Introduction to History& Historiography

WOLLO UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES

DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY AND HERITAGE MANAGEMENT

INTRODUCTION TO HISTORY AND HISTORIOGRAPHY (HIHM.1011)

MODULE
BY
ALEMAYEHU ERKIHUN (M.A)

EDITOR: EMISHAW WORKIE (M.A)

NOVEMBER 2012

DESSIE, ETHIOPIA

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 Introduction to History& Historiography

WOLLO UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES
DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY AND HERITAGE MANAGEMENT

INTRODUCTION TO HISTORY AND HISTORIOGRAPHY (HIHM.1011)

BY
ALEMAYEHU ERKIHUN (M.A)

EDITOR: EMISHAW WORKIE (M.A)

NOVEMBER 2012

DESSIE, ETHIOPIA

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 Introduction to History& Historiography

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page

MODULE INTRODUCTION-------------------------------------------------

UNIT ONE: NATURE OF HISTORY---------------------------------------

1. Meaning and Definition of History---------------------------------------

2. Multidisciplinary Nature of History: History Versus other Social Science Disciplines
--------------------------------------------------------
3. Division of History --------------------------------------------------------
4. The Use of History ---------------------------------------------------------
5. Periodization in History ---------------------------------------------------
6. Review Exercise------------------------------------------------------------
7. Summary --------------------------------------------------------------------
8. Checklist --------------------------------------------------------------------

UNIT TWO: SOURCES OF HISTORY-----------------------------------

1. The Use of Sources -------------------------------------------------------

2. Categories of Sources -----------------------------------------------------
2.1 Primary Sources -----------------------------------------------------
2.2 Secondary Sources --------------------------------------------------
3. Summary -------------------------------------------------------------
4. Checklist --------------------------------------------------------------

UNIT THREE: HISTORIOGRAPHY --------------------------------------

1. What is Historiography ----------------------------------------------------

2. Survey of World Historiography -----------------------------------------
2.1. Greco-Roman Historiography ---------------------------------------
2.2. Jewish Historiography -----------------------------------------------

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2.3. Asian Historiography: Chinese, Japanese, Korean and Indian Historiography

--------------------------------
2.4. Arabic/ Islamic Historiography -------------------------------------
2.5. Medieval European Historiography --------------------------------
2.6. Modern European Historiography ----------------------------------
2.7. Professional Historiography -----------------------------------------
3. Review Exercise
4. Summary ---------------------------------------------------------------

5. Checklist --------------------------------------------------------------

UNIT FOUR: THE DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICAN HISTORIOGRAPHY

----------------------------------------------------------

1. Pre-Colonial African Historiography ------------------------------------

2. Colonial African Historiography -----------------------------------------
3. Post Colonial African Historiography -----------------------------------
4. Review Exercise------------------------------------------------------------
5. Summary --------------------------------------------------------------------
6. Review Exercise -----------------------------------------------------------
7. Checklist --------------------------------------------------------------------

UNIT FIVE: THE BRIEF ACCOUNT OF ETHIOPIAN HISTORIOGRAPHY

---------------------------------------------------------

1. Introduction -----------------------------------------------------------------
2. A Century of Ethiopian Historiography ---------------------------------
3. Professional Historiography ----------------------------------------------
4. Review Exercise -----------------------------------------------------------
5. Summary --------------------------------------------------------------------
6. Checklist --------------------------------------------------------------------

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MODULE INTRODUCTION

This module is about the introduction to history and historiography (HIHM.1011). The course is
an auxiliary course to the discipline history with no pre-requisite to any courses being offered in
the department. The module gives brief accounts on the issues beginning with introductory
concept on history and its definition. Major issues such as the interrelationship between history
and other social sciences, the use of history, the nature of the sources, the origin and evolution of
world historiography are outlined in great depth. At last, the module discuses the beginning and
development of African and Ethiopian historiography. In addition, the module gives brief and
short summary at the end of each unit.

The first unit focuses on the concept and definition of history, the interrelationship between
history and social science, the classification of history. In line with this, periodization and the
use of history are discussed in detail.

Unit two of the module emphasis on the nature and categories of the sources. It gives brief
account on the major difference between primary and secondary sources. It also stresses on the
need of the sources in reconstructing human past experiences.

Unit three, is dealing with the origin and evolution of the historiography. The initial part deals
with the definition of the historiography and when the writing of history began. It asses the
nature of the works of the early historians and their contribution to the development of the
modern historiography. The module also introduces the origin and development of
historiography in Greco-Roman world, Middle East and Asian countries. The last part of this unit
surveys the effect of politico-religion on the historiography of Medieval Europe and the
evolutionary process of modern and professional historiography.

In unit four, learners are introduced with the development of the African historiography. The
notion of the European parochial idea on the nature and continental development of the African
historiography are presented.

The last unit of this module states the role of the Christian chroniclers in documenting the day-
to-day running of the government affairs. It discuses the very nature of the Ethiopian traditional

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 Introduction to History& Historiography

historians vice-avis the rest of the African countries. The brief analyses on the major limitations
of the traditional Ethiopian historians (chroniclers) are made. In line with his, the development
and shift of the Ethiopian historiography are well discussed.

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Course Objectives

At the end of this course, students will be able to:

 Discus what history is and how it is interrelated with other fields of social science
 Analysis the use of the sources in reconstructing the history of the humanity and its past
experiences
 Identify the major difference between primary and secondary sources
 Examine the evolution and development of the world, African and Ethiopian
historiography
 Evaluate the works of European and African historians on the development of the
African historiography
 Point out the significance of the chroniclers and foreign missionaries, travelers and other
scholars to the development of the Ethiopian historiography
 Analyzes why the writing of the history in Ethiopia has long tradition over the other
African countries.

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UNIT ONE

NATURE OF HISTORY

CONTENTS:

1. MEANING AND DEFINITION OF HISTORY ----------------------

2. MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF HISTORY: HISTORY VERSUS OTHER
SOCIAL SCIENCE DISCIPLINES --------------
3. DIVISION OF HISTORY ------------------------------------------------
4. THE USE OF HISTORY -------------------------------------------------
5. PERIODIZATION IN HISTORY ---------------------------------------
6. REVIEW EXERCISE -----------------------------------------------------
7. SUMMARY ----------------------------------------------------------------
8. CHECKLIST ---------------------------------------------------------------

INTRODUCTION

This unit tries to outline what history means. It also describes the interrelationship existed
between history and other social science fields of studies. Moreover, it addresses the major uses
of history and periodization systems in world, African and Ethiopian history.

COURES OBJECTIVES

After completing the lesson, students are expected to:

 Define history
 Describe the relation of history with other social science disciplines
 Point out the uses of history
 Identify the need for studying history
 Distinguish the nature of periodization in World, African and Ethiopian history

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1. MEANING AND DEFINITION OF HISTORY

The term “history” is derived from the Greek word “Istoria” which means inquiry, investigation,
or a search for the truth about past events what has been left of the past and written on it, which
is dealt in detail in the discussion of the sources. In simplest term, history is the story of the
human experiences. Thus, history is an organized and systematic study of the human past
experiences. It is totality of the thought, sayings and deeds of people who lived before us. All the
events took place in the past in the life of the individuals, country or humanity as a whole is
called history. No one can understand everything that happened in the lives of the human past
experiences because only small parts of the human past are recorded. However, both the
recorded parts and events are still waiting for to be recorded commonly history.

Activity 1.1

Why history became multidisciplinary field of study?

What makes history unique from other fields of study?

2. MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF HISTORY: HISTORY VERSUS OTHER SOCIAL

SCIENCE DISCIPLINES

At the beginning, the history teaching fundamentally focused on the facts of the political history
such as wars and dynasties. Contemporary history education however, has assumed a more
integrative approach offering students an expanded view of historical knowledge that includes
aspects of geography, religion, anthropology, philosophy, economics, technology, art and
society. History is considered as both science and art. The scientific nature of history is reflected
in the systematically organized body of knowledge acquired through its various means
particularly the historic method such as critical analysis, checking and cross-checking of sources
like observation, oral testimony and experiments in natural sciences. This helped to establish the
authenticity and genuinely of sources which lead to the establishment of a balanced account on
what is being studied. The scientific nature of history is more clearly manifested in its
effectiveness in refuting forgeries. On the other hand, history is an art since the expression or
application of human creative skills and imagination is involved in various ways such as visual,

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painting, sculpture or production of the works appreciated primarily for their beauty, creative
activity and emotional power.

History studies change and continuity that happened in the human society through the passage of
time and provides perspectives on the human conditions, both past and present. In history, we
study about people, their achievements, and events of the past, about specific issues, periods and
cultures based on the analysis of the various evidences.

However, history is different from other disciplines on account of the fact that it studies the
interaction of man and his natural environment through the passage of time, while other
disciplines study man and nature in their present states. It cannot directly observe and manipulate
its field of study and relies on various (evidences) sources. History encompasses every aspects of
the human past, which makes it a broad area of study that needs a wide range of intellectual and
imaginative skills. The vastness of its area of study, the difference in the level of maturity, the
philosophy, and methodology of the historians and the value emanating from their very positions
in life influences their interactions and understanding.

Activity 1.2

What do you think that dividing the history of the Whole humanity into periods became
necessary?

3. DIVISION OF HISTORY

As it is previously indicated that history of the study of the past, which took place in the lives of
the humanity, country and continent through the passage of time that, needs some why of
dividing it into periods and units. Arising from this fact is the central importance of time.
Because of the length of time, historians divided history into two broader categories namely pre-
history and history. Pre-history is the study of the before the evolution of the complex social and
political organization. It can also be defined as the study of the human past before the beginning
of the art of writing or birth of written records. Pre-historic events are studied based on the
material remains obtained mainly through archaeological excavations, contributions of geology,

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which studies the earth and fossilized remains found in the different strata that provide us
significant information on the age and climate changes of the earth that allow to see the
corresponding change on the people at the time. On the other hand, historic period covers events
that had happened after the beginning of the art of writing.

Division of history into historical time is the product of human mind and is made to appraise the
past and place the present within the stream of history, which is called peridization.

Activity 1.3

What do you think the major uses of history in humanity?

4. THE USE OF HISTORY

History plays major in the life of the humanity and it has multifaceted functions. Dear colleague!
Some of the uses of history are presented below. Read it carefully and analysis the concepts.

A. History Shows Us what it Means Human

History helps us to learn about what people did in the past. It is the study of the history that gives
us a complete understanding of how things came to what are now and helps us better
understanding the present and forecast the future. Events recorded in history that have generated
emotions, values and ideas makes life meaningful that in turn given people some things to live
for struggle over, and die for it. In other word, historical events have created all the basic human
groupings –countries, nations and nationalities, religion, classes and all the loyalties we attach to
them. By learning about their deeds, we try not to repeat mistakes committed in the past by the
people who lived before us.

In fact, it is impossible to understand exactly and fully human achievements, challenges and
problems that face mankind and is natural environment today without the proper knowledge of
their origin and evolution in the past. The value of history is therefore, it teaches us what man
has done in in the past and what man is.

B. History Improves Judgment

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This is the most important practical reason for studying history that is often cited and
understood by many professional and political figureheads. History by apprising the past will
enable us to judge the future. History will avail them of the experiences of the other times
and other nations; it will qualify them as judges of the actions and designs of men. The
American president, Woodow Wilson, said that history endows with “the invaluable mental
power which we call judgment.” To understand the present realities and make the decision
about the future, we have to act rationally based on the evidences. According to the
American historian, Peter N. Strearn, “the wisdom available from history is useful not only
for understanding great issues, but also has personal applications.” With better understanding
of the past, we are able to trace the sources of, for instance the conflicts in the Middle East
the Arabs and Israelis and in Africa mostly manifesting ethnic and boundary conflicts.

C. History Provides Instructive Examples

Throughout the passage of time, generations have been inspired by their ancestors whom
they considered worth exemplary and inspiring. History became the source of initiation and
pride for the succeeding generation. Every country has its own heroes that it wanted its
children to emulate like John of Arc for the French who demonstrated courage and
indomitable will during the hundred year’s war (1337-1453) against Britain before her
captors, the English.

By judging and examining the past and historical figures, the succeeding generations can
draw their own values, beliefs, cultures, and people to emulate and to be inspired by.

D. History Makes us Better Thinkers

History broadens the horizon of the individuals’ knowledge about the global change and
continuity through the passage of time. Professors Conal Furay and Michael J. Salevouris in
their book entitled; the Methods and Skills of History indicated that the careful historical
teaches analytical and communication skills “that are highly usable in other academic
pursuits and in almost any career…” Thus, historians who analyze and evaluate sources,
examine the development of the society over time and see change and continuity in action
along with other phenomena through concepts like cause and effect relationships understand
and internalize critical reasoning skills. Analytical and critical thinking, which is involved in

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history is an approach or process and response to the problems or issues that call for intensive
scrutiny of evidences and arguments before reaching decisions.

E. History Supports Common Cultural Understandings and Dialogue

Thomas Jeferson, the third American president (1801-9), schooling in America’s democracy
should be “chiefly historical “and said “the people…the people are ultimate guardians of
their own liberty.” According to him, the historical knowledge in schools would improve the
decision making capacity of the free citizens in A democratic society, was based on the
assumption all citizens are well informed and share a common basis for evaluating and
debating the issues of the day which RobertJ. Marzano calls the “heritage model of the
schooling, which holds that it is the duty of the education community to help the society
maintain a common culture by passing specific information to students. Similarly, the
historian, Jacques Barzun wrote “the need for a body a body of common knowledge and a
common reference does not disappear when society is largely pluralistic…In line with this,
people of different origins and occupations may quickly find common ground…speak
common language … it also ensures a kind of mutual confidence and good will. One is not
addressing an alien, blank as stone wall, a responsive creature whose mind is filled with the
same images, memories, and vocabulary as oneself.

F. History Satisfies the Need for Identity

The question of identity is the central concern for people and communities, to nations and
individuals, and hence important to understand them for the loss of identity results in loss of
significance. Without historical identity there is little meaning and purpose of life. As quoted
above, Furay and Salevouris, described think of history as “society’s collective memory” and
without that collective memory” they said society would be as rootless and adrift as an individual
as with amnesia” and quote the philosopher George Santayana who wrote, “A country without
memory is a country of the madman.” In addition, Furay and Salevouris pointed out several other
uses of history. Accordingly, history enables us to develop the habit of tolerance and open
mindedness and perhaps rid ourselves of some inherent cultural provincialism.

Furthermore, historical knowledge is too important to study other fields of study such as
literature, religion, art, political science, sociology and economics. In conclusion, history has to

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be studied to gain access to the laboratory of the human experiences for a better understanding of
the present, and preparation for the future. According to historian, Peter Streans, the past cause
the present, and so the future.Some times fairly recent history seems to suffice to explain the
major historical development, often we need to look further back to identity the causes of
change. History is a wealth of knowledge from which we can derive lessons to solve problems
and better understand the present, and identify the trends of the future.

Discus why periodization became different in European and African history?

5. PERIODIZATION IN HISTORY

Time is an important and decisive factor in the study of history. It serves for different purposes.
First, past events could not be understood unless they are arranged in their sequence of
occurrence. Time also simplifies the work of the historians not only to limit them to the study of
a certain period but also to present the result of their studies.

Categories of historical time (periodization), which have been used simultaneously, are identified
in history. These are chronological, enumeration of the years or centuries as Before Christ (B.C),
Anno Domini, in the year of the Christ (A.D) or after or before hegira. The landmark for the such
periodization are the beginning of religious events –Judaic, Christian and Muslim etc. the second
type of periodization is derived from one of the basic notion of the historical thought called
evolution, which is considered period as phase in larger development of a country. Civilization
or the history of the mankind in general. The third type of periodization bore the characterizing
features of the historical thought or historical individuality or essence of an age, which gave
meaning to it.

Periods constitute the most important element in history and are methodologically indispensable
in dividing the past into understandable and meaningful unites. To make the study of history
easier and more convenient, historians have divided history into three major periods: ancient,
medieval and modern.

Ancient (3000 BC-400):-The emergence of civilization and class societies characterized by the
slave mode of production or system are categorized under ancient period.

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Medieval (400-1500 A.D):- This time European in history is usually called medieval period
because it took place between the ancient and modern period. The medieval period is associated
with the emergence of capitalism, and feudalism.

Modern (since the sixteenth century):-The modern period is associated with the consolidation
of the capitalism which is characterized by science and production for the market, for profit. In
addition, scholars could divide these periods into several subdivisions such as high middle ages,
early modern world, the Reformation (sixteenth century), the Age of Reasons (eighteenth) etc.

Periodization in African history, however, has developed unique features because of the
European colonization. The civilization initiated by indigenous African people had disrupted as a
result of their contact with Europeans. This contact ended up in colonization. Because of this
European intervention, periodization in African history is expressed as pre-colonial, colonial and
post-colonial periods.

On the other hand, periodization in Ethiopian history is different from the rest of the African
countries. The classification of the periodization took the European mood. This was because of
the fact that Ethiopia is the uncolonized and politically independent country in Africa whose
historical progresses had not fallen under the light of the European shades. However, the
beginning and the end of period in Ethiopian history never matches with the European
periodization. For instance, the ancient period falls between 1000 B.C, the time when state
formation began and 1270 A.D. the Medieval period lasted from 1270 A.D to 1855 A.D. and the
period since 1855 is called modern period.

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7.SUMMARY

History is organized and systematic study of the human past experiences. Everything that had
happened in the life of the individuals, country and humanity are history. At the earlier period,
history teaching had been emphasizing on the wars and dynastic roots. However, through the
passage of time the shift is made from this to more integrative approach. As a result, history
establishes strong relationship with other social science disciplines such anthropology,
theology, economics, sociology, art etc and became the multidisciplinary nature of the study

To make the study of history easier and more convenient, historian divided the whole history of
the humanity into two broad categories: pre-history and history. The beginning of the technique
of writing is dividing line for pre-historic and historic times. In line with this time became the too
important, decisive and determining factor in history. This brings the need for periodization.
Thus, the periodization in European history is expressed as ancient, medieval and modern
periods. Periodization in African history is, however, symbolized in terms of pre-colonial,
colonial and post-colonial periods. This was the result of the legacy of the European colonization
of Africa.

History plays the major role in the history of the humanity. It helps us to learn about what people
did in the past. By learning about their deed, we try not to repeat mistakes committed in the past
by the people who lived before us. In addition, history enable us to understand the nature of the
past society that in turn increase our knowledge of understanding about the present and may
forecast the future.

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Review Exercise

1) Define the term history

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2) Describe the major difference and similarities between history and other social science
disciplines
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3) What is the dividing line for pre-history and history?
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4) Discuss the major characteristics of the pre-historic and historic periods.
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5) State the uses of the history that it plays in the history of humanity
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________________________________________________________________________
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6) Explain in brief the need for periodization in history
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Checklist

I can yes no
Define what history is
Describe the objectives of the history teaching in the early periods
State the multidisciplinary nature of history
Explain what makes history odd from other social science fields of study
Point out the features of the pre-historic and historic times
List down the uses of history
Explain why difference in the periodization of European and African history took
place
Describe why periodization in Ethiopian history is odd from the rest of the African
countries

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UNIT TWO: SOURCES OF HISTORY

CONTENTS

1. THE USE OF SOURCES--------------------------------------------------

2.1. CATEGORIES OF SOURCES -------------------------------------

2.1.1. PRIMARY SOURCES --------------------------------------------

2.1.2. SECONDARY SOURCES ----------------------------------------

3. SUMMARY ---------------------------------------------------------

4. REVIEW EXERCISE ----------------------------------------------

5. CHECKLIST---------------------------------------------------

INTRODUCTION

This unit of the module focuses essentially on the use of the sources in reconstructing the history
of the humanity, country, societal culture etc. It introduces the major characteristics of the
primary and secondary sources and their common elements. Moreover, it introduces the place
where can we find primary and secondary sources.

Course Objectives

After the end of the lesson, students are expected to:

 Differentiate primary and secondary sources

 Discuses the role of the primary and secondary sources that they play in reconstructing
the past events.
 Point out the places where can we find primary sources
Activity 2.1

Can you state the uses of the sources?

What do we mean primary and secondary sources?

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1. THE USE OF SOURCES

Sources are key elements in the study of the history. Therefore, it is based on sources that any
reconstruction of the past events became possible. Historians study the past based on the reliable
evidence which they get indifferent manners. Historical sources provide us valuable information
which human beings have left. Historians can find sources in different forms such as written
materials (record), oral spoken, material artifacts (archaeological remains), landscape, fine arts,
photographs, films etc. They use to reconstruct and produce the original (truth) the human past
experiences. No one can write history without sources. In history, every statement must have to
be supported by reliable evidences. This e vidences are obtained from history. The quality of the
sources determines the quality of the historical work. Historians use two main types of sources in
their research, i.e. primary and secondary.

Activity 2.2

What do think that historians must do while they are collecting primary sources?
Think that how can we crosscheck the authenticity of the oral traditions?

2.1. Categories of Sources

2.1.1. Primary Sources

Primary sources are first hand sources that have direct immediacy with the original events they
describe. They are direct account or record from the period, place, and people under study.
Primary sources have nearness to the original events in both time and space. They are raw
materials from which real history is reconstructed. They always date back to the actual time in
the past when the event they record occurred.

We call primary sources because of the fact that they are based on what people have seen by
their necked eyes, heard, created at the time. They are the reports of thepeople who took part in
the direct action. They are the original works of the journalists, bystanders, and people who

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observed the direct and the immediate effect of the events on the others. Primary sources are
concrete and tangible evidence by those people who were at a time and place.

We can find primary sources in different forms such as published documents, unpublished
documents, oral traditions/sources, visual documents, material remains (fossil evidences) etc.
Few primary sources are available in published forms and distributed largely. These includes
magazines, newspaper, state documents, non-governmental organizations report, advertisements,
maps, pamphlets, posters, laws and court decisions. These published documents can be found at
everywhere and easy to get

On the other hand, unpublished sources like personal letters, diary, government letters,and
minutes of meetings, memories, contracts and material remains are difficult to find and may exist
at limited places.

Oral sources provide us basic knowledge to learn about the past from the people. Oral tradition
plays very important role particularly in the reconstruction of the non-literate society. Oral
sources are as old as the humanity. Before the beginning of the art of writing, oral sources served
as a tool to pass the information from generation to generation. Interviews and recordings of the
community elders and eyewitness provide reliable historical information. We can find oral
sources indifferent forms such as epics, folk tales, legends, myths etc. However, great care
should have to be taken while using oral sources. It needs crosschecking one oral sources with
other oral testimony and against of the written documents, because it may lose its originality
when passing from generation to generation.

Oral sources can provide us primary and secondary information. Time and place govern its
nearness to the original events. For example, an individual who took part at the battle of Adwa
(1896) can provide the first hand information, while similar idea obtained from his son/daughter
who had not been at a time and place is secondary source.

Visual documents and material remains are other types of the primary sources. Visual documents
like photographs, films, paintings, sculptures, monuments, coins, can provide the firsthand
information and enable us to see the evidence of change across time.

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Primary sources can be found in limited areas. For instance, primary sources that are associated
with ancient people and their achievements mostly found underground. They are discovered
through archaeological excavations. On the other hand, primary sources apparently produced in
the recent years are available in archives, libraries, museums and individual houses.

Primary sources do not speak for themselves, they needs interpretations. No one may
immediately understand the ideas and the concepts that primary sources contain, particularly if it
is out of once own culture. Primary sources need critical analysis. The researcher should have to
think about where, why and when the document produced. They have to into consideration
whether the sources have immediacy to the events that they are going to study. Researchers also
think about for what purpose the document was produced. They have to understand whether the
source was private (personal) dairy, public or state documents. In addition, researchers must
check the originality of the primary sources (checking being free of forgery).

2.1.2. Secondary Sources

Secondary sources contain the second hand information on account of the fact that they are not
the direct reports of people who had been at a time and place. Secondary sources are mainly
historical reconstructions and are not the direct products of the period under study. Secondary
sources are reconstructed after the events have escaped (have occurred). They are works of the
professional historians that enable us to understand who different researchers and writers
interpreted sources based on the facts, discussions of the primary sources and the direct
eyewitness of the people.

Secondary sources enable us to identify perspectives, conclusions and prepare other means to
understand a topic. In addition, secondary sources help to find out where primary sources on the
topic under study are located and could also provide reproduction of the primary sources.
Secondary sources can be produced at any times regardless of time and place, since historians
made an attempt to reconstruct, interpret, and gave coherent and plausible account of what
happened in the past, how and why.

Secondary sources are mostly available in written and well documented forms. Some of the
examples of the secondary sources are; history books, magazines, newspapers, journal articles,

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plays, poems, and unpublished papers that are produced based on the different sources like PhD
dissertations, M.A thesis and senior easy. They are mostly known as historical reconstructions.

2. SUMMARY
Sources are raw materials that enable historians to reconstruct the past events. They are bridges
that connected researchers with real events, which were happened through the passage of time. It
is impossible to reconstruct the past in the absence of the sources.

Historians use primary and secondary sources. The former give the first hand information, it is
taken directly from the period under investigation. It has also direct relation to the events that it
describes. Whereas, secondary sources are not the direct products of the period under study. It
has no immediacy (nearness) to the events that they are trying to describe in both time and space.

4. REVIEW EXERCISE
1) What is the major uses of sources
2) What are the unique features of the primary and secondary sources?
3) List down some of the examples of the primary and secondary sources.
4) Where can we find primary sources?
5) Why we said that primary sources are time consuming and difficult to easily get?
6) How can we assure the originality of the oral sources?

5. Checklist

I can Yes No
State the importance of sources
Describe the difference between primary and secondary sources
Mention examples of primary and secondary sources
Discus the place where we find primary sources
Explain why primary sources are difficult to easily get
Describe the tasks of the historian while collecting primary sources

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Mention the common element of the primary and secondary sources

UNIT THREE: HISTORIOGRAPHY

CONTENTS

1 . WHAT IS HISTORIOGRAPHY----------------------------------------
2 SURVEY OF WORLD HISTORIOGRAPHY ------------------------
2.1. GRECO-ROMAN HISTORIOGRAPHY -------------------------
2.2. JEWISH HISTORIOGRAPHY ------------------------------------
2.3. CHINESE AND INDIAN HISTORIOGRAPHY ----------------
2.4. ARABIC/ ISLAMIC HISTORIOGRAPHY ----------------------
2.5. MEDIEVAL EUROPEAN HISTORIOGRAPHY ---------------
2.6. MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORIOGRAPHY ------------------
2.7. PROFESSIONAL HISTORIOGRAPHY -------------------------
3. SUMMARY -------------------------------------------------------------

4. REVIEW EXERCISE---------------------------------------------------

5. CHECKLIST------------------------------------------------------------

INTRODUCTION

This unit tries to outline what historiography means. In addition, it describes how the writing of
the history came across several steps. In line with this, the early attempt of recording events and
the works of the ancient historians such as Greece, Romans, Jewish, Chinese, Indians,
Arabic/Islamic are discussed in detail. The module critically analyzed the major limitations and
strengthens of the works of the early historians. Moreover, the module introduces the nature of
the historiography during medieval period and development of the modern professional
historians.

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COURSE OBJECTIVES

After the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

 Define the term historiography

 Describe the contribution of the ancient Greco- Roman historians to the development of
the historiography
 Indentify the limitations of the works of the Herodotus and Thucydids
 Compare and contrast the works of the ancient Greece and Roman historians
 Explain the nature of writing history in Judah, China, India and Arab countries
 State the relation between church and state in relation to the writing of history during
medieval period.
 Compare and contrast modern professional European historiography with medieval and
ancient historiography

Activity 3.1

Dear learners! What do we mean historiography?

What do you think about the nature of the early writing of history in different parts of world
civilization?
Where was historiography first initiated ?

1. WHAT IS HISTORIOGRAPHY?

Historiography is the study and the writing of the history. It is history of the historical writing
and can be explained as “the history of how history gets written” the aim of which is to describe

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change in historical interpretation through the passage of time or differences between various
schools of historical thought. Historians who are studying historiography, are not studying the
events of the past directly, but the changing pattern of the interpretations of those events in the
works of the individual historians.

2. Survey of World Historiography

Historiography came across several series of development. It was during very ancient periods
that human beings have had some sense of the past, both their own and that of their community
or people. The knowledge of the human beings about their surrounding environment has
distinguished us from other species. The desire to record the past is as old as human civilization.
This is because humanity has always been interested in its past. However, the organized study of
the past emerged with largely with the rise of the ancient civilization.

Accounts of the past particularly before the invention of the technique of writing were preserved
and transmitted through oral means. These earliest and organized methods of preservation
constituted one of the most sources for the study of the non-literate societies. Most African
societies, for instance much benefited from oral sources, where they learn more about the past
which were recorded in Arabic/Islamic beginning from the rise of the medieval Islamic kingdom
of the Africa along with series of the development of the art of writing Sub-Saharan African
countries. However, in ancient world civilizations and cultural progresses such as Mesopotamia,
Egypt and china the need to record the past began following the art of the writing. Neverthless,
the art of the writing was mainly limited to palace and victorious invaders in which they used to
record their triumphs and what they considered as the heroic deeds of their dynasties and
communities for posterity. That is why although the need to document the past events emerged
with the rise of the ancient civilization, much is not known about the histories of the ancient
Mesopotamia and Egypt. Rulers of the then period gave much credit to keep a recoded glory and
prestige of the royal ancestors, their achievements and blood relation (genealogical line).

In line with this, following the rise of the ancient civilizations and subsequent establishment of
the theocratic states, priests were motivated to record and show how events unfolded or
manifested according the will of the god/God.

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Arguments can certainly be made for a sense of the past in ancient Egypt, and in particular an
effort to memorialize the successive dynasties of the Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms. An early
specimen is the so-called Palermo stone, a fragmentary stele inscribed with king lists from pre-
dynastic times to the fifth dynasty (mid-third millennium B.C.E.); this was probably used by the
much later Hellenized Egyptian Manetho in his own Aegyptiaca, very little of which has
survived. However, the lack of a written alphabet imposed limits on the capacity to convey the
past; nor is it clear that Egyptian efforts at record keeping, though certainly serious, were
deliberately aimed at constructing accounts of the past for the benefit of present and future
generations. Similarly, in the ancient Near East, various historical inscriptions and texts are
attributable to the Hittites, Syrians, and Phoenicians.

It was comparatively in Mesopotamia that one finds the clearest early evidence of a deliberate
human intention to write about the past. Most argued that the successive peoples that inhabited
the land between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, especially the Sumerians, Akkadians,
Babylonians, and Assyrians, generated the first type of writing in cuneiform and developed
rudimentary forms for the representation of the past, such as king lists,annals, and chronicles.
The oldest extant epic, that of the Uruk king Gilgamesh, though it recounts largely legendary
episodes, probably has some connection to historicity. Closer to a recognizable historical
document is the Sumerian King List probably initiated in the twenty-second century B.C. and
existing in several recessions. It stretches back into mythical antiquity but goes beyond a mere
list in later times to indicate inquisitive uncertainty about the historicity of some rulers expressed
in the utterance “Who was king? Who was not king?” It is also a deliberate attempt to present the
historical record in a particular light, necessitated by the circumstances of the author’s own time.
Various other forms of Sumero-Babylonian historical record exist, including building
inscriptions, stele, and other durable media.

Other genres, such as astronomical diaries, played a part in establishing a precise chronological
grid against which to record events, and both the Babylonians of the second millennium and their
neo-Babylonian or Chaldean successors of the middle of the first millennium were keen
astronomers and devoted listmakers. Other ancient peoples in the region authored historiographic
documents of some variety. There are significant differences between these writings, but the
focus of most was on maintaining a proper record of kings and their achievements—the Assyrian

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Eponymous Chronicle, for example, relays the annual military campaigns of its kings down to
Sennacherib (r. 704–681 B.C). While
it would be foolish to impose modern Western standards of “objectivity” (themselves highly
contested today) in assessing ancient forms of historical writing, subtle differences in this regard
havebeen noted between Assyrian and Babylonian approaches. Assyrian royal annals are largely
written in first-person bombastic prose, allegedly by the kings themselves. And whereas the
SynchronousHistory of the Assyrians, in describing boundary disputes in the late second to early
first millennium invariably blames the Babylonians, those accounts written by the Babylonians
themselves are often more neutral. The neo-Babylonian and Chaldean periods produced further
works such as the Babylonian Chronicle Series. The Persians, successors to Babylonian power in
the sixth century B.C. would continue this historiographical activity, for instance in the
multilingual Behistun Inscription erected by Darius I (r. 521–486 B.C.). The latest Babylonian
work is that of Berossus, a contemporary of the Egyptian Manetho in the third century B.C.
nothing of Berossus’s original work has survived though it was well known in Hellenistic and
Roman times. What truly puts these writings into the realm of the historical is the evidence that
successive works had to be based on what we would now call research—the examination,
selection from,and collation of multiple earlier sources—rather than on any tradition of
continuous record keeping.

Many went beyond that to aspire to provide advice, counsel, or cautionary tales, a recurring
motive through much of the global history of historical writing. One of the best-known
examplesof early Mesopotamian history is the Old Babylonian Weidner Chronicle, reaching
back to early times but largely devoted to the Sargonic dynasty of Akkad in the twenty-fourth
century B.C. This is one of the first historical works clearly designed with a didactic purpose, to
recover and preserve the past for the edification of present and future, with a lesson attached. In
this case, the propagation of the cult of the god Marduk, the Weidner Chronicle’s account of
Sargon I and his grandson Naram-Sin contrasts the godliness of the former with the disobedience
to Marduk of the latter, with the consequence of the downfall of Akkad at the hands of Gutian
barbarians. The alternation of divine favor and punishment, another frequent theme in historical
writing, thus had an early start. It turned up again in the early seventh century B.C. when the
later Assyrian defeat of Babylon was ascribed to Marduk’s displeasure at recent kings, and it

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appears frequently throughout the travails of the children of Israel at the hands of foreign hosts
depicted in the Hebrew Bible.
Nevertheless, historiography in the narrower sense of “intentional attempts to recover knowledge
of and represent in writing true descriptions or narratives of past events” has had a rather briefer
career throughout the world, though one more complex and variegated than most accounts allow.
It is not possible in the space of a brief essay such as this to convey the entire richness of the
human effort to recapture the past, but an effort must be made to summarize the historiographical
traditions of many different regions. At least three major (in terms of their international scope,
longevity, and influence) and a variety of minor independent traditions of historical thought and
writing can be identified. The major ones are the Western (descended jointly from the classical
Greek and Roman and, via the Old Testament, from the Hebraic), the Islamic (originating in the
seventh century C.E.), and the Chinese.
Minor ones include the various indigenous traditions of thinking about the past (not all of which
involved writing), including ancient Indian, pre-colonial Latin American, African, and those
arising in certain parts of east and Southeast Asia. The Western form (which would include
modern Marxist Chinese writing) has predominated for a century or more in most of the world,
butit would be a mistake to see that as either inevitable or as based on an innate intellectual
superiority of method. Its hegemony springs much more from the great influence of Western
colonial powers in various parts of the world during the nineteenth and early twentieth century’s,
and perhaps even more from the profound effect in the last hundred years of Western, and
especially North American, cultural, linguistic, and economic influences. A consequence of the
global dominance of Western academic historical practices is that notjust history, but
historiography, has been “written by the victors.” None of the major histories of historical
writing produced in the last century addresses other historiography traditions, undoubtedly in
part owing to linguistic difficulties. This has produced a thoroughly de-contextualized and
celebratory grand narrative of the rise of modern method that has only been challenged in recent
years. It is thus critical that any new survey of historical writing not only pay serious attend ion
to non-Western types of historical writing (and indeed to non-literary ways in which the past was
recorded and transmitted), but that it also steer clear of assuming that these were simply inferior
forms awaiting the enlightenment of modern European-American methodology.
Activity 3.2

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What do you think about the nature of the Greco-Roman historiography?

What major limitations would you observe from Greco-Roman historiography?
Would you suggest the contributions of the ancient Greco-Roman historians to the development
of the modern historiography?

2.1. GRECO-ROMAN HISTORIOGRAPHY

Dear student! So far, the early attempt of recording events are discussed. Here the accounts on
the nature and types of the Greco-Roman historiography are discussed in detail.

Historiography as the historical writing began in ancient Greece than rather than Mesopotamia
and Hebrews. It was in Greece that history got the definite shape with the compilation of the
Iogographoi in the sixth century B.C where we find the organized recordings. In addition, the
origin of the very word history has Hellenic root. Greeks developed the cultures of the organized
record and study of the past including genealogy (mythography), ethnography, history, proper or
continues narration of the sequential events with their causal connections, horography (the year-
by-year history of a particular city) and chorography (a system of arranging events in their
sequence of the occurrence).In the fifth century, Athens, the famous Greece city-state became the
pioneer in encountering both the word history and its known historians.

Herodotus (484-425 B.C) was regarded as the first ancient historian, and hence father of the
history. He attempted to record all the significant and noteworthy circumstances surrounding
events and factors motivating the action of people in those events. Herodotus was remarkable
ancient historian for the scope of his interests, since he studied a wide range of issues and
explained myth, customs and made speculations. He linked ethnography with history, coining the
term historiain the sense of “inquiry,” “discovery,” or, in some renderings, “inventory” (the
Greek verb historein means “to investigate”). His focus was the recent events of the Persian
Wars, the origins of which he sought to explain. It was by his work upon the Persian wars that he
is considered as the first author of the great narrative history took place in the ancient world.
However, his work has some limitations because of the fact that he had been much dependent on
the unverified oral sources and unable to carfully identify fact and fable. He relied to a

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considerable degree on oral information (although the veracity of that has often been called into
question from antiquity to modern times), and in his ethnographic attention to other, non-Greek
peoples and their customs he is often held to be the West’s “father” of history in its broader,
more inclusive, and nonpolitical sense.

Thucydids (456-396 B.C) was the second ancient Greece historian who is often considered as the
Herodotus’s younger contemporary writer. His works are limited to political affairs, state and
war, where he gave much credit to write the history of the thirty-year struggle between Athens
and Sparta commonly called the Peloponnesian War (431–404 B.C.). Thucydides also fully
developed a device employed by Herodotus that would become a convention of much later
historical writing, namely the semifictitious speech ascribed to a major figure (Pericles’ funeral
oration being a famous example). In addition, he attempted to link chronology and facts with
certain degree of credibility overcoming the digressions of the Herodotus. Unlike Herodotus,
Thucydides proclaimed his own intention of writing for the edification of future ages as much as
for those living in his own time. The later contributed a lot in the areas of criticism and method
of writing where he indicated that the importance of the historical research depends on the reality
of their statement not on the entertainment of the narrative. Moreover, he focused on the
relevance and rationally persuasive materials. Furthermore, Thucydides confirmed the
“Pragmatic” importance of writing and study of history.

Though Thucydides’s work has its own contribution, is no free from limitations. He failed to
 To grasp the concept of time (view his facts in their historical perspective).
 Appreciate the importance of the geographical factors situations.
 Include the value of the social, cultural, and economic factors in historical writing.

The third ancient Greece historian was Xenophon (430-354). This ancient historian gave much
credit in story telling aspects of the history (narration of the oral sources). He is best remembered
for his unique ability preservation of the oral sources and memoire writing.

Polbius (198-117 B.C) was another renowned ancient Greece historian. A Romanized Greek,
Polybius is especially significant for articulating a theory of predictable constitutional cycles
among three pure and three corresponding perverted forms of government and for postulating the

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stability of “mixed” regimes consisting of all three pure forms. This was to prove a powerful tool
of historical analysis in later centuries. He understood the importance of history as the great
lesson especially for leaders in the political life. He believed that the particular value of history is
addressing the reliable historical evidences which enable the leaders to run the government
affairs and establish the better future.

Polybius much contributed on the areas of criticizing and analyzing sources, adherence to critical
methods.

The ancient Roman historians also produced the next substantial works to the development of the
western historical writing. Many agreed that the Roman historians were initially much influenced
by the works of the ancient Greek historians.Quintus FabiusPictor (fl. 225 B.C) were especially
affected by Greek non-annalistic history, though eventually annalistic models were to
predominate in a way that had not been true in Greece. The Romans would also introduce a close
association of the act of history writing with the experienced politician or general. This became
prized in later times (and was frequently used as an argument to exclude women from writing
history), despite having been only sporadically evident. It signaled the priority of rhetoric and
experience over research, with the result that the Herodotean association of history with inquiry
now slipped into a Latin notion of historiaas a “story” in the sense of a narrative, true or not. The
Romans also celebrated the laudatory and exemplary value of history, and especially the lives of
great men, a concept largely absent among most of the early Greek historians.Most of the works
of the ancient Roman historians however, rediscovered during the renaissance period and later in
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The famous and earliest Roman historians are discussed
as follows.

Among matured Roman historians, Julius Caesar (100–44 B.C) was one. He was political leader
but at same time devoted historian whose works entitled;Commentaries on the Gallic wars and
the civil war provide the best historical accounts of the ancient world. In spite of his contribution,
he reflected his own personal ideas while he writes the historical facts. This is considered as one
of the limitations of his work.

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Sallust (Gaius SallustiusCrispus, ca 86–34 B.C.) was another ancient Roman historian. He had
been the disciple of Thucydides who systematically wrote the history of the Rome from 78-67
B.C. He alsodescribed the Catilinian conspiracy that had ominous consequences for the republic.
His analysis of sources and political factors in the reconstruction of the history are too strong and
noted. His effort to maintain a balance and making impartiality of the source administration in
the face of the political condition he adhered was appreciated.

The most resounding ancient historian of the Rome, Livy (Titus Livius, 59 B.C–17 A.D), was the
great Augustan narrator of Rome’s history from its legendary foundation—aburbe condita (c.
753 B.C). He was one of the most renowned storytellers of all ancient times and generated the
idea of the use of chronology, Aburbe condita in historical writing. The focus of the Livy on the
importance of the lessons of history and history education, like other ancient Greece historians
became one of the most important asset for medieval and renaissance historians.

Tacitus (Publius Cornelius,ca. 55–120 A.D), followed the footsteps of the Thucydides. He
narrated the reigns of the Julio-Claudian emperors in his Annalesand of the troubles leading to
the accession of the Flavians in his Histories. His works, Annals and Histories emphasized the
history of the Rome from the death of Augustus to 69 A.D and the post 69 A.D political crisis
respectively. Tacitus introduced the popular classical cyclical theory of history into the field of
morals in the words of Tacitus himself: “perhaps there is in all things a kind of cycle, and there
may be moral revolution, just as there changes of seasons. Nor was very thing better in the past.
Our age, too, has produced many specimens of excellence and culture posterity to imitate.” In
addition, he wrote, Germania, which is of a source of information on the Germans of the time
and an attempt to study of the sociology. Furthermore, he established a common motif of later
historiography, the juxtaposition of the virtuous andhardy barbarian with the decadent city-
dweller. This, along with his terse style, political acuity and epigrammatic comments on events
would make Tacitus’s works very popular in much latercenturies.

Plutarch (46-119 A.D) was the last ancient Roman historian. He studied in Athens, taught in
Rome and largely travelled the world. His popularity rests mainly on his parallel Lives, a series
of pairs of biographies Greeks and Romans that exhibit deeds and characters and model pattern

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of behavior. His moralia, or Ethica holds his views and writings on ethical religious, physical,
political, and literary topics. His works greatly influenced the development of the essay,
biography, and historical research in the sixteenth century to nineteenth century Europe. Plutarch
argued that great men and their personality played the crucial role in changing history that he
attempted to observe on his study of Mark Antony suggesting that his love for Egyptian queen,
Cleopatra misled him to his usual activities in Rome laid the ground for his defeat by Augustus.

In conclusion, Romans had a strong sense of the divine destiny of their city and its expanding
empire, which provided a horizon for their history writing in the way that the known world as a
whole had done for the Greeks. They also injected a teleological and progressive element that
was lackingin Greek historiography. Where cycles of rise and fall and the random hand of
Tyche(fortune) appear in many of the Greek historians, history becomes more purposeful and
almost providential among the Romans: Livy, much of whose history has not survived, is both
the celebrantof Rome’s seemingly divine expansion and conquests over time, and among the
mourners of the dissipation of its republican virtues and loss of liberty. Beginning in the first
century B.C, a number of Romans also considered, as few Greeks had done, what we would call
theoretical— or at least rhetorical—issues of historiography, including the question of what
actually constituted history, what were its best models, and what pitfalls ought to be avoided in
its composition. The
great rhetorician and politician Marcus Tullius Cicero (106–43 B.C), who had an enormous
influence on the Renaissance fifteen centuries later, wrote in De oratore(55 B.C) about the uses
of history, stressing again its utilitarian function. Cicero was not himself a historian. Nor was
Lucian (c. 129–after 180 C.E.), who two centuries later penned a tract on How to Write History,
thereby initiating a historiographical-method genre that would reappear with vigor in the
sixteenth century.
Activity 3.3

What major differences would you observe from Jewish historiography along with Greco-Roman
historiography?
Would you suggest the contribution of the ancient Jewish historians to the development of the
modern historiography?

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What odd things would you find from ancient Jewish historiography?

2.2. Jewish Historiography

The Israelites (or Jews as they later became) were the other major people in the ancient Near
East who did a lot to development of the historiography. The Old Testament or Hebrew Bible is
now known to have been the work of several Jewish people. Most of the works of the Jewish
historians originates from later periods such as the Davidic kingship(tenth century B.C) and the
Babylonian Exile (late seventh–early sixth centuries B.C.). In other words, the writing of history
among the Jewish became popular after the happening of great incident in the state i.e, after the
Babylonian exile.

However, in the early genealogies of Genesis and in the chronological accounts of the Books of
Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles, one finds both an effort to memorialize the past accurately as a
written record. In addition, strong sense of the divine destiny of the Israelites as a chosen people,
a linear progress through which oscillates a recurrent cycle of triumph and misery as God
chastises an earring people for disobedience, sin, or idolatry, and then delivers them from
oppressors such as the Egyptians, Philistines, Assyrians, and Babylonians.

The Hebrew-Judaic view of history and of time is one of the corner stone’s of Christian
historiography of the past two millennia. One of the most important aspects of the Jewish
historians was that fact that they connected historical expression with the divine involvements.
The Jewish historiography wasan achievement of the more striking event when one contrasts it
with the relative death of Jewish secular historical writing during the millennium-and-a-half of
Diaspora between Flavius Josephus (c. 37–c. 100 B. C.) and the sixteenth century when Jews,
still stateless, began to rediscover the formal study of the past.

Activity 3.4

Which people do you think the most influential in initiating historiography in Asia?
What major differences would you observe between European and Asian historiography?
Could you state the effect of the Chinese historiography upon the Japanese and Korean historical

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writing?

2.3. Asian Historiography: Chinese, Japanese, Korean and Indian Historiography

In Asia, recording of the events began at down particularly by Chinese, Japanese, Korean and
Indian peoples. The writing of the events in China and India was associated with chronicles,
annals or archives.

Chinese Historiography
China has long years recording of the events and its culture is best remembered among the
known global traditions. According to the ancient western philosophy, historical reconstructions
always been nearly associated to the narration of the story, and history are bestowed with
meaning by writing the chronology of events into historical narrative. Unlike this, historiography
in the sight of the Chinese civilization is part of triangular system, which contains history,
politics and “Dao.”, the comprehensive principle that governed the global nations that enabled
Chinese historiography to be understood as political tool in the hands of the emperor and ruling
elites. However, with regard to the triangular relationship between history, politics and “Dao”,
historiography did not only mean recognizing politics, it also meant evaluating politics against
the principles of Dao, and the historiographers had the task to advice him how to fulfill this task,
while at the same time watching over time and his moral capability to act according to the Dao.
They considered themselves as the obedient workers of the leaders. However, others acted as
censors and criticized the emperor when they understood he was deviating from the views of the
Dao.

Chinese historical writing has a longer continuous tradition, and some other scholars argued as it
developed much earlier than the West a clear and consistent set of rules and practices for the
recovery and representation of the past. History became a major category of knowledge (along
with philosophy, literature, and the “classics”) from as early as the fourth century B.C, a status it
would not acquire in Europe before the late seventeenth century. Historiography has occupied an
important place in Chinese civilization because of the fact that why we have such an enormous
of historical sources at our disposal that enable us to understand Chinese history in detail.

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However, what has to take into consideration is that most of the sources written in Chinese
history are historical sources that tell us how history was recorded at certain time; they do not
necessarily indicate what was going the time. It is true that the writing of the history is not an
overnight change; however, through the passage of the time and changing circumstances, history
is going to be reinterpreted and researched to answer questions emanating from present
problems.

Significant Chinese thinking about the past can be dated back to ancient canonical texts such as
the I Ching(Book of changes), which reached a definitive form about the end of the second
millennium B.C. Earliest Chinese thought evinced the notion that there were discernible patterns
in the flow of human affairs from which one could learn to govern oneself and navigate a world
of continuous change. As this suggests, Chinese thought about the past was very quickly linked
to philosophyand the search for the Dao (the “path” or moral order). The first significant
independent work of history, the Chunqiuor Spring and Autumn Annals, is an account of events
from 722 to 479 B.C.

Historical documentation of the royal houses and different states relatively better studied in the
middle of the Chou dynasty, which is also known as the ShuChing or Documents of the History
and the annals of Lu by Confucious. It is associated with the enormously influential philosopher,
Confucius or Master Kong (551–479 B.C), though he may only have authored a commentary
upon this work. Various collections such as the Zuozhuanand Guoyu, both sometimes attributed
to a Confucian contemporary called ZuoQiuming, drew on the Chunqiuand other early
chronicles to present historical anecdotes and speeches in support of a Confucian outlook, which,
like the Buddhist, tended to a cyclical view of time that dominated Chinese historical thought
until the nineteenth century. Other philosophical schools departed from the dominant
Confucianism. However,Ssu-ma Chien (c.145-87 B.C) associated the first general writing of
China, which he wrote based on official sources supplemented by his own personal experiences,
and crosschecking eyewitness. He believed that history was guide to the actual practice of the
government and noted the position of the Chinese emperors during his father that did not
differentiate between a jest or a singer and historiographer. He inspired the future generation of
the Chinese historians. However, an integrated history of the China from 403B.C to 959 A.D.

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including inscriptions was written by Ssu-ma Kuang. Later, Ssu-ma Tao, the son of the Ssu-ma
Chien further investigated his father’s activity gives an account of the Han dynasty. The Daoists,
pursuing harmony with nature and retreat from a world of cyclical but unpredictable change, did
not accept that history had any discernible pattern or didactic value. The Mohists (followers of
Mozi or Mo Di) and Legalists both saw discernible patterns of progress, though the latter,
adherents of a totalitarian philosophy adopted by the brutal Qin dynasty (221–206 B.C.), asserted
that such progress, enforced by state control over naturally evil individuals, made the past largely
irrelevant.

The most important early figure in Chinese historical thought and writing, however, was theHan
dynasty figure Sima Qian (145–86 B.C.) After the unification of various “Warring States” into a
single empire by the violent but short-lived Qin (whose first emperor ordered an infamous book-
burning and mass execution of scholars, virtually eliminating records of the conquered
kingdoms), the succeeding Han emperors (206 –220 A.D) created the stable conditions under
which historiography could mature. SimaQian, often known as the Grand Historian, did far
morethan write in his Shiji(Historical Records) a comprehensive account of Chinese history. He
also evinced a clear sense of the historian’s purpose: to record major and minor occurrences
accurately in order to counsel the present and to bestow fame on the good and infamy on
evildoers. Perhaps most important, his model for the compilation of facts about the past with its
clearly worked out format, a combination of year-by-year annals and individual biographical
treatments, influenced the next two millennia of Chinese historical writing. No Western
historian, not even Herodotus or Thucydides, can claim that kind of influence, nor does Western
historical writing display the continuity of a systematic and eventually institutionalized approach
to the past that is exemplified by China. Sima Qian created various categories for the
representation of the past that would be developed and augmented by subsequent writers. By the
time he finished the Shijithat his father had begun, it was nearly four times the size of
Thucydides’ Peloponnesian War. The Shijiwould come to be regarded as the first in a long series
of twenty-four “Standard Histories” (zhengshi), the official history of a dynasty written under its
successor dynasty. (The Shijiitself, since itcovered both the Han and their predecessors, is an
exception to the rule that Standard Historiescover only one dynasty and are written after its fall).
SimaQian would most immediately be followedby the historian of the Former or Western Han

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dynasty, Ban Guandhis sister and successor, Ban Zhao; their Hanshuset the pattern for a history
covering only a single dynasty, followed three centuries later by Fan Ye’sHou-Hanshu(History
of the Later or Eastern Han), which was left unfinished at its author’s beheading for political
conspiracy in 445 B. C.

Over the course of the twelve centuries from the end of the Later Han to the advent of the Ming
(the last indigenous Chinese dynasty) in 1368, the basic genres of historical writing were set. In
addition to the Standard Histories, one finds that various works in the chronicle format
(originated in the Chunqiu) or Biannianshi, and the Standard Histories themselves, following
SimaQian, continued to combine annalistic sections with biographical accounts, along with
accompanying sections such as chronological tables to establish common years for events in
different areas (a practice that soon spread to other parts of Asia).A particularly notable example
of writing outside the zhengshimodel is SimaGuang’s (c. 1085 B. C.)
Zizhitongjian(Comprehensive mirror for aid in government), which recounts history from the late
fifth century B.C. to the tenth century A.D, a work that in turn inspired numerous commentaries.
Finally, universal histories (in the mode established by SimaQian) were also compiled, in
particular during the Song dynasty (960–1279 A.D.)
Exact analogies between Chinese and Western historiography should be drawn with a high
degree of caution since certain fundamental assumptions were quite different. Chronology was
based in frequently changed era names (the practice used in many Asian countries until the
twentieth century) rather than the single chronology aborbecondito(from the founding of the
world), aburbe condita (from the founding of the city), or (especially since the seventeenth
century), B.C. and A.D.—this accounts for the much earlier development of synchronous
chronological tables in China than in Europe. Moreover, where “annals” in the European
tradition have usually been seen as the most rudimentary form of historical record, Chinese
historiography regarded
theannals as the highest form, the distillation of knowledge from other sources. Grant Hardy has
further argued that the Western preference since the Renaissance for the single-voiced
omniscient narrator and an internally self-consistent story fits ill with the multiple voices and
often

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competing accounts of a single event included by SimaQian in the Shiji. Perhaps most important,
Western historiography places high value upon the independence of the historian from outside
interference, though in fact that arms’ length relationship has really only occurred in a minorityof
countries and in relatively recent times; official history, courtly history, and other variants have
not fared well in the estimation of modern European-American historiographers. Yet the Chinese
experience testifies to the vigor and achievement of a historiographical enterprise under official
sponsorship. Under the Tang dynasty (618–907), historiography became elaborately
bureaucratized and even more closely linked to the official civil service; it was also “promoted”
within the four categories of learning to second place, behind the classics and before philosophy
and literature. Under the Tang, seven new Standard Histories were produced, and by the end of
the dynasty the Bureau of Historiography had become virtually an independent arm of
government, with a fully worked out system of compilation. From a set of court diaries kept
during the reign of an incumbent emperor, a recording of his sayings and actions, and an
administrative record, a set of “Veritable Records” (shilu) would be developed at the end of the
reign. These in turn, after the final eclipse of the dynasty, would form the basis of the Standard
History of that dynasty. The latter was intended, at least in theory, to be the official and
unchallengeable truth, not subject to rival versions or interpretations. This strategy did not
always succeed—a new
History of the Mongol Yuan dynasty (1279–1368) was composed in 1920; over five centuries
after Ming historians had written an earlier version. Some dynasties such as the Tang and “Five
Dynasties”(907–960) each have two Standard Histories. It was customary to destroy the earlier
sources once the Standard History had been composed, which accounts for the rarity of surviving
examples of Veritable Records, those of the Ming being a notable exception. The writing of
Standard Histories would continue for every dynasty up to the final composition of the Draft
Historyof Qing in 1927 and its 1962 Taiwanese counterpart, which are sometimes counted as a
twenty-fifth and twenty-sixth zhengshi. All share the annals-biography form first adumbrated by
SimaQian two millennia earlier, often accompanied (as in the Shiji) by other elements such as
chronological tables and treatments of hereditary houses.

In addition to the Standard Histories and chronicles, a further major category of historical
writing, closer to continuous narrative, was developed under the Song dynasty, the

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Jishibenmo(Histories of beginnings and ends of events). The first example, by Yuan Shu (1131–
1205), was completed and published in 1174. This genre would later flourish under the Ming and
Qing dynasties. Its specimens largely consisted of rearrangements of existing histories—Yuan’s,
for instance,built on SimaGuang’sComprehensive Mirror—but their attention to the cause and
effect of particular occurrences was a significant development in Chinese thinking about the past.

In spite of the early attempts, critical and broad view writing of Chinese history was undertaken
during the nineteenth and twentieth century’s. Chinese historians critically analyzed the sources
and history became popular field of study.
Chinese historiography greatly influenced the historiographic works in other Asian countries.
With some important modifications, Chinese historiography was to influence the historical
thought and writing of neighboring nations such as Japan, Vietnam, and Korea.

Japanese Historiography
Japanese historiography was greatly influenced by other neighboring countries in general and
Chinese and Korean early historians in particular. It was through the influence of these countries
that story of Japanese historical writing begins and appears to have concluded in our own time
with the impact of the West. History developed considerably later in Japan than in China, and
then not in the same forms, despite the frequent use of Chinese as the language of composition.

It was after drawing lesson from Chinese that Japanese began to keep imperial archives
(documents) about the third century A.D. For instance, the emperor Temmu had ordered
compilation of a chronicle in 681 in order to correct errors in and conflicts between imperial
genealogies and the traditional origin tales of various great families.

The earliest extant texts are two official historical works, the Kojiki(Record of ancient matters,
completed in 712 A.D) and Nihon shokior Nihongi(Chronicles of Japan [Nihon], completed in
720 A.D). These were both commissioned in 711, ostensibly by the empress Gemmei, as the
preface to the Kojikistated. Both texts relayed a powerful mythology of the creation of the world
and the subsequent foundation of the empire by the first human monarch, Jimmu or Jinmu, a

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direct descendant of the sun goddess—belief in the emperor’s divine ancestry would continue to
be taught in twentieth-century Japanese schools.

The Nihon shokiwas composed in Chinese in an attempt to imitate Chinese historiography. The
Kojikiwas written in a commonly used mixture of Chinese and Japanese that grew unfamiliar to
readers in later centuries, which led in part to the work’s being neglected until the 1700s. By 901
A.D, the NihonShokihad been augmented by five other Chinese-language works that with it form
the Six National Histories (Rikkokushi).

However, the Chinese system of historical writing, and in particular the use of the dynasty as the
basic unit of the Standard History, was ill suited to Japan. According to the Japanese point of
view, all emperors belonged to the same dynasty, being directly descended from the sun goddess
via Jimmu—the Kojikiin particular stresses the continuity of the imperial line rather than the
cycle of dynastic rise and decay immanent in the Chinese Standard Histories. This linearism, and
a degree of resistance to Chinese cultural dominance in spite of the influence of Confucianism,
ensured that while its language was initially borrowed, the edifice of Chinese historical writing
was not reconstructed wholesale, even in officially sponsored chronicles such as the
AzumaKagami, a late-thirteenth-century product of the first, Kamakura, Shogunate or military
government, which is presented as if it were a diary compiled as events occurred.

Moreover, beginning in the eleventh century during the Heian period, a different type of history,
written in Japanese, began to appear in the Rekishimonogatarior historical tales, which were
composed by independent scholars and departed considerably from the national histories; at least
one of these, the Eigamonogatari(c. 1100), was composed by a woman. Many works in this
genre were biographically
organized; a number, such as the Gunkimonogatari, dealt principally with war and were often
recited orally (not unlike the Homeric epics, which they resemble in military values) before
being committed to writing. Examples include the fourteenth-century Taiheiki(Chronicle of great
peace).

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Most widely read among medieval Japanese historical writings were the Gukanshoby the priest
Jien (c. 1220), the Eigamonogatariand the twelfth-century Okagamior Great Mirror.

Following several centuries of imperial decline, the Tokugawa Bakufu (1603–1868) was
establishedwhereby shoguns ruled the country on behalf of a figurehead emperor through
regional daimyo or warlords. During this era, Japan was kept rigidly secluded from outside
influences. Tokugawa Mitsukuni(1628-1701) attempted to get a compiled history of the Japan
which was derived from the model of the Chinese dynastic histories which was further
supplemented and enriched until 1906.

Historical thinking achieved higher intellectual prominence to the extent that Ogyu Sorai (1667–
1728) could confidently proclaim that history was “the ultimate form of scholarly knowledge.”
Official history-writing in the mode of the Six National Histories continued to flourish, often tied
to a particular shogun “domain” or feudal territory—the pro-imperial Dai Nihon Shi (Great
history of Japan, begun in 1657 and only completed in 1906) was, for example, initiated in the
Mito domain. Much of this work began to depart from the imperial mythology of Jimmu since it
did nothing to support the case for shogunal primacy over a puppet emperor. Among shogunal
officials, Arai Hakuseki (1657–1725) stands out for his Tokushiyoron(Essays on history), a series
of lectures on the past intended to instruct the shogun through example while making use of a
wide variety of sources and largely ignoring the early origin myths. Arai painted a progressive
picture of Japanese history that validated non-centralized governance; it also subordinated
individual action and choice to inevitable historical trends.

Two generations earlier, Hayashi Razan (1583–657), an unabashed admirer of Chinese historical
texts, had set the stage for a Neo-Confucianphilosophy of history strongly allied to the
shogunate. A number of private scholars were alsowriting about the past, often from non-
Confucian perspectives.

MotooriNorinaga (1730–1801),an exponent of the “National Learning” school of history,

however, rejected Chinese-influenced accountsof the past in favor of the earlier record of the

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Kojiki, which now achieved a status it had not enjoyedfor a millennium. (Motoori conveniently
overlooked the fact that it, too, was heavily indebtedto Chinese histories).

Korean Historiography
As it is previously stated, Korean historiography was strongly pushed by Chinese
historiographythrough much of the pre-modern period. In fact unlike Japan, Korea had distinct
dynasties, and theannals of each reign (sillok) are analogous to Chinese Veritable Records. The
chongsaor dynastichistories of early Korea are similarly comparable to the Chinese Standard
Histories (which in factprovide the earliest source material for Korean history). Historical
records were maintained fromthe fourth century A.D., and a history was compiled in 600 A.D,
by Yi Mun-jin of the Koguryo kingdom, but these have not survived; Korean writings may even
have influenced the Japanese Nihon shokiin the eighth century.

The earliest example still extant of Korean history-writing, compiled in the Koryo period, is Kim
Pu-sik’sSamgukSagi(History of three kingdoms) (1145 A.D);this used both now-lost Korean
sources and Chinese writings, and is clearly modeled on ChineseStandard Histories. The Koryo
dynasty (918–1392), following earlier Tang Chinese practice, establisheda History Office in the
tenth century; this bureaucracy was considerably expanded duringthe ensuing Yi or Choson
dynasty (1392–1910), and in the fifteenth century a group of scholarsled by Chong In-ji (1418–
1450) completed the Koryosa(a dynastic history of the Koryo). Chosonhistorians would
eventually produce a whole series of sillokfor each reign covering nearly fivecenturies up to
1863. As with the Chinese Veritable Records, sillokwere carefully guarded so thateven the
reigning monarch was denied access to them in order to protect against interference.

Again as with China, the presence of an official bureaucracy could not prevent alternate or
privateinterpretations of the past from being written. A more Korean-focused tradition of
historicalwriting also sprang from this Confucianism, for instance the thirteenth-century monk
Iryon’sSamgukYusa(Memorials of three kingdoms). In the eighteenth century, a school of
“practicallearning” or sirhakdeveloped that produced such works as A Chong-bok’s distillation
and analysisof Korean history, Tongsakangmok, one of the first histories to be written by a
private scholarindependent of government support. Beginning in the late nineteenth century, both

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Western andMeiji Japanese historical scholarship would displace Chinese influences in Korean
historiography.
India
Similarly, its indigenous traditional writers also initiated historical writing in India. However, the
tradition of the recording the past in India does not show progressive changes and hence, it was
not highly advanced. Surviving Indian cultures and its records were organized from older
collections to form anthologies from the sixth century onwards. Genealogiesof native rulers that
are appeared in the Puranas and the artha or handbooks on politics and practical life were later
progresses. Much valuable information was however, obtained in India from the work of Hsuan-
tsang in the seventh century which was later added by Arab writers in the tenth century.

Among indigenous forms of historical writing that differ from those of the West, none is as
hardto grasp as, or more contentious than, those of pre-Islamic India. The values and style of
Islamic and Chinese historiography differ from the European, but their products are nonetheless
clearly recognizable as histories, and they share common concerns with matters such as
chronology and the memorialization of particular facts about the past. For this reason, even the
respect accordedto these traditions in most Western histories of history is often completely
withheld from othermodes of apprehending the past that seem much more remote. Early Indian
historical writing isamong these. India’s very capacity to generate thought and writing about the
past has often beenrejected—al-Biruni commented on the Hindu lack of interest in “the historical
order of things”as early as the 1020s; Edward Gibbon commented on general “Asiatic” lack of
history in the eighteenth century; and the indictment was echoed by James Mill and by Georg
Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel in the nineteenth century. This is a view that modern scholars of
ancient India have fough thard to dispel, though from two very different directions. Some, like
RomilaThapar, have argued that there is a historicity or at least historical consciousness in early
Indian texts. More recently,scholars such as VinayLal have denied this but argued that the very
notion of the importance ofhistory is a Western imposition upon a colonized South Asia, an
epistemological privileging of acategory that should not be applied to other cultures such as the
Indian. Certainly the complexityof ethnic groups and languages, and the rigidities of the caste
system, did not permit anything

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like Western historiography to develop. Nor was there the central government apparatus that
stimulatedand systematized Chinese historiography, or the religious imperative underlying
classical Islamic
Histories, It is arguable that Indian philosophy paid no special heed to history (though thiswas
also true of the ancient Greeks) in part, because the Hindu outlook is thought to have rejectedthe
notion of individual causality and denied the significance of short-term events in favor of much
longer epochs or periods. The most frequently cited exception, a twelfth-century text that
actually resembles a chronological “history” is the Sanskrit-language Rajtarangini(c. 1148–
1149) by Kalhana. This verse composition covered the history of Kashmir from remote antiquity
to the author’sown time and was derived from legends, oral traditions, written records, and
inscriptions.Kalhana was followed by four other Sanskrit-language historians: Jonaraja (early
fifteenth century),Srivara (later fifteenth century), Prajyabhatta (early sixteenth century), and
Suka (early seventeenthcentury).

However, historical forms of some sort assuredly did exist in ancient India, indicating a sense of
the past quite different from that in the West, but scarcely the happy ignorance suggested by
James Mill. Much more typical than Kalhana’s work was the combined tradition known as
itihasa-purana,which by the mid-first millennium A.D. had become an authoritative source for
the ruling Brahman caste. Itihasatranslates as “thus it was” while puranarefers to “that which
pertains to ancient times” or “old lore.” Early Indian historical tradition contains origin, myths
and extensive genealogical material on the descents of major families (which generally do not
place the figures chronologically). There are also some biographies of individual rulers,
beginning in the seventh century A.D and peaking from the tenth to thirteenth centuries, as well
as chronicles of rulingfamilies (Vamsavalis, literally, “path to succession”) in inscription or
textual form, of whichKalhana’s text is the best example and the one most familiar in its use of
multiple sources, criticallyevaluated. An additional category is the collection of historical
narratives or Prabandha, whichagain have a biographical orientation.

Pre-Islamic India also developed other traditions of writing about the past, distinct from
itihasapurana,especially Buddhist and Jaina, both centered in monastic institutions; the Pali-

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languagechronicles from Sri Lanka for instance focus on the history of a particular Buddhist
order or
monastery but also stray into secular history and the history of earlier times. Writings such as
theRajavaliya, compiled by several hands between the fourteenth and nineteenth centuries, and
theMahavamsa, a sixth-century work continued in the tripartite Culavamsaof the twelfth,
fourteenth,and late eighteenth centuries, together represent a cumulative history of nearly two
millennia.

ToIndia’s north, in Tibet, Buddhist scholarship produced (in Tibetan and Sanskrit) the large
historyknown as the Deb-thersngon–po(Blue Annals, the work of the translator and compiler
’Goslotsa-bagzhon-nu dpal (1392–1491) who used and frequently simply copied earlier sources
such asrnam-thar(lives) by religious teachers, not all of which are still extant. The chronology of
thiswork and the names of Tibetan rulers can be verified by comparison with events described in
earlierChinese annals from the Tang dynasty. Together with the slightly earlier “History of
Buddhism”by Buston (composed c. 1322), the Blue Annals has become the source of information
formost later histories of Tibet. Apart from language variations (Pali and Tibetan as opposed to
Sanskrit),South Asian Buddhist historical writing parted from the Brahmanic in at least one
importantrespect, its dating of events from a single point, the death of the Buddha c. 483 B.C
(acontroverted date also used by some, but not all, Buddhist-influenced countries). There is an
obviousanalogy with Christian and Muslim dates A.D. and A.H., and the greater sense of time
thatone finds in a work like Kalhana’s may well be attributable to Buddhist influences, though a
comparablyBuddhist “era” never achieved historiographical usage in either South or East Asia.

Various regions developed historiographic forms during India’s “medieval” or Muslim-

ruledperiod, which ended in the mid-eighteenth century. In the Rajput state, Mughal-inspired
officialchronicles or khyats(some of which contained information from earlier Hindu bardic
literature)first appeared in the late sixteenth century. In the early eighteenth century a king of
Assam, SivaSingha, ordered a history of his predecessors to be written, and a century later,
RamramBasu, atthe behest of a British missionary, authored a vernacular history of the
government of Bengal.

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There exists also a distinct tradition of historical writing among the Maratha people of
WesternIndia, including bakhars(chronicles and biographies) that continued to be written into
the periodof British imperial governance. While the reliability of some of these works as
chronological sourcesfor the periods they depict has been questioned by modern scholars, they
nevertheless constituteintentional attempts to capture the past. It is thus important to recognize
that the absence of theusual Western forms of historical writing through much of this period does
not entail a lack ofany such activity, much less the complete absence of historical thinking.
However, European traditionswould eventually prove effective in ending the indigenous Indian
tradition,following its earlier encounters with Islamic historical thought introduced by Arabic
and Persianvisitors and Mughal conquerors.These previous contacts date from the eleventh
century, when al-Biruni had traveled into Indiaand reported back on its culture. The newcomers
brought with them what was by then a matureMuslim historiography, and in the fourteenth-
century, the Bengali official Ziya’-ud-DinBarani would remark of historians that they must be
truthful and provide insight into virtuousbehavior but also inquire into the reasons underlying
change in human affairs, injunctions thatwould not have arisen in the context of itihasa-purana.

By the sixteenth century, when Mongol descended Islamic rulers from Turkestan (the Mughals)
ruled much of India, Islamic and especially Persian, cultural influences on historiography
became more widespread: the Sanskrit-language Kashmir chronicles were superseded by
Persian-language works such as the anonymous Baharistan-i-Shahi(1614), or the sixteenth-
century autobiographical history of the Central Asian Mughals,Tarikh-i-Rashidi(comp. c. 1541–
1544) by the warrior Mirza Muhammad Haidar (c. 1500–1551).The latter’s cousin, the Mughal
conqueror Zahir-ud-Din Muhammad, known as Babur (1483–530), composed or dictated a
detailed autobiographical history of his times, the Baburnama. Abu-’l Fazl ‘Allami (1551–1602),
the minister of Babur’s grandson Akbar, authored the Akbarnama,which brought together a
variety of sources; it also contains many interesting reflections on thenature of history, which he
conceived of as both rational and as a source of solace for grief in thepresent.

During the next two hundred years, Islam continued to dominatehistorical writing in India,
producing works on various regions and localities, such as Ali MuhammadKhan’s mid-
eighteenth-century history of Gujrat over the previous seven hundred years.

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2.4. Arabic/ Islamic Historiography

The indigenous writers have initiated the writing of the history in the Arab countries. For
examples, they attempted to reconstruct, genealogy, andoral traditions among both Arabs and
Persians, such as popular stories about battles (Ayyam); andJulie Scott Meisami points out that
the Sasanian dynasty of Persia (224–651 A.D) is knownto have had both royal and priestly
historical narratives. Islamic historiography, a highly elaborateand systematic development of
historical writing and thought about the past, begins in the seventhcentury, its first subject being
the life and deeds or expeditions (maghazi) of Muhammadhimself, whoseHegira to Medina in
622 A.D provided a firm date on which to anchor an Islamicchronology. From the very
beginning, a zealous effort to record only true statements bythe Prophet from authoritative
testimony, beginning with eyewitnesses, led to careful attention tothe chain of transmission
(isnad).Consequently, successive authority passed information, often orally,down to the next: a
hadith or report of the words of the Prophet generally consisted of an isnadfollowed by a
matn(the actual text).

The earliest Muslim historians, many of whose works are only known to us fragmentarily oras
part of subsequent works, include Ibn al-Zubayr and his successor, al-Zuhri (d. 742), who
wasprobably the first to combine several accounts into one continuous narrative committed to
writing.They were quickly followed by the first great and fully intact biography (sira) of the
Prophet,by IbnIshaq (c. 704–767), and by the more critically and chronologically rigorous
treatment ofal-Waqidi (747–823), who also wrote several further works on Islamic history.

In the early or “formative” period of Islamic historical writing (from the death of Muhammad to
the early ninth century),one can identify sub-branches respectively associated with the Western
Arabian, Syrian, andIraqi regions.Thefamous works of this period include the genealogical
histories of al-Baladhuri(d. c. 892), the historical geography of al-Ya‘qubi (d. 897) and
especially the universal chronicleof al-Tabari (c. 839–923), Ta’rikh al-Rusulwa al-
Muluk(History of prophets and kings),which was translated into Persian (the lingua franca in
much of the region) during the mid-tenthcentury. By the advent of the Baghdad-based Abbasid
dynasty in the mid-eighth century, terminologyto express the idea of an account of the past had
also developed. A khabar(plural, akhbar,literally “information”) was an account of the past

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composed for historical interest rather than toshed light on Islamic law, and often devoted to the
relation of a single event.

The term Ta’rikh,which first appeared about 644 A.D and is the modern Arabic word for history,
was initially usedto describe various sorts of writing organized chronologically (it literally means
“dating”) whetherby annals or by the reigns of caliphs. Both terms were used, often
interchangeably, up to the midnineteenthcentury.By the ninth century, though Islamic history
was still written principally in Arabic, the religion’slearned language, Islam had ceased to be
predominantly a religion of the Arabs alone. Theclassical period of Islamic historiography, from
the tenth century to the fourteenth, would see agreat deal of historical writing by ethnic Persians,
particularly under the Ghaznavid dynasty of theeleventh and twelfth centuries. This succeeded a
pre-Islamic Persian tradition of verse epic thatculminated in the post-conquest Shahnama(Book
of kings) by Firdausi, which was completed in1010 A.D. Persian Muslim historiography would
also witness a departure from strict attention tothe tradition of hadith and the adoption by many
historians of rather more secular intellectualoutlook characterized by adab, a moral and
intellectual education for the elites beginning in theeighth century that is comparable in ambition
to later European humanism. This proved liberatingin the sense that it permitted departure from
strict adherence to the narrowness of the isnad,which was never easily able to absorb foreign
history; and histories written under the influence ofadabprovide more information as to the
author’s intentions in writing them. Historical thoughtwas also influenced by philosophical
concerns derived from the notion of hikmah(judgment orwisdom) and by a concept of research or
inquiry (bahth). The work of the tenth-century historianal-Mas‘udi reflects these tendencies and
is notable both for its critical apparatus and its author’sbald assertion of the superiority of history
to all other sciences. The prolific scientist andpolymath al-Biruni (973–1048), much of whose
life was spent in India, deployed his mathematicaland philological knowledge to the resolution of
calendrical and chronological conflicts betweenthe world’s nations.

As Islam spread into other regions, including its Western European beachhead in Spain, as
wellas sub-Saharan Africa and India, Muslim-authored histories of those regions appeared; the
earliesthistory of Islamic Spain dates from the tenth century and was followed by others over the
nexthalf-millennium. Muslims in this period produced a great quantity of historical writing.

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However, most ofthe works compares very favorably with the best chroniclers of the West and
exceeds it in attentivenessto detail and accuracy, for instance the great biographical dictionary of
IbnKhallikan(1211–1282) and the travel writings (themselves a major source for Muslim social
history) of theperipatetic IbnBattutah (1304–1368 or 1369).

Like the European invaders, Arabs such as the Damascene mayor Ibn al Qalanisi (1073–1160)
and Saladin’s minister ‘Imad al-Din (d. 1201)also wrote about the Crusades, though it has been
observed that most did not regard them as anythingother than the latest in a series of struggles
against the infidel. Ibn al-Athir (1160–1233),another chronicler of the Crusades, wrote his world
history, the Al-Kamilfil-Ta’rikhin the wakeof the Mongol invasions of the Muslim world during
the early 1220s, an event that had a significant impact on history writing. Half a century later,
another Islamic historian, the Persian ‘Ala’al-Din ‘Ata-Malik b. Muhammad Djuwayni (or al-
Juvayni, 1226–1283) served in the capital ofthe Great Khan before returning to Baghdad as
governor and composing an incomplete History of the World Conqueror about Genghis Khan.
Rashid al-Din, a Persian converted from Judaism to Islam, also served Persia’s Mongol rulers
until his execution in 1318; his Complete Collection ofHistories is a vast world history especially
full of details on the Mongol regime. The Mongols, nomadic and warlike non-Muslim people
who came into conflict with Islam to the West andChina to the East in the course of the
thirteenth century, developed their own tradition of historicalwriting, which includes the
thirteenth-century epic known as the Secret History of the Mongols.There is little sign of
historical writing among them for three centuries following, during aperiod of great internecine
turmoil and division among the various descendants of the Khan, butthe early seventeenth
century witnessed a revival and produced several specimens of chronicles.These included the
AltanTobc(Golden Summary) which begins with the death of Genghis Khanand continues to the
early seventeenth century, and the collection of chronicles known as ErdeniyinTobc(Precious
Summary).

At least one Muslim author, the fourteenth-century Tunisian IbnKhaldun (1332–1406), standsas
among the most significant historical thinkers of that or any age, and as the culmination of
thephilosophical tendencies previously observed in al-Mas‘udi. Although he was the author of a
longhistory, IbnKhaldun has become better known for that work’s prolegomenon or

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Muqaddimah,an ambitious attempt to work out the many factors underlying historical change
including customs,manners, climate, and economics; it has often led to his being considered the
first sociologistof history. IbnKhaldun’s idea that individuals and groups that come to power
areanimated by a group spirit or asabiyyahas counterparts in much later Western writers such as
JohannGottfried von Herder (1744–1803), while his belief that regimes once consolidated will
almostinevitably become divided or corrupted and fall echoes the cyclical politics of the
GreekPolybius.

Beginning in the early fifteenth century, the newly rising Islamic power, the Ottoman
Turks,produced significant historical works, commencing with ‘Abdu’l-vasiCelebi’s (fl. 1414)
accountof the accession of Mehmed I, and continuing with chronicles by Asikpasazade or Asiki
(1400–after1484) and the obscure Nesri (d. c. 1520), who synthesized many of the sources up to
his owntime. These “chronicles of the house of Osman,” many more of which remain
anonymous, aredistinguished by having largely been written by authors who lived through many
of the eventsthey described. The chronicles are supplemented and in some cases overlaid by
other sources.These include royal calendars (starting in the 1440s) containing historical lists, and
poems andoral traditional accounts reaching back to an earlier heroic age of Islamic warriors,
which providea backdrop of legend, folklore, and pseudo history. Examples of such works
include the Iskendernameby Ahmedi (c. 1334–1413), parts of which amount to a world history,
the Danismendnameand the later, more historically specific Dusturname(completed in 1465
attributed to one Enveri,about whom little is known). Sultan Bayezid II (r. 1481–1512)
commissioned the first twohistories devoted specifically to the Ottomans, one in Persian and the
other in Turkish (Persianinfluences were especially potent on early Ottoman literature).

In an interesting parallel with China’s mandarin-dominated historical writing, as well as withthe

civic courtly historiography of many contemporary Italian states, the major Turkish
historicalworks produced for the next two centuries. They were sponsored by the Sultan
(composed ministersor functionaries ) such as the grand vizier KaramaniMehmed Pasha (d.
1481), the secretaryTursun Beg (fl. 1453–1499), the chancellor Mustafa ÇelebiCelalzade (c.
1490–1567), the poetand tutor to Sultan Murad, HocaEfendi (or Sa‘duddin bin Hasan Can,
1535–1599), and theprovincial functionary Ibrahim Peçevi (1574–1650). The Istanbul bureaucrat

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Mustafa Naima(1655–1716) wrote an important history of the empire in the first half of the
seventeenth century,which remains today one of the most cited sources for that period.

Activity 3.5
Dear students, discus the following question before you read the passage
What can you suggest about the influence of the church on the historiography of the medieval
period?
Would you discus the nature of historiography during the medieval period in relation to church
and state?
What major differences could you observe from ancient and medieval historiography?

2.5. Medieval European Historiography

The work of the historiography during the medieval period was greatly influenced by religion
and religious processes. The problem of separating fact from fiction and legend was seriously
felt of this result. After the establishment of Eastern Roman Empire with its capital at
Constantinople and the declaration of the Christianity as the official religion of Europe, western
and eastern European historical writing evolved in rather different directions. In line with this
progress, the writing of the history during the medieval period reflected the tendency of being
divided into two, universal history, which got some inspiration from saint Augustine’s city of
God in which it was further illustrated and continued by other writers. The chronicle was other
form of the historical writing which included crude and simple accounts of the local monasteries
and more orderly organized. However, the works of the chronicle contains narrow and parochial
ideas since learning by itself and daily life was limited to church. As a result, chroniclers were
biased in favor of the church and they gave little emphasis to the political, other worldly and
secular life.
One of the most significant features of the medieval historiography was the separation of
ecclesiastical from secular history, though not absolute, proved fundamental to medieval and
early modern historical writing and to later Renaissance divisions among historicalgenres. It is
regarded as an early attempt and model in a branch of historiography, biographical or
semibiographical accounts of the knightly deeds in the crusades, which paved the way to the rise

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of the critical historical writing. The ecclesiastical history had a strong focus on the foundation,
growth, and triumph of the Christian religion, and a steady eye toward the eventual return of
Christ and the ultimate end of history. This helpedits Byzantine writers to develop, quite early,
an attention to precise chronology and periodization. Bede (672/73-735) was best known for his
Ecclesiastical history of the English people tracing the history of the Britain from 55B.C to
597A.D. in which he described the conversion of the Anglo-Saxon people into Christianity.His
technique of dating events from the times of the birth of the Jesus Christ (A.D) came into effect
through the popularity of the historiaEcclesiastica and his work on chronology.
Ecclesiastical history was also, significantly, generally devoid of set speeches, its authors
preferring to insert original documents and letters, which had not been a characteristic of most
classical histories. Historiography in the western world increased its scope through its contact
with Byzantines and Muslims that showed other point of views. Byzantine historiography is
widely reached its peaked in the next quarter-millennium particularly under the Komnenian and
Palaiologan dynasties. A significant revival occurred in the eleventh century with Michael
Constantine Psellus’s memoirs of court life. Some of the notable authors were:
 Anna Comnena (1083–c. 1153), the first great female writers of history, who composed
an account of the reign of her father, the fourteenth-century emperor John VI
Cantacuzenus (1292–1383).
 George Pachymeres(1242–c. 1310).
 NicephorusGregoras (c. 1295–c. 1359).
 Pachymeres is also significant as the earliest historical source for the rise of the
Ottomans in nearby Anatolia.
The writing of the history as distinct feature was shaped by humanism of the renaissance thought
and values emanating from it since it placed emphasis on textual criticism and critical attitude
towards documents and sources. The works of the renaissance and its revival of the classical
learning inspired historians of the medieval period. The contributions of both the Reformation
and Counter Reformation in further developing historical scholarship were significant since both
sides used the past to support their religious claims and teachings.Critical methods in history
were forwarded in the sixteenth and seventeenth century by the writings of Jean Bodin and Jean
Mabillon and great critical collection of the sources were begun.

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Historical writing in Europe particularly after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire and its
displacement by various barbarian kingdoms strained and obscured. However, it did not wholly
break the continuity with ancient models. In the period, so-called Dark Ages (fifth to the ninth
centuries), there were no historiographic vacuum. Despite this several attempts were made to
writ e history of several states. The most important of these “barbarian” works included histories
of the:
 Goths (Jordanes, summarizing a lost history by Cassiodorus)
 Franks (Gregory of Tours, whose work is more accurately described as a history of his
own times)
 Lombards (Paul the Deacon)
 Anglo-Saxons (the Latin Ecclesiastical History of the English People by the early-
eighth-century monk, Bede).
Among these, Bede (d. 735) was arguably the greatest historian of the period. He is also credited
with first introducing into historical writing the chronological scheme whereby events were dated
anno domini, from the birth of Jesus Christ, a system previously developed in the form of “Easter
Tables” by scholars such as the sixth-century monk Dionysius Exiguus.

There are several other types of medieval historical literature. Among these the Norse
(Norwegian and Icelandic) sagas of the twelfth to fourteenth centuries (initially an oral record
but committed to writing after about 1150) present especially interesting departure from the
prose chronicle and form a link between the world of the annalist and that of the heroic poet;
they are the major source for Norway’s medieval past.

Historical writing matured considerably beyond simple annals during the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries. Monasteries such as Saint Albans in England and Saint-Denis in France developed
traditions of multigenerational continuous historical writing (the only Western analogy to the
contemporary Chinese experience), in which a summary universal history was often affixed
before a contemporary account, which in turn was extended forward by subsequent writers. A
separate class of chronicles, more aristocratic in flavor, was influenced by earlier chivalric

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literature, especially the tales of King Arthur and thechansons of figures like Roland, and the
biographical gestaof deeds of emperors and other rulers.
The writing of aristocratic chronicles was stimulated by foreign events and especially by wars
such as the ongoing Crusades in the Holy Land, generating such works as the history of the
Fourth Crusade by Geoffroi de Villehardouin (c. 1150–c. 1213). Such writing appealed to both
rulersand their fighting nobility and was often expressed in languages outside the learned Latin
of clerical chronicles. Gabrielle Spiegel has even suggested that the aristocrats of thirteenth-
century France, for instance, evolved a vernacular prose historiography in response to concerns
about social change and the aggrandizement of royal power.

Perhaps the most widely read aristocratic works both at that time and since have been the
narrative by Jean Froissart (1333?–c. 1405) of the first phases of the Anglo-French Hundred
Years’ War (1337–1453) and the various vernacular Scots accounts, in verse and prose, of the
Scottish wars of independence against the English. Finally, semi fictional works in Latin
providing elaborate accounts of the foundations of kingdoms and theories of racial descent were
also produced, such as Simon of Kéza’s (fl. late 13th century) GestaHungarorum, which
celebrated the deeds of Attila and the supposedly ancestral Huns. The most notorious work of
this sort was the History of the Kings of Britain by Geoffrey of Monmouth (c.1100–1154), a
major source for subsequent Arthurian literature, and already attacked as an imaginative
fabrication by its author’s younger contemporary, William of Newburgh (1136–c. 1198).
By the fifteenth century, in the context of the struggles of the French crown with English power
and with Burundian independence, one can discern a sharper political analysis in certain
historians such as Thomas Basin (1412–1491) and especially Philippe de Commynes (c. 1447–
1511), who anticipates in many ways the flavor of Renaissance humanist historiography already
unfolding to the east in Italy. In an unrelated but parallel development, relatively late in the
European Middle Ages, the growth of towns in Italy and in northern Europe (especially
Germany, the Low Countries, and England) produced a distinct vernacular tradition of urban
chronicle writing. Often developing from lists of civic officials, and written by laity, these annals
recorded local events in varying degrees of detail and were an important counterpart, for the
emerging middling sort of merchants and townsmen, to the more learned Latin chronicles of the
monastic and secular clergy and the aristocratic works by the likes of Villehardouin and

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Froissart. The works of the medieval historians laid the ground for the development of the
modern historiography.
2.6. Modern European Historiography

New development in the writing of the history, which took place in the ninteeth and twentieth
century,were very important. The historians of the Enlightenment introduced broad accounts of
social and cultural analysis society and phenomena. The idea and thoughts of the French
philosophers left very important aspects for the development of the modern historiography.

The separation of the archaeology from antiquarianism and philosophy from classical
scholarship enhanced further development of critical and objective history as academic discipline
in the nineteenth century. In the nineteenth century history as an academic field of study was
founded by German historian, Leopold Von Ranke (1795-1886). He is called the father of the
modern historiography. Any account of nineteenth-century historiography began with a colossus:
the imposing figure of the German Leopold von Ranke. Initially, he was a student of ancient
history and philology, Ranke wrote a doctoral dissertation on Thucydides. He quickly expanded
his interests to include the medieval and modern history of much of the world, beginning in The
Histories of the Latin and Germanic Peoples from1494 to 1514 with the period tackled by
Francesco Guicciardini three centuries earlier. The contribution of Ranke and his successors,
notably Theodor Mommensen, Johan Gustav Droysen and Georg Waitz (1813–1886) and
Heinrich von Sybel (1817–1895) founded the cannons of criticism and historical methods. Latter,
they deserve much of the credit for having converted Ranke’s ideas into institutional form
throughout Prussia and then Germany as a whole. The conservative Heinrich von Treitschke
(1834–1896), who was not a student of Ranke but succeeded him in the chair of history at the
University of Berlin, deviated in a different direction. Treitschke’s multivolume history of early-
nineteenth-century Germany(1879–1894) provided a celebration of the Bismarckian state and a
script for later German imperialism, a development that Ranke, a European rather than a strict
nationalist, would not have embraced. This German based writing made history writing into a
profession and established the formal academic study of history.

The contribution of Leopold Von Ranke was immense to history as a field of study and
particularly to the historical method. Ranke emphasized that the historian must not only use

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contemporary sources of information, but also must study the personality, tendencies, activities
and opportunity of the author of the each document in order to determine as far as possible the
“personal equation” in his record of events.Ranke also pointed out two important issues which
historians should take into consideration in writing history that every nation and age is
dominated by a set of ideas which he called zeitgeist and the doctrine that the historian must
view the past wholly freed from the prejudices of the present and narrate the events of the past as
they actually happened. According to Ranke, history used to present the past “as it really was,”
not as we thought it was, or wish it had been.

Ranke’s contribution to the development was, however, significant and lasting to the historical
method and to the teaching of history.Staggeringly prolific as he was, however, Ranke is less
important for any of his individual histories than for what he came to symbolize. Over his long
career at the University of Berlin, which had displaced Gottingen as the epicenter of German
scholarship, he thoroughly transformed the training of young historians (many of them
foreigners), by focusing his research seminars on primary sources and their criticism. The
historical seminar that he founded has trained several historians. He laid the ground for the
significant changes in the development of the historical scholarship in which he gave much credit
to the use of the archival sources as the base for the production of the original historical works
and academic journal as the medium for the dissemination of research findings which was later
developed by his successors.

Ranke had a strong belief in divinely dictated progress (devoutly religious man), with intellectual
debts to German idealist philosophers but also in the distinctive value and contribution of each
historical era and people, all “equal before God.” He promoted a historiography that as far as
possible could tell the story of the past wieeseigentlichgewesen. This famous phrase translates
most accurately as “the past as it essentially was”—not, as some later students thought, “the past
as it actually happened.”

However, the work of the Ranke was not free from limitations and criticized by later historians.
He failed to exhaustively use the sources he used, primary concern with political events and
dominating personalities to the neglect of economic and social history and favor to the

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providential theory of history. Criticism against the works of Ranke came from two major
directions: Marxian historiography and the French Annals School (named after the influential
journal that served as the forum for the later groups of the French historians). The two schools of
thought criticized Ranke for his much emphasis on the political history and its narrative
approach. The critics argued for the need to shift from political to social and economic history
and adoption of the analytical rather than the narrative methodology. Through the passage of
time, the basic tenets of the Rankean historiography came to be re-shaped and amplified to
increase its scope and deepen the realm of historical research. As a result, new room of historical
research like local history, social history, gender history and environmental history developed.

In the nineteenth century, the writing of the history became the dominant work which was
symbolized by romantic national historians like Thomas B. Macaulay (1800-1859) in England, a
modern historian associated with narrative history and Jules Michelet in France. Moreover, the
theories of Karl Marx revolutionized history in particular and the study of the society in general
through the interpretation of history from the economic and class struggle point of view. The
Marxists introduced new paradigm shifts and a powerful framework of coherence into historical
study associating the conditions and circumstance to the struggle and achievements of
humankind bringing together materials from all sides into a single coherent account of how the
present emerged from the past. According to Marxists, history is shaped by underlying economic
or “material” configurations and popular answer to them.

Thanks to Ranke, his immediate disciples, and the celebrated German university seminar
environment, German scholarship loomed large over many of Europe’s nations in the second half
of the nineteenth century and beyond; the Sorbonne historian Ernest Lavisse (1842-1922) was so
impressed by Ranke’s successes that he introduced the historical seminar into French higher
education. In truth, many of the methodological practices were already practiced elsewhere in
Europe.

The real appeal of the German approach to historiography was its emphasis on the historian’s
calling as a professional rather than an amateur or “gentleman scholar.” His contribution to the
development of the modern historiography had international significances.He inspired historical

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writing in several parts of the world. To the east, for instance, several generations of early-
twentieth-century Romanian historians derived inspiration from Germany, including the
archaeologist VasilePârvan (1882–1927) and the methodologist Alexandru Xenopol (1847–
1920). To the north, the Dane KristianErslev (1852–1930) and the Norwegian Gustav Storm
(1845–1903) both spent extended periods in German seminars. Although some British and
French historians trained in Germany, it was American students who most frequently flocked to
Germany, returning home to staff departments of history and new graduate schools at U.S.
Universities. Of those historians working at American universities in the 1880s and 1890s,
roughly half had spent some period of time studying in Germany,t hough frequently too short
period to permit them really to absorb German historical method. The “objectivity” mantra
chanted in American historiography for many decades may be ascribed in large measure to the
importation of a naive version of Rankeanism that upheld Ranke himself as an idol while largely
misunderstanding the more subtle aspects of his thought. Indeed, the myth of Ranke was far
more influential in America than his methods, and Gabriele Lingelbach has argued persuasively
that the concrete influence of German historiography among U.S. historians at this time has been
overstated. Many American scholars, such as Henry Adams, who introduced a seminar at
Harvard University, even held the German university system in low esteem.

The arrival of postmodernism has given a new relevance in recent decades, though probably not
one that either man would have welcomed.European methods began to penetrate elsewhere in the
world. Late Victorian notions of “scientific history” migrated into India during the first third of
the twentieth century through Britishtrained Indian historians returning home to teach. In part
owing to the influence of scholars suchas the Sanskrit philologist Sir R. G. Bhandarkar (1837–
1925), his son, D. R. Bhandarkar (1875–1950, an epigrapher and numismatist), and the Mughal-
period scholar Sir JadunathSarkar(1870–1958), the institutional apparatus of Western
historiography gradually emerged, beginningwith the Historical Records Commission of 1919
and the Indian History Congress established in1937–1938. Early attempts at multivolume
histories of India were aborted, but advocates such asthe novelist KanaiyalalManeklalMunshi
promoted Hindu rediscovery of their ancestral, pre-Islamic past. Following independence in
1947, Munshi called for a new history of India which,on this occasion, under the direction of the
prolific historian Ramesh Chandra Majumdar, resultedin The History and Culture of the Indian

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People (11 vols., 1951–1969). In recent decades.India has continued to produce outstanding
scholars of international reputation such as the historianof early India, RomilaThapar (b. 1931),
and the social historian SumitSarkar (b. 1939).

Perhaps the most interesting example of direct importation from the West and the
profoundchange it could occasion is provided by Japan. Long closed to the West during the
Tokugawa era,Japan rapidly opened up to international influence in the years running up to and
following theMeiji Restoration of 1868, which brought an end to the age of the Bakufu. History
had enjoyedconsiderable popularity through much of the nineteenth century, and the new regime
establishedan official department of history and then, in 1875, an expanded Office of
Historiography. Itsinitial purpose was to organize the compilation of the Dainihonhennenshi, a
new history alongthe lines of the Six National Histories, and from a pro-Imperial perspective. A
rival official history,
theTaisei Kiyo (Outline of the Imperial Rule), to be written in Japanese, was also initiatedby
more conservative members of the new regime.
Following a series of renaming and reorganizations, the Office of Historiography was
transferredto the Tokyo Imperial University in 1888, and a department of Japanese history
foundedthere in the following year. Closed in 1893 when the government disapproved of its
researchagenda, the Historiographical Institute, as it had become, was briefly closed. It reopened
in 1895,by which time the plans to write a new national history had been all but abandoned:
attentionnow focused on the narrower mandate of recovering and publishing documents.By the
end of the nineteenth century, Japanese historians had divided themselves into threeformal fields:
national (Japanese) history (kokushior Nihonshi), oriental history (Toyoshi), andWestern history
(Seiyoshi). As the Kume affair illustrates, there was an uneasy tension in the applicationof what
the Japanese themselves called “scientific history” to the construction of a nationaland Imperial-
focused account of the past; in the decade leading up to World War II, theso-called “Imperial
view of history” seriously constricted freedom of interpretation. Though actualincidents of
government interference were not numerous, they have become well-known: forinstance, the
historian TsudaSokichi (1873–1961) was convicted in 1942 for undermining thestill-revered
national mythology of the Kojikiin work he had published nearly three decades earlieron the
ancient imperial court. His doubts about the historicity of Jimmu and his immediatesuccessors

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were entirely unacceptable in an aggressively militaristic state that had marked the
foundingemperor’s 2600th anniversary in 1940 with national celebrations.
2.7. Professional Historiography

The writing of history attracted broader and multidimensional aspects of social and economic
emanated problems since the twentieth century. Anthropology and sociology contributed new
ideas to further historical study and as a result opened the way to the history of the culture. The
development of the science and technology motivated the concern of the historians the
successive changes and the progress of the critical professional historiography paved the way for
extraordinary historical research. Changes were signaled by a number of developments such as:-

 The expansion of university systems and the turning of many of them by the century’s
end to advanced training in historical scholarship
 The systematization of public record systems in many countries
 The advent of several new professional associations, frequently accompanied by a new
style of high-standard periodical or journal.
 A further development of the longstanding trend to publish archival documents, often
under government sponsorship and now with a considerably higher standard of accuracy
than previously applied.
 The systematic convergence of the erudite skills evolved over the previous three
centuries (paleography, diplomatic, numismatics, and epigraphy) within an overarching
science of the criticism of sources, for which the German term Quellenkritikprovides the
best shorthand descriptor.

The adherents of the “new social history” shifted the former focus of the study from political
history into multidimensional social and economic aspects of the historical researches. One of
the most notable examples of the effects both of accepting social scientific determinants of
human possibilities and of adopting a comparative perspective which transcends national
boundaries is Fernand Braudel’s work entitled; The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world
in the age of Philip II. It became one of the most influential works in the historiography of the
annals school primarily for two reasons.Firstly, it highly focused on the geography, ecology and
demography as constraining factors that set limits on all human activity. Secondly, it frees itself
from any national perspective and evaluated the sources of the Mediterranean history in terms of

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conflict between western powers and Ottoman Turks that came to end at the battle of Lepanto in
1571.

Braudel tried to introduce the principle of coherence into the large ranges of the historical
investigations and documentation whose aim was writing “total” history of the global world
including everything from small household goods to politics and geological foundations to
cultural achievements by grouping the affairs of the community into three distinct three-time
dimensions. Accordingly, events that are circumstantial and most slowly moving are categorized
under climatological and geographical history. Whereas, the more rapid movements of change in
social structure and economic aspects are grouped together.On the other hand, the swift, hectic
and day-to-day progresses that Bruadel calls the “nervous oscillation” of men in action are
placed under political history.

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3. SUMMARY

Historiography means the history of the historical writing. Accounts of the past in pre-literate
societies and evolutionary were kept and preserved by oral information. The oral sources have
uneasy contribution in the reconstruction of the illiterate societies. Most African societies
became much dependent on the on the oral sources. Despite this, human interest in past is as long
as the emergence of the ancient world civilization. The organized study of the human past
events took place following the rise of the ancient world civilization. This was because some
countries like Mesopotamia, Egypt and China introduced the earliest form of the pictorial writing
systems.In Mesopotamia the successive people that occupied the land between two rivers (Tigris
and Euphrates),relatively much interested in recording human past events.

However, historiography as the historical study is associated with Greek. The organized forms of
recording events were largely begun by the ancient Greek historians. Herodotus was often
considered as the first grand historian and called “father of the history.” He made the first
attempt to all the significant facts particularly the Persian wars.It was following his footstep that
other ancient historians such as Thucydides, Xenophon, Polybius, appeared in Greece. Historical
study in Greece influenced the writing of the history in Rome. The Roman historians added
uneasy contributions to the development of the western historiography.

Similarly, in Asia early Chinese people initiated historiography. In China, the writing of the
history had long history and its culture is best remembered among the known cultures of the
world. The Chinese historiography became the great lesson for other Asian countries. It inspired
the initiation of the historical writing in its neighboring countries such as India, Japan, Korea and
Vietnam. In line with this, the indigenous Arab writers developed the recoding of the events in
Muslim world. Historical writing among Arabs became popular particularly after the rise of
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Islam in the seventh century. The subject of the study became Prophet Mohammed himself.
Several Muslim Arab writers appeared who were much interested in writing historical
developments took place following the rise and expansion of the Islamic religion.

Nevertheless, historical writing during the medieval period was strongly associated with church.
Historians concerned with relationship between state and church. As a result, historiography
during the medieval period was highly influenced by religion. The church historians developed
narrow and parochial ideas since learning itself was associated to the religion and writers were
biased in favor of church. They gave little credit to the study of political history, secular life and
other worldly events.

As time went on, German historian called Leopold Von Ranke (1795-1886) founded history in
modern sense in the nineteenth century. The contribution of the Leopold Von Ranke was
immense to the beginning of the history as an academic field of study. He laid the ground for the
emergence of the scientific study of the history and the birth of the historical seminars. It was
due to his unreserved effort that Ranke is considered as “father of the modern history.” The work
of the Ranke revolutionized historical writing and has worldwide significance. His work
inspired the writing of history in modern sense in many European countries including United
States of America. However, the Rankean work was criticized by Marxist historians and French
Annals schools. They criticized him because of his much dependence on the political history and
neglecting other aspects of history. His writing approach was narrative rather than analytical.
Later, postmodernist added some critics to the Rankean historiography which in turn facilitated
the ground for the emergence of the multidimensional aspects of historical study.

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4. Review Exercise

1. Which people developed the tradition of recording historical events in the areas
between Tigris and Euphrates River Valley?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________

2. Why the Mesopotamian record is considered the earliest event?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

3. History as systematic study of the past is associated with______________________________

4. Who was the father of the ancient history? ________________________________

5. Discus the limitations of the ancient Greek historians

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________

6. Describe the nature of historical writing in Rome

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________

7. Which country was influential in historical writing in Asian continent? __________________

8. Compare and contrast the medieval European historiography with modern historiography

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________

9. Write the major limitations of the Rankean historiography

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________

10. Critics against Rankean historiography was directed from

_____________________________and ________________________________ school of

thought.

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5. Checklist

Dear students! put an ‘X’ mark either in ‘yes’ or ‘no’ corresponding columns. This is
made to know whether you understand the concepts or not.

I can yes No
Define the term historiography
Mention people who had developed the traditions of recording events in
the ancient lands of Mesopotamia

Elaborate the nature of the Greece historiography

Describe the contribution of the Herodotus to the historiography
State limitations of the Herodotean historiography
Distinguish the major weak sides of the Greece historians
Mention the names of the ancient Roman historians
State how the Chinese historiography inspired historical writing in its
neighboring countries
Differentiate the unique features of the Jewish historiography
Elaborate the significance of the Arab historians in capturing the Islamic
events
Discus the nature of historical writing during medieval period
Explain the contribution of the Leopold Von Ranke to the emergence of
the historiography in modern sense in the nineteenth century
Discus the global significance of the Rankean work
Elaborate the major drawbacks of the Ranke’s work

State the Marxist and French Annals schools of thought against the
Rankean historiography

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UNIT FOUR: THE DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICAN HISTORIOGRAPHY

CONTENTS

1. PRE-COLONIAL AFRICAN HISTORIOGRAPHY --------------------------------------------

2. COLONIAL AFRICAN HISTORIOGRAPHY --------------------------------------------------
3. POST COLONIAL AFRICAN HISTORIOGRAPHY-------------------------------------------
4. SUMMARY -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5. REVIEW EXERCISE -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6. CHECKLIST ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

INTRODUCTION

This unit briefs us how African historiography could be studied, written and taught. In line with
this, the views of the non-African writers in comparison with the African historians are well
treated. The module introduces how the people of Africa were denied in place of the ancient
world civilization because of the European parochial attitude and prejudice towards the existence
of the indigenous historiography in the continent. In addition, it discusses the effect of the
Eurocentric views on the truth image of the African historical writing. Furthermore, a great deal
of efforts has made to identify the existence of the indigenous African historiography before the
coming of the colonization.

COURSE OBJECTIVES

After the end of this unit, students will be able to

 Identify problems existed in the study of African historiography

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 Appreciate the significance of the oral source in reconstructing the history of pre-literate
societies in Africa.
 Explain the Eurocentric stands about the African historiography
 Compare and contrast the views of the European and African historians from the African
historiographical perspectives.
 Develop skills in the selection of the sources in African historical study.

Activity 4.1

Dear learners, discus the following questions

How do you understand the existence of the historical writing in Africa before the coming of
Europeans to the continent as colonizers?
Europeans argued that no African historiography before the onset of colonization in the
continent. What is your stand here? Do you agree or not.

1. PRE-COLONIAL AFRICAN HISTORIOGRAPHY

For the remote past study of the African historiography to be relevant, further special reference
need to be made to the historiography of Africa. This becomes too essential because the views of
the western historiography denied the existence of the pre-colonial African historiography and
marginalized the earliest African historians. Despite the Eurocentric views, the writing of the
African history is as old as the writing of the history itself. The works of the African
historiography started by the indigenous African historians’ long years before Europeans cover
the shades on the light of the truth image of the African historiography.Africa had for instance
the works of the al-Masudi (C. 950) and other local historians. Moreover, the contribution of the
Ibn-Khaldin (1332-1406) is very important. He looks the historiography of the Africa from
different perspectives and tried bring the writing approach into modern and current sense.

Furthermore, there were other indigenousTarikhs and chronicler writers particularly in Islamic
Africa such as Tarikhal-Sudan, Tarikh al-Fattash. In addition, Kano and Kilwa chronicle in
northern Nigeria and Swahili Coast of East Africa respectively produced their own accounts. It

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was after such works of the Africans that the European African historical study appeared. The
European travelers such as Cadamosto,Barbot and Bosmanproduced different works on African
history. By the eighteenth century, some European historians began to study the history of the
Tropical Africa. Subsequently, they produced several publications, writings and gave us their
own comments. However, it does not mean that all these works and comments were written from
the factual historical point of view. The European writers like Hugh Trevor Roper come out with
the negative conclusion of the African historiography. He denied the facts of the African
historiography and allegedly expressed that what people call history in Africa was non-existed
but “unrewarding gyrations of barbarous tribes in picturesque but irrelevant corner of the globe.”
Similarly, Seligman in his work entitled; Race of Africa wrongly concluded that the civilizations
of Africa are the civilizations of Hamites, its history, the record of these people and their
interactions with two other African Stocks, the Negro and the Bushmen.

It is very important to note here that Africa and its historiography had been undermined and
miss-treated by some non-African scholars. They left the facts of the African historiography
aside and reflected the Eurocentric ideas. Therefore, African historians should have to explore
the various historical sources like archaeological, linguistic, archival and oral sources to look
into the truth images of the African historiographical evolution.The role of the oral sources in
reconstructing the history of the non- literate African societies should have to be stressed.

2. COLONIAL AFRICAN HISTORIOGRAPHY

The European colonization of Africa symbolized parochial and negation idea on the African
historical writing. According to the European views, history now comes to be perceived as the
deeds and the exploits of the white people in Africa, not of the Africans themselves. They
deliberately distorted the African historiography and hence, the history of the Africa was thus
perforce that of the whites that meticulously recoded its fateful intervention realizing its
civilizing mission in the spirit of Kipling’s “the white men’s burden” in the life of the continent.
The colonial rule produced the a corpus of the historical data that ended up being deposited in
central archives which in turn derived into national archives. The archival materials became
inexhaustible sources in the production of the various theses, dissertations, monographs, books
and academic journals following the independence.

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Even during the yoke of the colonial rule, Africans have some light about the truth continental
history and they did not always let Europeans appropriate African historical study. Although they
do not have the open space to write their continental history and exposure to Western education,
some African educated elites rooted deeply in their cultures. To mention some of the African
writers during the colonial period, Samuel Johnson (wrote the Yuruba tradition), John
Egharevba(studied the history of the Benin), and Sir Apollo Kagawa (studied the history of the
Buganda people).

3. POST COLONIAL AFRICAN HISTORIOGRAPHY

The beginning of the nationalistic movement in Africa during the second quarter of the twentieth
century facilitated the new ground for the emergence of the intellectual climate within which
historical scholarship was pursued. The nationalist movement manifested the revival of the
African culture indicating values and customs differing from those of the colonial legacies. As a
result, the struggle for political independence since late 1950s and early 1960s followed by an
attempt to revive the truth African culture there by ending European historical view about Africa.
The decolonization of the European historiography of Africa bears the fruit through the
collaboration of African nationalistic historians with some white liberal minded writers. As
African political independence assured, African historians began to reject the perspectives and
restrictions imposed by colonialism and tried their best to create a “new history.”

Because of the colonial effect, the African academic historiography has recent ages. It was
during the last four decades that African academic historiography evolved. It came across with
several challenges and achieved considerable degree in the emerging national and continental
perspectives. The aim was to show the African past and its glorious achievements. The bedrock
of this new historical investigation needs methodological revolution, the critical and careful
examination of the oral sources in reconstructing and tapping of the ancillary discipline of the
archaeology and historical linguistics to lend further historical research time depth and
reliability.

The writing of the African academic history launched in abroad. The Anglophone countries and
United States of America became the major training grounds of the African historians. Among

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these, the School of Oriental and African Studies of the University of London and University of
Wisconsin Madison in the United States played the leading role in modern promoting African
historiography. The two famous historians, Roland Oliver and Jan Vansina are always mentioned
since they are pioneers.In addition, the Ibdan School in Nigeria was founded as the nationalist
historiography. It has been chaired by K.O. Dike and Jacob Ajayi which was immortalized in the
Ibdan History series and Journal of the Historical Society of the Nigeria. This school of
nationalist historiography had been famous until it was later challenged by Ahamdu Bello
University in Zaria situated in northern Nigeria. The Ahamdu Bello University introduced
Islamic and class perspectives as new rooms to the historical analysis.

The class perspective of the historical investigation was in away the ramification of the changes
and progresses that took place in Eastern Africa. Following this development, another national
school of historiography was opened in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Several historians such as
Terence Ranger, Walter Rodney, and Arnold Tenu represented it. Similarly, in Kenya, the
indigenous Kenyan historians, BethwellOgot founded the history peoples through his magisterial
study of the Luo. On the other hand, in Francophone West African countries, Cheikh Anta Dio
and Joseph Ki Zerbo attempted the new initiation. Cheikh Anta Dio conducted his thesis on
black African genesis of the Egyptian civilization. This work continues to reverberate in the
African-American perceptions of the black heritage.

4. SUMMARY

Despite the European old attitude towards African historiography, the continental history is
as old as humanity itself. The Eurocentric views affected both the history of the indigenous
African historians. They concluded that what people call history in Africa is the result of the
European colonization. They argued, as the history of the Africa is the history of the whites.
However, both Christian and Muslim chronicles able to produce the historical accounts long
years before the coming of the European colonizers. The works of al-Masudi and
IbnKhaldoun are best examples. We had also the works of Kilwa chronicle in Swahili coast
of East Africa and the Kano chronicle in northern Nigeria.

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During the colonial era, the legacy of the European African historiography reflected their
negation towards Africa. They were running the Eurocentric ideas, where as the truth
continental history was left aside. According to their view, Africa is a dark continent
characterized by the absence of its history and culture.As a result, the study of African
historiography was abused and miss-treated by some external writers. The indigenous
African historians were strongly undermined by these foreign scholars. However, there was
signs that few nationalist minded African historians were refusing to accept the Eurocentric
views on African historiography. This effect of the colonization had strongly affected the
progress of the African academic historiography. It was following the decolonization that the
African academic historiography accomplished through the tireless effort of African
historians and some liberal minded foreign writers. The major African academic
historiographies were centered in the School of Oriental and African Studies of the
University of London and the University of the Wisconsin Madison in the United States.
These two schools inspired the opening of the national historiography in some African
countries.

5. REVIEW EXERCISE
1. Explain the role of oral sources in reconstructing the history of Africa

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________

2. Compare and contrast the Eurocentric views with African historiography

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

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________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________
3. Mention the early African historians

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________

4. Explain the nature of the African historiography during the colonial rule
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________
5. Elaborate the schools of the African Historiography where academic history in modern
sense began
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
____________________________

6. CHECKLIST

Dear learners! Put an ‘X’ mark if you know the answer, if not, review the lesson

I can Yes No
Differentiatethe Eurocentric views of the African historiography
State the value of the oral sources in African historiography
Mention the Christian and Muslim chronicles in the pre-colonial Africa.

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Explain the role of European and American centers in the development of the
African academic historiography
Discus how the European writers undermined African historians and its
historiography

UNIT FIVE: THE BRIEF ACCOUNT OF ETHIOPIAN HISTORIOGRAPHY

CONTENTS

1. A CENTURY OF ETHIOPIAN HISTORIOGRAPHY -------------------------------------

2. PROFESSIONAL HISTORIOGRAPHY
-------------------------------------------------------
3. SUMMARY -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. REVIEW EXERCISE-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5. CHECKLIST -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

INTRODUCTION

Dear colleagues, this unit of the module focuses essentially on the development of the Ethiopian
historiography. The initial part deals with the unique features of the Ethiopian historiography
vice-avis other African countries. In addition, the natures of the Ethiopian historiography during
the medieval period are briefly discussed. The contribution of the foreign travelers account to the
development of the modern Ethiopian historical study and the shift in Ethiopian studies are also
presented in detail.

COURSE OBJECTIVES

After the end of this unit, students will be able to:

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 Explain the nature of the Ethiopian historiography during the medieval period.
 Identify the major limitations of the works of the chroniclers in Ethiopian historiography
 Appreciate the Ethiopian attempt in preserving it culture vice-avis the other African
countries.
 Elaborate the role of foreign travelers and scholars in enriching Ethiopian historiography
 Discus the drawbacks of the early twentieth century Ethiopian historians.
 Describe problems in studying Ethiopian historiography
 Discus factors facilitated the shift of Ethiopian history from northern centric to
southward.
 State the features of professional Ethiopian historiography.

Activity 5.1

Discus the unique features of the Ethiopian historiography

Do you think that chroniclers can represent the Ethiopian broad masses?
What are the major problems in studying Ethiopian historiography?
Describe the contribution of the chronicles in the study of the Medieval Ethiopian History
Elaborate the role of the foreign missionaries, travelers, and consul’s in the development of the
Ethiopian historical study

1. A CENTURY OF ETHIOPIAN HISTORIOGRAPHY

The unique feature of the Ethiopian historiography vice-avis many African countries has been
the existence of an indigenous historical recording since fourteenth century onwards. Chronicles,
the only church educated men at the then period, run the writing of the history. They wrote the
reigns of the individual kings and events of the longer time spans called ታሪከነገስት (history of
the kings). However, the work of the chroniclers was dominantly religious type and gave much
credit in supernatural explanation for historical phenomena. They have political and religious
biases and their work has been characterized by the absence of the sequential arrangement of the
events (chronological frame work) and exact numbers in their description.

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Chroniclers were assigned by the Christian kings to document the day-to-day running of the
government affairs. They were church trained men who could read and write. They could not
write the history by their own initiatives since they were placed under the strict control of the
kings. However, although they lacked secularity and objectivity, they provide us different
aspects of historical development with special emphasis on the political achievements, socio-
economic activities of the state, religious motives and the relation between state and church.

The emergence of the Ethiopian historiography is associated with reign of AmdeTsio (r.1314-
1344). The emperor assigned his chronicle that became the turning point in the beginning of the
recording state affairs. From the fourteenth century, the period that marked the appearance of the
first famous chronicler to the twentieth century, Ethiopia had uninterrupted chronicles.
AmdeTsion was said to have highly initiated to preserve and document the history of his state.
To this end, he appointed special individual called TsehafiTezaz (chronicler). The chroniclers
were ordered to write the history of the emperors with great emphasis on the life times of Made
Tsion. The one thing what should have to be noted here is that though chroniclers wrote the
contemporary times of the kings, the reconstructed the remote past events. This was made to
trace the genealogical linkage and continuity of the ruling classes for the purpose of the political
benefit and private security of the life. All chronicles from AmdeTsion to the coming to power of
Tewodros II were written in Ge’ez (church) language. This was made because, writers
themselves were churchmen.

In order to understand the nature of the early historiography, read the following source material.
It was Ge’ez poem praising AmdeTsion.

ሐርበኛዓምደፅዮን፡፡
መላላሽየመሰን፡፡
ውኸእንደመሰን፡፡
መላላሽየወሰን፡፡
ከወጅዜብዳርን፡፡
ይወረድአድርገኸው
ትግሬውን፡፡
ከገንዝጠጣን፡፡
ምንቀረኽበወሰን፡፡
ከባሌአሊን፡፡
ከደዋሮኄደራን፡፡

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ከፈጠጋርዜላርድን፡፡
ኬፋትአምበልኤቦክርን፡፡
ከግድምየዊሳይን፡፡
ከአንጎርዣንአሞራን፡፡
The Amharic translation is read as follows:-
ከአገውየቤትአዠርን፡፡
ከትግሬነገደክርስቶስ
ይውረድ፡፡
አደረግኸውገንዙን፡፡

እንዲሰራዳውጃውን፡፡

ምቀረህበወሰን፡፡

አላጸፋሀውፊቱን፡፡

ከቀዣምዣንኸምርን፡፡

ከጋፋትአወላሞን፡፡

በዳሞትሞትላሚን፡፡

ማንቀረኽበወሰን፡፡

ያላሰጻፍኽውልጅምሽቱን

ሐርበኛዓምደፅዮን፡፡

መላላሽየወሰን፡፡

Despite the politico-religious bias, chroniclers produced an interesting historical account where
the history of the medieval Ethiopian period would not have been reconstructed. In the
nineteenth century, the first Amharic chronicle was appeared during the reign of Emperor
Tewodros II (1855-68). The writing of the Amharic historiography was initiated by the court
chronicler of the emperor, Aleqa (Debtera) Zeneb. Unlike the medieval chroniclers, Zeneb had
greater degree of freedom to write history. He had the right to express the independent ideas and
hence, his works are not exaggerated. The reign of Tewodros II also characterized the
appearance of the multiple writers. For instance, during the medieval period, historical
documentation of the royal kings and their family was reserved to only one chronicler. Unlike
these periods, in the nineteenth century, several individuals began to write history by their own
initiatives. This was happened due to the fact that following the decline of the power of the

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central and their loose control over the regional lords during the zemenemesafint, the individual
writers began to document the day-to-day political progresses. For instance, for the first time,
three chroniclers appeared during the reign of Emperor Tewodos II. These were

 AleqaZeneb, the court chronicler of the emperor

 AleqaWolde Mariam. In fact, he was not court chronicler, but he got the freedom to write
historical events.
 Anonymous chronicler.

However, after the end of the reign of the Emperor Tewodros II, most of the works of the
chroniclers were written in ge’ez language. For instance, the chronicles of the Emperor
TekleGiorgis and his immediate successor Emperor Yohannis IV wrote in ge’ez language. As
time went on, the writing of history and other literature in Amharic reappeared during the reign
of Emperor Menelik II (r.1889-1913). His court chronicler called TsehafiTezazGebreSellasie
wrote the day-to-day running of the government affairs in Amharic.

On the other hand, foreign missionaries and travelers played the pivotal role to the development
of the Ethiopian historiography. They wrote what they have observed and left the historical
accounts of the country. For example, in 1520, the Portuguese envoy arrived to the court of the
Christian highland kingdom. Among the group of envoys, the Catholic priest called Francisco
Alvarez wrote the book entitled, Narratives of the Portuguese Embassy to Abyssinia during the
Years 1520-1526is very informative about Ethiopia. In addition, the Catholic missionaries who
came to Ethiopia in the years between 1557 and 1632 produced several works on Ethiopia.
Following these footstep, the European travelers, missionaries, explorers, envoys and consuls
who had been in Ethiopia throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries wrote several books
on Ethiopia. All these foreign woks left uneasy contribution to the development of the Ethiopian
historiography.

It was by the involvement of the foreign authors that the Ethiopian studies founded in Europe in
the seventeenth century by a German historian called Job Ludolf (1624-1704). He wrote the first
modern history of Ethiopia entitled; Historia Aethiopia, which was published in 1684. His
personal interaction with Abba Gregory, an Ethiopian Orthodox Church monk gave him good
opportunity to write the history of Ethiopia. The monk provided him with different aspects of

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Ethiopian history, culture, language as well as literary sources. Soon, the work of this German
historian was translated into English and French languages which paved the way for the further
establishment of the Ethiopian studies in Europe.

The foundations of the Ethiopian studies in Europe did not diminish the role of Germany in
Ethiopian historical studies. It was also German historian called August Dillmann (1823-1894)
founded the scientific study of the Ethiopian history in Europe. He critically analyzed the sources
produced series works on Ethiopian history. Following this historical antecedent, the Ethiopian
studies opened in other parts of Europe. In Paris, France, the d’Abbadie brothers, Antoine (1810-
1898) and Arnaud produced the Ethiopian collections. The foreign involvement in the writings of
the Ethiopian history received considerable degree in the first three decades of the twentieth
century. To mention some of them, J. Morie produced informative books on Ethiopia which has
two volumes. A. Kemmerer whose study was conducted followed his work on the ancient history
of Ethiopia. This work was published in 1926.

Above all, the Italian scholar called C. Conti Rossini (1872-1949) conducted detail studies on
Ethiopian history with special emphasis on the linguistic aspects. He is often considered as the
serious historian and the work was published entitled Storia d’Etiopia (1928). His work is
considered as the first systematic and elaborative study. The work of the Conti Rossini inspired
several Ethiopian writers at national and international levels. Similarly, other foreign scholar
named E. A Wallis Budg produced his own account entitled A History of Ethiopia, Nubia, and
Abyssinia.The book has two volumes, which is reconstructed based on the Ethiopian manuscripts
sources in the British Museums. In 1929, A. Kemmerer’s second work conducted on the history
of Ethiopia and the Red Sea area from ancient times to the seventeenth century was published.
This work, which has three volumes,was written based the local sources that he had collected
from the region.

The Italian aggression against Ethiopia (1935-41) greatly increased the scope of foreign
involvement in studying Ethiopian history. Several foreign authors produced their own
publications on the nature of the Fascist Italian occupation and the counter response of the
Ethiopians. Following this development, the French Archaeological mission led by Jean Doresse
produced significant achievements on Ethiopia. The missionconducted
archaeologicalexcavations on the northern part of Ethiopia and the finding was published in

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1956. Later on, the archaeological mission conducted extensive study on the medieval events of
the Ethiopian history and the finding was appeared in two volumes since 1957. Jean Doresses’s
work especially the first finding dealing with the ancient Ethiopian history was reconstructed
based on the original archaeological sources.

Until 1960s, the study of the Ethiopian historiography has been criticized for its focus on the
northern centric and uneven distribution of sources. This was because of the fact that the
northern Ethiopia has the following advantages over the south.

 As the northern part of Ethiopia had the center of ancient civilization, it had long years
contact with other outsiders particularly South Arabians, Greeks, Romans and the
Byzantine world. Therefore, these writers left accounts of their historical records, which
served as bridge source for the study of its history.
 The north had developed the art of written languages, which played the central role to
keep events. The Aksumite kings had kept the written records in Sabean, Greek, Roman
and Ge’ez languages.
 Following the introduction of the Christianity into the country since the first half of the
fourth century, Ethiopia had established strong relation with the Egyptian Coptic
Churches. As a result, the Egyptian Coptic Church contained several Ethiopian sources,
which facilitated the pre-conditions for the study of the northern Ethiopia.
 Several archaeological excavations conducted on the north. It provided auxiliary sources
for the study of the northern region.

To the contrary, even the existing physical remains are not yet well studied. In the middle of the
nineteenth century, few European travelers and missionaries attempted to penetrate into southern
Ethiopia. However, they left us very scanty information, which is not adequate to reconstruct the
history of the southern region and its people. In addition, the southern region had not developed
the techniques of the written languages that could enable them to recode the events. Because of
these accumulative problems, the history of the southern Ethiopia had been neglected until the
dramatic shift made in 1960s.

Activity 5.2

Discus the limitations of the early twentieth century Ethiopian historians

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State the role of the foundation of the Institute of the Ethiopian Studies (IES) in the remarkable
shift of the Ethiopian historiographical study.

2. PROFESSIONAL HISTORIOGRAPHY

So far, we have seen the contribution of the chronicles and foreign writers to the development of
the Ethiopian historiography. On the other hand, the down of the twentieth century saw the
appearance of a number of the Ethiopian intellectuals who wrote on different political, social and
economic aspects of their countries past. The most famous early twentieth century Ethiopian
historians include Aleqa Taye Gebre Mariam, Aleqa Atseme-Giorgis, Billattengeta Hiruy Wolde
Sellasie, Neggadras Afawork Gabre-Iyyasus and Neggadras Gebre- Hiwote Baykedagn. In fact,
these writers are called traditional scholars. After 1941, Tekle Tsadiq Mekuria followed the
works of these traditional historians. He was the most prolific writer who wrote several history
books covering the entire aspects of Ethiopian history ancient Aksumite period to the twentieth
century. Many scholars consider Tekle Tsadiq Mekuria as the bridge historian between early
pioneers and more recent professional and academic historians. He worked at different high-
ranking offices during the reign of Emperor Haile Sellasie. This brought him direct contact with
the primary sources that are deposited at state offices. The accesses to the different sources
motivated him to reconstruct the whole life span of the Ethiopian history.

There are also other Ethiopian writers who produced significant works on the events took place
particularly following the Italian aggression of Ethiopia (1935-41). Some of these historians who
produced the memories on the patriotic resistance of 1936-41, were Taddese Zewolde and Girma
Tafara. Yilma Deressa on his own part wrote the sixteenth century history of Ethiopia.
Moreover, Billatengetta Mahtama-SellasieWolde-Mesqel produced the most informative work
on the early twentieth century of Ethiopia.

Furthermore, the most remarkable achievement in the study of the Ethiopian historiography
made after the second half of the twentieth century. The foundation of the Institute of the
Ethiopian Studies and the subsequent opening of the history department at the then Haile Sellasie
I University (now a day Addis Ababa University main campus) since early 1960s, revolutionized

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the former image of the Ethiopian historical studies. Following this historic foundation, the
institute became the raining ground and research center of the Ethiopia. This achievement
changed the pattern of the Ethiopian historical studies from north to south, which until then
focused on the northern part of the country.The institute produced several professional Ethiopian
historians. Many Ethiopian history students conducted their Senior Essays and later M.A Thesis
on the history of the southern Ethiopia.They extensively exploited the oral sources and
reconstructed the histories of their countries past.The beginning of the annual historical seminars
and proceeding of the international conferences, which played great in the development of the
Ethiopian historiography, are also the results of the opening of the Institute of the Ethiopian
Studies. In line with the opening of the IES, foreign scholars committed to the Ethiopian studies
founded the centers of Ethiopian studies in abroad.

As time went on, the historiography of Ethiopia took different forms. After the downfall of the
imperial regime, the coming to power of the socialist oriented government introduced new
chapter in Ethiopian historiography. An attempt was made to reconstruct Marxist based political
history of the state and after its demise, the ethnic based federalism came into exist. These
historical shifting caused the corresponding changes in the pattern of the Ethiopian
historiography.

In conclusion, the writing of the Ethiopian history has been dominated by the so called the Great
tradition in the Ethiopian historiography which gave emphasis on a particular power structure
and people associated with it which in turn led to histories countering the great tradition in the
forms nationalities based history such as Oromo, Somali etc.To the contrary, the search for
unifying history of Ethiopia and the Horn continues. It is believed that a more usable and
objective historiography will overcome the deficiencies and drawbacks of the Great tradition and
continuing histories based on particular ethnic groups that neglect the shared and common
features of the Ethiopian historiography.

3. SUMMARY

The existing historical sources indicated that Ethiopia had the long history of historiography,
goes back to the fourteenth century. It was during the reign of Made Tsion (1314-1344) that the
king assigned special writers called TsehafiTezaz to write the history of his own time and

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Solomonide kings. The consecutive Ethiopian kings also appointed the court chroniclers in
which without their work the reconstruction of the Ethiopian medieval history would not have
been possible. However, the works of the chroniclers associated with state and church and
characterized by bias and subjectivity.

In addition, the foreign missionaries, travelers and consuls who had an opportunity to visit
Ethiopia wrote the history of the country. It was in the seventeenth century in Europe that the
German historian called Job Ludolf (1624-1704) founded the Ethiopian study. His work, which
was reconstructed based on the sources, provided by the Ethiopian monk, Abba Greggory
published in 1684. He was the first European to study the Ethiopian history. In the nineteenth
century, another German historian called August Dillman founded the scientific studies of the
Ethiopian history in Europe. He was the objective and authoritative historian.

In the early twentieth century, a number of the Ethiopian pioneer intellectuals appeared. They
wrote several aspects of their countries past. After liberation, 1941 Tekle Tsadiq Mekuria
produced various historical books, which covered from the early Aksumite period to the early
twentieth century. Above all, the most crucial achievement in Ethiopian historiography took
place after the establishment of the Institute of the Ethiopian Studies and the birth of the history
department at the former Emperor Haile Sellasie I University. This foundation inspired the shift
of the Ethiopian studies from north to south and the appearance of the professional and academic
historians.

4. REVIEW EXERCISE
1. Discuses the limitations of the chronicles

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2. Write the contribution of the foreign missionaries, travelers and consuls to the
development of Ethiopian historiography.
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3. What were major probles to study the history of the southern Ethiopia until 1960s?
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4. The study of the Ethiopian historiography had been criticized for its focus on northern
Ethiopia. Why the study became the northern centric?
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5. The writing of the Ethiopian history achieved considerable degree after 1960s. Why this
was happened? Discus
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6. The first modern Ethiopian history book published in 1684 was written
by___________________
7. Why the works of Tekle Tsadiq Mekuaria is considered as bridge?
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8. CHECKLIST
Dear students, evaluate yourself whether you know or not the following questions.

I can Yes No
Describe the contribution of the chronicles to the reconstruction of the Ethiopian
medieval history

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Discus the major limitations of the works of the chroniclers

Elaborate the contribution of the foreign works to the development of Ethiopian
historiography
Mention the early twentieth century the Ethiopian pioneers
State factors laid the corner stone for the birth of the academic historians in
Ethiopia
Describe why Ethiopian historiography had been focused on the northern part
until 1960s.

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