AQA GCSE Physics

Topic 4: Atomic Structure

Notes
(Content in bold is for Higher Tier only)

www.pmt.education
Atomic Structure
Positively charged nucleus (which contains neutrons and protons) surrounded by negatively charged
electrons.

Subatomic Particle Relative Mass Relative Charge

Proton 1 +1
Neutron 1 0
Electron 0 (0.0005) -1

Typical radius of an atom: 1 × 10−10 metres

- And the radius of the nucleus is 10 000 times smaller
- Most (nearly all) the mass of the atom is concentrated at the nucleus

Electron Arrangement:
- Electrons lie at different distances from the nucleus (different energy levels). The electron
arrangements may change with the interaction with EM radiation.

Isotopes and Elements

- All atoms of the same element have the same number of protons
- Neutral atoms have the same number of electrons and protons
- Isotopes are atoms of the same element, but with different masses, which have the same
number of protons but different number of neutrons.
- For example Carbon-12, Carbon-13 and Carbon-14
𝐴𝐴 ±𝑛𝑛
𝑍𝑍𝑋𝑋
- X is the letter of their element
- A is the mass number (number of neutrons and protons)
- Z is the proton number
- N is the charge
o On a normal neutral atom, electrons = protons, so cancels out
o If N more electrons than protons, then –N charge
o If N fewer electrons than protons, then +N charge
o The number of protons does not change for a certain element

Atoms and EM Radiation

- When electrons change orbit (move closer or further from the nucleus)
o When electrons move to a higher orbit (further from the nucleus)
 The atom has absorbed EM radiation
o When the electrons falls to a lower orbit (closer to the nucleus)
 The atoms has emitted EM radiation
- If an electron gains enough energy, it can leave the atom to form a positive ion.

www.pmt.education
How and why the atomic model has changed over time
1800 - Dalton said everything was made of tiny spheres (atoms) that could not be divided
1897 - JJ Thomson discovered the electron
The Plum Pudding Model was formed

The overall charge of an atom is neutral, so

the negative electrons were dispersed
through the positive “pudding” to cancel
out the charges.

1911 - Rutherford realised most of the atom was empty space

Gold Foil Experiment

Most 𝛼𝛼 particles went straight through
- So most of atom is empty space

Some 𝛼𝛼 particles were slightly deflected

- So nucleus must be charged,
deflecting positive 𝛼𝛼

Few 𝛼𝛼 particles were deflected by >90°

- So nucleus contained most of the
mass

kcmcgann.tripod.com/goldfoil.jpg
This experiment was carried out by Geiger and Marsden, specifics not needed

1913 - Rutherford Model

Now there is a positive nucleus at the

centre of the atom, and negative electrons
existing in a cloud around the nucleus

upload.wikimedia.org

www.pmt.education
1913 – Bohr produced the final model of the atom

If Rutherford was right, the electrons in the

cloud close to the nucleus would get
attracted, and cause the atom to collapse.
So now the electrons exist in fixed ‘orbitals’

Later on:
- Positive charge of nucleus could be subdivided into smaller particles, each with the same
amount of charge – the proton
- 20 years after the ‘nucleus’ was an accepted scientific idea, James Chadwick provided
evidence to prove neutrons existed (don’t need specifics)

Radiation
Some atomic nuclei are unstable. The nucleus gives out radiation as it changes to become more
stable. This is a random process called radioactive decay.

Activity is the rate at which a source of unstable nuclei decays

- So a sample with high activity has a fast rate of decay
- Measured in Becquerel, Bq

Count-rate is the number of decays recorded by a detector per second.

- E.g. a Geiger-Muller Tube

- Forms of decay
o Alpha α (a helium nucleus) o Gamma γ (radiation)
 Highly ionising  Low ionising
 Weakly penetrating  Highly penetration
(~5cm of air) (very far in air, few
o Beta Minus β (electron) cm of lead)
 Medium ionising o Neutrons
 Medium penetration
(~50cm of air, sheet
of paper)

Nuclear Equations
Nuclear equations are used to represent radioactive decay.

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴ℎ𝑎𝑎 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃: 42𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻

𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃: −10𝑒𝑒

www.pmt.education
The emission of the different types of nuclear radiation may cause a change in the mass and /or the
charge of the nucleus.

Alpha Decay:
𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴−4
𝑍𝑍𝑋𝑋 → 𝑍𝑍−2𝑌𝑌 + 42𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
So alpha decay causes both the mass and charge of the nucleus to decrease

Beta Decay:
𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴
𝑍𝑍𝑋𝑋 → 𝑍𝑍+1𝑌𝑌 + −10𝑒𝑒
So beta decay does not cause the mass of the nucleus to change but does cause the charge of the
nucleus to increase.

Gamma Decay:

Does not cause the mass or charge to change.

Half Life
- The half-life of an isotope is the time taken for half the nuclei in a sample to decay or the
time taken for the activity or count rate of a sample to decay by half.
- It cannot be predicted when any one nucleus will decay, but the half-life is a constant that
enables the activity of a very large number of nuclei to be predicted during the decay.
- So if 80 atoms falls to 20 over 10mins, the half-life?
o 80/2 = 40
o 40/2 = 20 – so two half lives in 10mins
 So half-life is 5mins

- A short half-life
o The source presents less of a risk, as it does not remain strongly radioactive
o This means initially it is very radioactive, but quickly dies down
o So presents less of a long-term risk
- Long half-life
o The source remains weakly radioactive
for a long period of time
o Americium has a half-life of 432 years
 It is an alpha emitter, and used
in smoke alarms
 It is emitted into the air around
the alarm, and does not reach
far because alpha is weakly
penetrating
 If smoke reaches the alarm, the
amount of alpha particles in the
surrounding air drops
 This causes the alarm to sound
o It is suitable because it will not need to
be replenished, and its weak activity The number of atoms over time tends to 0.
means it won’t be harmful to anyone.

www.pmt.education
Net Decline
- Calculate the ratio of net decline of radioactive nuclei after X half-lives
o Half the initial number of nuclei, and keep doing so X number of times
𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧 − 𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧 𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚 𝐗𝐗 𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥
o 𝐍𝐍𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞 𝐃𝐃𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞 =
𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧

Contamination
- Contamination
o Lasts for a long period of time
o The source of the radiation is transferred to an object
 Radioactive contamination is the unwanted presence of radioactive atoms
on other materials – the hazard is the decaying of the contaminated atoms
releasing radiation
o E.g. radioactive dust settling on your skin (your skin becomes contaminated)
- Irradiation
o Lasts only for a short period of time
o The source emits radiation, which reaches the object
 Exposing an object to nuclear radiation, but does not make it radioactive
o E.g. radioactive dust emitting beta radiation, which “irradiates” your skin
o Medical items are irradiated sometimes to kill bacteria on its surface, but not to
make the medical tools themselves radioactive

Scientific Reports Published need to be peer reviewed

- If they are on the effects of radiation on humans, peer review is essential
o If initial studies got measurements wrong, safety levels based on the study may
cause people to die.

Background Radiation (Physics only)

- Weak radiation that can be detected from natural / external sources
o Cosmic rays
o Radiation from underground rocks
o Nuclear fallout
o Medical rays
- The level of background radiation and radiation dose may be affected by occupation and/or
location.
- Measurement of Radiation Dose, Sieverts (Sv).

Uses (Physics only)

- Tracers
o Technetium is used as a medical tracer
 Half-life of 6hrs
 Decays into a safe isotope that can be excreted by the body
 It is injected/swallowed and there is enough time for it flow through the
body and be detected before it decays away but is only present for a short
enough time to minimise any harm from radiation.
 It is a gamma emitter, so can pass through the body tissue without being
absorbed (as it is the most penetrating)

www.pmt.education
 - Chemotherapy
o Gamma emitters are used to emit gamma rays, which are directed onto certain
areas of the body with cancerous cells, which absorb the energy and die, controlling
the disease
o It is used to control any other unwanted tissue too
o However, as it is hard to direct accurately, surrounding healthy cells may also be
irradiated, and their destruction causes unhealthy side effects

Nuclear Fission (Physics only)

- Nuclear fission is the splitting of a large and unstable nucleus (eg uranium or plutonium).
- Spontaneous fission is rare. Usually, for fission to occur the unstable nucleus must first
absorb a neutron.
- When the unstable nuclei absorbs a neutron it splits into two smaller nuclei, roughly equal in
size and it then emits two or three neutrons and gamma rays.
- Energy is released by the fission reaction.
- This neutron may collide with another radioactive nucleus.
- This nucleus absorbs the neutron and becomes unstable
- This nucleus splits, releasing another neutron and produces more energy
- This is a chain reaction, as energy is being released and one ‘split’ causes another to occur
o A neutron needs to be absorbed initially before it splits, because it needs a little extra
energy before it can split and release lots of energy – like a ramp on a cliff, the
neutron gives it enough of a kick to get over the ramp to fall
- After the nucleus splits, it leaves two smaller nuclei roughly equal in size
- And they both (along with the neutrons) have kinetic energy
- If the chain reaction is not controlled, it will increase at an exponential rate – which is what
happens in a nuclear weapon
- This process is used in nuclear fission, with uranium nuclei

Nuclear Fusion (Physics only)

- This is when two small nuclei fuse to form a heavier nucleus, releasing (lots of) energy
- The sum of the masses of the two nuclei is more than the mass of the heavier nucleus
- Some of the mass is converted into energy. (released as radiation)
- The sun is a natural fusion reactor.
- Fusion would be a much more efficient way of producing energy compared to fission
however no design has been produced that could accomplish positive net energy on earth.

www.pmt.education
 Edexcel Physics IGCSE

Topic 7: Radioactivity and Particles

Summary Notes
(Content in ​bold​ is for physics only)

This work by PMT Education is licensed under https://bit.ly/pmt-cc

https://bit.ly/pmt-edu-cc CC BY-NC-ND 4.0

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Radioactivity

An atom consists of:

● A ​positively charged nucleus ​made of:
o Positive ​protons
o Neutral ​neutrons
● Surrounded by​ negatively charged electrons ​which orbit the nucleus

The radius of the nucleus is a lot smaller than the radius of the entire atom. Almost all the mass of
the atoms lies in the nucleus.

Particle Relative Mass Relative Charge

Proton 1 +1
Neutron 1 0
Electron 0.0005 -1

Atoms of the same element have the ​same​ number of protons. ​Isotopes​ are forms of an element’s
atom with the ​same number of protons​ but a​ different number of neutrons.
For a given nuclide (distinct nucleus):
● X is the ​symbol​ of the element
● A is the ​mass (nucleon) number​ (number of neutrons and protons)
● Z is the ​atomic (proton) number​ (number of protons)

Radioactive decay is the ​spontaneous​ transformation of an ​unstable​ nucleus into a more ​stable
one by the release of radiation. It is a ​random​ process which means one cannot know ​what
nucleus will decay or ​when​ it will decay because it is down to chance.

Decay processes:

● Alpha:
o A heavy nucleus emits an ​alpha particle​ (helium nucleus - 2A, 4X).
o The nucleus changes to that of a different element according to the following
equation: Z AX→(X − 4A − 2Z) + α
o They are ​highly ionising​ and ​weakly penetrating. ​They are stopped by a sheet of
paper.
● Beta:
o A neutron turns into a proton and emits a ​beta particle​ (electron)
o The nucleus changes to that of a different element according to the following
equation: ZAX→(X − A − Z ) + β −
o They are ​moderately ionising​ and ​moderately penetrating. ​They are stopped by
a thin sheet of aluminium.
● Gamma:
o After a previous decay, a nucleus with excess energy emits a ​gamma particle.
o Gamma particles are a form of electromagnetic radiation.
o They are ​lowly ionising ​and ​highly penetrating. ​They are stopped by many
centimetres of lead.
● Neutron radiation:
o In neutron-rich nuclides, occasionally one or more ​neutrons​ are ejected. They are
also emitted during nuclear fission.
o The nucleus becomes a new isotope of the original element according to the
following equation: Z AX→(X − A) + 1n

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Some ways of detecting radiation include:
● Photographic film:
o The more radiation absorbed by the film, the ​darker​ it gets (the film is initially white).
o They are worn as ​badges​ by people who work with radiation, to check how much
exposure they have had.
● Geiger-Muller tube:
o A Geiger-Muller tube is a ​tube​ which can detect radiation.
o Each time it absorbs radiation, it transmits an electrical pulse to the machine, which
produces a ​clicking sound.​ The greater the frequency of clicks, the more radiation
present.

Weak radiation that can be detected from​ external ​sources is called ​background radiation.
Sources of background radiation include:
● From space:
o Cosmic rays include high-energy charged particles penetrating the atmosphere
● From Earth:
o Radioactive rocks which give off radioactive radon gas
o Food and drink which contains radioactive isotopes (such as Carbon 14)
o Fallout from nuclear weapons testing
o Medical sources such as x-rays from MRI scanners
o Nuclear power plants which produce radioactive waste

The ​activity​ of a radioactive source is the ​number of decays ​which occur ​per unit time ​and is
measured in ​becquerels (Bq where 1 Bq = 1 decay per second). ​The activity of a radioactive
source ​decreases​ over a period of time.

The ​half-life​ of an isotope is the ​time taken for

half the nuclei to decay​, or the ​time taken for
the activity to halve. ​It is different for different
radioactive isotopes.
● In the graph, the count rate drops from 80
to 40 counts per minute in 2 days, which
means the half-life is around 2 days. Or
from 40 counts per minute to 20 counts
per minute in the next two days. Half-life
is ​constant ​(it does not depend on how
many nuclei have decayed).
● Background radiation must be ​subtracted
before attempting to perform half-life
calculations

Uses of radioactivity:
● Industry
o Smoke detectors
Long half-life ​alpha​ emitters are used in ​smoke detectors.​ Alpha particles cause a​ current​ in the
alarm. If smoke enters the detector, some of the alpha particles are ​absorbed​ and the current
drops,​ triggering the alarm.
o Thickness monitoring
Long half-life ​beta​ emitters can be used for ​thickness monitoring​ of metal sheets. A source and
receiver are placed on either side of the sheet during its production. If there is a ​drop ​or ​rise​ in the
number of beta particles detected, then the thickness of the sheet has changed and needs to be
adjusted.

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
 ● Medicine
o Sterilisation of equipment
Gamma​ emitters are used to ​kill ​bacteria or parasites on equipment so it is safe for operations
(this means they can be sterilised through their protective packaging to eliminate the risk of
contamination).
o Diagnosis and treatment
- Short half-life ​gamma​ emitters such as technetium-99m are used as ​tracers​ in medicine as
they concentrate in certain parts of the body. The half-life must be long enough for
diagnostic procedures to be performed, but short enough to not remain radioactive for too
long.
- Other gamma emitters such as cobalt-60 can be used to ​destroy​ tumours with a ​high dose
of radiation.

Contamination​ occurs when a ​radioactive source ​has been ​introduced into or onto ​an object.
The contaminated object will be radioactive for as long as the source is in or on it.

Irradiation​ occurs when an object is exposed to a ​radioactive source ​which is ​outside​ the object.
The irradiated object does ​not​ become radioactive.

Exposure to radiation can ​destroy living cell membranes​ by ​ionisation,​ causing the cells to ​die,
or ​damage DNA ​which causes ​mutations​ that could lead to ​cancer.

Safety measures include:

● Minimising the time​ of exposure to radiation, keeping as ​big a distance​ from the
radioactive source as possible, and using ​shielding​ against radiation (such as protective
clothing made from dense materials such as lead).
● Radioactive waste from nuclear reactors must be ​disposed of carefully,​ usually by burying
it in sealed drums deep underground and ​remotely handling ​it after it has been thoroughly
cooled.

Fission and fusion

Nuclear fission:
● The process of ​splitting a nucleus​ is called ​nuclear fission.
● When a ​uranium-235 ​nucleus ​absorbs a thermal ​(slow-moving) ​neutron,​ it splits into ​two
daughter nuclei​ and ​2 or 3 neutrons,​ releasing ​energy​ in the process.
● The neutrons then can induce further fission events in a ​chain reaction ​by striking other
uranium-235 nuclei.
● In a nuclear reactor:
o Control rods ​(usually made of boron) are used to
absorb neutrons ​and keep the number of neutrons
such that only ​one​ fission neutron per event goes on to
induce further fission.
o The ​moderator ​(usually water) ​slows down neutrons
by ​collisions​ so that they are moving slow enough to be
absorbed by another uranium-235 nucleus.
o A coolant (also water) is used to prevent the system
from overheating.
o The reactor core is a ​thick steel vessel ​which
withstands the ​high pressures and temperatures​ and
absorbs​ some of the ​radiation.​ The whole core is kept in a building with ​thick
reinforced concrete walls ​that act as ​radiation shields ​to ​absorb ​all the
radiation​ that escapes the reactor core.

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Nuclear fusion:
● The process of ​fusing two nuclei​ to form a larger nucleus is called​ nuclear fusion.
● There is a very small ​loss of mass​ in the process, accompanied by a ​release of energy.
● Nuclear fusion is how the sun and other ​stars​ release energy.
● Nuclear fusion does ​not​ happen at ​low temperatures and pressures​ because the
electrostatic repulsion ​of the ​protons​ is too great.

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
 CIE Physics IGCSE

Topic 5: Atomic Physics

Summary Notes

This work by PMT Education is licensed under https://bit.ly/pmt-cc

https://bit.ly/pmt-edu-cc CC BY-NC-ND 4.0

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
The nuclear atom

An atom consists of:

● A positively charged nucleus made of:
○ Positive protons
○ Neutral neutrons
● Surrounded by negatively charged electrons which orbit the nucleus

The radius of the nucleus is a lot smaller than the radius of the entire atom. Almost all the mass of
the atoms lies in the nucleus.

Particle Relative Mass Relative Charge

Proton 1 +1
Neutron 1 0
Electron 0.0005 -1

Atoms of the same element have the same number of protons. Isotopes are forms of an element’s
atom with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons.
For a given nuclide 𝑍𝐴 𝑋 :
● X is the symbol of the element
● A is the nucleon number (number of neutrons and protons)
● Z is the proton number (number of protons)

Alpha particle scattering:

● An early model of the atom proposed by JJ Thomson
was the plum pudding model - that the atom consisted
of a cloud of positive charge with negatively charged
electrons dotted around inside it.
● In Rutherford’s scattering experiment, he aimed a beam
of alpha particles at a thin gold foil. He concluded that:
○ The atom was composed primarily of empty space
because most alpha particles passed straight through.
○ It had a nucleus which was massive and contained most
of the mass of the atom because it deflected some alpha
particles straight back.
○ The nucleus was positively charged because it repelled
the positively charged alpha particles.
upload.wikimedia.org
Nuclear fission:
● The process of splitting a nucleus is called nuclear fission
● Uranium-235 is a commonly used isotope as the fuel in nuclear reactors
● When a Uranium-235 nucleus absorbs a neutron, it splits into two daughter nuclei
and 2 or 3 neutrons, releasing energy in the process
● The neutrons then can induce further fission events in a chain reaction

Nuclear fusion:
● The process of fusing two nuclei to form a larger nucleus is called nuclear fusion
● Energy is released during this process
● Nuclear fusion is how the sun and other stars release energy

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Radioactivity
Radioactive decay is the spontaneous transformation of an unstable nucleus into a more stable
one by the release of radiation. It is a random process which means one cannot know what
nucleus will decay and when it will decay because it is down to chance.

Decay processes:

● Alpha:
○ A heavy nucleus emits an alpha particle (helium nucleus).
○ The nucleus changes to that of a different element according to the following
𝐴 𝐴−4 4
equation: 𝑍 𝑋→ 𝑍−2 𝑌+ 2 𝛼
○ They are highly ionising and weakly penetrating. They are stopped by a sheet of
paper.
○ They are slightly deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
● Beta:
○ A neutron turns into a proton and emits a beta particle (electron)
○ The nucleus changes to that of a different element according to the following
𝐴 𝐴 0
equation: 𝑍 𝑋→ 𝑍+1 𝑌+
−1 𝑒−
○ They are moderately ionising and moderately penetrating. They are stopped by a
thin sheet of aluminium.
○ They are greatly deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
● Gamma:
○ After a previous decay, a nuclei with excess energy emits a gamma particle.
○ Gamma particles are a form of electromagnetic radiation.
○ They are lowly ionising and highly penetrating. They are stopped by many
centimetres of lead.
○ They are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.

Some ways of detecting radiation include:

● Photographic film:
○ The more radiation absorbed by the film, the darker it gets (the film is initially white).
○ They are worn as badges by people who work with radiation, to check how much
exposure they have had.
● Geiger-Muller tube:
○ A Geiger-Muller tube is a tube which can detect radiation.
○ Each time it absorbs radiation, it transmits an electrical pulse to the machine, which
produces a clicking sound. The greater the frequency of clicks, the more radiation
present.
● Cloud chamber:
○ A cloud chamber is a small container full of water vapour.
○ Alpha particles create short, broad tracks while beta particles produce long, wispy
tracks.

Weak radiation that can be detected from external sources is called background radiation. Sources
of background radiation include:
● Cosmic rays
● Radiation from underground rocks
● Nuclear fallout
● Medical rays

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
 ● The half-life of an isotope is
the time taken for half the
nuclei to decay, or the time
taken for the activity to
halve.
● In the graph, the count rate
drops from 80 to 40 counts
per minute in 2 days, which
means the half-life is
around 2 days.
● Background radiation
has to be subtracted
before attempting to
perform half-life
calculations

Uses of radioactivity:
● Smoke detectors
○ Long half life alpha emitters are used in smoke detectors.
○ Alpha particles cause a current in the alarm.
○ If smoke enters the detector, some of the alpha particles are absorbed and the
current drops, triggering the alarm.
● Thickness monitoring
○ Long half life beta emitters can be used for thickness monitoring of metal
sheets.
○ A source and receiver are placed on either side of the sheet during its
production. If there is a drop or rise in the number of beta particles detected,
then the thickness of the sheet has changed and needs to be adjusted.
● Sterilisation of equipment
○ Gamma emitters are used to kill bacteria or parasites on equipment so it is
safe for operations.
● Diagnosis and treatment
○ Short half life gamma emitters such as technetium-99m are used as tracers in
medicine as they concentrate in certain parts of the body.
■ The half life must be long enough for diagnostic procedures to be
performed, but short enough to not remain radioactive for too long.
○ Other gamma emitters such as cobalt-60 can be used to destroy tumours with
a high dose of radiation.

Exposure to radiation can destroy living cell membranes by ionisation, causing the cells to die, or
damage DNA which causes mutations that could lead to cancer.

Safety measures include:

● Minimising the time of exposure to radiation. For example, radioactive tracers with a short
half life should be used.
● Keeping as big a distance from the radioactive source as possible. They should be handled
using tongs and held far away from people.
● Using shielding against radiation, such as the concrete shielding around a nuclear reactor.
Radioactive sources must also be kept in a lead-lined box.

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
 Edexcel GCSE Physics
Topic 6: Radioactivity
Notes
(Content in bold is for Higher Tier only)

This work by PMT Education is licensed under https://bit.ly/pmt-cc

https://bit.ly/pmt-edu-cc CC BY-NC-ND 4.0

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Radioactivity

Atom
- A positively charged nucleus
o Made of positive protons
o And neutral neutrons
- Surrounded by negatively charged electrons
o The electrons orbit the nucleus at different fixed distances from the nucleus
- The nuclear radius is a lot smaller than the radius of the atom
- Almost all the mass of the atoms lies in the nucleus

Subatomic Particle Relative Mass Relative Charge

Proton 1 +1
Neutron 1 0
Electron 0.0005 -1
Positron 0.0005 +1

Size of atom: ~0.1𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠, 10−10

Isotopes and Elements

- Atoms of the same element have the same number of protons
- Neutral atoms have the same number of electrons and protons
- Isotopes are atoms of the same element, but with different masses
o They have the same number of protons but different number of neutrons
- For Example, Carbon-12, Carbon-13 and Carbon-14
𝐴 ±𝑛
𝑍𝑋
- X is the letter of their element
- A is the mass number (number of neutrons and protons)
- Z is the proton number
- N is the charge
o On a neutral atom, electrons = protons, so cancels out
o If there are N more electrons than protons, then the charge is –N
o If there are N fewer electrons than protons, then the charge is +N
o The number of protons does not change for a certain element

Atoms and EM Radiation

- When electrons change orbit (move closer or further from the nucleus)
o When electrons move to a higher orbit (further from the nucleus)
▪ The atom has absorbed EM radiation
o When the electrons falls to a lower orbit (closer to the nucleus)
▪ The atoms has emitted EM radiation
- If an electron gains enough energy, it can leave the atom to form an ion

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Radiation
- Decay occurs in a random process
- Forms of decay
o Alpha (a helium nucleus) o Beta Plus (positron)
▪ Highly ionising ▪ Medium ionising
▪ Weakly penetrating ▪ Medium penetration
o Beta Minus (electron) o Gamma (radiation)
▪ Medium ionising ▪ Low ionising
▪ Medium penetration ▪ Highly penetration
o Neutrons

Background Radiation
- Weak radiation that can be detected from natural / external sources
- Examples of background radiation include:
o Cosmic rays
o Radiation from underground rocks
o Nuclear fallout
o Medical rays

Methods of Measuring Radioactivity

- Photographic film
o Film goes darker when it absorbs radiation – the more radiation absorbed, the
darker it gets (the film is initially white)
o Worn as badges by people who work with radiation, to check how much exposure
they have had
- Geiger-Muller Tube
o A tube which can detect radiation
o Each time it absorbs radiation, it transmits an electrical pulse to the machine, which
produces a clicking sound
▪ The greater the number of clicks per second (the frequency of clicks) the
more radiation is present

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Atomic Structure
How and why the atomic model has changed over time

1800 - Dalton said everything was made of atoms

1897 - JJ Thomson discovered the electron
The Plum Pudding Model was formed

The overall charge of an atom is neutral, so

the negative electrons were dispersed
through the positive “pudding” to cancel
out the charges.

1911 - Rutherford realised most of the atom was empty space

The Gold Foil Experiment
Most particles went straight through
- So most of atom is empty space

Some 𝛼 particles were slightly deflected

- So nucleus must be positive,
repelling positive 𝛼

Few 𝛼 particles were deflected by >90°

- So nucleus contained most of the
mass

kcmcgann.tripod.com/goldfoil.jpg
This experiment was carried out by Geiger and Marsden

1913 - Rutherford Model

Now there is a positive nucleus at the

centre of the atom, and negative electrons
existing in a cloud around the nucleus

upload.wikimedia.org

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
1913 – Bohr produced the final model of the atom

If Rutherford was right, the electrons in the

cloud close to the nucleus would get
attracted and cause the atom to collapse.
therefore, he concluded that the electrons
exist in fixed ‘orbitals’

Decay Processes
- Beta-Minus Decay
o Neutron becomes a proton, and releases an electron
- Beta-Plus Decay
o Proton becomes a neutron, and releases a positron

𝐴 𝐴′
𝑍𝑋 → 𝑍′𝑌 + 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒
Alpha
An alpha particle is equivalent to a helium nucleus.
𝐴 𝐴−4
𝑍𝑋 → 𝑍−2𝑌 + 42𝛼
Beta
A beta particle is an electron emitted from the nucleus
𝐴 𝐴
𝑍𝑋 → 𝑍+1𝑌 + −10𝑒 − (+𝑣̅𝑒 )
Gamma
A gamma ray is electromagnetic radiation
𝐴 𝐴′
𝑍𝑋 → 𝑍′𝑌 +𝛾
Nuclei after decay often have excess energy, which they release as gamma when the atom
undergoes nuclear arrangement.

Activity
- Activity is the number of decays in a sample per second
- Activity is initially very high (the more atoms in the sample, the greater the chance of at least
one of them will decay
o Activity decreases exponentially over time
- Units of Activity are Becquerel, Bq

Half Life
- The half-life of an isotope is the time taken for half the nuclei in a sample to decay
o Or the time taken for the activity of a sample to decay by half

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
 - It cannot be predicted when any one nucleus will decay, but the half-life is a constant that
enables the activity of a very large number of nuclei to be predicted during the decay

Net Decline
- Work out ratio of net decline of radioactive nuclei after X half-lives
o Half the initial number of nuclei, and keep doing so X number of times
𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 − 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐚𝐟𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐗 𝐡𝐚𝐥𝐟 𝐥𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐬
o 𝐧𝐞𝐭 𝐝𝐞𝐜𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞 = 𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫

Example:
There were initially 80 nuclei, with a half -life of 15 minutes, net decline after 3 half -
lives?
o 𝟖𝟎 → 𝟒𝟎 → 𝟐𝟎 → 𝟏𝟎
o 𝟏𝒔𝒕 𝒍𝒊𝒇𝒆, 𝟐𝒏𝒅 , 𝟑𝒓𝒅 half-life
𝟖𝟎−𝟏𝟎 𝟕
o 𝒔𝒐 𝒏𝒆𝒕 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 = 𝟖𝟎 = 𝟖

Uses of Radioactivity (Physics Only)

- Smoke Alarms
o Americium is used in smoke alarms
o Americium has a half-life of 432 years
▪ It is an alpha emitter
o This is stopped by a few centimetres of air (as it is weakly penetrating)
o The alpha particles ionise air particles and makes them charged therefore making a
current
o If smoke enters the air around the alarm, the current drops in the circuit
▪ Causing the alarm to sound
- Irradiating food
o Gamma rays transfer energy to bacteria, killing them and sterilising food
o Also used to delay ripening of fruit
- Sterilisation of equipment
o Radiation, usually gamma, exposed onto equipment to kill all microbes present on
the equipment, so they are safe for operations
- Tracing and Gauging Thickness
o Beta radiation is mildly penetrating, and can just pass through paper
o A source and receiver are placed either side of the paper during its production
▪ If there is a drop or rise in received electrons, then that means the thickness
of the paper has changed – i.e. a defect in the production
o It is also used inside pipes, with a detector placed externally, to measure the
thickness of walls of the pipe
- Diagnosis and Treatment of cancer
o Consuming/injecting a gamma emitter, it passes through the body and an external
detector can picture where the tracer has collected in the body, which can reveal
tumours
o Gamma rays are used on the tumour, killing the cancer cells
o However, exposing rays on healthy cells cause them to possibly mutate or causes
damage (see next section)

Dangers of ionising radiation (Physics Only)

- A short half-life
o The source presents less of a risk, as it does not remain strongly radioactive

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
 o This means initially it is very radioactive, but quickly dies down
o So presents less of a long-term risk
- Long half-life
o The source remains weakly radioactive for a long period of time
o Americium is suitable in smoke alarms because it will not need to be replenished,
and its weak activity means it won’t be harmful to anyone
▪ Its half-life is 432 years
Safety Measures
- Limiting patient dose
o Only use radioactive tracers with a short enough half life
▪ So short enough to quickly be removed over a day or so
▪ But long enough to still be detectable after the time taken for it to pass
through the body
▪ Common medical tracers used have a half-life of 6hrs
- Limiting risks to medical personnel
o They leave the room during radioactive tests, as their everyday close proximity to
the radioactive sources puts their health at risk in the long-term

Difference in Radiation
- Contamination
o Lasts for a long period of time
o The source of the radiation is transferred to an object
o E.g. radioactive dust settling on your skin (your skin becomes contaminated)
- Irradiation
o Lasts only for a short period of time
o The source emits radiation, which reaches the object
o E.g. Radioactive dust emitting beta radiation, which “irradiates” your skin
o Medical items are irradiated sometimes to kill bacteria on its surface, but not to
make the medical tools themselves radioactive

Treatment of Tumours (Physics Only)

- External
o A beam of gamma radiation (usually a wide beam) rotates around the body
o It continually focuses on the tumour, while only passing momentarily across healthy
cells surrounding the tumour
o This ensures minimal damage occurs on the healthy cells, while the tumour is most
affected
▪ However it takes a long time to fully treat the tumour, taking multiple visits
for around 5 weeks
▪ There is a greater risk of long-term side effects, as the radiation passes
through healthy tissues
- Internal
o Radioactive material is held within a needle, and is injected directly into the tumour
▪ A longer period of time needs to be spent in hospital, as some radioactive
implants are of high radioactivity (so you emit radiation, requiring you to
have very limited contact with visitors until the source’s activity has
decreased)
PET Scanners (Physics Only)
- Positron emission tomography
o Radioactive tracer is inserted into the body

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
 ▪ The tracer is tagged to the desired chemical, and the tracer therefore travels
in the body where this certain chemical travels (e.g. glucose or ammonia)
o The scanner records where the tracer emits radiation
o This produces a live 3D visualisation of the body
▪ Used to show how effective current treatment is
▪ Or to diagnose cancer, epilepsy, Alzheimer’s
Isotopes (Physics Only)
- The isotope used in PET scanners is made locally just before insertion
- This is because the tracer has a half-life of 110mins, so it cannot be stored for long before it
decays

Nuclear Power (Physics Only)

- Uranium fuel splits releasing neutrons, which are absorbed by further uranium nuclei, which
split (this is fission, in a chain reaction)
- No carbon dioxide is produced
- There is a safety risk of radiation leaking, or the chain reaction become uncontrollable and
causing a meltdown
- Also, a security risks as terrorists can try and obtain the radioactive material
- Public perception of nuclear power is negative, due to the fatal disasters caused by nuclear
power plants
- Waste disposal is difficult – initially extremely hot, the waste needs to be placed deep in
lakes, ‘cooling ponds’ to cool down, before being stored deep underground (it can be used
for nuclear warheads so is a terrorist risk) for centuries

Nuclear Energy (Physics Only)

- Fusion is the process of small nuclei being forced together (under immense temperature and
pressure) to form a heavier nucleus
o This is the energy source for stars
o The electrostatic repulsion of the protons in the two different nuclei means a lot of
energy is required to bring the nuclei close enough to fuse
▪ So fusion cannot happen at low temperatures and pressures
▪ So this makes it very difficult to make a practical and economic fusion power
station
- Fission is the process of a nucleus splitting into two smaller nuclei after absorbing neutrons,
which releases more neutrons
- Radioactive Decay is when an unstable nucleus decays into two smaller nuclei
- All these process release energy, and can be a source of energy

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
U-235 Fission (Physics Only)
- Uranium-235 (this means 235 nucleons) is the fuel used in nuclear (fission) power stations
o It absorbs neutrons, and becomes unstable
o This causes it to undergo fission
▪ Releasing energy
▪ Forming two ‘daughter’ nuclei
• The products are radioactive, as they are strong gamma emitters
(some of the energy released from the fission is also held by the
daughter nuclei)
▪ Emitting two or more neutrons as well

Chain Reaction (Physics Only)

- After one nucleus splits, emitting neutrons, these neutrons cause further fissions, which
releases more neutrons…. This continuous process is a chain reaction
- This needs to be controlled
o As more neutrons are released than the number absorbed, this could cause an
exponential process
▪ For example the first fission releases two neutrons, which will cause 2
fissions, releasing four neutrons, causing four fissions, releasing eight
neutrons… and so on, which would cause a meltdown
o Moderators
▪ This is usually water/graphite, and slows down the emitted neutrons to be
absorbed for further fissions (fast moving neutrons cannot be easily
absorbed)
o Control Rods
▪ These are boron rods in the reactor core, which absorb excess neutrons,
preventing a runaway chain reaction
- The heat energy from the chain reaction is absorbed by water (coolant) which evaporates
into steam, and is used to turn a turbine, which turns the generator which generates
electricity

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc