foods

Article
The Impact of “Wine Country of Origin” on the Perception of
Wines by South African and French Wine Consumers:
A Cross-Cultural Comparison
Dominique Valentin 1, *, Carlo Valente 2 , Jordi Ballester 1 , Ronan Symoneaux 3 , Ina Smith 4 , Florian F. Bauer 2
and Helene Nieuwoudt 2

1 Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l’Alimentation, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, AgroSup Dijon,
CNRS, INRA, F-21000 Dijon, France; [email protected]
2 South African Grape and Wine Research Institute, Department of Viticulture and Oenology,
Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch 7600, South Africa; [email protected] (C.V.);
[email protected] (F.F.B.); [email protected] (H.N.)
3 Groupe ESA, UPSP GRAPPE, Ecole Supérieure d’Agricultures, SFR 4207 QUASAV, 55 Rue Rabelais,
BP 30748, 49007 Angers, France; [email protected]
4 Chenin Blanc Association, Stellenbosch 7600, South Africa; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Culture is an important factor that influences how marketing interacts with food choice.
This study aims at exploring the effect of consumers’ Country of Origin (COO) on wine represen-



tations and perception using Chenin blanc as a model. The first objective was to evaluate the role


of origin in the construction of the representation. We used the theoretical framework of social
Citation: Valentin, D.; Valente, C.;
representation to compare South African (SA) and French consumers’ representations via a word
Ballester, J.; Symoneaux, R.; Smith, I.;
association task. The results indicated that SA representations are dominated by consumers’ experi-
Bauer, F.F.; Nieuwoudt, H. The
ence of the wine (sensory and emotional dimensions), whereas French representations are dominated
Impact of “Wine Country of Origin”
by the wine itself, in particular its origin and mode of consumption. The second objective was to
on the Perception of Wines by South
African and French Wine Consumers:
evaluate the effect of origin on wine categorization in two conditions: with and without information
A Cross-Cultural Comparison. Foods concerning the two geographical origins of the samples. Results showed that providing information
2021, 10, 1710. https://doi.org/ on the origin of the wines affected French participants more than SA participants. In both conditions,
10.3390/foods10081710 the groups of wines formed in the sorting tasks by SA participants were based on sensory descriptors
and appeared not to be impacted by the information on origin. In contrast, providing information on
Academic Editors: Maria-Pilar Sáenz the origin of the wines to French participants led to an increased use of the words “Loire”, “South
Navajas and Mónica Bueno Africa” and “familiar” suggesting a different sorting strategy more deliberately based on the origin of
the wines. Our findings have important implications for the marketing and export activities within
Received: 23 June 2021
the wine industry.
Accepted: 19 July 2021
Published: 23 July 2021
Keywords: consumers; Chenin wine; country of origin; representation; categorization

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1. Introduction
iations.
For products sold into international markets, understanding how consumers’ culture
interact with marketing strategies is a crucial aspect of predicting products’ success. To
buy a bottle of wine, consumers around the world are faced with a broad choice of wine
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
brands. In this context, the origin of the wine has become increasingly more important
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
in purchase decisions. Lacey and coworkers [1], for example, found that, for Australian
This article is an open access article
consumers in a fine restaurant setting, regionality and grape variety were the strongest
distributed under the terms and attributes taken into consideration when selecting a wine to go with their meal. Ginon and
conditions of the Creative Commons coworkers [2] found that region of origin was the second most important choice criteria for
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// Burgundy consumers. A study by Atkin & Johnson [3] showed that brand and place-of-
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ origin information such as region, country and state were the most important attributes in
4.0/). the consumers’ choice of wine.

Foods 2021, 10, 1710. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10081710 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/foods

Foods 2021, 10, 1710 2 of 19

Consumers use Country Of Origin (COO) as a “halo” from which to infer product
attributes (see [4] for a review on COO effects), thus reducing the perceived risk in the
decision making process of purchasing wine. Knowing the origin of wine has also been
shown to affect consumers’ perception of wines. For example, a study by Ashton [5] found
that when a wine is believed to be from New Jersey, it receives “lower enjoyment ratings”
than when the identical wine is believed to be from California. Veale and Quester [6] also
showed that COO can change how consumers perceive and evaluate wine. In their study,
the sensory quality of wines was reduced by increasing the sourness and astringency. The
impact was masked when wines were labelled with information on COO and price. A
recent study [7] showed that the COO of wines affects more wine-traders’ representation
of wines than wine-traders’ own COO. This effect of COO, however, can change overtime,
or with wine educational marketing initiative [8].
In this article, we explore the effect of consumer and wine COO on wine represen-
tations. Contrary to previous studies dealing with wine in general, we focused on a
specific white cultivar: Chenin blanc. Chenin blanc has its origin in France from where
it has spread and is nowadays planted across the globe. Statistics for 2016 reported that
some 32,000 hectares are under Chenin blanc plantings in 22 different countries [9]. Four
countries account for 97% of the plantings, namely South Africa (SA) 55%, France 29%,
Argentina 7% and the United States of America 6%. Research suggests that the culti-
var is interesting from viticultural, winemaking and sensory perspectives. The aroma
of Chenin blanc grapes has been described as neutral [10] since it lacks some dominant
distinct flavours such as those associated with the aromatic white cultivars Weisser Ries-
ling, Gewürtztraminer, Sauvignon blanc and Muscat d’Alexandrie, amongst others [11,12].
Nevertheless, Chenin blanc wines have fairly recognizable, albeit diverse sensory profiles
associated with the cultivar [13–15]. Concerning the taste, Chenin blanc is characterized
by high acidity [16]. Research has also shown that the wines produced from Chenin blanc
vineyards gave good expressions of the terroir (soil type, climate) in specific locations
in the Loire Valley, France [17]. Dry and sweet wines are produced and flavors can be
manipulated during winemaking through yeast selection [18–21], skin contact [22] and
wood contact [23]. As such, Chenin blanc wines constitute a good model for looking at the
effect of consumers’ COO on wine representations.
With SA and France being the largest producers of Chenin blanc wine, we focused
our study on consumers from these two countries. SA is the largest Chenin blanc wine-
producing country in the world, with Chenin blanc, also known as Steen, reportedly one of
the earliest grapes to be cultivated at the Cape of Good Hope by the Dutch colonists in the
17th century [24,25]. Nowadays, Chenin blanc is an economically important white wine
cultivar in SA; it shows good adaptation to the changing climate and resulting drought
conditions and is cultivated in hot inland regions, as well as cooler climate areas [26,27]. In
the past, the cultivar was not considered as supporting quality wine production due to it
being primarily used for the production of bulk wines. However, over the last two decades,
significant efforts have been made to improve viticultural and oenological practices, and to
produce high-quality Chenin blanc wines that reflect the character of the varietal and the
geographical origin. Results from tastings and wine competitions suggest that this effort
has been by-and-large successful, and the figures of locally consumed and export volumes
have shown steady increases [27].
France is a historic wine producer and the symbol of old-world wine. Even though
consumption decreased over the last 40 years, wine remains an expression of national
identity and a way of regional differentiation. Chenin blanc is native to France and some
authors have mentioned that its name appeared between the 10th and 11th century [16]. To-
day, Chenin blanc is planted on 1.2% of the French vineyard, but it is specifically produced
in the Loire Valley. In 2016, 95% of the 9500 ha planted in Chenin were in this region. This
white grape is used in nearly 12 dry Protected Designations of Origin (PDO) wines of the
Loire Valley, including Anjou, Saumur, Vouvray and Savennieres, eight sweet PDO wines
and four sparkling PDO wines making this the best-known grape variety in the region [28].
Foods 2021, 10, 1710 3 of 19

Our objective was twofold. First, we were interested in investigating what concepts
consumers from FR and SA associate with dry Chenin blanc wine and, in particular,
whether they would spontaneously link Chenin blanc sec to its origin. We used the
theoretical framework of social representation (i.e., opinions, knowledge, and beliefs that
result from a social construction of reality [29]), in particular the prototypical structural
approach (or central core theory [30]), to explore SA and French consumer representations
of Chenin blanc wine. This approach provides access to the content and organization
of the representations by asking participants to list the words or expressions that come
to their mind in reference to the object under study (free association task, see [31] for a
recent review) and to rate their importance and valence. It relies on the postulate that a
social representation is a hierarchized and organized system, composed of two interactive
sub-systems: a central system and a peripheral system. The core system constitutes the
common and consensual base of the representation, and the peripheral system gives
concrete expression and flexibility to the representation.
Our second objective was to evaluate whether providing information on the origin
of the wine (France vs. SA) would modify the way participants would perceive and
categorize the wines. Categorization is a cognitive process whose goal is to provide
maximum information with the least cognitive effort. It leads to a simplified version
of the world. Looking at how participants categorize objects provides an indication of
the salience of the dimensions underlying their thought processes. Dimensions of the
object are important to guide their decisions. Free sorting tasks [32] are an easy way
to access these dimensions and to evaluate whether they can be modulated by external
variables. Participants had to sort a set of French and SA Chenin blanc wines either in a
blind condition or in an informed condition in which they were told that the wines came
from France or SA.
Gaining knowledge into the concepts associated with Chenin blanc wines and un-
derstanding the effect of origin on their categorization might provide practical insights
into adapting both national and international marketing strategies. Our hypothesis is that
consumers’ representation of Chenin blanc depends on their experience with wine and the
cultural context surrounding wine consumption.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Wines
Fourteen wines were selected for the study: seven from France and seven from SA
(Table 1). All wines were 100% Chenin blanc variety. The price ranges per bottle were
12–24 € (average = 16.85) for French wines and 4–9 € (average = 7.5) for SA wines.
The selection of the wines was done in a blind tasting in SA, by a panel of 10 people
that consisted of five Chenin blanc industry experts and five members (staff and post-
graduate students) of the Department of Viticulture and Oenology, Stellenbosch University,
SA, who were actively involved with sensory research on Chenin blanc wine. The industry
experts were well acquainted with the Chenin blanc wines from both countries. The Chenin
blanc producers on the panel have visited the Loire several times and also gained detailed
practical experience of Chenin blanc production in France during several harvests. The
Loire list of samples included wines from each of the most important PDOs. (Anjou,
Vouvray, Savennières and Saumur). It was also taken into account that the residual sugar
(RS) of the wines selected were all 5 g/L or less (SA regulations for dry wines are ≤5 g/L
RS). The vintages of the selected wines ranged from 2010 to 2013.
Foods 2021, 10, 1710 4 of 19

Table 1. Chenin blanc wines used in the experiment.

Country Code Wine Origin Vintage Producer Price (€)

France FBAU Clos du Papillon Savennières 2010 Florent Baumard 24
France FCLP Les Clos Du Papillon Savennières 2011 Domaine du Closel 22
France FCLL La Jalousie Savennières 2013 Domaine du Closel 14
France FHUE Le Haut Lieu Vouvray 2012 Domaine Huet 12
France FCAR Vouvray Vouvray 2012 Vinent Careme 15
Domaine des Roches
France FROC Insolite Saumur 2011 17
Neuves
France FROU Les Terasses Anjou 2012 Chateau de la Roulerie 14
SA SFED Hoeksteen Stellenbosch 2013 The Fledge & Co 4
SA SRAA Old vines Stellenbosch 2012 Raats 9
SA SREY Chenin blanc Stellenbosch 2013 Reyneke 6
SA SBEA Hope Marguerite Botrivier 2013 Beaumont 7
SA SRAD Renaissance Stellenbosch 2013 Radford Dale 4
SA SRUD De Tradisie Stellenbosch 2010 Rudera 8
SA SKLE Family Reserve Stellenbosch 2013 Kleine Zalze 7

2.2. Participants
A total of 99 Chenin blanc consumers was recruited in France and 107 in SA. In France,
participants were recruited in Angers and in SA in Stellenbosch, two Chenin blanc growing
areas. A frequency of consumption questionnaire was used to select consumers drinking
white wines at least a few times a month and who declared consuming Chenin blanc sec
(Vouvray sec, Anjou sec, Saumur sec or Savennières sec in France). The demographics
of the participants are presented in Table 2. The SA panels were younger on average
and included more women than the French panels. This is in keeping with white wine
consumption patterns in SA, which showed consistent above-average consumption by
females in the 20 to 40 years age segment of medium-priced wines such as those used in
this study [33]. None of the participants was a wine professional. Informed written consent
was obtained from each participant prior to participation.

Table 2. Participants’ demographic information expressed as absolute frequencies.

SA France
With Without With Without
Information Information Information Information
< 40 38 37 25 23
Age
> 41 15 17 24 27
F 39 40 25 26
Gender
M 14 14 24 24
Daily 1 2 . .
Freq
Week 9 6 5 5
consumption
Month 43 47 43 45
<5 15 9 22 16

Different 5 to 10 16 22 15 23
Chenin * 10 to 20 4 15 7 9
> 20 18 8 2 2
* How many different Chenin blanc wines did you taste in the past year? for each sorting task condition (with
and without COO information).

2.3. Procedure
The procedure included three steps: a word association task, a sorting task, and a
habit and sociodemographic questionnaire. Participants were seated at separate tables
Foods 2021, 10, 1710 5 of 19

and provided with basic information about the study. They were advised that they would
taste and make judgments about 14 wines and that all wines were Chenin blanc sec.
They were advised that all the wines had to be expectorated (i.e., not swallowed). All
participants started with the word association task followed by the sorting task. The task
was performed in the official language of the respective countries, namely in French in
France and in English in SA. All tasters in SA were fluent in English.

2.3.1. Word Association Task

Participants were given stimulus words or phrases and, for each word or phrase they
were asked: 1) to write down the first four words that came to their mind, 2) to rate the
importance of each word on a seven-point scale anchored “not important” on the left and
“very important” on the right, and 3) to rate the valence of each word on a seven-point scale
anchored “very negative” on the left and “very positive” on the right. Each participant
received a six-page booklet containing the instructions on the first page and three stimulus
words on the following three pages. The first two stimulus words (“sky” and “hammer”)
served as warm up words to familiarize the participants with the task. The third stimulus
phrase was the target phrase “Chenin blanc sec”. The fifth and sixth pages contained the
scales to score the importance and valence of the four words generated by the participants
for the target phrase “Chenin blanc sec”.

2.3.2. Sorting Task

Participants received the 14 wines presented in a different order for each participant
according to a Williams latin square arrangement generated by FIZZ software (Biosystemes,
Courtenon, France). They were first required to smell and taste each wine once in the
proposed order. Then, they had to sort the wines according to their similarity. Participants
were not bound by time constraints and were allowed to sort the wines in as many groups
as they felt necessary. Thereafter, they could re-evaluate the wines as many times as they
wanted and in any order. After they finished their sorting task, participants were asked to
describe each group of wines with some words. Half of the participants did not receive
information on the origin of the wines (no information condition). The other half were told
that the wines had two origins: SA and Loire in France (information condition).

2.4. Experimental Conditions

In both countries, the tests were conducted in a lecture room equipped with individual
tables spaced to avoid communication between panellists, in a single session lasting
approximately one hour. The wines were kept between 8–12 ◦ C and taken out of the
storage cabinet 30 min before serving. A new bottle of each wine was opened daily
throughout the duration of the experiment and were first checked for faults. Forty mL
samples were poured into standardized black tasting glasses to eliminate visual cues as
sources of information. The glasses were coded with 3-digit numbers and were covered
with odourless plastic Petri dishes. Water and crackers were available throughout the
session for palate rinsing purpose.

2.5. Data Analysis

2.5.1. Word Association Task
Textual Analysis
All analyses were carried out on the original languages (i.e., French in France and
English in SA). A lemmatization was first carried out in the original language on the FR
and SA corpus by which the terms were reduced to their simplest form. This was done by
native speakers in each country.
A diversity and a rarity index were computed to compare the corpora obtained in
France and SA. The diversity index is computed as the ratio of the number of different
evoked words to the total number of evoked words. The larger the index, the larger the
diversity (a value of 1 indicates a maximum diversity). The rarity index corresponds to the
Foods 2021, 10, 1710 6 of 19

number of hapaxes (i.e., words cited only once) divided by the number of different evoked
words [34].
Then the lemmatized terms were grouped into general categories. The categoriza-
tion was done in the original language by one bilingual researcher following the same
grouping rules for the two corpora. The categorizations were then checked by independent
researchers in the two countries. After a discussion undertaken to obtain a consensus
regarding the generated categories, a common label was assigned to each of the definitive
categories.
Frequencies of elicitation were obtained by counting the number of participants who
elicited the words after lemmatization in each category. Chi-square tests were conducted
to examine differences in the use of categories between countries. The average importance
and valence were also computed after lemmatization in each category. One way Analyses
of variance (ANOVA) were computed to test the effect of Consumers’ COO on category
importance and valence.

Prototypical Analysis
A prototypical analysis of the evoked terms was used to define the hierarchical
structure of the Chenin blanc wine representations in FR and SA. This analysis highlights
the salience of certain elements of the representation by crossing the frequency of occurrence
and the importance of these elements. A frequency and an importance cutting point
are calculated to separate the elements of the representation in a central zone and three
peripheral zones.
The analysis was performed after lemmatization. Only words with a frequency of
citation greater than two were kept. Two indices were first computed: the frequency
of citation of the evoked terms, which indicates the degree of words-sharing among
participants, and the average importance of the words, which is an indicator of the saliency
of the evoked words. Then a frequency and an importance cut-off point were determined.
The frequency cut-off point was obtained by visually displaying the frequency of occurrence
of words in decreasing order [34]. The cut-off point was taken to be the frequency at which
the difference between two successive frequencies is maximal. For comparison purposes,
the same frequency cut-off was used for the two groups of consumers. The words with a
frequency higher than the frequency cut-off point were classified as “high frequency” and
the other ones as “low frequency”. The importance cut-off point was obtained by averaging
the importance criteria across categories [35]. The words with importance criteria higher
than the importance cut-off point were classified as high importance and the other ones
as low importance. The words were then cross-tabulated in a 2 × 2 table representing the
central core of the representation (words with high frequency and high importance) and the
peripheral elements. The words in the central core zone are stable and consensual, shared
by all, and they provide a framework for interpreting and categorizing new information.
The peripheral elements support the heterogeneity of the group. They are flexible and
allow the adaptation to reality. They are organized into three categories: The first periphery
zone includes the responses with high frequency and low importance. They are salient
responses that, however, indicate secondary elements of the representation. The second
periphery or contrast zone includes low frequency of elicitation (less shared elements), but
are considered as being very important. This zone indicates the existence of a subgroup
that consistently values some elements differently from the majority. The third periphery
corresponds to words with low frequency and low importance. This periphery allows
space for more individual ideas.

2.5.2. Sorting Task

The sorting results of each participant were encoded in individual wine * wine distance
matrices where the rows and the columns are wines. A value of 0 between a row and a
column indicates that the participant put both wines together, and a value of 1 indicates
that the wines were not put in the same group.
Foods 2021, 10, 1710 7 of 19

A global analysis was first carried out to compare the four conditions (French without
information, French with information, SA without information and SA with information).
Individual distance matrices were summed for each condition. The four resulting distance
matrices were submitted to a 3-way multidimensional scaling analysis (Distatis, [35]). This
analysis gives rise to a RV map representing the relative distances between the original
matrices (RV coefficients are multivariate generalization of the squared Pearson correlation
coefficient). It was used to compare the sorts obtained in the four conditions. The closer
the conditions on the map the more similar the sorts performed by the participants.
Then separate Distatis analyses were carried out on individual data to analyze the
distances between wines in each condition. These analyses produce compromise maps of
the positioning of the wines in each condition. Two wines close together on these maps
were often sorted together and two wines far away were rarely sorted together. A bootstrap
resampling technique with replacements was used to estimate the reliability of the position
of the products in the compromise map. A confidence interval around each wine was
calculated at a 95% tolerance interval [36]. The descriptors associated with the groups of
products were first lemmatized and categorized using SPAD 9.3 Text mining procedure
(Coheris). Then a wine*descriptor contingency table was built by condition and projected
as supplementary variables on the Distatis compromise space.
All Distatis Analyses were carried out with The R Package DistatisR (available from
https://github.com/HerveAbdi/DistatisR, accessed on 20 July 2021).

3. Results
3.1. Word Association Task
To evaluate the role of origin in constructing the representation of Chenin blanc, we
analyzed the results of the word association task. This task was carried out before the
sorting task.

3.1.1. Textual Analysis

A total of 500 words were recorded in France and 535 in SA before lemmatization.
Among those words, 154 and 180 distinct words were obtained in France and SA after
lemmatization. The relatively low diversity (0.31 for FR and 0.34 for SA) and rarity (0.18
for FR and 0.19) indexes computed for the French and SA corpora suggest the existence
of a structured representation for both groups. The words generated by French and SA
participants were classified into eight categories (Table 3): Consumption mode (e.g., friends,
aperitif, summer, meals), Emotional (e.g., pleasant, nice, joy), Food (e.g., fish, shellfish),
Origin (e.g., Anjou, Loire, terroir, SA), Sensorial (e.g., acidic, bitter, fruity), Usage (e.g.,
drink, bottle), Viticulture/enology (e.g., vines, variety, grape), and Other (e.g., alcohol). A
global chi-square analysis showed an effect of consumers’ COO on the saliency of these
categories (chi-square = 207.376, p < 0.0001).

Table 3. Frequency and average valences of elicited categories in the word association test using the phrase “Chenin blanc
sec” as stimulus.

Categories SA (n = 107) FR (n = 99) Chi-Square p Value Valence SA Valence FR

Sensorial 316 104 107.01 0.00001 5.39 5.24
Viti/Enology 66 146 30.19 0.00001 6.05 6.08
consumption mode 63 72 0.60 0.43857 6.15 6.78
Emotional 33 9 13.70 0.00021 5.74 5.88
Origin 20 76 32.67 0.00001 6.00 5.76
Food 17 43 11.27 0.00079 6.12 5.56
Other 12 29 7.05 0.00793 5.33 4.10
Usage 8 21 5.83 0.01578 5.63 5.19
Total 535 500
Foods 2021, 10, 1710 8 of 19

The SA corpus is dominated by the sensory dimension at 59% compared to 21% in

the French corpus. The diversity of the terms elicited by more than two participants in
the sensorial category also reflects the saliency of this dimension in the representation of
Chenin blanc wine in SA (35 against 12 in France). The sensory words generated in SA are
more specific than the words generated in France, especially in terms of aromas (19 terms
against 2). The words more often used in this category were taste, fruit, tasting, color, aroma,
white for France and fruity, wood, acidic, crisp, white, tropical for SA.
French participants elicited significantly more words from the categories viticul-
ture/enology (29 vs. 12%), origin (15 vs. 3.7%), food (8.6 vs. 3.2%) and usage (4.2 vs.
1.5%) than SA participants. In these categories, the more frequently used words were wine,
cultivar, Anjou, vine, fish, Loire, Terroir in France, and South Africa, wine, white wine, grape,
fish, and cultivar in SA.
Finally, emotional words were more frequent in the South African corpus (6.2%) than
in the French one (1.8%). The SA Corpus included three emotional words: pleasant, joy,
delicious and the French corpus a single one: pleasant.

3.1.2. Prototypical Analysis

The prototypical analysis was carried out on the lemmatized words with a frequency
of elicitation greater than two. The four representational zones resulting from this analysis
are presented in Table 4 for French consumers and Table 5 for SA consumers. A frequency
cut-off point of 10 and an importance cut-off point of five were used for both corpora.

Table 4. Prototypical analysis of the representation of “Chenin blanc” for the French participants.
High importance > 5; Low importance ≤ 5; High frequency > 10; Low frequency ≤ 10.

High Importance Low Importance

Vin (wine) Apéritif (Aperitif)
Cépage (Cultivar) Poisson (Fish)
Anjou Repas (Meal)
Vigne (Vine)
High
Raisin (Grape)
frequency
Gout (Taste)
Loire
Fruit (Fruit)
Terroir
Alcool (Alcohol) Fruit de mer (Shell fish)
Frais (Fresh) Boire (To drink)
Dégustation (Tasting) Couleur (Color)
Savannière Bouteille (Bottle)
Vin blanc (White wine) Crustacés (crustacean)
Arôme (Aroma) Léger (Light)
Blanc (White) Kir
Low Jaune clair (Pale Yellow) Âpre (Rough)
frequency Saumur Chemin (path)
Agréable (Plaisant) Région (Region)
Verre (Glass) Acide (Acidic)
Convivialité (Conviviality) Festif (Festive)
Amis (Friends) Clair (Clear)
Soleil (Sun) Famille (family)
Amer (Bitter) Été (Summer)
Sec (dry)
Foods 2021, 10, 1710 9 of 19

Table 5. Prototypical analysis of the representation of “Chenin blanc” for the South African partici-
pants. High importance > 5; Low importance ≤ 5; High frequency > 10; Low frequency ≤ 10.

High Importance Low Importance

Fruity Wood
Acidic Summer
Crisp Tropical
High frequency
White
Fresh
Dry
Low frequency Wine South_Africa
Cold Yellowish
White_Wine Bitter
Grape Green
Clear Citrus
Refresh Mineral
Honey Floral
Smooth Sour
Guava Apple
Nice Food
Balance Butter
Taste Astringent
Aromatic Sweet
Grass Cooked_Veg
Ice Friends
Variety Straw
Light Fish
Pleasant Unwooded
Joy Green_Apple
Spicy Wine_Tasting
Delicious Alcohol
Herbaceaous
Not_sweet

The French central core is defined by words linked mostly to the wine itself or to its
origin (Wine, Cultivar, Vine, Grape, Terroir, Loire). Only two words are linked to consumer’s
experience of the wine (Taste, Fruit). In contrast, the SA central core is clearly linked to
wine experience with only sensory words (Fruity, Acidic, Crisp, White, Fresh, Dry).
The differences between the French and SA corpus appear also in the first periphery
whose role is to consolidate the central core and allow for some flexibility in the representa-
tion. The French first periphery is linked to the mode of consumption of the wines with
words such as aperitif, meal, or fish. The SA first periphery span reflects again the salience
of the sensory dimension of Chenin blanc wines (Wood, Tropical) with the addition of a
more contextual term (summer). For the French corpus sensory (Fresh, Aroma, White, Yellow,
Bitter, Light, Rough . . . ), experiential (tasting, conviviality, friends, sun, festive, summer) and
emotional (pleasant) words appear mostly in the second and third periphery indicating
that these dimensions are salient for subgroups of consumers only or even idiosyncratic.
The inverse is observed in the SA corpus: Origin and Viticulture/Enology words (Wine,
White wine, Grape, Variety) appear in the second periphery along with emotional words
(pleasant, joy, delicious). It seems thus that the emotional dimension might be more salient
than the sensory dimension for a subgroup of SA consumers. The only origin-related word
(South Africa) appears only in the third periphery of the SA corpus along with some less
consensual sensory words.

3.1.3. Valence Ratings

Valence ratings are shown in the last two columns of Table 3. All word categories
were rated positively, and no significant differences were found between countries.
Foods 2021, 10, 1710 10 of 19

3.2. Sorting Task

3.2.1. Sensory Descriptor Analysis
The comparison of the descriptors used in the four conditions shows that the criteria
used to sort the wines differ with the consumers’ COO (Table 6). SA participants used
mostly sensory words describing the aroma of the wines. Wood was clearly an important
criterion for them, along with fruit and acidity. French participants used more frequently
evaluative words, such as pleasant and unpleasant or good length or strong.

Table 6. Specificity analysis of the words generated during the sorting task in the two conditions
(with and without information) within each country. Only words significant at the alpha risk 5% are
presented.

With Information Without Information

Country Word Frequency Word Frequency
bonne_longueur
Loire 3.3 3.49
(good length)
complexe
âpre (rough) 3.6 1.1
(complex)
Afrique_du_sud
0.9 agrumes (citrus) 0.89
(SA)
FR
moelleux
0.8 fumé (smoky) 1.85
(off-dry)
aboutis
1.5 frais (fresh) 1.64
(achieved)
souple (supple) 0.8 riche (rich) 0.68
familier
0.7 défauts (faulty) 1.64
(familiar)
astringent
léger (light) 1.7 1.51
(astringent)
piquant
vert (green) 1.5 4.04
(pungent)
accroche chenin_typique
1.2 1.92
(grippy) (typical chenin)
pétillant
1.7 court (short) 1.03
(sparkling)
vanilla 2.3 butterscotch 2.33
stonefruit 3 acidic 7.4
oily 1.1 light 2.68
mineral 2.4 rich 1.34
tobacco 3.5 soft_nose 0.78
dried_fruit 3.2 fruit 8.32
crisp 1.3 strong 1.34
alcohol 1.1 full_body 0.99
overripe 1.6 off_aroma 3.66
SA
butternut 0.6 spicy 2.11
astringent 0.6 sweet 6.06
long 0.6 sharp 1.69
pineapple 2.2 bad 0.99
balance 1
more_body 0.5
burn 0.5
dusty 0.8
banana 0.7

A specificity analysis was carried out to compare the words used in the two conditions
(with and without information) within each country. This amounts to determine, based on
a hyper-geometric law, whether a word occurs more frequently in a given condition than
in the complete corpus [37]. The data suggest that providing information on the origin
Foods 2021, 10, 1710 11 of 19

of the wines affected French participants more than SA participants. In both conditions,
SA participants used sensory descriptors to describe the groups of wines they formed in
the sorting task, and the information they received did not appear to change their sorting
strategy. In contrast, providing information on the origin of the wines to French participants
led to an increased use of the words Loire, South Africa and familiar, suggesting a different
sorting strategy more deliberately based on the origin of the wines.

3.2.2. Wine Positioning

Figure 1 shows the Distatis RV map comparing the sorts obtained in the four condi-
tions. The proximity between the conditions on the map reflects the similarity of the sorting
data obtained in these conditions. The proximity between the two SA conditions indicates
that SA participants sorted the wines similarly with and without information. This is
attested by the high value of the RV coefficient calculated between these two conditions
(RV = 0.63). In other words, providing information on the origin of the wines did not
affect SA participants. The distance between the two French conditions is higher than that
observed for the two SA conditions (RV = 0.31), indicating that French participants were
more affected by the information on the origin of the wines.

Figure 1. Global Distatis analysis: RV coefficient map.

To have a better understanding of the effect of information on French and SA partic-

ipants, the analysis was separated by conditions. Figure 2a,b represent the compromise
maps obtained from the SA sorting data without and with information, respectively. The
structure of the compromise space is quite similar in the SA conditions without and with
information. In both conditions, the first dimension clearly opposes the SA and French
wines (r = 0.95, p < 0.001). A one-way analysis of variance showed a significant effect of
wine origin on the projection of the wines on the first dimension. This effect is slightly
more important in the with information condition [F(1,12, = 99.76, p < 0.0001, R2 = 0.90],
than in the without information [F(1,12) = 39.43, p < 0.0001, R2 = 0.77]. The projection of the
wine descriptions shows that this first dimension is a sensory dimension opposing woody
and vegetal wines (mostly SA wines) to fruity and floral wines (Mostly French wines).
Foods 2021, 10, 1710 12 of 19

Figure 2. Partial Distatis analyses of the sorting task carried out in South Africa (SA) in the conditions (a) without
information, and (b) with information. The confidence intervals were computed with a bootstrap resampling technique
with replacements (95% risk). The French wines are represented in red and the SA wines in blue (See Table 1 for the
correspondence between codes and wines). The French (FR) and South African (SA) barycenters and the descriptors were
projected as supplementary data on the compromise space.

The positions of the wines on the second dimension are also quite similar in the two
conditions (r = 0.54, p < 0.05) with the exception of wine FBAU which projected negatively
in the condition with information and positively in the condition without information.
In this last condition, the wine FBAU is not significantly different from the wine SFED
when these two wines were rather distant in the information condition. The description
of this dimension is somewhat different in the two conditions. When no information was
provided, the second dimension opposes ripe and rich (stone fruit, cooked fruit, spicy full
body, sweet, oxidative) to high acidity wines (citrus, neutral, bad, tropical). With information, it
opposes oxidative (spice, raisin, oxidative, sherry) to fresher wines (berry, crisp, neutral
white fruit banana, mineral). The wine FBAU was described as bad and high acidity when
no information was provided and sherry and oxidative in the information condition.
Foods 2021, 10, 1710 13 of 19

Figure 3a,b represent the compromise maps obtained from the French sorting data
without and with information, respectively. The structure of the French spaces seems to
be more affected by the information provided prior to the sorting task than the SA spaces.
In both conditions, the first dimension tend to separate again French from South African
wines but less clearly than for the South African spaces [F(1,12) = 11.26, p < 0.01, R2 =
0.48; F(1,12) = 10.99, p < 0.01, R2 = 0.48 in the with and without information conditions
respectively]. The projection of the wine descriptions shows that contrary to what was
observed with SA spaces, the first dimension of the French spaces is not dominated by
a woody vs. fruity dimension. It seems rather to be a hedonic dimension with French
wines being more positively evaluated (finesse, complex, typical chenin, floral, fruity) than
SA wines (unpleasant, little acid, astringent, fault, spicy), especially in the condition without
information on the origin of the wines. The hedonic separation of the wines is less clear
in the information condition where both negative terms such as unpleasant or sourness
and positive terms such as balanced, typical chenin, finesse, are associated with SA wines
suggesting inter-individual differences in the evaluation of these wines.

Figure 3. Partial Distatis analyses of the sorting task carried out in France in the conditions (a) without information, and (b)
with information. The confidence intervals were computed with a bootstrap resampling technic with replacements (95%
risk). The French wines are represented in red and the SA wines in blue. (See Table 1 for the correspondence between codes
and wines). The French (FR) and South African (SA) barycenters and the descriptors were projected as supplementary data
on the compromise space. The translation of the French terms can be found in Appendix A.
Foods 2021, 10, 1710 14 of 19

In the condition without information, the second dimension is relatively close to that
observed in the SA conditions with an opposition between aggressive and richer wines.
When information on the origin of the wines was provided, French participants associated
more woody and full-bodied wines with South African wines (woody, framed, full-bodied,
aromatic, South Africa) and opposed them to lighter wines (little aromatic, average, achieved,
floral, light) mostly French. Interestingly, the wines described as more typical and familiar
were SA wines. Finally, as in the SA space, the wine FBAU was described with rather
negative terms (different odor, unpleasant, sourness).

4. Discussion
The objective of this article was to explore the effect of consumers’ and wines’ COO on
Chenin blanc perception in two countries—France and SA—with a very different history of
Chenin blanc production and consumption. Whereas France belongs to the so-called “old
world” of wine, who classically label wines by appellation or specified regions, SA belongs
to the “new world” who tend to rather label wine by grape variety. We were interested in
the effect of these historical and experiential differences on the construction of consumers’
Chenin blanc representations and categorization.
The word association task revealed the existence of a structured representation for
both groups of consumers, but the wine attributes around which this representation
is organized are quite different. SA representations are clearly organized around the
experience consumers have of the wines. The terms most important and more frequently
cited by SA participants were all linked to sensory aspects of the wines: fruity, wood,
acidic, crisp, white; tropical fresh, dry. In line with this result, the saliency of wine taste for
South African consumers was previously reported in two studies [38,39]. Both studies used
a best-worst scaling (BWS) method to evaluate the importance of 13 attributes on wine
purchase for consumers from different generations. The first study [38] report that for Y
generation, the highest BWS score was obtained for the attribute “wine tasted previously”
followed by the attribute “someone recommended it”. These two attributes were also
reported as being the two most important wine attributes for an older group of participants
(above 41-year-old) in the second study [39]. Sensory personal experience with the wine
seems thus to be the starting point of the construction of wine representation in SA and
origin does not seem to play a crucial role in this process.
Region of origin was the second least important attribute in [38], whereas in [39] this
attribute obtained a 0 BWS score for the younger group and a score of 0.64 for the older
one, showing that the origin of the wine is slightly more important for older participants
than younger ones. This attribute is, however, much less important than the taste attribute.
In our study, the term “South Africa” was cited by only nine participants and was judged
as being not very important. This suggests that there is not a strong link between Chenin
blanc and South Africa in SA consumers’ representation. As a comparison, Fruity was
cited by 34 participants and judged as quite important. The most important term for SA
consumers was “delicious”, reinforcing the central role of the personal experience in their
representation of Chenin blanc.
Personal experience was much less salient for French participants whose representa-
tions were structured around the wine itself, its origin, how it is made and with what it is
drunk. The terms Anjou, Loire, and Terroir were among the most frequent and important
terms for French participants along with Wine, Grape variety and Vine. Only two terms
were related to the experience of the wine: Taste and Fruit. Experiential and emotional
terms were important only for subgroups of consumers. The terms linked to the sensory di-
mension of the wine were very general compared to those used by SA participants. Again,
these results can be related to a previous study using the BWS approach in 12 countries [40].
This study showed that while “wine tasted previously” and “someone recommended it”
were highly important across most countries, “origin” and “food matching” were more
important in France. Likewise, Ginon and coworkers [2] found that, in France, “production
region” and “food and wine pairing” were more important than “grape variety” or “previ-
Foods 2021, 10, 1710 15 of 19

ous experiences”. Food matching terms (fish, shellfish, and meals) were also frequently
cited in our study, but they were not judged as being very important.
Why do French and SA consumers’ representations of Chenin blanc differ so much?
Social representations are a construction of reality by the individuals, and as such, they
are deeply rooted in cultural history [41]. Consumers’ environment, participate in the
construction of their representations. In the case of wine, consumption practice plays
a differentiating role [40]. In other words, the differences we observed between French
and SA representations of Chenin blanc reflect differences in cultural history and social
practices. France is a traditional wine-producing country with a highly hierarchical ap-
pellation system based on wine origin. Previous work emphasized that the wine social
representations of French consumers are associated with aspects of national identity such
as the traditional cheese-wine association or regional identity [42–44]. The French wine
industry is present in numerous wine regions, each one with a strong identity. In this
context, wine is perceived as a mode of regional differentiation; for example, consumers do
not talk about a chardonnay wine, but a chardonnay from burgundy or a chardonnay from
the south of France. Likewise, they do not talk about a Chenin blanc but an Anjou blanc or
Vouvray, which explains the frequency of occurrence of these terms in the word association
task. In contrast, like many new-world wine countries, wine retail in SA is more organized
around grape variety and brand than around origin. Wine associations such as the Chenin
blanc Association (CBA) have emerged to promote specific wine cultivars, whereas the
same type of association is organized regionally in France (e.g., Interloire, interprofession
des vins du val de Loire) to promote the wines from specific regions. The promotion of
wine cultivars in SA emphasizes the sensory dimension of wine. For example, the CBA
proposes a classification of Chenin blanc from SA into six different styles: Fresh and Fruity,
Rich and Ripe Wooded, Rich and Ripe Unwooded, Rich and Ripe slightly sweet, Sparkling
and Sweet [26]. This association also developed a Chenin blanc aroma wheel. The emphasis
on sensory aspects of Chenin blanc may explain the central role of this dimension in SA
consumers’ representations.
The difference observed between French and SA consumers’ representation was
reflected in the wine sorting task. SA participants used mostly sensory words describing the
aroma of the wines to explain the groups of wine they formed, whereas French participants
used more frequently evaluative words such as pleasant and unpleasant or good length
or strong. Interestingly, the information provided on the origin of the wines led French
participants to use more terms related to origin than SA participants who used the same
sensory terms in the two conditions.
The sensory-based strategy adopted by SA participants led to a clear separation be-
tween SA wines described as rather woody and vegetal wines and French wines described
as fruity and floral. This separation between South African and French wines is less clear
for French participants. This seems somewhat paradoxical as French participants seemed
to have emphasized the origin dimension in the informed condition using words such
as Loire or South Africa. This apparent paradox might be explained by the fact that the
informed condition might have activated some stereotypes among French participants
but that those stereotypes of French consumers do not conform to the sensory reality of
French and SA wines. Such a phenomenon was already reported for French and New
Zealand Sauvignon Blanc [45]. The explanation put forwards by the authors was that
French participants did not have prior exposure to New Zealand Sauvignon wines and
thus, their representation of these wines reflected more a consumers’ COO effect: the wines
judged the more positively were considered as French. The same might have occurred here,
making the separation between French and SA Chenin blanc fuzzier.
Besides providing new insights into cultural differences, our findings have important
implications for the marketing and export activities of the wine industry, in particular in a
globalized world. For example, sensory marketing seems quite adapted in SA, since SA
participant’s representations are mainly organized around a sensory dimension and wine
COO does not seem to play a major role.
Foods 2021, 10, 1710 16 of 19

5. Conclusions
Our data align with, but also add significantly to, previously published data on the
mental representation of wine in “new” and “old” world wine countries. We have shown
that SA and FR consumers have quite different mental representations of dry Chenin blanc
wines, the former being more based on their experience of the wine including the sensory,
emotional and contextual aspects and the latter built around the idea of origin. Chenin
blanc is likely a good model to reveal such fundamental differences in wine appreciation
and representation since its sensory profile is generally less well defined than those of other
varietals such as Sauvignon blanc or Chardonnay. In South Africa, wine makers are still
exploring the wine stylistic potential of the variety, while in France, Chenin blanc is not
strongly present as a varietal category. Sensory descriptors therefore are likely to be less
influenced by expectations, and may represent a more accurate reflection of the mental
representation of wines in general.
It is important to note that the wines evaluated here are a snapshot of Chenin blanc
styles. Chenin blanc remains a highly dynamic category. Furthermore, while regionalism
in SA is less of a feature than in France, Chenin blanc wines of some regions, such as the
Swartland and Breedekloof, have recently achieved critical acclaim as an expression of
regionality. Future research will be able to assess whether such trends will impact the
mental representation of the product.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, H.N., D.V., I.S. and C.V.; methodology, D.V., H.N., C.V.,
J.B. and R.S. formal analysis, D.V.; investigation, resources, D.V., I.S., C.V., R.S. and J.B.; data curation,
D.V., R.S. and C.V.; writing—original draft preparation, D.V.; writing—review and editing, H.N., C.V.
and F.F.B.; project administration, C.V. and D.V., funding acquisition, H.N. and J.B. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the National Research Foundation South Africa (NRF),
Winetech South Africa Project IWBT W 17-01, Department of Science and Technology, South Africa,
Chenin Blanc Association (CBA). South African Grape and Wine Research Institute, Department of
Viticulture and Oenology, Stellenbosch University.
Informed Consent Statement: Participants were provided with an information sheet describing
what participation involved and a participant’s rights. Any queries raised by participants were
responded to by the experimenter prior to participants completing and signing consent forms in
keeping with French and SA ethical requirements at the time of the experimentations.
Acknowledgments: The authors thank Hervé Abdi for his help with Distatis analysis and Justine
Branchu for technical assistance.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Appendix A

Table A1. English translation of words generated in both condition of the sorting task in France.

aboutis achieved épicé spicy

accroche rough équilibré balanced
acide acid fade bland
acidulé acidulous familier familiar
afrique_du_sud South Africa finesse finesse
agréable pleasant floral floral
agressif aggressive frais fresh
agrumes citrus fruité fruity
Foods 2021, 10, 1710 17 of 19

Table A1. Cont.

aigreur sourness fumé smoke

alcool alcohol jeune young
amer bitter léger light
apre harsh Loire Loire
aromatique aromatic mineral mineral
astringent astringent moelleux soft
atypique atypical odeur differente different odor
boisé wooded odeur sucré sweet smell
bonne_longueur good_persistence passe partout average
charpenté framed pétillant sparkling
chenin_typique typical chenin peu acide little acid
complexe complex peu aromatique little aromatic
corsé full-bodied piquant pungent
court short poisson fish
défaut fault riche rich
demi-sec off-dry rond round
désagréable unpleasant sec dry
doux soft

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