a commissioning control initiation/cancellation
notice.

Commissioning Data Control

This system facilitates accurate recording of data on prob-

lems and improvements during the commissioning period using
a method similar to the MTBF analysis chart and card method in-
troduced in Chapter 5.

Equipment Handover Documents

When commissioning is completed and the equipment is

handed over to the production and maintenance departments,
the necessary design materials and data, standards, manuals,
procedures, and other materials must be handed over at the
same time to ensure that there is no obstacle to operating and
maintaining the equipment. Table 6-10 (see p. 314) shows an
example of an equipment handover document.

PROBLEM PREVENTION METHODOLOGY

As described above, problem prevention activities are

intended to eliminate — at the equipment planning, design,
fabrication, installation, and commissioning stages — many
problems that typically occur during and after commissioning.
Their most important goal is to predict the possibility of trouble
at the commissioning stage and after.
This is accomplished by using standard checklists at each
stage, by observing the results of preventive measures taken,
and by considering items unique to particular pieces of equip-
ment. At each stage, the high-priority measures and items to be
checked at the following stages must be identified.
This kind of preventive activity is seldom pursued in prac-
tice, however, so the number of problems at the startup stage
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 Maintenance Prevention 313

Initiation/Cancellation Notice for ee aoa

Commissioning Control of
Mechanical Equipment
This is to give notice that commissioning
control has been (initiated/cancelled)
with respect to the equipment shown
below.
Foreman

Person resp.

Equipment name: automatic lathe for external finishing of pump plungers

Equipt No.: CG280
Location: injection pump shop, No. 2 production section, No. 2 machine unit, plunger finishing line;
Production: plunger production group, No. 2 machine unit, No. 2 production section
Maintenance: maintenance group, jigs and tools unit, pump engineering section;
Engineering: tooling and equipment group, pump engineering section

Details
March 4, 1980 June 5, 1980

1. New, high-cost equipment Commissioning control cancelled on

Purchase price = $40,000 achieving stable operation.
2. Automatic lathe. Many problems 1. Work drive defective — work drive
experienced with existing No. 1 mechanism improved 一 OK
machine. 2. Automatic conveyor operation
defective —feed screw backlash
eliminated — OK
3. Output advance action defective —
addition of interlock with fixed-
distance sliding — OK
ri

SS) time per unit aes

ms
ae
(9 Geengre
Stoppage frequency 0.2%
lo 1

0.2%
(per unit operation hrs)

Stoppage downtime
(per unit operation hrs)
0.3% 0.05%
0%

Route: Engineering section keeps original; copies to all related departments

(Takahashi, Giichi: Productive Maintenance Promotion Manual (Tokyo: Japan Institute of Plant
Maintenance, 1975)

Table 6-9. Commissioning Control Initiation and Cancellation Notice

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 Maintenance Prevention 315

and after does not decrease. The following approach to problem

prevention (early equipment management) can be used to help
avoid this.

Forming the Project Team

Equipment design is usually considered the job of the en-

gineering and design departments and is often left entirely up to
them. To reduce the number of problems occurring during and
after the commissioning stage, however, the people who will op-
erate and maintain the equipment should participate from the
design stage onward. Production and maintenance departments
must join forces with the design department to form a project
team centered in the engineering department.
The production and maintenance departments can examine
the problems at each stage from their different perspectives and
experience. For example, production can advise the team on
quality, productivity, operability, safety, and environmental issues;
the maintenance department can advise on reliability, main-
tainability, and energy-saving. This leads to more accurate and
thorough prediction of problems and to preventive measures
that the engineering department could not provide alone.

Using Problem Prevention Control Charts

The project team needs appropriate tools to carry out early

equipment management reliably and effectively. The step-by-
step problem prevention control chart shown in Figure 6-6 is an
example. Using this chart, the team predicts or anticipates poten-
tial problems at each stage of early equipment management,
plans preventive measures in advance, and checks the results
after the measures are carried out.

Planning Stage

First, the project team members meet during the planning

stage. Using their past experience and knowledge of similar
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318 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

equipment, they list the issues and specifications that must be

clarified at the planning stage. The team uses the basic specifica-
tions prepared by the planning or engineering department as
their starting point. Then, for each issue they identify points that
must be discussed, checked, or otherwise followed up, from the
design and drawing-check stage onward. These points are re-
corded across the control chart. The action that must be taken is
recorded in the “action” column at each stage, and individuals
are assigned responsibility for each item.

Design and Drawing-Check Stage

At the design and drawing-check stage, the project team

members meet to carry out and follow up on the results of the
actions taken and recorded at the planning stage. Items with
satisfactory results are indicated on the control chart by a circle,
while those with unsatisfactory results are indicated by a triangle.
A blank design control chart is then prepared for the next
stage. Items indicated by a triangle and new problems that arose
at this stage are recorded in the “problems” columns. Items to be
examined, checked, or otherwise followed up at the fabrication,
witnessed inspection, and subsequent stages are recorded on
the chart.

Equipment Fabrication, Witnessed Inspection,

and Subsequent Stages

The same procedure is repeated at the fabrication, witnessed

inspection, and subsequent stages. At each stage, the project
team members meet to discuss, check, and follow up on items
identified at the previous stage. Problems are predicted, preventive
measures are devised, staff members responsible for carrying them
out are assigned, and the results are checked and confirmed.

The Advantages of Problem Prevention Control

Problem prevention control charts are sometimes criticized

because they take time to prepare and follow. This is true only in
 Maintenance Prevention 319

the beginning, however. Once the team members are familiar

with them, the charts are both quick and easy to use. Even when
considerable time is invested in the earlier stages, problems are
reduced or eliminated by the commissioning and production
stages and the overall early equipment management process is
completed quickly. (The advantages of this method are listed in
Figure 6-6.) Figure 6-7 shows an example of the effect of using the
control-chart method.

LIFE CYCLE COST THEORY

Life cycle cost (LCC) is the total cost of a piece of equipment or

system over its entire lifetime.*

Early Equipment Breakdowns

Breakdowns
No problem prevention control (PPC)
(December 1979-February 1980)

PPC carried out

(June—August 1980)

ist 2nd 3rd

month month = month
Commissioning Control

Figure 6-7. Reduction of Early Breakdowns (Comparing Similar Types of

Equipment)(Tokai Rubber Industries)

The U.S. Office of Management and the Budget defines it as

“the sum of the direct, indirect, recurring, non-recurring, and
other related costs of a large-scale system during its period of

S.
* The following discussion of basic life cycle costing is based on Benjamin
Blanchard’s Design and Manage to Life Cycle Cost, (Forest Grove: M/A Press), 1978.
320
ハハ
TPM DEVELOPM
べべ べべ へヘー
ENT PROGRAM
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effectiveness. It is the total of all costs generated or forecast to be

generated during the design, development, production, opera-
tion, maintenance, and support processes.”*
Expressed more simply in terms of production equipment,
this means that LCC is the total cost of design and fabrication
(the initial or acquisition costs), plus the costs of operation and
maintenance (i.e., running or sustaining costs), which can be
surprisingly high. LCC can also be viewed as the total cost re-
quired for a system to fulfill its mission. Acquisition costs are the
one-time costs incurred in acquiring the system. Sustaining costs,
however, occur continuously from the time the system is first
used to when it is scrapped, and thus include costs generated
over the long term. In a 1970 study of consumer products, for
example, the ratio of life cycle cost to original price ranged from
1.9 to 4.8.**

What is Design-to-Cost?

In design-to-cost (DTC), the LCC of a system (equipment) or

item of machinery is included as one of the design factors along
with the operating precision, speed, volume, machine weight,
reliability, maintainability, and other design factors.
In DTC, the cost is not considered a result of the design
process but rather one of the system targets. Thus, once the
target cost of the whole system has been decided at the prelimi-
nary development stage, the amount is apportioned first among
the first-level subsystems, then among the second-level subsys-
tems, and so on. In this way, the cost is distributed among all
subsystems. The aim is to achieve the target costs using a variety
of scientific methods. Figure 6-8 outlines this process. As Figure
6-10 shows, if we consider the life cycle of the equipment or sys-
tem, 80 percent or more of the LCC is fixed at the conceptual and
preliminary system design stages.

* U.S. Office of Management and Budget. 1976. Major System Acquisitions.

Circular #A-109.
“* EM. Gryna, Jr., “Quality Costs: User vs. Manufacturer,” Quality Progress,
June 1970, 10-13.
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322 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Poor Management
Acquisition Cost
(Planning, design and
development, construction)

Product Distribution Cost

(Packaging, transportation
and handling, warehousing, Maintenance Cost
and storage) (Customer service,
organization intermediate,
plant maintenance
personnel cost) Training and Technical
Data Cost

Operations Cost
(Facilities, energy, Inventory Cost
utilities, taxes) (spares and material
Tools and Test support)
Equipment Cost

Retirement and
Disposal Cost

Figure 6-9. Total Cost Visibility

The true LCC is not usually identified, however. As Figure

6-9 shows, only the tip of the cost iceberg is visible. In addition to
the initial purchasing costs, which are easily identified, the run-
ning costs must also be considered. Serious problems have been
caused in the past by failing to give adequate consideration to the
costs of running equipment.

What is Life Cycle Costing?

According to Professor Blanchard, life cycle cost analysis is a

systematic, analytical approach to selecting the optimal method
for utilizing scarce resources from a variety of alternative plans.
In life cycle costing, the life cycle cost is treated as a design
parameter at the system-development stage and various trade-
offs are pursued to make the life cycle cost of the user’s system
most economical.
 Maintenance Prevention 323

The general procedure for life cycle costing is as follows:

Step 1: Clarify the mission of the subject system.
Step 2: Propose alternative plans capable of fulfilling the
mission.
Step 3: Clarify the system’s evaluation factors and meth-
ods of quantification.
Step 4: Evaluate the plans.
Step 5: Document the analysis results and processes.

The most commonly used formula for comparing design alterna-

tives is

system effectiveness
cost effectiveness = -
life cycle cost

System effectiveness is the effect obtained by the introduction

of LCC. If LCC is the input, system effectiveness is the output.
Usual system outputs include profit, value, utility, and so on.
To pursue an economic LCC, trade-offs at the design stage
are needed. The most economical total cost is found by trading
off against each other subsystems with mutually contradicting
characteristics to achieve optimal balance for the overall system.
Here are some of the trade-offs:
・ between acquisition costs and maintenance costs
* among acquisition cost items
* among maintenance cost items
* between system effectiveness and LCC
* between acquisition costs and schedule from develop-
ment to acquisition

An Example of Life Cycle Costing

For a simple example of life cycle costing, assume that a

company is considering painting its factory buildings with anti-
corrosive paint. Paint from two companies, A and B, is under
consideration. Company As paint would cost $5,000 and last
324 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM ーー ーー ニー ニニ ーー ニー ニーーーー
ーー

Life Cycle Cost

100%

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so ヘー Detailed design
and development

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alternative plans (trade-offS)

i 1
| 1
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Market analysis, feasibility study, operation

requirements, maintenance concepts, etc.
の 1
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and concep- Mae design and |and witnessed abet

tual design esign |development) inspection support

Blanchard, B.S., Design and Manage to Life Cycle Cost (Forest Grove, Ore.: M/A Press, 1978)

Figure 6-10. Business Factors Influencing Life Cycle Cost

 Maintenance Preventon 325

three years, while company BS paint would cost $15,000 and last
six years. With either paint it would cost $20,000 for labor. Which
company’s paint is more economical (assuming that interest,
changes in price, and technical advances are not considered)?
Comparing the total costs over a period of six years, company
AS paint at first appears to be cheaper. Since the paint must be re-
newed every three years (Figure 6-11), however, an investigation
of the total costs (including labor costs) over the whole six-year
period shows that company BS paint is more economical.

[estate
[ten [ne
Comparison of two types of paints

3years , 3 years

Cost of paint $5,000 $5,000

Labor costs $20,000 $20,000

6 years

Cost of paint $15,000

Labor costs $20,000

(from Senju Shizuo, Session 1, Third Terotechnology Symposium, 1979)

Figure 6-11. Comparison of Two Types of Paint

This is a simple illustration of the basic theory of LCC. The

basic theory remains the same when applied to fabrication and
purchase of more complex products, systems, and equipment.
Now consider a comparison of equipment life cycle costs.
Procurement estimates obtained for equivalent machines from
companies A and B were $100,000 and $70,000, respectively
326 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

(Table 6-11). In this case, a simple comparison of the purchase

price estimates seems to indicate that company BS machine is
more economical, being $30,000 cheaper.

dara dloneokt A
Purchasing price
of equipment
$100,000 PV

Annual pee $30,000 $60,000

cost

Aval
value method $56,380 $78,466

Present
value method $213,730 $297,460

(Figures for annual and present values based on economic engineering.)

Table 6-11. A Comparison of Equipment Life Cycle Costs

But what happens if the calculation includes not only the

purchase price but also the operating labor costs, energy costs,
maintenance costs, and other annual operating and sustaining
costs? Assume that these costs amount to $30,000 for company
AS equipment and $60,000 for company Bs equipment. Then
apply concepts of engineering economics to perform an equiva-
lence conversion over 5 years at a 10 percent rate of interest.
Comparisons by the annual value and present value methods
show that company AS equipment is more economical.
 Maintenance Prevention O27)

REFERENCES

Blanchard, Benjamin S. Design and Manage to Life Cycle Cost. Forest

Grove, Ore.: M/A Press, 1978.
Ikeda, A. “Reliability and Maintainability Design Systems and Their
Development” (in Japanese). Plant Engineer 9 (September 1977): 28.
Imai, W. “Maintainability Design Activities Mobilize All Depart-
ments” (in Japanese). Plant Engineer 9 (August 1977): 58.
Morimoto, M. “Reliability and Maintainability Design” (in Japanese).
Plant Engineer 10 (February 1978): 25.
Senju, Shizuo, Tamio Fushimi and Seiichi Fumita. Profitability Analysis.
Tokyo: Asian Productivity Organization, 1980.
Sugai, E. “The Role of the Equipment Design Department in TPM
with Examples of Reliability and Maintainability Design” (in Jap-
anese). Plant Engineer 9 (July 1977): 25.
Takahashi, Giichi. Productive Maintenance Promotion Manual (in
Japanese). Tokyo: Japan Institute of Plant Engineers, 1975.
Takeuchi, S. “The Development of Maintenance Activities Through
TMF Analysis” (in Japanese). Plant Engineer 11 (March 1979): 37.
 /
Maintenance Skill Training

In recent years, the movement toward increased productiv-

ity and more cost-effective production has led to larger and more
sophisticated equipment operated at higher speeds. The expertise
of both production and maintenance personnel is often limited to
issues and technologies related to their own areas of responsibility.
Under such circumstances, companywide TPM cannot succeed.

TPM REQUIRES STRONG MAINTENANCE SKILLS

To carry out the TPM activities described in earlier chap-

ters a company needs personnel with strong maintenance and
equipment-related skills. Operators — production's front-line
workers — must become intimately acquainted with their own
equipment and develop the practical expertise and skills neces-
sary to maintain as well as operate it. At the same time, mainte-
nance personnel must be willing to learn and use advanced skills
and techniques in responding to the range of equipment problems.
In the maintenance skills training program described in this
chapter, the conventional “I operate — you fix” philosophy is
gradually replaced by the understanding that successful PM ac-
tivities require everyone’s involvement.

329
330 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

RESPONSIBILITIES OF OPERATORS
AND MAINTENANCE PERSONNEL

Operators must understand their equipments structure and

functions well enough to operate it properly. Their primary re-
sponsibility is to maintain basic equipment conditions through
routine inspection and daily cleaning, lubrication, and bolting.
They should also be able to perform simple repairs and parts
replacement and other autonomous-maintenance functions.
Conversely, to ensure successful operator maintenance activ-
ities, maintenance personnel must possess skills and knowledge
that operators can rely on.

Equipment Operators Are Like Auto Drivers

The relationship between the two groups can be simply un-

derstood by comparing equipment operators to automobile drivers
and maintenance workers to repair mechanics (Table 7-1). A
driver starting his car is like an operator performing an equip-
ment check at the start of the work day. Even before opening the
car door, the driver may walk around the car and inspect the ex-
terior, perhaps checking the air pressure in the tires, cleaning the
windshield and the headlights, and noting any problems. Before
starting, the driver may also take a look at the engine and make a
variety of simple checks — the radiator water level, the condi-
tion and level of the oil, the fan belt, and so on — and refill or
adjust these items as needed. If he finds a leak in the radiator,
however, he must take the car to the repair shop.
The smart driver also keeps an eye on the instrument panel
while driving, to maintain a safe speed and to make certain the
battery is sufficiently charged, the turn signals and brake lights
are functioning, and the engine temperature is normal. The
driver who never makes any of these checks may overlook the
radiator leak and warning lights and end up with a cracked en-
gine block and major repair bill. Although a driver may make
minor repairs such as rotating tires or adjusting the V-belt, the
specialized knowledge and skill of an auto mechanic is required
to repair a radiator leak or perform regular tune-ups.
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332 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

The Operator’s Four Basic Functions

Like the automobile driver, the equipment operator per-

forms four types of simple maintenance work to keep equipment
running smoothly. The operator
1. conducts an equipment spot check at startup time,
checking the oil level in hydraulic systems and the power
current value and looking for unusual vibrations or other
abnormalities
2. periodically checks the temperature and speed, and so
on, during operation and continues to listen for unusual
noise or vibrations
3. scans the instrument panel regularly to check the power-
current level and the various other meters and gauges
4. makes certain the equipment is well lubricated by re-
plenishing lubricant whenever it is needed
Finally, like the auto driver who discovers a radiator leak, an
operator who notices a change in the equipment'’s condition that
poses a safety or mechanical problem informs the maintenance
department that the machine is operating abnormally and re-
quests a thorough examination. The maintenance personnel can
then go to work immediately to find the causes of the abnormality.

Optimal Functions for Maintenance Personnel

In working on a problem, the maintenance worker checks

the equipment records to determine whether the equipment has
had a similar problem before. If so, he checks the previous repair
record in order to estimate the man-hours and spare parts required.
Naturally, the worker will prefer to carry out the work required in
a way that will restore the equipment to operation quickly and
minimize any production slowdown.
Although maintenance personnel strive to carry out break-
down maintenance as promptly and efficiently as possible, their
duties go beyond treating equipment failures. Maintenance
personnel have always been responsible for ensuring the reliable
ーー
ea Maintenance Skill Training 333
e a 1 rd

operation of machines and other equipment used by the produc-

tion department. Therefore, their duties include
* periodic planned maintenance (overhaul)
* periodic vibration and temperature measurements
* estimating optimal overhaul and parts replacement
intervals
・ planning and selecting the optimal lubricants, material,
and machine parts
* correcting equipment design weaknesses
* restoring equipment breakdowns promptly
* providing maintenance education and training for equip-
ment operators
* improving their own maintenance skills and learning new
technologies
To ensure the long-term durability and reliability of equip-
ment, maintenance personnel study equipment deterioration
patterns. They continuously gather and analyze data on equip-
ment abnormalities that will help prevent breakdowns.
For example, maintenance personnel collect various kinds
of data from the equipment operators. They develop methods for
measuring and diagnosing equipment conditions. They also calcu-
late the approximate life of equipment so that necessary repairs
can be made before it breaks down. Finally, they study and sys-
tematically improve or remodel individual machines to increase
their maintainability.

MAINTENANCE SKILLS TRAINING:

OBJECTIVES AND CURRICULUM*

Maintenance workers handle many types of equipment, but

all equipment is made up of certain common parts. The mainte-
nance skills training outlined in this section is organized around

* The Japan Institute of Plant Maintenance conducts seminars and workshops

on maintenance skills for maintenance personnel. The maintenance skills
training described here is based on the basic course in machine-maintenance
skills offered at the JIPM Institute.
334 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

these common parts and emphasizes hands-on experience. The

program’s curriculum is listed in Table 7-2.
(Class hours: 9:00 AM to 5:00 PM)

Unit Description
Topic (3 days per unit)

Lecture; practice on the shop floor Opening remarks

. Orientation
. Howto read drawings
1
. Machines and materials
Bolts
and Nuts . Bolts and nuts
. Material and tightening torque
= . Unitreview and comprehension
oOarwn
test

Lecture; practice on the shop floor . Review Unit 1 and answer

questions
. Orientation
2 . Fits and tolerances
Keys and
Bearings . Types of keys
. Bearings
. Lubrication
. Unitreview
OND
Oh
NO and comprehension
test

Lecture; practice on the shop floor . Review Unit 2 and answer

questions
3 2. Orientation
=a Foner: 3. Gears

beret
and chains)
4.5. Vets
Chains
6. Aligning and centering
7. Unitreview and comprehension
test

Lecture; practice on the shop floor . Review Unit 3 and answer

questions
. Orientation
4
Hydraulics, . Hydraulics
Pneumatics, . Pneumatics
and Sealing . Sealing
. Cutaway models
ND
WOW
of
NO. Unitreview and comprehension
test
foe). Presentation of cutaway models
. Closing remarks

Note: One unit held per month.

Table 7-2. Curriculum of Basic Machine Maintenance Course

 Maintenance Skill Training 335

Unit 1: Bolts and Nuts

Typically, the many parts that make up production equip-

ment are separately machined and assembled. Most of these
parts are joined by bolts and nuts, however. Each machine uses a
large number of bolt and nut fasteners that require considerable
time to secure and tighten. Loose bolts or screws often cause excess
vibration and breakdowns in rotary machinery, for example. In
more serious cases, loose fasteners also cause leaks in sealed
equipment and create fire or pollution hazards.
While they are vital factors in equipment, these fasteners
often do not provide adequate torque. Unit 1 explains adequate
torque for different types of material (e.g., carbon steel or alloy
bolts). In the process, trainees also learn to read and prepare
technical drawings and tables and become familiar with material
symbols. They learn the importance of marking off, how to process
machine screws and bolts (e.g., by drilling or tapping them), and
reliable tightening methods.

Photo 7-1. Students in Training Course

336 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM aaa
Nee ee eee eee eee eee

Photo 7-2. Marking Off

Photo 7-3. Screw Tapping

 Maintenance Skill Training 33/

Unit 2: Keys and Bearings

Keys are important in connecting shafts and parts such as

sprockets, couplings, and so on. Keys come in various shapes
and sizes according to the load conditions and the structure of
the mechanism. Defects in the way shafts and hubs meet or in
the way keys fit can cause damage or prevent the rotation of rotary
machine parts.
Consequently, in this unit trainees learn (among other
things) about the various types of keys, how they should fit, and
how to measure the hub sections of spindles and gears to fit
them more precisely. They learn, for example, how to file round
steel bars and how to correct surface flatness. Once they are able
to process flat surfaces using files, they also learn to use driving
keys and stud keys together. They discover firsthand how keys
with small interference fits cannot fasten spindles and hubs
firmly. The trainees also learn to replace keys and are given
hands-on practice in various key-fitting methods.
By the end of the unit, trainees also have a comprehensive
understanding of bearing types, standards, and characteristics,
and a general knowledge of lubrication.

Photo 7-4. Key Fitting

338 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Unit 3: Power Transmissions (Gears, Belts, and Chains)

After an introduction to gear nomenclature, drive chains,

and V-belts, the trainees begin working with bearings, using
double-row ball bearings. Having already worked with keys and
V-pulleys in unit 2, they are ready to assemble a complete device
for trial operation. They use various instruments to measure
assembly defects and bearing defects during the trial operation.
By repeatedly adjusting the amount of lubricant, they learn how
lubricant volume affects the operating temperature.
Next, they replace the V-belt with a chain, and repeatedly
adjust the tension in the chain to get a feel for the relation be-
tween chain tension and operating characteristics such as noise
and temperature. Then, they connect a key-adjusted gear and
practice correcting the backlash caused by the gear as well as the
gear alignment.

Photo 7-5. Unit 3: Drive Chain

 Maintenance Skill Training 339

Photo 7-6. Unit 3: Gear-Driven Device

Unit 4: Hydraulics, Pneumatics, and Sealing

Hydraulic power based on oil pressure and pneumatic

power based on air pressure are drive forces used in many types of
industrial equipment. To make the most effective use of hydraulic
and pneumatic functions, trainees must first understand the
structure and characteristics of the equipment they drive. They
begin by studying the basic principles of hydraulics and pneu-
matics and learning to read the symbols used to explain them.
Trainees learn how to prevent leakage of fluid and intrusion of
foreign matter through the proper use of various types of gaskets
and packing. To fully understand how seals work, the trainees
assemble machines that use high-pressure pipes and deal with
actual leaks caused by water pressure.
The trainees are also required to make cutaway models.
These models display parts or subassemblies cut away from the
machine as a unit that relate to a certain mechanical function or
340 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

operation. The trainees attach these parts to a display board and

label their functions, creating a model that can be used later for
in-house training.

Photo 7-7. Unit 4: Cutaway Model

IMPLEMENTING THE TRAINING COURSE

Table 7-2 lists the curriculum of the course on basic machine

maintenance, organized according to the four course-units de-
scribed above. Each unit takes three days to complete, and the
four units are spread out one per month over a four-month
period. Each unit is organized around specific topics and other
relevant materials approached from a variety of perspectives to
facilitate learning.
The ratio of lectures to practice sessions in the workplace is
generally three to seven, and this emphasis on hands-on learn-
ing helps trainees acquire practical knowledge and skills. The
trainees are required to prepare daily reports describing their
work, and at the end of each three-day unit, they are asked to
summarize and reflect on what they have learned.
 Maintenance Skill Training 341

The course instructor reviews and evaluates the reports, ad-

ministers routine comprehension tests, and returns both with
comments. At the end of the course, the instructor evaluates
each trainee’s overall progress. These evaluations are routed by
the company’s TPM office to the trainees’ supervisors, who add
their own comments before the reports are returned.
Before going on to the next unit, trainees spend the inter-
vening weeks applying what they have learned at their workplace
and passing along their newly acquired knowledge and skills to
their coworkers.
During this “pass-along” instruction and practice period,
the trainees are encouraged to use a “one-point lesson” method
of teaching, focusing on one simple point at a time to simplify
instruction, save time, and increase comprehension. The higher-
ranking personnel and supervisors are encouraged to provide
opportunities for maintenance workers to apply new skills and
information in day-to-day work assignments.
Trainees prepare notes on these practical applications and
list any questions raised during the process in their daily reports.
Like the daily reports, these additional notes are reviewed and
commented upon by the instructor and supervisors. Carrying
the course into daily work in this manner makes trainees’
maintenance work more meaningful. Questions that are not
fully answered in the context of daily work and guidance are
addressed when the trainees meet with the instructor at the be-
ginning of the next unit.
This approach is followed through unit 3. In unit 4, trainees
take on a new challenge: conducting meetings to present their
own cutaway models of machine parts. They also hold theme-
based meetings with their coworkers to pass along the information
they have received at the course lectures.
After completing the four-month period of course-units, the
trainees set goals for themselves and strive to achieve them over
a six-month period of goal management. During that time they
use what theyve learned to develop solutions for specific problems
in the workplace. When these activities produce positive results,
the workers call goal-attainment meetings to announce the results
and help promote overall equipment efficiency. Their activities
342 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

are monitored by management and reported to the company asa

whole at three-month intervals.

MAINTENANCE TRAINING FOR EQUIPMENT OPERATORS

Day after day, operators must keep equipment operating

normally, but they rarely understand the equipment they use.
Knowing little about how and why their equipment functions as
it does, many just shrug their shoulders and say “Look, I run the
machines. Someone else has to fix them.” Productivity never im-
proves in this situation, no matter how often the maintenance
staff repair equipment breakdowns,
The maintenance functions taken over by equipment oper-
ators in TPM help to overcome this situation and are not particu-
larly difficult. They include the regular cleaning, lubricating, and
bolt-tightening needed to keep equipment running smoothly.
Operators are also expected to learn to use their senses in daily
equipment inspections. When operators assume responsibility
for these simple equipment maintenance functions, maintenance
personnel are free to devote more time to equipment diagnosis
and maintainability improvement, with the ultimate goal of pro-
ducing maintenance-free equipment.
The maintenance training program for equipment operators
recommended by JIPM includes one week of basic information
and skills training at the company’s training facility, followed by
daily one-on-one instruction on the factory floor by maintenance
personnel.
Topics covered in operator maintenance training include
handling and maintenance of
・ bolts and nuts
・ shafts and couplings
・ bearings
・ gears
* power transmissions, sprockets, V-belts, and chains
・ sealing
¢ lubricants and lubrication
 Maintenance Skill Training 343

RELATED COURSES

Several other courses help promote thorough mainte-

nance: instructor training, maintenance procedures, electrical
wiring and instrumentation, and equipment diagnostic tools.

Instructor Training

This course helps prepare instructors for in-house training

programs. Maintenance personnel who have already passed at
least the basic maintenance course “sit in” on basic courses in
progress to study how they are taught. As part of the training,
they are asked to prepare and teach a portion of the curriculum.
This experience builds their confidence as teachers, tests their
maintenance skills, and provides an opportunity to practice
leadership. At the end of a three-day unit, the instructors-course
trainees gain experience in giving advice by reviewing their stu-
dents’ daily reports and adding their own comments. They also
grade the comprehension tests and are asked to reflect on the
effectiveness of their own guidance.
The instructors-course trainees perform similar tasks in each
of the units, which helps build their confidence. After completing
the course, these freshly trained instructors are encouraged to
tailor the basic curricula for in-house courses in their own plants.

Maintenance Procedures Course

Basic maintenance skills can be taught through in-house

maintenance training programs. To carry out actual repairs, how-
ever, workers need standardized maintenance procedures and
reference values for activities such as removing bolts and nuts,
opening covers, or removing gears without match marks and
reassembling them so the gear teeth mesh correctly.
The maintenance-procedures course at JIPM uses the com-
pany’s own machine parts as teaching materials and follows the
type of curriculum shown in Table 7-3. Photos 7-8, 7-9, and 7-10
were taken during this course.
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 Maintenance Skill Training 345
—

Photo 7-8. Measuring Parts

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Photo 7-9. Measuring Parts
346 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Photo 7-10. Cutaway Model of Pump

Electrical Wiring and Instrumentation Course

Although mechanical failures are the most obvious kind of

equipment breakdown, failures also occur in the electrical wiring
and instrumentation. The causes of these failures are much more
difficult to spot and generally require more time to repair.
Sometimes loose electrical connections cause failures; at
other times defective circuits are the cause. When the cause lies
within an IC chip, repair time can be lengthy because so much
time is needed simply to find the defective chip. Maintenance
personnel should be taught the basics of control circuits using
simulation programs so they can identify the simpler failures,
such as loose connections.

Machine Monitoring

The trend toward larger, more sophisticated, and faster

machines is producing increasingly complex machine structures
 Maintenance Skill Training 347

that require condition-based maintenance and the use of various

new monitoring and diagnostic techniques. Today’s mainte-
nance personnel are obliged to become familiar with these new
methods in order to detect abnormalities quickly and prevent
equipment breakdowns.

THE IMPORTANCE OF IN-HOUSE TRAINING

In this era of intense international competition, every com-

pany’s survival depends in large part upon the knowledge and
skills of its equipment-maintenance staff. Maintenance person-
nel need to make full use of the latest equipment diagnostic tools
while aiming for the goal of zero breakdowns. The goal of
maintenance training must be the development of versatile
maintenance professionals who are equally able to handle
mechanical, electrical, and instrumentation technologies. Con-
sulting firms like JIPM in Japan teach only a part of the knowledge
and skills an excellent maintenance professional requires. To be
truly successful, companies must expand the scope and quality
of their in-house training.
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TPM Small Group Activities

A unique feature of TPM is its promotional structure of over-

lapping small groups, integrating organizational and small
group improvement activity.

INTEGRATING SMALL GROUP ACTIVITIES

INTO THE ORGANIZATION

Japanese-style small group activities began with the quality

control circle, introduced in 1962. The American concept of zero
defects (ZD), which is an individual rather than a group activity,
became popular three years later. NEC, the first Japanese firm to
implement it, combined this individual improvement activity
with the Japanese-style quality control (QC) circle to form ZD
group activities.
Later, the Japanese steel industry followed suit with the
widely used JK (jishu kanri, or “autonomous management,”) ac-
tivities. Since then, many other companies have developed their
own terminology and procedures for conducting QC circles and
ZD groups. In fact, most Japanese companies now promote
some form of small group activity, even service industries such
as hotels, banking, and insurance.

349
350 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

QC and ZD Groups Contrasted

In spite of differences in terminology and approach proce-

dures, small groups can be divided into two broad categories, one
originating in the early OC circle, the other in the ZD movement
(Figure 8-1). These two groups are distinctive in several ways.
QC circles began as study groups to teach quality control
techniques to shop-floor supervisors and evolved into problem-
solving small groups for a larger segment of the worker popula-
tion. Circles are organized by subject or theme to deal with
specific problems within the larger total quality control (TQC)
program. Formed by workers, they are independent of the exist-
ing organizational structure. Participation is voluntary. In terms
of organizational theory, they are informal organizations.
ZD groups, on the other hand, began in the United States at
Martin Marietta as a means of involving all employees, individu-
ally, in solving the problem of delayed delivery. The Japanese
imported the concept and incorporated it in their small group

1962 — QC Circle Activities

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Small Group Activities

Figure 8-1. Relationships Among Typical Japanese Small Group Activities

 Small Group Activities 351

activities. Japanese ZD groups participate in management-based

activities to solve problems of concern to the company and to
work toward company goals.

Formal Versus Informal Organizations

Organizational theory considers Japanese ZD groups formal

organizations because they are conducted within the existing
organizational structure. For example, in the independent QC
circles, leaders are typically selected by circle members. In the
management-based ZD groups, on the other hand, shop-floor
supervisors most often assume leadership roles. Of course, when a
supervisor has too many subordinates, subgroups (ranging from
5 to 10 members) must be formed and additional leaders chosen.
Typically, independent QC circle activities are conducted
outside of normal working hours, during “free time” (e.g.,
breaks, after work hours, and weekends and holidays). Because
circle activities are voluntary, employees at most Japanese com-
panies do not receive overtime compensation for participation in
them. By contrast, the formal ZD groups can meet during work
hours under the supervisor’s direction as well as during free
time, and some companies pay overtime compensation for these
outside activities.

Differences in Goals

The improvement themes selected and the goals set also re-
flect the differences between QC circle and ZD group activities.
QC circles are formed around specific themes and goals are set
within each theme. Once the goals are achieved, the QC circles
are reorganized around new themes. Ideally, themes are selected
independently of annual management goals. This is made possi-
ble by the informal, voluntary nature of the circles. Although
companies appear to respect circle autonomy and allow the
circles to choose their own themes, management increasingly en-
courages TQC activities as part of companywide improvement ac-
tivities and promotes themes that support the achievement of
annual goals.
352
ーー
TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM SS SS

ZD groups, on the other hand, must choose goals consistent

with the annual company goals because, ultimately, ZD is aimed
at the elimination of defects and promotes the attainment of all
related goals. Group members independently discuss and set
subgoals such as lower costs, shorter deadlines, and the intro-
duction of new methods.
Although QC circles and ZD small groups differ organiza-
tionally, they have often merged and influenced each other, and
their distinctive features have become blurred. Many corpora-
tions have used both types of groups to develop their own
unique systems.

TPM Small Groups Based on the ZD Model

JIPM promotes use of the “autonomous small group” advo-

cated by Professor Emeritus Kunio Odaka of Tokyo University.
According to Odaka, Japanese small group activities have
flourished, even though their position within the organizational
structure has remained ambiguous. He argues that small groups
should be integrated into the corporate structure so that their
activities can complement and enhance other organizational
activities.*
Accordingly, TPM small group activities are based on the ZD
model and built into the organizational framework. Small
groups function at every level and across divisions to accomplish
company objectives. For example, TPM promotes autonomous
maintenance by operators through small group activity. In TPM,
the typically management-directed activities of equipment
cleaning, lubrication, bolting, inspection, and so on, are per-
formed autonomously as small group activities.

* Kunio Odaka has written a number of books on Japanese management, in-

cluding Toward Industrial Democracy: Management and Workers in Modern Japan,
published by Harvard University Press in 1975, and Japanese Management: A
Forward-Looking Analysis, published by Asian Productivity Organization in 1986.
 Small Group Activities iS?)OlWw

Management of TPM Groups

During the TPM implementation stage, the time spent by

small groups on various activities is carefully monitored. Ac-
tivities are categorized and recorded as maintenance activity,
education and training, and meetings, for example. Documenting
how small group time is spent allows companies to compensate
their employees properly. For example, during the early stages
of autonomous maintenance, much time is spent on mainte-
nance and education and training; later on, more time is spent in
meetings. Operators should be paid for overtime when they per-
form maintenance after work hours; employees attending training
programs after work hours should also receive education com-
pensation; and if a certain number of hours per month is allotted
for meetings, then those exceeding the limit should be held after
regular work hours and compensated.
By the time factory workers are able to conduct the autono-
mous maintenance general inspection (step 4), they can enjoy a
real sense of accomplishment when, for example, their efforts re-
duce breakdowns by as much as 80 percent, increase productivity,
and make work easier.
This sense of accomplishment naturally enhances morale
and motivation and finds expression in longer and more fre-
quent meetings as well as a greater number of improvement sug-
gestions from workers. Moreover, when maintenance personnel
disassemble equipment on weekends for servicing, operators
often want to participate in order to learn. By this time, overtime
compensation may no longer be an issue.
To promote better-trained and capable operators, managerial
staff should lead group activities through step 6 (setting work-
place management and housekeeping standards). Workers
should be able to carry out autonomous maintenance indepen-
dently from step 7 on.

Group Goals Coincide with Company Goals

Why do we advocate integrating TPM small group activities

into an organizational structure? Here is another perspective:
354 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

What does a small group do? According to authors Hirota

and Ueda* the small group “promotes itself and satisfies com-
pany goals as well as individual employee needs through concrete
activities.”
Teams called “circles” or “groups” set goals compatible with
the larger goals of the company and achieve them through group
cooperation or teamwork. This enhances company business
results and promotes activities that satisfy both individual em-
ployee needs (self-satisfaction, success, motivation) and the
needs of the organization. TPM small group activities are repre-
sentative of this type.

‘High Morale = High Profits

Behavioral scientist Rensis Likert compared companies and

factories that had high productivity with those that had low pro-
ductivity.** He studied the impact of different management
policies and levels of employee consciousness and behavior on
productivity.
Likert discovered that the high-producing companies strive
to improve product variables (business factors such as profits
and sales) as well as intermediate variables (namely, human re-
sources, which serve as intermediaries for the business results)
(Figure 8-2). These companies attempt to improve both business
results and working conditions. Low-producing companies and
factories, on the other hand, ignore the human factor and focus
solely on product variables. Likert calls the former “participa-
tive” and the latter “authoritarian” management.
Likert argues that participative management is ideal be-
cause it encourages confidence among employees and promotes
consistently high productivity. Authoritarian management, on
the other hand, encourages submission based on fear among

* K. Hirota and T. Veda, Small Group Activities: Theory and Reality (in Japanese)
(Tokyo: Japan Labor Research Group, 1975).

** Rensis Likert, New Patterns of Management (New York: McGraw-Hill Book

Co., 1961).
 Small Group Activities 355

employees. Consequently, even if higher productivity can be

achieved for a short time, low employee morale will eventually
lead to a decline in productivity.

Organizational
goals

Product Indirect
variables variables

(short-term goals) (long-term goals)

Group themes Formation and maintenance
\ / of the group

Profit-oriented People-oriented

Balance of Ability to
profit and loss make decisions
Annual sales Communication

Pure profit Effective

relationships

Figure 8-2. Organizational Goals

PROMOTING SMALL GROUP ACTIVITIES

Small group activities in the factory should be based on par-

ticipative management such as that advocated by Likert. Small
group goals should be the same as company goals — to improve
productivity and working conditions.

Workers Are the Leading Players

In all small group activities workers are the leading players.

In other words, those who do the work take responsibility for it
rather than simply following orders and doing enough to earn
their pay. Each worker manages his or her own work autono-
mously, striving for better and better results.
356 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Simply requiring operators to lubricate, clean, tighten, and

inspect their machines as part of TPM will have little effect unless
operators believe that they are in fact responsible for looking
after their own machines. Without the workers’ direct support,
autonomous maintenance will fail.

Managers’ Role in Promoting Small Groups

While workers themselves must play a leading role, at the

same time managers must play a large part by working to keep
employees motivated. Four important factors in motivating
small group activities are
* recognizing the importance of the work
* setting and achieving goals
・ acting on workers’ suggestions
・ rewarding workers’ efforts

1. Recognizing the Importance of the Work

A worker must understand the importance of his or her

work in order to take responsibility for it and want to do it well.
The worker’s supervisors and colleagues must also see its impor-
tance, otherwise the worker is not going to believe it.

2. Setting and Achieving Goals

Working without a goal is like running a marathon without a

finish line — there is no motivation to persevere. Goal manage-
ment (setting goals and promoting their achievement) can be an
effective way to motivate people.
The first step in setting goals is to choose a theme and target
items. The second step is to set goal values, and the third is to set
the date by which the goals are to be achieved. Managers should
take care in guiding small groups so workers are able to select
goals directly linked to the annual company goals.
 Small Group Activities 357

3. Acting on Suggestions

The trend in the number of suggestions proposed by indi-

vidual workers has been seen as a measure of how enthusiastically
small group activities are carried out. Group suggestions, based
on the creativity and ingenuity of all the members of a small
group, are on the increase in Japan. The potential range of sug-
gestions for improving equipment efficiency is virtually limitless.
The topic of reducing idling and minor stoppages is particularly
well suited to small groups, for example.
If good results are produced when a suggestion is adopted
and implemented, the individuals proposing it experience a
gratifying sense of achievement. Managers must guide and assist
small groups so that members have the opportunity to experi-
ence that sense of success. For example, many shop-floor workers
have difficulty expressing their thoughts in writing. In many
cases, however, the number of suggestions increased dramatically
when managers and supervisors took the time to help workers
by writing up their verbal suggestions. In plants where small
group activities have taken off, every worker is able to contribute
at least one suggestion per month.

4. Rewarding Workers’ Efforts

Awards satisfy people's desire for recognition and are usu-

ally given for achieving goals and for successful suggestions.
While these accomplishments alone are satisfying to individuals,
the awards have further significance in the context of small group
activities. They demonstrate that managers recognize these
achievements in a concrete fashion. Therefore, while awards
should certainly be monetary, more important than the amount
is the opportunity for managers to acknowledge and express
their appreciation for workers’ achievements.

Leadership in Small Groups

Leadership qualities are extremely important for both small

group leaders and managers. Whether small or large, a group is
358 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

not simply a collection of individuals. It is formed when two or

more people come together to achieve an objective, and when
cooperation, trust, affection, and other psychological relation-
ships develop through communication among the members.
Broadly speaking, a group has two functions:
* group maintenance: maintaining the existence of the
group
¢ problem solving: attempting to achieve the group’s goals
Group maintenance can be seen as the group’s social function
and problem-solving as its results-oriented or working function.
Leadership within a group consists of helping to set and move
toward goals, improving the quality of interaction among group
members, increasing the cohesion of the group, utilizing group
resources, and so on. In other words, leadership promotes and
aids the functions of the group, that is, the group-maintenance
and problem-solving functions.

THE ROLE OF TOP MANAGEMENT

The keys to success in all small group activities lie in three

conditions: motivation, ability, and a favorable work environ-
ment. Management is responsible for actively promoting these
three conditions.
Of these three keys, motivation and ability are the workers’
responsibility, but the creation of a favorable work environment
is outside their control. This environment has both physical and
psychological components that must be satisfied.
Figure 8-3 shows the division of these three conditions into
two subgroups: human and environmental problems.

Developing Able, Self-Motivated Personnel

Management's first responsibility is to provide the special

training necessary to develop a workforce of capable, motivated,
and truly autonomous workers. Human education, which ex-
plores “what human beings are,” as well as technical training in
maintenance and operational techniques must be provided.
 Small Group Activities 359

Three Conditions

Motivation Human resources development

* Human growth needs
Training of mature, * Group functions
able, motivated, and
autonomous workers Technical education

* Management techniques
* Mechanical/electrical techniques

Proper psychological environment

* Development of small group
activities within the framework
of companywide management reform
Favorable
working
environment

Proper physical environment

+ Autonomous maintenance system;
workplace environment;
preparation of procedures

Figure 8-3. Key to Success of Small Group Activities

Education is the source of motivation because it enables

people to understand themselves by exploring areas such as
human drives and motivation and group dynamics, for example.
Unfortunately, managers often have surprisingly little interest in
such subjects. However, education essential to the development
of mature individuals begins with a reevaluation of the self and
what it means to be human.

Creating a Favorable Work Environment

Management's second responsibility is to provide a favora-

ble work environment by eliminating the psychological and
physical obstacles to worker autonomy in the environment.
360 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

The Psychological Environment

The creation of a favorable psychological environment

requires, first, an escape from authoritarian management sys-
tems and, second, changes in company structure to promote
participative management.
William G. Ouichi compared Japanese and American man-
agement styles and discovered that management techniques
similar to those of the Japanese had been successfully im-
plemented in many leading U.S. companies. He labeled these
companies type-Z firms.* Their most distinctive characteristic
was a management commitment to employees, which provided
the foundation for mutual trust, concern, and egalitarianism.
Ouichi concluded that the Japanese do not have a monopoly on
such practices.
Likert and Ouichi both have argued that respect for workers
and a company structure that supports employees help develop
autonomous workers and create a psychological environment
that encourages small group activities.

The Physical Environment

The work environment is further enhanced when manage-

ment establishes certain physical conditions — by creating
autonomous-maintenance systems that encourage small group
activity, by improving the factory environment, by establishing
and adhering to appropriate standards, and so on (Table 8-1). For
example, workers’ enthusiasm for small group activities may flag
if they have no suitable place to hold meetings. Companies
where top management is enthusiastic about small group activities
often build a lounge in the factory for use as a meeting room.
Autonomous maintenance and (in the maintenance depart-
ment) preventive maintenance, maintainability improvement,
and other types of planned maintenance will improve the equip-
ment and the workplace environment beyond recognition. Seeing

* William G. Ouichi, Theory Z: How American Business Can Meet the Japanese
Challenge (New York: Avon Books, 1981).
 Small Group Activities 361

their physical environment change dramatically through their

own participation in improvement activities gives employees a
sense of achievement and further boosts small group activities.
Through this experience of re-creating the physical environment,
individuals develop and mature and learn to work independently.

Design organization for autonomous * Focus on design of responsibilities (fulfilling

management: and enlarging their scope)
« Formation
Create a supportive environment in * Workplace organization and housekeeping
the workplace: standards (5 S's)
Proper preparation of equipment, materials,
resources, etc
* Supportive physical environment (meeting-
rooms set aside for activities)

Prepare and adhere to standards: Everyone participates in setting and revising

operating standards related to their own work,
including technical standards, standard
procedures, etc.

Establish autonomous management + All systems designed to be managed through

systems for all aspects of the enterprise: autonomous small groups: sales, production
schedules, costs, delivery times, safety,
personnel matters, remuneration, and
work methods
* Suggestion and award system revised to be
consistent with small group activity

Table 8-1. Opportunity: Creating a Favorable Work Environment

EVALUATING THE PROGRESS OF SMALL GROUPS

If small group goals are the same as company goals, we can

evaluate their progress by measuring the degree to which group
activities contribute to the achievement of company goals. Prog-
ress in small group activities can be broken down into four stages
(Table 8-2):
Stage 1: Self-development. At first, group members must
master techniques; their motivation increases as they recognize
the importance of each individual.
Stage 2: Improvement activities. Group improvement
activities are proposed and implemented, leading to a sense of
accomplishment.
 362
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 Small Group Activities 363

Stage 3: Problem-solving. At this stage, small group goals

that complement company goals may be selected and the group
becomes actively involved in problem-solving.
Stage 4: Autonomous management. The group selects
high-level goals consistent with corporate policy and manages
its work independently.

The activities in stages 1 through 3 are not inconsistent with

a traditional organization based on order and control, with
newly implemented small group activities taking place on the
shop floor. During stage 4, however, new human resource-
oriented organizations are based on the self-managed small
group model and are highly motivated to achieve company
goals. Thus, during the final stage, true participative management
is established. This is the goal of TPM small group activities.

REFERENCES

Hirota, K., and T. Ueda. Small Group Activities: Theory and Practice.
Tokyo: Japan Labor Research Group, 1975.
Lickert, Rensis. New Patterns of Management. New York: McGraw-Hill
Book Co., 1961.
Ouichi, William G. Theory Z: How American Business Can Meet the
Japanese Challenge. New York: Avon Books, 1981.
Nakajima, Seiichi. New Developments in ZD. Tokyo: Japan Manage-
ment Association, 1978.
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 9
Measuring TPM Effectiveness

WHY MEASURE EFFECTIVENESS?

To integrate TPM programs more effectively throughout the

company or plant, the current problems, the potential for their
solution, and the benefits to be gained must be clarified at the
company and departmental levels. This demands measuring tech-
niques that can isolate the problems and potential for improvement
in each department at any time. TPM effectiveness is measured for
two reasons: to help establish priorities for improvement projects
and to accurately and fairly reflect their results. Effectiveness
measurement reveals the fruits of our daily efforts, isolates points
we must focus on, and helps us plan countermeasures.
To implement TPM effectively, we must know which areas in
the plant are experiencing problems and what those problems are.
This requires indices that show — accurately and continuously
— where improvement is currently needed and what kind of
results can be expected. Such indices focus improvement activi-
ties by pinpointing their most important aspects. They facilitate
prompt identification and response to change and more accurate
judgments, and they help promote more efficient TPM activities.
The results of TPM activities are also measured using indices that
show — accurately and fairly — the relative effectiveness of activi-
ties and improvement measures in the different plants or divisions.

365
366 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Close monitoring at all levels helps maintain and improve results

and promotes the development of more effective countermeasures
(where no positive results are being produced). It also helps us
understand and prevent sudden drops in effectiveness.

MEASURING EQUIPMENT EFFECTIVENESS

As explained in Chapter 2, overall equipment effectiveness

has three factors: availability (operating rate), performance rate,
and quality rate.

Overall Equipment Effectiveness .

Overall equipment effectiveness is calculated from the

formula

Overall equipment effectiveness = availability x performance rate x quality rate

This is extremely useful as an overall indicator of factory or

equipment performance.

Availability (Operating Rate)

loading time — downtime

x 100
SUR loading time

(Downtime includes time for setup, adjustments, changing

tools, breakdowns, and other stoppages.) Operating rates can
also be calculated for individual types of stoppage using the
above formula.

Performance Rate

Performance rate = net operating rate x operating speed rate

_ output x actual cycle time idealcycle time

loading time - downtime _ actual cycle time
 Measuring TPM Effectiveness 367

Quality Rate
Qadir input — (quality defects + startup defects + rework)
e e
input

Unit Setup Time

P : total setup time

Unit setup time = ———___
total setup operations

Reliability and Maintainability Indices

The following measurements are often used to classify and

manage breakdowns as priority items:

Reliability Indices
total sto
pee 100
loading time

6 total stoppages
Failure frequency rate = ———————->—
; loading time

Maintainability Indicators
4 total stoppage time
MTTR (mean time to repair) = ————————_—_
total stoppages

total stoppage time

Failure rate = ==
loading time

Measuring the Efficiency of Maintenance Activities

Indices for measuring the efficiency of the maintenance de-

partment differ depending on the type of maintenance work
being done and how it is organized. They must address the fol-
lowing general questions, however:
¢ To what extent is the work proceeding according to plan?
368 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

・To what extent is the work helping to raise operating rates

and product quality?
° Is the work being done using the most economical and ef-
fective methods?

BM (Breakdown Maintenance) Rate

BM jobs
BM rate = ーーーーーーーー
一 一一 x 100
total maintenance jobs

(Total maintenance jobs = total work done on sporadic

breakdowns (BM), maintainability improvement (MI), and
planned (preventive) maintenance (PM).)

BM Manhour Rate

BM manhours
BM manhour rate = —————___
total maintenance manhours

PM Achievement Rate

total PM jobs performed

PM achi ae trate = etal PNA jobs planned
Se os

MI (Maintainability Improvement Jobs Trend)

Is the number of MI jobs increasing? What is the trend?

G, Trend

How did the C,, value change after the completion of work?

Measurement Indices Related to PQCDSM

Table 9-1 shows the various indices related to POCDSM con-

trol items (productivity, quality, cost, delivery, 2 が og
hygiene and safety morale).
 Measuring TPM Effectiveness 369

PQCDSM Indices

P = Productivity C=Cost
Broad measures: Manpower reduction rate (personnel reduction rate)
・ Labor productivity ・ Maintenance cost reduction rate
・ Value added per person ・ Spare parts cost reduction rate
・ Overall equipment effectiveness ・ Energy cost reduction rate
Specific measures: ・ Downtime losses
・ Availability (operating rate)
・ Performance rate D = Delivery
・ Number of breakdown maintenance jobs Delivery delay rate
・ MTBF * Inventory warehousing time
・ Unit setup and adjustment time ・ Stock turnover rate
・ Number of minor stoppages
S = Safety
・ Number of machines per person
Number of accidents requiring shutdown
Q = Quality
M = Morale
Defect/rework rate
Number of improvement suggestions
・ Number of delivery claims
・ Number of small group meetings
+ C, trend

Table 9-1. Effectiveness Indices (PQCDSM)

SUMMARY

Each rate or index used to measure TPM effectiveness has

advantages and disadvantages; for example, some indices cannot
express all the results of activities in certain areas. Maintenance
department efficiency indices, in particular, will differ according
to the scale of the company and the configuration of its equipment.
The effectiveness indices developed thus far should be used with
the understanding that they are subject to certain limitations.

CASE STUDIES

Tables 9-2 and 9-3 illustrate case studies at company T and

company F respectively.
370 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

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 Measuring TPM Effectiveness 375

REFERENCES,
| Hibi, S. Measuring PM Effectiveness (in Japanese). Tokyo: Pantt Engi-
neering Association, n.d.

|
Goto, Fumio. PM Correspondence Course Text (in Japanese). Tokyo:
Japan Management Association, n.d.

|
Takahashi, Giichi. Promoting Production Maintenance (in Japanese).
Tokyo: Plant Engineering Association, n.d.
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 Appendix A
The PM Prize for
Outstanding TPM Plants

In Japan, the Distinguished Plant Prize (or PM Prize) is

awarded annually to plants that successfully implement TPM.
As public attention increases, this award is now as highly cov-
eted as the Deming Prize, which has been awarded for exemplary
quality programs and achievements for the past 30 years. The
PM prize is awarded by the Japan Institute of Plant Maintenance
(JIPM), a key promoter of TPM. A special PM Prize committee
within JIPM selects the prizewinners.
The PM Prize has been awarded since 1964. While early prize-
winners were selected for their outstanding productive mainte-
nance, implementation of TPM has become a requirement for
the PM Prize since 1971, when the Nippondenso Company be-
came the first firm in Japan to win the PM Prize for TPM.
The PM Prize is offered in two categories, for large corpora-
tions and for firms with fewer than 1,000 employees and less
than ¥ 500 million ($2.2 million) in capital assets. The PM Prize
committee examines the concrete results achieved by applicants
through TPM implementation. Therefore, progress in areas such
as systematization or standardization is disregarded. Selection
of winners is based on improvements achieved through proper
equipment maintenance, such as increased productivity and

377
378 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Category
Category 1 Category 2

Nippodenso
none

Toray Industries Sumiko 1.S.P Co.

1972 (Okazaki plant) (Hama plant)

Chusei Rubber
Segawa Chemical Industries
1973 Toyoda Gosei Hinoda Rubber Industries
Chuo Rubber Industries
Suzuki Chemical Industries

Ichiei Industries
Hokusei Rubber
Kitano Manufacturing
2

1975 2 plant)
(Odawara Toyokuni Industries

Special Prize: Special Prize:

Toyoda Gosei Suzuki Chemical Industries
Kawasaki Steel Kaiyo Rubber
178 (Chiba plant) Shiota Kasei Co.
3 Yokohama Rubber
(Mishima plant) Yokoyama Spring
Sumitomo Metal Industries
(Wakayama plant)
Fuji Photo Film
(Fujinomiya plant)
Yokohama Rubber
(Mie plant)
Wako Chemical Industries

Chuo Spring
1978 (Hekinan plant) Anjo Denki

Aisan Industries
Toyota Steel Works

Note: Category 2 consists of companies with less than ¥ 500 million ($2 million) in capital assets
and less than 1,000 employees.

Table A. PM Prize-Winning Companies (from 1971)

 Appendix A 379

Rose
Category 1 Category 2
Rose

Anjo Denki
Topy Industries
(Kanagawa Plant)
Tokai Rubber Industries
(Komaki plant) Kyowa Precision
Tokyu Car Corporation Teikei Machine
(Osaka plant)
Matsuo Seisakusho
Maruyasu Kogyo Miyama Steel
(Okazaki plant)
Matsushita Electric Industries
(Mikuni plant)

Aishin Seiki Co.

Central Motor Wheel (Toyada plant)
Nippon Zeon Co. (Kawasaki,
Takaoka, Tokuyama, and Tohoku Satake Seisakusho
Mizushima plants)
Fuji Photo Film
(Yoshida Minami plant)

Note: Category 2 consists of companies with less than ¥ 500 million ($4 million) in capital assets
and less than 1,000 employees

quality, reduced costs, reduced inventory, elimination of acci-

dents, pollution control, and the creation of a favorable work en-
vironment. Each year, standards (based on actual results) are
going up.
Table A lists the PM Prizewinners since 1971, when TPM im-
plementation became a requirement for consideration. By 1982,
29 companies in category 1 and 22 companies in category 2 had
been awarded the PM Prize for their TPM. The dramatic increase
in prizewinners after 1981 is noteworthy.
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 Appendix B
Application Procedures for
the PM Prize

To be considered for the PM Prize in Japan, a company must

compile a “TPM Implementation Report” and submit it to the
PM Prize Committee. (An outline of award criteria is provided in
Appendix C.) Although compiling this report is a formidable
task, it forces companies to reevaluate their stages of TPM im-
plementation. This inquiry may lead to the discovery of hidden
weaknesses and result in additional improvements; many prize-
winners have described it as the perfect opportunity for a com-
prehensive survey of their equipment maintenance program.
A company being considered for the PM Prize is evaluated
by specialists in the relevant fields who will point out weaknesses
in their programs and suggest improvements. Applicants invari-
ably find this helpful because the advice received helps boost
future TPM results.
Judging occurs in two stages, the initial screening (based on
documents) and a second screening (based on a factory visit).
Each year companies submit the “TPM Implementation Report”
to the JIPM by the end of May for the first screening in June.
When a company has passed this screening, the PM Prize Com-
mittee notifies it of the date of the factory visit, which is usually
some time in July or August. All results are evaluated by early
September. Then, the PM Prize Committee consisting of the JIPM

381
382 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

chairperson and other experts selects the winners. The award cere-
mony is held in late September or early October at the National
Conference on Equipment Maintenance.
For Japanese companies, the PM Prize symbolizes a new be-
ginning and a challenge to strive for even greater improvement.
Frequently, representatives from PM Prize-winning plants are
invited to report on their continuing efforts at lectures and con-
ferences, and JIPM sponsors field trips to their plants. Both of
these practices are incentives for continued improvement. Re-
peated presentation of company results to the public and fre-
quent visitors to the plant help employees strive for higher and
more challenging goals. ;
The award level beyond the PM Prize is the Special (Distin-
guished) PM Prize. Winners of this prize have eliminated the
weaknesses discovered earlier by the PM Prize Committee and
developed unique maintenance techniques and equipment
technology.
 Appendix C
Criteria for Awarding the
PM Prize

A. Policies and Goals

1. How do company policies relate to equipment manage-

ment?
2. Are appropriate methods used in setting equipment
management policies and goals? Are priorities set ap-
propriately?
3. Are effective managerial indices and evaluation criteria
established?
4. Are long-term and annual plans coordinated?
5. Are company policies and goals understood and accepted
by everyone (management and employees)?
6. Is the achievement of policies and goals closely monitored?
7. Are results reflected in the subsequent yearly plans?

B. Organization and Management

1. Are the organization and personnel deployment related
to equipment management appropriate?
2. Is the TPM-promotion organization effective?
3. Is the TPM-promotion organization well-integrated within
the management structure?

383
384 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

. Is each department participating in TPM?

. Are the head office and the plants and branch offices
cooperating?
. Are there any obstacles to the communication and effec-
tive use of information?
. Have good relationships been established with outside
contractors for equipment, dies, jigs, tools, maintenance
work, and so on?

C. Small Group Activities and Autonomous Maintenance

. Are small groups properly formed?
. Are small group goals set appropriately?
. Do groups meet regularly? Are meetings lively?
N
mw. Is the suggestion system active? Are suggestions handled
appropriately?
. How is the achievement of targets confirmed?
. To what extent are operators performing autonomous
maintenance?

D. Education and Training

i Is TPM understood at every level of the company?
Pas Is the scope and level of training appropriate at every
level?
2. Is training being carried out according to plan?
. What is the degree of participation in outside education
and training courses?
. How many employees hold technical licenses and other
qualifications?
. What is the level of knowledge and skill related to
maintenance work?
. Are skills effectively evaluated?
. Are the effects of education and training being measured?
 Appendix C 385

E. Equipment Management
1. Practice of the Five SS
・ Is equipment free from contamination by dirt, dust, oil,
scale, filings, chips, raw materials, and so on?
* Is action being taken against >ources of dirt and other
contamination and hard-tc lubricate places? Are in-
spection and cleaning carried out regularly?
・ Are efforts being made to improve visual control by dis-
playing lubrication instructions, maximum and mini-
mum levels on measuring instruments, matchmarks
on nuts and bolts, and so on?
Are dies, jigs, tools, measuring instruments, cleaning
equipment, and raw materials kept clean and in good
order?
2. Application of Machine Diagnostic Technology
Is machine diagnostic technology being used to deal
with the following phenomena?
* cracks, corrosion, looseness, etc.
・ abnormal vibration, noise, temperature, etc.
・ leakage of water, air, steam, gas, oil, etc.
3. Installation Methods
Are wiring, piping, hydraulic and pneumatic units, elec-
trical control units, and similar equipment installed by
suitable methods in appropriate positions?
4. Lubrication
Are lubricating materials, equipment, and methods and
lubricant replenishment and replacement periods
selected appropriately? Is lubrication being carried out
properly?

F Maintenance Planning and Management

1. What measures have been taken to assure and increase
maintenance quality and efficiency?
386 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

. Have appropriate standards for equipment inspections

been set? Are inspections planned and carried out
properly?
. Are annual, monthly, and other maintenance work plans
being prepared and executed?
. Have standards for permanent-stock items, order
points, order quantities for spare parts, and other
maintenance materials been set? Is stock stored under
suitable conditions?
. Are equipment drawings adequately controlled?
. Are dies, jigs, tools, and measuring instruments man-
aged properly?
. Have appropriate record-keeping and data-handling
methods been established for equipment deterioration,
breakdowns, other stoppages, maintenance manhours,
and other aspects of maintenance?
. Are improvement measures based on data?
. Are control procedures used properly?

G. Equipment Investment Planning and MP (Maintenance

Prevention)
ile Are new-product and process development and new-
equipment plans suitably related?
2. Are suitable methods of comparing the economy of
equipment investments being used?
o Are equipment budgets appropriately compiled and
controlled?
. Are MP improvement proposals reflected quickly and
accurately in equipment design standards?
. Are reliability and maintainability considered fully when
selecting and designing equipment and its layout?
. Are equipment testing and acceptance and commission-
ing control carried out effectively?
. Is in-house development of equipment dies, jigs, and
tools superior?
 Author Profiles

SEIICHI NAKAJIMA

Vice Chairman, Japan Institute of Plant Maintenance

Executive Vice President, Japan Management Association

Seiichi INakajima graduated with a degree in mechanical en-

gineering from Kanazawa Technical College in 1939. He joined
the Japan Management Association in 1949 and since then has
served as a management consultant to more than 100 com-
panies. Mr. Nakajima introduced PM to Japan in 1951 and has re-
mained its leading advocate and educator over the past 30 years.
His many publications include Promoting Equipment Mainte-
nance, An Introduction to Plant Engineering (in Japanese), and Intro-
duction to TPM.

KUNIO SHIROSE

Senior Consultant, Japan Management Association

Kunio Shirose graduated with a degree in applied chemistry

from Hokkaido University in 1957 and joined the staff of the
Japan Management Association in 1960. His consulting work has

389
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 Author Profiles

SEIICHI NAKAJIMA

Vice Chairman, Japan Institute of Plant Maintenance

Executive Vice President, Japan Management Association

Seiichi Nakajima graduated with a degree in mechanical en-

gineering from Kanazawa Technical College in 1939. He joined
the Japan Management Association in 1949 and since then has
served as a management consultant to more than 100 com-
panies. Mr. Nakajima introduced PM to Japan in 1951 and has re-
mained its leading advocate and educator over the past 30 years.
His many publications include Promoting Equipment Mainte-
nance, An Introduction to Plant Engineering (in Japanese), and Intro-
duction to TPM.

KUNIO SHIROSE

Senior Consultant, Japan Management Association

Kunio Shirose graduated with a degree in applied chemistry

from Hokkaido University in 1957 and joined the staff of the
Japan Management Association in 1960. His consulting work has

389
390 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

focused on improving quality in man-machine systems and in-

creasing equipment efficiency. He serves as TPM adviser to more
than 30 companies in Japan, including a number of PM prizewin-
ners, and has co-authored a textbook on process control.

FUMIO GOTO

Chief Consultant, Japan Management Association

Fumio Goto graduated with a degree in control engineering

from Keio University in 1969 and joined the Japan Management
Association in 1970. His consulting specialties are industrial en-
gineering and quality control. Goto has been a TPM advisor
since 1973 and has established a particularly solid reputation on
his guidance in autonomous maintenance. He now advises
more than 30 companies, including prizewinners Tokai Rubber
Industries and Daihatsu Industries.

AINOSUKE MIYOSHI

Chief Consultant, Japan Management Association

Ainosuke Miyoshi graduated with a degree in industrial

management from Kanagawa University in 1963 and joined the
staff of the Japan Management Association in the same year.
Since 1973, his consulting practice has included TPM as well as
industrial engineering and materials handling, and in that capacity
he serves more than 30 companies. His publications include a
book on new-materials handling.
 Author Profiles 391

MASAMITSU ASO

Maintenance Supervisor Nippon Steel

Senior Instructor Japan Institute of Plant Maintenance

Masamitsu Aso joined Nippon Steel Corporation in 1956

and has served continuously as mechanical maintenance work
supervisor for over 30 years. In recent years, Mr. Aso has also
served as a senior instructor for the Japan Institute for Plant
Maintenance. In that capacity, Mr. Aso has worked with many
leading companies in Japan, including Toyota Auto Body, INAX,
Konica Corporation, Kayaba Industries, and Kubota, Ltd.
 Index

Abnormalities see Autonomous maintenance (cont.)

Causal abnormalities TPM group meetings in, 173,
Adjustment see Equipment 177,,178,.212,.352
adjustment Availability (operating rate)
Aisan Industries, 18, 19 calculation of, 36, 37, 366
American-style PM, 18, 165 equipment effectiveness, in, 31
Autonomous maintenance see also increases in, 7, 13
Bolting; Cleaning; Deterioration; technical data, of, 294
General Inspection; Inspec-
tions; Lubrication; Operators; Bolting
Small group activity; Training losses in, 94, 185-186
defined, 165 proper procedures, 186
distinctive feature of TPM, as, 21 Breakdown
hidden defects and, 91 analysis, 24
keys to success, 209, 212-213, attitude changing, and, 85-86
216-217 catastrophic, 107
maintenance tasks in, 166-167, causes, 21, 90
170-171 function-loss, 86, 90
materials management in, 205 function-reduction, 87, 90
planned maintenance and, 24, idling and stoppages, 131
360 losses, 28
preventing contamination in, maintenance, 2, 3, 10
176-178 measurement of, 367
production tasks in, 167, 170 reducing, 13
seiri and seiton in, 204-206, 209 reliability and, 49, 50
seven steps in, 21, 24, 208-209 Breakthrough thinking, 156, 158

393
394 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Case study Chronic losses see also Cleaning;

Adjustment, eliminating, 128 Deterioration; Optimal condi-
Adjustments, improving, ions; Predictive maintenance;
128-129 Reliability; Slight defects
Blockages, correcting, 148-149 breakdowns, 28, 87, 89
Blockages, reducing, 145, 148 causes of, 38, 44, 45
Four-phase development, contrast with sporadic, 42-43
111-112 defined, 41, 42
Predicting life span, 283-286 hidden defects as, 89
Slight defects, 69-70 model projects in, 20
TPM effectiveness, measuring, P-M analysis in, 71-74
369-374 reasons for neglect, 46-48
Causal abnormalities reducing and eliminating, 41-42,
defined, 195 44, 49,58
spotting, 194 slight defects and, 63, 66-70
Causal factors underestimation of, 47, 48
comparative studies in, 160-161 Chuo Spring Company, 200
P-M analysis in, 161 Cleaning
reviewing, 161-164 deterioration, in, 55
stabilizing, 159 inadequate, 172
Checklists inspection, as, 55, 92, 173
autonomous maintenance, 208 objectives, 175
bolts and nuts, 187 preventing contamination, in,
cleaning, 174 176-178
daily inspection, 191 standards in, 179-181
debugging, 302 TPM group meetings in, 173,
design, 304 174, 177
designed function, 306 Commissioning
drive systems, 194 control in, 307-308, 310
electrical, 195 debugging in, 308
hydraulics, 193 defined, 307-308
lubrication, 185 delay in, 302
pneumatics/steam, 192 handover documents in, 310
Chronic defects see also Causal Communication, xvi, xvii, 18
factors CPM networks, 232
characteristics, 154-156 Cp values (process capacity in-
contrasted with sporadic, 156 dices), 162, 368
reducing, 30, 153, 156, 158
 Index 395

Data Deterioration (cont.)

maintenance, classifying, 296, defined, 53
299 internal, 106
MP, collecting, 295 lubricants, of, 277-278
technical, availability of, 294 natural, 53, 107
Debugging, 290, 307, 308 prevention of, 165, 166, 167,
Defects see also Chronic defects; 170, 181
Chronic losses; Hidden defects; restoration of, 53, 95, 97, 104, 105
Slight defects; Zero defects types of, 53-55, 104, 107
comparative studies, 160-161 Diagnostics see Machine
defined, 30 diagnostics
latent, 63 Distinguished Plant Prize
preventing, 10 (PM Prize)
quality rate and, 367 award criteria, 377, 379, 383-387
reliability and, 49, 50 companies awarded, xx, 2, 13,
“six big losses,” in, 10 378, 379
slight, 63, 66-70 judging, 381
sporadic, 156, 158 Special PM Prize and, 382
Deming Prize, 377 TPM effectiveness and, 8
Design see also Design weakness; TPM implementation and, 377,
Design standardization; Equip- 379, 381
ment management Downtime, 10, 28, 112, 366
equipment, 299, 315
factors, 320 Education see Training
MP, in, 290 Effectiveness
reliability and maintainability, calculating rates, 32, 36-38
294 ; case studies, 369-374
stages, 302, 318, 323 defined, 27
standards, 302 formulas for, 366-368
weakness, 97-98, 105, 142-143 improving, 9-10, 20, 27, 167
Design standardization losses in, 28-30
acceptance and, 303 measuring, 31-32, 365-369
checklists and, 302, 306, 307 “six big losses” in, 20, 28-31
eliminating errors, in, 302 Engineering
MP, in, 299 ability in, 294
parts, for, 299 department, 296, 315
Deterioration design, 294, 302, 306, 315
cleaning and, 55-56 equipment, 287
396 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Engineering (cont.) Equipment reliability see Reliability

maintenance, 11, 287, 294 Equipment setup
project, 287 common problems, 113-114
reliability, 11 external, 29, 115, 116-118
skill in MP, 290 improving, 112, 114, 125-127
Engineers, 46-47, 154, 155, 188 internal, 29, 115, 116-119
Environment see Workplace Japanese standard, 113
improvement losses, 28-29
Equipment see Breakdowns,
Effectiveness; Equipment adjust- Factor analysis see P-M analysis
ment; Equipment mainte- Five senses, 77, 112, 136, 342
nance; Equipment Five SS see also Seiri; Seiton
management; Equipment defined, 21
Setup; Operators; Optimal 5W’s and 1H (who, what, when,
conditions; Reliability where, why, and how), 180,
Equipment adjustment 181, 250-251
causes of, 121 Fuji Photo Film, 283-286, 303, 304,
common problems, 113-114 306, 307, 309, 314
effectiveness of, 122-125
eliminating, 119, 128 General inspections
improving, 112, 125-127, 128-129 step by step, 203-204
losses, 28-29 TPM groups in, 202, 353
purpose, 119, 121 | training preparation for, 196, 200
Equipment failure see Breakdowns; training implementation of,
Reliability 200, 202-203
Equipment maintenance
bolting, 94 Hands-on experience, xvi, 334, 340
cleaning, 92, 93 Hidden defects
losses and, 89, 137 breakdown cause, as, 90
lubrication, 92, 93 chronic defects, as, 156
operating conditions, 94-95 chronic losses, as, 38, 89
Equipment management cleaning and, 171
common deficiencies in, 87, 88 idling and stoppages, in, 134
early, 287, 315 lubrication and, 181
learning, 52 physically, 90
“maintenance-free” design psychologically, 90
and, 6, 26 uncovering, 92-99
Equipment operator see Operators Human factors, 54, 354
 Index So

Idling and stoppages Latency, 30, 42, 63

case studies, 145, 148-149 Lickert, Rensis, 14, 18, 354, 355, 360
causes of, 29, 129 Life cycle, 26
characteristics of, 133 Life cycle cost (LCC)
common problems, 135-136 acquisition costs in, 320
defined, 132-133 analysis, xxi-xxiii, 322-323
parts standardization and, 299 defined, 319, 320
P-M analysis in, 140-142 design-to-cost, and, 320
reducing, 136-139, 142-145 example of, 323, 325-326
Input, 9 minimizing, xxii, 10
Inspections see also General sustaining costs in, 320
inspections system effectiveness in, 323
checkpoints in, 88, 191 terotechnology and, 11
cleaning and, 173 trade-offs in, 323
failure in, 186-187 U.S. Department of Defense,
intervals in, 189-190 for, 11
lubrication, for, 278-280 U.S. Office of Management and
skills in, 188-189 the Budget, and, 319
time allowed for, 190-191 Logistics, 11-12
training for, 193-196 Losses see Bolting; Breakdown;
“I operate — you fix,” 1, 21, 87, Chronic losses; Equipment
166, 329 maintenance; Idling and stop-
page; Lubrication; “Six big
Japan Industrial Standards (JIS), losses”; Speed; Sporadic
86, 302 losses
Japan Institute of Plant Engineers, Lubrication
5 control, 269-270
Japanese companies, xix, 349, 382 daily inspection of, 278-280
JIPM (Japan Institute of Plant deterioration in, 277-278
Maintenance), xvii, xxiv, 5, 38, improving inadequate, 181, 184
55, 342, 343, 352, 377, 381, 382 losses in, 92, 181
Jishu kanri see JK methods, 272, 275-277
JK (autonomous management), standards for, 179-181
349 types of, 271-272
Juran, J.M., 42, 156
Just-in-time, xv, xix, xx, 2 Machine diagnostics see also
Preventive maintenance
Kosho (breakdown), 85 application of, 110-111, 281
398 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Machine diagnositcs (cont.) Maintenance planning

condition monitoring in, 282-283 annual preparation, 227, 230
detecting breakdown, in, equipment conditions and,
106-107 226-227
Maintainability see Reliability maintainability, improving,
Maintenance see Autonomous 236-237
maintenance; Maintenance major projects, for, 232
activities; “Maintenance-free” monthly preparation, 231
design; Maintenance cost; project management in, 232,
Maintenance personnel; 235-236
Maintenance planning; types of, 223, 226
Maintenance prevention; Maintenance prevention (MP) see
Maintenance records; Main- also Commissioning; Data;
tenance skill training; Periodic _ Debugging; Design; Design
maintenance; Predictive standardization; Engineering;
maintenance; Preventive Problem prevention; Life
maintenance; Productive cycle cost
maintenance background of, 26
Maintenance activities design-to-cost in, 320
maintenance department, in, early equipment management
101, 170-171 in, 287, 315
measuring efficiency of, 367-368 goals of, 287, 293
Maintenance budget control see import, as, 1
Maintenance cost life cycle cost in, 319-320
Maintenance cost record-keeping in, 296, 299
classification, 261-262 reliability and, 293, 294, 306
budgets, 262-266 Maintenance records
reduction, 24, 259, 261, 266-269 computerization, 250-251
Maintenance engineering see PDCA management cycle, 237
Engineering precautions, 246, 250
“Maintenance-free” design see types, 240, 242-243, 246
Equipment management Maintenance skill training see
Maintenance personnel also Hands-on experience;
responsibilities, 101, 329, 330, Maintenance personnel;
332-333 Operators
training, 24 bolts and nuts, for, 335
zero breakdowns and, 347 completion time, 340
goals in, 341
 Index 399

Maintenance skill training (cont.) Operators

hydraulics, pneumatics, and comparison to auto driver, 330
sealing, for, 339 detecting abnormalities, in,
implementation, 340-342 194, 195-196
in-house programs, 343, 347 detecting deterioration, in, 112
instructors, for, 343 four basic functions, 332
keys and bearings, for, 337 inspection skills, and, 188-189
power transmissions, for, 338 maintenance training for, 21,
Martin Marietta, 350 342
Management see also Workplace responsibilities, 2, 21, 100, 166,
improvement 329, 330
autonomous maintenance, in, standards and, 179-180,
216 206-207, 216
division of labor, traditional, 1, TPM groups and, 174
21, 87, 166, 329 Optimal conditions
Japanese and American defined, 57
compared, 360 establishing, 58-63
materials and tools, of, 205-206 idling and stoppages, in, 142
motivation, 6, 12-13 latent defects, in exposing, 63
participative, 354-355 Ouichi, William G., 360
PDCA cycle, 237 Output, 9-10, 131, 165
top, 13, 18, 200
TPM groups, of, 353-355, “Participative management” see
356-357, 358-361 Lickert, Rensis
MIL-STD-785, 11 PDCA (Plan-Do-Check-Action),
MTBF (mean time between 237
failures) 101, 104, 230, 242-243, Periodic maintenance, 108-110
296, 310 Performance rate, 31, 36, 37
PERT, 232
Nakaigawa, Masakatsu, 74 Planned maintenance see
NEC, 349 Autonomous maintenance
Nippondenso Co., 2, 295, 377, 305 P-M analysis
causal factors and, 161
Odaka, Kunio, 352 chronic loss and, 71
Ohno, Taiichi, xv, 2 defined, 71
Operating conditions, 94-95 example of, 140
Operating rate see Availability factor analysis and, 71
procedure, 72-74, 75, 76
400 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

PM Prize see Distinguished Plant Quality control (QC) circles

Prize (cont.)
Poka-yoke (mistake-proofing), organizational structure, and,
105 350, 351
POCDSM, 9-10, 368 origin of, 350
Predictive maintenance see also TQC, in, 350, 351
Machine diagnostics ZD and, compared, 350
application of, 281-282 Quality defects see Defects
case study, 283-286 Quality rate, 31, 37
detecting deterioration, in, 57
role in TPM, 5 Records see Maintenance records
Preventive maintenance (PM) see Reliability
also Lubrication; Maintenance check items, 306
cost; Maintenance planning; defined, 49
Maintenance records; Spare design, in, 294
parts control development, 170, 293
achievement rate in, 368 engineering, 11
defined, 90, 219 indices, 367
eliminating breakdowns, in, 110 maintainability indicators and,
Japan, in, 5 367
predecessor of TPM, as, 1,3 types of, 49-50
standardization of, 220-223 Reliability engineering, 1
Problem prevention see also Restoration see Deterioration
Maintenance prevention Rework see Defects
checklists in, 310
control charts in, 315, 318-319 Seiri (organization)
goal of, 310 defined, 21
project team in, 315 operators’ role, and, 205
stages in, 315, 318 program for, 206
Productive maintenance see also setup improvement, in, 116
Total productive maintenance, standardization, as, 204-205
1, 2, 3, 5, 89 Seiton (tidiness)
“Profitable PM,” 7 defined 21
program for, 206
Quality see Defects; Quality control setup improvement, in, 116
circles; Quality rate standardization, as, 204-205
Quality control (QC) circles Setup see Equipment setup
goals of, 351-352 Shingo, Shigeo, 113, 115
 Index 401

“Six big losses” see also Break- Small group activity (cont.)
downs; Defects; Equipment ZD model and, 113
adjustment; Equipment SMED techniques, 113
setup; Idling and stoppages; Spare parts control
Speed classification, 251-252
defined, 10 ordering, 254-255, 257, 259
eliminating,13 selecting stock, 258
model projects in, 20 Special PM Prize, 382
types of, 28-30 Speed
Skill see also Maintenance skill common problems, 150-151
training determining optimal, 30, 36
analysis, 79 increasing, 151-153
defined, 74 loss, 10, 29, 36, 150
development, 13, 79-83 standard, 150
evaluation, 83 Sporadic losses
goal of TPM, as, 74 breakdowns, 28
inspection, for, 188-189 contrast with chronic, 42-43
training, 78-79, 81-83 defined, 41, 42
types of, 77-78, 294 restoration of, 41
workplace, in, 74, 77-78 Standardization see Design
Slight defects standardization
case study on, 69-70 Stoppages see Idling and stoppages
defined, 63, 66
eliminating, 68, 69 TBO (time between overhauls),
preventing, 687 230
Small group activity see also Quality Terotechnology, 11-12
control circles; Zero defects Tokai Rubber Industries, 13, 14,
“bottom-up” improvement, 13, 15, 111, 112, 182, 198, 319
14 Total cost visibility, xxi
evaluating progress of, 361, 363 Total productive maintenance
goals of, 351-352, 354, 356, 363 (TPM) see also Autonomous
inspection, in, 200, 202 maintenance; Effectiveness;
leadership in, 355-356, 357-358 Equipment management;
management of, 6, 216, 353-354, Five Ss: Life cycle cost; Small
356-357, 358-361 group activity; Training; Zero
QC and ZD groups in, 349-352 defects
TPM promotional structure in, autonomous maintenance and,
212 21, 24
402 TPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Total productive maintenance Training (cont.)

(TPM) (cont.) equipment management, 52
company policy, as, 13 group-based, 200, 202
definition, 1,5 operation and maintenance
education for, 18 skills in TPM, 24, 98-99
effectiveness of, 7-8 technical, 358
equipment maintenance in, 5 TPM preliminary, 18
goals of, 6, 7, 10, 20, 74 skills, for, 78-79, 81-83
history of, 3-5 Type-Z firms, 360
implementation of, 5, 13, 353,
365 Working environment see
key innovation in, 2 Workplace improvement
life cycle cost in, 10, 11 Workplace improvement
logistics in, 11-12 factors in, 12
motivation management in, 6 output, as, 9
PQCDSM in, 9-10 psychological environment in,
program development, 18-26 360
promotional structure, 14, 18 physical environment in, 13,
“six big losses”, in, 2, 28-31 360-361
small group activities in, xvi, 5, top management in, 13, 18
13, 352 TPM in, 18
technical training in, 193 Workplace management see Seiri;
“total” component, xv, xxli-xxiv, Seiton
6
Toyota production system, and, Yarube (work environment), 12, 13
2 Yaruki (motivation), 12, 13
workplace improvement in, 12 Yaruude (competence) 12, 13
Total quality control (TQC), xix,
XXA5』95035t Zero breakdowns
Toyota, xv, xix, 2, 3, 297 achieving, 13, 28, 98
TPM Group see Small group case study, 111-112
activity five requirements for, 91-99
Training see also General inspec- four-phase program, 101-111
tions; Maintenance skill goal, as, 347
training hidden defects, 99
autonomous maintenance, in, TPM, in, xix, 7, 27
209, 213 Zero defects (ZD)
discovery-based, 175 American concept, as, 349
 Index 403

Zero defects (ZD) (cont.)

goals of, 351-352
hidden defects, 89-91
NEC, at, 349 ンー
organizational structure, and,
351
QC and, compared, 350-351
Toyota's goal, as, 2
TPM, in, xix, 7, 27-28, 352
group activities in, 349
Zero inventory, 2

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grams, and industrial study missions. Call 1-800-274-9911 for our free book catalog.

JIT Factory Revolution

A Pictorial Guide to Factory Design of the Future
by Hiroyuki Hirano/JIT Management Library
Here is the first-ever encyclopedic picture book of JIT. With 240 pages of
photos, cartoons, and diagrams, this unprecedented behind-the-scenes look at
actual production and assembly plants shows you exactly how JIT looks and func-
tions. It shows you how to set up each area of a JIT plant and provides hundreds
of useful ideas you can implement. If you’ve made the crucial decision to run pro-
duction using JIT and want to show your employees what it’s all about, this book
is amust. The photographs, from Japanese production and assembly plants, pro-
vide vivid depictions of what work is like in a JIT environment. And the text, simple
and easy to read, makes all the essentials crystal clear.
ISBN 0-915299-44-5 / 227 pages / $49.95 / Order code JITFAC-BK

Total Manufacturing Management

Production Organization for the 1990s
by Giorgio Merli
One of Italy's leading consultants discusses the implementation of Just-In-
Time and related methods (including QFD and TPM) in Western corporations.
The author does not approach JIT from a mechanistic orientation aimed simply at
production efficiency. Rather, he discusses JIT from the perspective of industrial
strategy and as an overall organizational model. Here's a sophisticated program
for organizational reform that shows how JIT can be applied even in types of pro-
duction that have often been neglected in the West, including custom work.
ISBN 0-915299-58-5 / 224 pages / $39.95 / Order code TMM-BK

Productivity Press, Inc., Dept. BK, PO. Box 3007, Cambridge, MA 02140 1-800-274-9911
Introduction to TPM
Total Productive Maintenance
by Seiichi Nakajima
Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) combines the American practice of pre-
ventive maintenance with the Japanese concepts of total quality control (TQC)
and total employee involvement (TEI). The result is an innovative system for
equipment maintenance that optimizes effectiveness, eliminates breakdowns,
and promotes autonomous operator maintenance through day-to-day activities.
This book summarizes the steps involved in TPM and provides case examples
from several top Japanese plants.
ISBN 0-915299-23-2 / 149 pages / $39.95 / Order code ITPM-BK

TPM Development Program

Implementing Total Productive Maintenance
edited by Seiichi Nakajima
This book outlines a three-year program for systematic TPM development
and implementation. It describes in detail the five principal developmental ac-
tivities of TPM:
1. Systematic elimination of the six big equipment related losses through small
group activities
2. Autonomous maintenance (by operators)
3. Scheduled maintenance for the maintenance department
4. Training in operation and maintenance skills
5. Comprehensive equipment management from the design stage
ISBN 0-915299-37-2 / 428 pages / $85.00 / Order code DTPM-BK

A Revolution in Manufacturing
The SMED System
by Shigeo Shingo, translated by Andrew P. Dillon
SMED (Single-Minute Exchange of Die), or quick changeover techniques, is
the single most powerful tool for Just-In-Time production. Written by the industrial
engineer who developed SMED for Toyota, the book contains hundreds of illustra-
tions and photographs, as well as twelve chapter-length case studies. Here are
the most complete and detailed instructions available anywhere for transforming
a manufacturing environment to speed up production (Shingo’s average setup time
reduction is an astounding 98 percent) and make small-lot inventories feasible.
ISBN 0-915299-03-8 / 383 pages / $70.00 / Order code SMED-BK

Productivity Press, Inc., Dept. BK, P.O. Box 3007, Cambridge, MA 02140 1-800-274-9911
The Improvement Book
Creating the Problem-Free Workplace
by Tomo Sugiyama
A practical guide to setting up a participatory problem-solving system in the
workplace. Focusing on ways to eliminate the “Big 3” problems — irrationality, incon-
sistency, and waste — this book provides clear direction for starting a “problem-
free engineering” program. It also gives you a full introduction to basic concepts
of industrial housekeeping (known in Japan as 5S), two chapters of examples
that can be used in small group training activities, and a workbook for individual
use (extra copies are available separately). Written in an informal style, and using
many anecdotes and examples, this book provides a proven approach to prob-
lem solving for any industrial setting.
ISBN 0-915299-47-X / 236 pages / $49.95 / Order code IB-BK

Also Available
TPM Newsletter
The Total Production Maintenance Newsletter is the new, number one au-
thority on maintenance strategies that are working and those that are not. It tells
you how to transform an unproductive, inefficient, even uncooperative mainte-
nance workforce into an enthusiastic, productive group. Its articles, interviews,
suggestions, and case histories will help you improve productivity by decreasing
equipment downtime and breakdowns. It demonstrates how elevating the impor-
tance of maintenance management in your organization can help you save
money. To sign up, or for more information, call 1-800-888-6485. Please state
code “BA” when ordering.

Total Productive Maintenance

Maximizing Productivity and Quality
Japan Management Association
Introduce TPM to your work force in this accessible two-part audio visual pro-
gram, which explains the rationale and basic principles of TPM to supervisors,
group leaders, and workers. It explains five major developmental activities of
TPM, includes a section on equipment improvement that focuses on eliminating
chronic losses, and describes an analytical approach called PM Analysis to help
solve problems that have complex and continuously changing causes. (Approxi-
mately 45 minutes long.)
167 Slides / ISBN 0-915299-46-1 / $749.00 / Order code STPM-BK
2 Videos / ISBN 0-915299-49-6 / $749.00 / Order code VTPM-BK

Productivity Press, Inc., Dept. BK, PO. Box 3007, Cambridge, MA 02140 1-800-274-9911
COMPLETE LIST OF TITLES FROM PRODUCTIVITY PRESS
Akao, Yoji (ed.). Quality Function Deployment: Integrating Customer
Requirements into Product Design
ISBN 0-915299-41-0 / 1990 / 320 pages / $75.00 / order code QFD
Asaka, Tetsuichi and Kazuo Ozeki (eds.). Handbook of Quality Tools:
The Japanese Approach
ISBN 0-915299-45-3 / 1990 / 336 pages / $59.95 / order code HQT
Belohlav, James A. Championship Management: An Action Model for
High Performance
ISBN 0-915299-76-3 / 1990 / 272 pages / $29.95 / order code CHAMPS
Christopher, William F. Productivity Measurement Handbook
ISBN 0-915299-05-4 / 1985 / 680 pages / $137.95 / order code PMH
D’Egidio, Franco. The Service Era: Leadership in a Global Environment
ISBN 0- 915299-68-2 / 1990 / 194 pages / $29.95 / order code SERA
Ford, Henry. Today and Tomorrow
ISBN 0-915299-36-4 / 1988 / 286 pages / $24.95 / order code FORD
Fukuda, Ryuji. CEDAC: A Tool for Continuous Systematic Improvement
ISBN 0- 915299-26-7 / 1990 / 144 pages / $49.95 / order code CEDAC
Fukuda, Ryuji. Managerial Engineering: Techniques for Improving
Quality and Productivity in the Workplace (rev.)
ISBN 0-915299-09-7 / 1986 / 208 pages / $39.95 / order code ME
Hatakeyama, Yoshio. Manager Revolution! A Guide to Survival in Today’s
Changing Workplace
ISBN 0-915299-10-0 / 1986 / 208 pages / $24.95 / order code MREV
Hirano, Hiroyuki. JIT Factory Revolution: A Pictorial Guide to Factory
Design of the Future
ISBN 0-915299-44-5 / 1989 / 227 pages / $49.95 / order code JITFAC
Hirano, Hiroyuki. JIT Implementation Manual: The Complete Guide to
Just-In-Time Manufacturing
ISBN 0-915299-66-6 / 1990 / 1000 + pages / $3500.00 / order code HIRANO
Horovitz, Jacques. Winning Ways: Achieving Zero-Defect Service
ISBN 0-915299-78-X / 1990 / 176 pages / $24.95 / order code WWAYS
Japan Human Relations Association (ed.). The Idea Book: Improvement
Through TEI (Total Employee Involvement)
ISBN 0-915299-22-4 / 1988 / 232 pages / $49.95 / order code IDEA
Japan Human Relations Association (ed.). The Service Industry Idea
Book: Involvement in Retail and Office Improvement
ISBN 0-915299-65-8 / 1990 / 272 pages / $49.95 / order code SIDEA
Japan Management Association (ed.). Kanban and Just-In-Time at Toyota:
Management Begins at the Workplace (rev.), Translated by David J. Lu
ISBN 0-915299-48-8 / 1989 / 224 pages / $36.50 / order code KAN
Japan Management Association and Constance E. Dyer. The Canon
Production System: Creative Involvement of the Total Workforce
ISBN 0-915299-06-2 / 1987 / 251 pages / $36.95 / order code CAN

Productivity Press, Inc., Dept. BK, P.O. Box 3007, Cambridge, MA 02140 1-800-274-9911
 . os ok W a

Jones, Karen (ed.). The Best of TEI: Current rspectives oh Total cat
Employee Involvement i
ISBN 0-915299-63-1 / 1989 / 502 pages / $175}
Karatsu, Hajime. Tough Words For American stry RY RORY Of
ISBN 0-915299-25-9 / 1988 / 178 pages / $24.95 AOrder code TOUGE”
Karatsu, Hajime. TQC Wisdom of Japan: Managingior Total Quality
Control, Translated by David J. Lu が
ISBN 0-915299-18-6 / 1988 / 136 pages / $34.95 / order code WISD
Kobayashi, lwao. 20 Keys to Workplace Improvement
ISBN 0-915299-61-5 / 1990 / 264 pages / $34.95 / order code 20KEYS
Lu, DavidJ. Inside Corporate Japan: The Art of Fumble-Free Management
ISBN 0-915299-16-X / 1987 / 278 pages / $24.95 / order code ICJ
Merli, Giorgio. Total Manufacturing Management: Production Organization
for the 1990s
ISBN 0-915299-58-5 / 1990 / 224 pages / $39.95 / order code TMM
Mizuno, Shigeru (ed.). Management for Quality Improvement: The 7 New
QC Tools
ISBN 0-915299-29-1 / 1988 / 324 pages / $59.95 / order code 7QC
Monden, Yasuhiro and Michiharu Sakurai (eds.). Japanese Management
Accounting: A World Class Approach to Profit Management
ISBN 0-915299-50-X / 1990 / 568 pages / $59.95 / order code JMACT
Nachi-Fujikoshi (ed.). Training for TPM: A Manufacturing Success Story
ISBN 0-915299-34-8 / 1990 / 320 pages / $59.95 / order code CTPM
Nakajima, Seiichi. Introduction to TPM: Total Productive Maintenance
ISBN 0-915299-23-2 / 1988 / 149 pages / $39.95 / order code ITPM
Nakajima, Seiichi. TPM Development Program: Implementing Total
Productive Maintenance
ISBN 0-915299-37-2 / 1989 / 428 pages / $85.00 / order code DTPM
Nikkan Kogyo Shimbun, Ltd./Factory Magazine (ed.). Poka-yoke: Improving
Product Quality by Preventing Defects
ISBN 0-915299-31-3 / 1989 / 288 pages / $59.95 / order code IPOKA
Ohno, Taiichi. Toyota Production System: Beyond Large-Scale Production
ISBN 0-915299-14-3 / 1988 / 162 pages / $39.95 / order code OTPS
Ohno, Taiichi. Workplace Management
ISBN 0-915299-19-4 / 1988 / 165 pages / $34.95 / order code WPM
Ohno, Taiichi and Setsuo Mito. Just-In-Time for Today and Tomorrow
ISBN 0-915299-20-8 / 1988 / 208 pages / $34.95 / order code OMJIT
Perigord, Michel. Achieving Total Quality Management: A Program
for Action
ISBN 0-915299-60-7 / 1991 / 384 pages / $39.95 / order code ACHTQM
Psarouthakis, John. Better Makes Us Best
ISBN 0-915299-56-9 / 1989 / 112 pages / $16.95 / order code BMUB
Robson, Ross (ed.). The Quality and Productivity Equation: American
Corporate Strategies for the 1990s
ISBN 0-915299-71-2 / 1990 / 558 pages / $29.95 / order code QPE

Productivity Press, Inc., Dept. BK, P.O. Box 3007, Cambridge, MA 02140 1-800-274-9911
Shetty, YK and Vernon M. Buehler (eds.). Competing Through Productivity
and Quality
ISBN 0-915299-43-7 / 1989 / 576 pages / $39.95 / order code COMP
Shingo, Shigeo. Non-Stock Production: The Shingo System for
Continuous Improvement
ISBN 0-915299-30-5 / 1988 / 480 pages / $75.00 / order code NON
Shingo, Shigeo. A Revolution In Manufacturing: The SMED System,
Translated by Andrew P. Dillon
ISBN 0-915299-03-8 / 1985 / 383 pages / $70.00 / order code SMED
Shingo, Shigeo. The Sayings of Shigeo Shingo: Key Strategies for Plant
Improvement, Translated by Andrew P. Dillon
ISBN 0-915299-15-1 / 1987 / 208 pages / $39.95 / order code SAY
Shingo, Shigeo. A Study of the Toyota Production System from an
Industrial Engineering Viewpoint (rev.)
ISBN 0-915299-17-8 / 1989 / 293 pages / $39.95 / order code STREV
Shingo, Shigeo. Zero Quality Control: Source Inspection and the
Poka-yoke System, Translated by Andrew P. Dillon
ISBN 0-915299-07-0 / 1986 / 328 pages / $70.00 / order code ZQC
Shinohara, Isao (ed.). New Production System: JIT Crossing Industry
Boundaries
ISBN 0-915299-21-6 / 1988 / 224 pages / $34.95 / order code NPS
Sugiyama, Tomo. The Improvement Book: Creating the Problem-Free
Workplace
ISBN 0-915299-47-X / 1989 / 236 pages / $49.95 / order code IB
Suzue, Toshio and Akira Kohdate. Variety Reduction Program (VRP): A
Production Strategy for Product Diversification
ISBN 0-915299-32-1 / 1990 / 164 pages / $59.95 / order code VRP
Tateisi, Kazuma. The Eternal Venture Spirit: An Executive’s Practical
Philosophy
ISBN 0-915299-55-0 / 1989 / 208 pages / $19.95 / order code EVS

AUDIO-VISUAL PROGRAMS
Japan Management Association. Total Productive Maintenance:
Maximizing Productivity and Quality
ISBN 0-915299-46-1 / 167 slides / 1989 / $749.00 / order code STPM
ISBN 0-915299-49-6 / 2 videos / 1989 / $749.00 / order code VTPM
Shingo, Shigeo. The SMED System, Translated by Andrew P. Dillon
ISBN 0-915299-11-9 / 181 slides / 1986 / $749.00 / order code S5
ISBN 0-915299-27-5 / 2 videos / 1987 / $749.00 / order code V5
Shingo, Shigeo. The Poka-yoke System, Translated by Andrew P. Dillon
ISBN 0-915299-13-5 / 235 slides / 1987 / $749.00 / order code S6
ISBN 0-915299-28-3 / 2 videos / 1987 / $749.00 / order code V6

Productivity Press, Inc., Dept. BK, P.O. Box 3007, Cambridge, MA 02140 1-800-274-9911
TO ORDER: Write, phone, or fax Productivity Press, Dept. BK, PO. Box 3007,
Cambridge, MA02140, phone 1-800-274-9911, fax 617-868-3524. Send check or
charge to your credit card (American Express, Visa, MasterCard accepted).
U.S. ORDERS: Add $4 shipping for first book, $2 each additional for UPS sur-
face delivery. CT residents add 8% and MA residents 5% sales tax.
INTERNATIONAL ORDERS: Write, phone, or fax for quote and indicate ship-
ping method desired. Pre-payment in U.S. dollars must accompany your order
(checks must be drawn on U.S. banks). When quote is returned with payment,
your order will be shipped promptly by the method requested.
NOTE: Prices subject to change without notice.

MA 02140 1-800-274-9911
Productivity Press, Inc., Dept. BK, P.O. Box 3007, Cambridge,
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 About This Book
“Total Productive Maintenance or TPM is a concept developed by the
Japanese to improve their quality and machine uptime. It requires a
change in culture for American labor and management. Whether we
want to or not, we may have to accept the precepts of TPM to remain
competitive worldwide, because other Best-in-Class companies
around the world are embracing TPM.”
— Lee R. Brda PE, PM Engineer
Ford Motor Co., Trans & Chassis Div.

“An excellent, easy to read, reference text for companies working to-
ward being ‘world class’ in their manufacturing activities. The step-
by-step methodology with case histories helps reinforcements of the
TPM process...The TPM process is a long-term investment with
handsome long-term rewards!”
— Carlton Braun, Corporate Vice President
Director Educational Institutes and Labs, Motorola Corporation

“A comprehensive step-by-step guide that will help you put this im-
portant maintenance system in operation in your plant... with this
book you can double your plant's capacity, and improve quality and
morale . .an essential building block for creating a world-class Just-
In-Time manufacturing system. Mr. Nakajima’s book tells you how
to put that block into place.”
— Wayne A. Vaughn, PE, Facilities Manager
Harley Davidson Motor Company

“A unique concept that offers an opportunity for dramatic increases

in production efficiency...an extensive resource that provides a
thorough analysis of each of the components of TPM. .:.ideal for
anyone interested in more detailed information about TPM, and its
successful implementation in today’s highly competitive industrial
environment.”
— Ron James, Publisher, P/PM Technology

ISBN 0-915299-37-2

9°780915"299379 |
Productivity Press, Inc.
Cambridge, MA