Science and Technology: Grade 8
Science and Technology: Grade 8
Science and Technology: Grade 8
Grade 8
Government of Nepal
Ministry of Education, Science and Technology
Curriculum Development Centre
Publisher: Government of Nepal
Ministry of Education, Science and Technology
Curriculum Development Centre
Sanothimi, Bhaktapur
School education is the foundation for preparing the citizen who are
loyal to the nation and nationality, committed to the norms and values
of federal democratic republic, self-reliant and respecting the social
and cultural diversity. It is also remarkable for developing a good moral
character with the practical know-how of the use of ICT along with the
application of scientific concept and positive thinking. It is also expected
to prepare the citizens who are moral and ethical, disciplined, social and
human value sensitive with the consciousness about the environmental
conversation and sustainable development. Moreover, it should be
helpful for developing the skills for solving the real life problems. This
textbook 'Science and Technology, Grade 8' is fully aligned with the
intent carried out by the National Curriculum Framework for School
Education, 2076 and is developed fully in accordance with the new
Basic Level Science and Technology Curriculum, 2077.
This textbook is initially written by Mr. Dambaru Prasad Pokhrel,
Mrs. Rabina Maharjan, Mr Ram Sharan Regmi, Mr. Yubaraj Adhikari and
Mr. Lav Dev Bhatta. It has been translated by Mr. Surendra Jung Karki, Mr.
Mukti Subedi and Mr. Subash Kharel. The contribution made by Director
General Mr. Baikuntha Prasad Aryal, Prof. Dr. Krishna Bhakta Maharjan,
Dr. Kamal Prasad Acharya, Mrs. Pramila Bhakati, Mr. Uma Nath
Lamsal, Mr. Heramba Raj Kandel, Mr. Keshar Bahadur Khulal,
Mr. Shailesh Bahadur Pradhan and Mrs. Mina Shrestha is remarkable
in bringing the book in this form. The language of the book has been
edited by Mr. Arjun Prakash Bhusal. Art editing of this book was done
by Mr. Shreehari Shrestha by making it four colour. The Curriculum
Development Centre extends sincere gratitude to all of them.
The textbook is a primary resource for classroom teaching. Considerable
efforts have been made to make the book helpful in achieving the
expected competencies of the curriculum. Curriculum Development
Centre always welcomes constructive feedback for further betterment
of its publications.
2080 BS Curriculum Development Centre
Sanothimi, Bhaktapur
Contents
1 Scientific Learning 1
9 Matter 250
Scientific Learning
Activities like observation, testing, survey, project work and model
building are done for scientific learning. Such activities are done
inside or outside the laboratory.Fact, theories and rules of science
are discovered based on these activities. Safety precautions should
be taken in laboratory work to avoid accidents. Such precautions also
help to obtain correct results fron1 scientific expedn1ents, observations
or research.
1.1 Precautions to be taken while Performing Experimental
work in the Science Laboratory
A n otice with the signs shown in
the figure is pasted in the science
lab. What precautions do these
signals indicate? Discuss with your
friends in the class.
A science laboratory is a special
room for conduc ting various
scientific studies and experimental
activities. Necessary equipment @
and ch emicals for scientific studies
and research are available there.
Various facts, theories, objects and
substances related to science are
Ix
studied, observed, tested and used
in the school's science laboratory.
We sh ould pay attention to safety
w hile doing such work. In the
®
-~ ~
science lab, we must follow safety
Fig: 1. 1 ~
rules.
Science a nd Technology, Grade 8 1
Random scientific work without following safety measures nlay
cause accidents as well as affect the results of observations, tests and
experiments.
Activity 1.1
Fig 1.4 Observation of the
Title : Observation of Fungi
experimental work
Objective:To study the structure of fungi
Material required: Bread, water, forceps or tongs, a glass slide, a
coverslip and a microscope
Method:
i. Take a piece of bread.
ii. Sprinkle some water on it and keep it covered in a moist place
ni. Sprinkle a little water every day.
iv. You will see fungi growing after a few days . Place a drop of
methylene blue on the glass slide and put one of the mycelia
in the drop with the help of forceps or tongs, cover it with the
cover slip and observe it under the microscope.
4 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
v. Observe the structure of fungi and draw its figure in your practical
file and list the characteristics of fungi based on it.
Any object is observed and experienced by seeing with the eyes,
hearing with the ears, smelling with the nose, touching with the
skin and tasting with the tongue. Observation is not limited to the
laboratory. The rules, principles and characteristics of science can be
studied by observing various natural and artificial objects, processes
and events around the school and h01ne. Apart fro1n that, some laws
and principles related to science can be observed even by visiting
zoos, botanical gardens, pharmaceutical companies and information
communication companies. When observing, it should be clear which
object, process or event is to be observed. Accordingly, the purpose
of observation should be determined. Similarly, it should be clear
about what to observe and how to present the information obtained.
In general, the report should be written after the observation work.
There can be different formats for writing a report. For example. the
report for activity 1 .1 can be written as follows :
Activity 1.3
Title: Test of Acids, Bases and Salts
(i) The given substance was placed in three separate test tubes.
(ii) Changes in the colour of red and blue lihnus paper were observed
by dipping in lemon juice, soapy water and salt water one by one.
Observations
Conclusion:
........... is acid as it turns blue litmus paper to red colour.,
......... is a base as it turns red litmus paper into blue colour, and
.... .... should be neutral because no colour change was observed.
Activity: 1.4
Write a report with the help of a teacher, after testing the fact that
salt and water are formed by the chemical reaction of acid and base.
Activity 1.5
Two new students from class 8 are going to the science lab to do
experimental work. What suggestions would you give them about the
precaution they should take while working in the laboratory? Prepare
a chart about the suggestions given and demonstrate it in class.
1.3 Research work
Any research begins with a question or a curiosity. Generally, research
is a study in depth or to find an answer to a question or curiosity.
All the discoveries made are the achievements of such studies and
research. While researching, the researcher has to patiently study
a subject by completing a certain procedure. Even if you fail many
8 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
thnes, you should try again by finding the weaknesses and improving
on them. You have to follow different scientific inethods while
conducting research work.
Phases of the Research Work
The following steps are generally followed in carrying out research
work:
a. Goal setting.
b) Making inferences or hypotheses.
a. Choice of the data collection inethod.
c) Preparation of required materials .
d) Data collection
e) Analysis of data
f) Conclusion
Read the given dialogue
Activity 1.6
Research question: What factors affect the growth of algae?
Objective: To explore the role of chemical fertilizers and acids in the
development of algae.
Materials required: Pond water containing algae, three bottles, chemical
fertilizers , vinegar etc.
Method
i. Bring algae-containing water from a nearby pond.
11. Now pour an equal amount of algae containing water into three
glass bottles so that they are half filled .
iii. Do not add anything in the first bottle, put a little chemical
fertilizer in the second bottle and a little vinegar in the third
bottle respectively. Name it accordingly from the outside.
iv. Observe the growth of
algae at the interval
every five days.
v. Write a conclusion
based on the results
obtained in 15 to 20
days.
Conclusion:
Chemical fertilizers play a .. ... .. .role and acids play a ..... role in the
growth of algae.
Its report should be written after research work. There may be different
formats for w riting a report. The report of the research work can be
written as follows:
Research Title: Effects of chemical fertilizers and acids on the growth
of algae.
Objective: To find out the role of chemical fertilizers and acids in the
growth of algae.
Materials required: pond water containing algae, three glass bottles,
che1nical fertilizer, and vinegar.
Method
i. Water containing algae was brought from a nearby pond.
IL Three glasses were half filled with an equal amount of water.
iii. Only pond water containing algae was kept in the first bottle and
pasted a sticker named pond water.
iv. A little chemical fertilizer was kept in the second bottle and
pasted a sticker named water containing chemical fertilizer.
v. A little vinegar was placed in the third glass bottle and pasted a
sticker named water containing vinegar.
Observation:
Conclusion:
Chemical fertilizers p lay a positive role in the growth of algae while
acids play a negative role.
Activity 1. 7
Which absorbs more heat among white and black colour? Prepare a
report and present it to the class by deriving a conclusion after a brief
research on the subject.
1.4 Survey
The process of collecting data related to a topic or problen1 directly and
deriving a conclusion is called a survey. Questionnaires , interviews,
discussions and observations are th e guidelines for collecting data
while doing a survey focu sing on a problen1 or a subject.
In this way, conclusions are drawn after analyzing the collected data,
and solutions to the issues or problems are obtained. Generally , the
survey work is completed by following th e steps given below.
a) Selection of objective
b) Choice of data collection method
c) Collection of data
d) Analysis of data
e) Conclusion
Activity 1.8
Perform a survey about solid waste management by visiting at least
50 houses in your com111unity. Prepare a questionnaire for the survey.
Analyze the collected data and prepare a report with conclusions and
necessary suggestions
Sample of Survey Report Writing
The sample of survey report writing which has been done in activity
1.8 and can be written as follows:
The surveyed area is a culttrrally rich village located in the inner city of
Kath1nandu. There are many temples, monasteries and archaeological
monuments in this village. People do business, office jobs and farming
for living. Solid waste has emerged as a problem in this village due
to the modern lifestyle. In this survey, study was done to find out
how the people living here manage the solid waste that c0111es out of
their houses daily.
It is expected that the findings from this survey also help in the
management of solid waste in other areas too.
Objective: To study solid waste management in the study area.
Conclusion:
The results obtained from the above survey show that the practice
of recycling and reusing solid wastes has started in the survey area.
Annex 1 : Survey Questionnaire
1. What do you do with the solid waste that comes out of your house?
a) Give it to waste collection agencies.
b) Manage some of the waste at home and give the rest to the
waste collection agencies.
Activity 1.9
Prepare a report by surveying at least 30 individuals or families
through interviews, questionnaires or any other means on the various
methods they use to preserve food materials.
l.a ptop
Computer
a) ATM cards and PINs should be kept safe and should not be given
to anyone.
b) The PIN should be changed from time to time.
Photocopy Machine
A photocopy machine ni.akes the copy of documents. Xerography
technology is used in most photocopy machines. For many years,
photocopying was informally known as xeroxing because most
photocopiers used xerography. Xerography is a dry process. It
uses light as an electrostatic charge on a sensitive photoreceptor.
A photocopy machine needs light, heat,
pressm·e, chemicals and electrostatic charge
to function. A photocopier is a machine
for making copies of graphic content and
is commonly used in business, education,
and government sectors. A scanner, printer,
computer network, etc. are also connected
to modern photocopy machines.
Methods of using photocopy machine
Here are the general steps to use a photocopy
' ·-
.1
Most photocopy inachines have settings to adjust the paper size and
type. Select the appropriate size and type based on the document you
want to photocopy.
4. Adjust the settings
Use the control panel of the photocopy machine to adjust the settings,
such as the number of copies, the darkness or lightness of the copy,
and any other desired features like colour or black and white printing.
Many photocopy machines have only black and white mode.
5. Start the photocopy
Homo AOou1 Ut "' Org:intt3Uon " Publla?Jons • 0191tM Llbary • Do'Nnlood Contaet Ut Ot'hOrs • Onh"n-1 Equiva11nca
Fig 2.10
A website serves as a hub for the collection of inultiple web pages and
the storage of information about an organization. Any government or
non-government organization or business person can create a website
on the Internet. Nowadays there are many websites on the Internet
where various organizations keep their information. The website starts
from www. The full form ofwww is the world wide web. The website
of any organization or person is not compatible with any other website
in the world. So, every organization has a specific website address
which is called a Web address or Universal Resource Locator (URL). A
website for a curriculum development centre is www.moecdc.gov.np
which contains a variety of educational resource materials. A mobile
or co1nputer browser, such as Google Chrome, Microsoft Edge, Safari,
Mozilla Firefox, etc., is required to access any website.
Parts of the Website
A website is a collection of web pages hosted on a web server and
consists of the following parts;
L Webhosting:Web hosting is a service that allows individuals and
organizations to make their websites accessible on the internet.
A web hosting company provides server space to store website
files, which can then be accessed by internet users via a domain
name.
•
Fig 2.13 Various Cybercrime-Related Activities
The internet has become an integral part of our daily lives, and while
it offers many benefits, there are also risks associated with internet
security. Some of the most common risks of internet security include:
Malwa.re: Malware is a type of software that is designed to harm
or exploit a computer syste1n. Malware can come in many forms,
Application of AI
Artificial Intelligence has various applications in today's society. It
is becoming essential for today's tin1.e because it can solve complex
problems efficiently in multiple industries, such as healthcare,
entertainment, finance, education, etc. AI is making our daily life
more comfortable and faster. Following are some sectors which have
the application of Artificial Intelligence:
1. Al in Astrono1ny: Artificial Intelligence can be very useful to
solve complex universe problems. AI technology can help us
understand the universe such as how it works and its origin.
2. AI in Healthcare: In the last five to ten years, AI becoming more
advantageous for the healthcare industry and going to have
a significant in1pact on this field. Healthcare Industries are
applying AI to make a better and faster diagnoses than humans.
AI can help doctors with diagnoses and can inform them when
patients are worsening so that inedical help can reach the patient
before anything happens .
3. AI in Gaming:Al can be used for gaming purposes. The AI
machines can play strategic games like chess, where the machine
needs to think of a large number of possible places.
• 11
Al & Machine Learning
" sccurl yU
Cloud Computing
Networking
containers
compute
Project work
Search the internet to learn about using virtual reality in Nepal. Based
on your research, create a PowerPoint presentation and present it to
your class.
Questions:
a. According to Fig. 3.1, what may be the fundamental unit of the
structure of living beings?
b. Can we classify living beings based onthe type and structure of
the cells present in their body?
c. Is it possible to see all the organisms shown in fig. 3 .1 with the
naked eye?
There are different kinds of plants and animals on earth having
microscopic to developed and large body size. Animals have usually
a head, trunk, tail and limbs in their body and plants also usually
have root, stem, leaves, flowers and fruits with them. Many small and
microscopic organisms do not have such distinct organs or parts in
their body. However, all the body parts of organisms are c01nposed
of very tiny and microscopic units called cells. With the very perfect
coordination of the functions and placement of all these cells, different
physiological and metabolic activities are continuously undergoing
inside their body by which they are being able to survive. Living
beings are classified into different groups and subgroups based on
their body structure.
Science nnd Technology, Grade 8 55
3.1 Cell
Let's discuss on the following questions about plant and animal cells:
a. Are all the cells found in the bodies of various species similar?
b. Do all types of cells perforn1 a similarfunction?
The cell is thebasic unit of every life. The body of every organism,whether
it is microscopic or gigantic, is composed of one or many cells. All the
mechanisms of lifeprocesses like digestion, respiration, reproduction,
internal transportation, photosynthesis etc are accomplished inside
or by the action of these cells through biochemical reactions and
contraction-relaxation motion. Because of these reasons, cells are
also called the functional unit of life. Therefore, cells are structural
as well as functional units of life. The branch of biology, that deals
with the study of the cell is called Cytology.
Activity: 3.1
Take a leaf of water hyacinth or any floating plant. Make slices of the
petiole of the leaf with a razor blade as thin as possible. Stain the cut
slices in safranin for a few minutes and wash them thoroughly with
clean water. Select one of the thinnest slice, put it on a clean slide, cover
the specilnen (the stained slice) with a drop of glycerin and finally with
a coverslip.A cover slip should not have any air bubbles below. Now,
our temporary slide of the petiole of the floating plant is ready. Observe
the slide under a microscope. What may be these tiny roomsseen in
the section? Are they the cells? Discuss the observation in the class.
Let's know
The cell was first discovered by Robert Hooke in
1665. He used the word 'Cellulae' for the small rooms
seen in the thin slice of cork under the microscope
developed himself, which meant 'tiny rooms' in Latin.
He concluded that slices of the cork were composed
of such tin y cellulae or cells. Later on , vari ous
experiments and studies by Theodor Sch wann, Mattias Jakob Schleiden,
Rudolf Virchow etc concluded that the body of all living organism s is
built by th e composition of one or many cells. When this conclusion was
forwarded, cells are considered the fu ndamental (structural as well as
functional) unit of life. Ruber Hooke (18July1635-3March1703
56 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
3.1.1 Shape and Size of Cells
Observe the given figure and discuss the following questions:
,_,
'
Fig 3.2 Different Types of Cells
vacuole
nucleus ---------~
i......;::~===-..i=:=_~__ mitochondrion - - - - - - - - - - -
cytoplasm - - - - - - - - -
Fig. 3.4
...
Fig. 3.5
ni. Gently cover the mass of cheek cells with a coverslip with the
help of a needle to avoid air bubbles.
iv. Now, a temporary slide of cheek cells is ready for observation.
Observation and discussion
Observe the slide under a microscope and compare the shape, size and
components of these cells with the cells seen in Activity 3.1. Draw a
clear figure of cheek cells and submit it to your teacher.
Noto: Tnstoad of hmrn:m cheA k cells, one can lrnve on inner thin layp,r of
chicken s kin from Cl lrntc:h er's shop.
Science an d Teclm ology, Grade 8 59
Parts of a Cell
1 . Covering of Cell
cell wall
- cell membrane - - - - -
Fig. 3. 6
The covering is the outermost layer of a cell. The cell wall and cell
inembrane are the coverings of cells. The cell wall is found only in
bacterial, fungal and plant cells . It is absent in most of the Protozoans
and animal cells. The cell wall is generallya tough, rough, se1ni-
elastic and nonliving substance. The cell membrane (also called
Plasma membrane) is found in all types of cells. In animals and most
protozoans, the cell me1nbrane is the outermost layer of their cells.But
in bacterial, fungal and plant cells, it lies just beneath the cell wall.
The cell membrane is comparatively much smoother and elastic than
the cell wall and it is a living substance.
Functions of the cell wall and cell m embrane
1. Cell wall provides mechanical support and fixed shape to the
plant, bacterial and fungal cells.
2. Cell wall protects the cell from fungi, viruses and bacteria.
3. Cell wall presents at the roothairs of plants helps to absorb soluble
minerals from soil and water.
4. Cell membrane controls and coordinates intercellular
transportation of fluids as it is living and semi-permeable in
nature.
5. In unicellular protozoans like a1noeba, the cell membrane helps
in making pseudopodia for capturing food and locomotion,
excreting metabolic wastes and protecting the body from the
external environment
60 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
2. Cytoplasm
There is a viscous, sticky and clear semi-liquid
called cytoplasm. It is located in between the
cell membrane and the nucleus of a living cell.
Cytoplasm is composed of water, soluble salts,
minerals, proteins, vitamins etc. Cytoplasmic
components like ribosomes, plastids, mitochondria, Fig. 3.7
Golgi-bodies, endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles etc. are found in the
cytoplasn1.
Function of Cytoplasm
1. Metabolic activities of lifeprocesses are accomplished within the
cytoplasm.
2. Cytoplas1n helps to balance the amount of water and minerals
in body organs.
3. Cytoplasm contains cell components like initochondria, Golgi
body, plastids etc.
3. Cell Components
Various functional sites inside a cell are called cell components. Cell
components are of two types: Cell organelles and cell inclusions.
Cell organelles are living sites and each of the1n performs specific
metabolic activitieswhich are essential for lifeprocesses. There are
different types of cell organelles and most of them are found in both
plant and animal cells, whereas some are found in plant or animal
cells only. Cell inclusions are non-living things present inside the
cytoplasm. They are generally droplets of free water, crystals of salts
and minerals, enzymes, hormones, vitamins and waste materials
excreted by the cell. Cell inclusions act as raw materials and sources
of energy generation which are used by various cell organelles for
nletabolic activities.
Some of the cell organelles are mentioned below:
Mitochondria (singular: 1nitochondrion)
There are many mitochondrias in a cell. They are
cylindricalor filamentous in shape and bound with
Fig. 3.8
a double membrane. The inner membrane is highly
Function
Leucoplast stores starch, protein and fat (lipids) for future use.
Ribosome
Ribosomes are very small in size and the
only organelles in the cytoplasm withoutan
outer inen1brane. They are found freely in
the cytoplasm or attached tothe surface of the
Endoplasmic reticulum. They are found in
mitochondria and chloroplasts too. Like other Fig. 3.12
organelles, ribosomes also have some DNA molecules.
Science and Teclmology, Grade 8 63
Function
1. They synthesize proteins from different amino acids. Therefore,
ribosomes are also called protein factories.
2. They take part in gene expressiondue to the presence of DNA.
Gene expression means DNA is active to make protein or RNA
molecules suitable for the organism.
Endoplasmic Reticulu1n, ER
The endoplasmic reticulum is a highly folded
membranous organelle making zigzag canals U llllii\i!
from the nucleus to the cell membrane.
Shortly, it is called ER. The inner surface of its
Fig. 3.13
canal is smooth but the outer surface of some
ER looks granular due to the sticking of many ribosonrns on it. The
ER with ribosomesis called 'rough ER' and that without ribosomes is
called 'smooth ER'.
Function
1. It makes a structural framework and provides mechanical support
to the cell. Therefore, ER is also called the endoskeleton of the
cell.
2. As ER contains many enzymes, it helps in the metabolism of the
cell.
3. During celldivision, ER helps to make new cell me1nbranes. It
helps to construct the Golgi body in the cell.
4. ER actively takes part in the cellular transport system.
Golgi body
Golgi body in cells was discovered by an Italian
scientist Camillo Golgi in 1898, so the name
is kept in honour of his name. This organelle
looks like a bunch of bananas and is composed
of layers of flattened membrane-enclosed sacs 0
called 'cisternae' and some vesicles . The Golgi 0
Function
1. Lysoson18 produces a lysoso111al enzyme which digests protein,
lipid (fat), and glycogen (complex carbohydrate) to provide
energy to the cell.
2. Lysoson18 also digests dead and fragn18nted cells to provide
extra energy in animals. When the level of the lysosomal enzyme
becomes high, the organelle itself is digested. For this self-
digesting mechanism, lysosmues are also called suicidal bags.
3. During the gern1ination of seeds, lysos0111e present in meristematic
cells provides nutrients to the germinating e111bryo.
Vacuole
Vacuole is not a true organelle but a space
bounded by a tonoplast membrane which is
generally filled with water, mineral salts and
enzymes etc . These liquid substances in the
vacuole are called 'cell-sap'. Vacuoles in animal
cells are very small and in old plant cells are Fig . 3.16
quite bigger. Cells of aquatic bacteria generally
have air vacuole that helps themto float on the surface. Contractile
vacuoles in protozoan cells contribute to intracellular transportation
and food vacuole in amoeba stores, digests food and excretes wastes.
Procedure
1. Take an appropriate sheet of thermocol.
2. Draw the layout of the plant cell and animal cell on the thermocol
with colour pencils.
3. Carefully cut the thermocol with the knife or paper cutter to have
the model of plant and animal cells as shown in the figure below.
Fig. 3.17 Model of animal and plant cell prepared by using thermocol
Function of Nucleus
1. All metabolic activity and internal transportation of the cell are
controlled and coordinated by the nucleus.
2. It inherits (transfers) genetic character from parents to their
offspring through reproduction.
3. During cell division, the nucleus itself takes part actively. First,
it disappears and makes a pair of new nuclei.After the division
of the nucleus,the cell is divided into two from the centre to have
a nucleus in each newly formed cell.
4. Nucleus is directly involved in the reproduction process of
unicellular organisms.
Activity 3.5
Observe a permanent slide of the cell under a high-power microscope
and draw its labelled diagram. Show the labelled diagram to your
teacher.
68 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
Comparision between plant and animal cell
Activity 3.6
Divide all students of your class into three groups named A, B and
C and tell them to observe the permanent slides of plant and animal
cells to find out th e special features seen in the observation. Tell
Group A to write the typical features found only in an animal cell,
tell Group B to write a similar report on a Plant cell and tell Group C
to write th e common features foun d in both plant and animal cells.
Fill the written features by all three groups on a chart paper, exh ibit
it in th e class and conduct a discussion program.
Features found Features found only Common features found in
only in animal cell in plant cell both animal and pla nt cell
Exercise
1. Select the correct option from the followings:
a. What is called the branch of science that deals with the
study of the cell?
i) Histology ii) Cytology
iii) Cytogenetics iv) Anaton1y
b. In which form is the energy generated in a cell stored before
it is distributed to organelles?
i) DNA ii) RNA
iii) RBC iv) ATP
c. What is the common feature of the nuclear membrane and cell
70 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
membrane?
i. they help in internal transportation
11. they are composed of Pectin
111. they are non-elastic in nature
iv. they inherit heredity to offspring
d. What is indicated by 'R' in the given figure?
i) Nucleus ii) Chloroplast
iii) Mitochondrion iv) Vacuole
e. Which of the following function is done by both plant and animal
cells?
Glossary:
Cork Slightly conical lid of bottle or flask made
of rubber or cork- cambium of certain
plants' stem
Oxidation reaction Process of generating heat energy in a
cell by the decomposition of glucose
molecules in the presence of oxygen
ATP Adenosine triph osphate. Mol ecules
that store the heat energy obtained from
the oxidation of glucose in the form of
chemical energy
Eukaryotes Cells or organisms h aving developed
nucleus
Prokaryotes Cells or organisms having no distinct
nucleus
Aleurone Layer of single or multiple cells full of
nutrition that encloses the endosperm
of monocot seeds, especially grains
Cellu lar transportation Movement of water, minerals and gases
in and out of living cells.
Science and Teclmology, Grade 8 73
3 .3 Classification of living beings
Study the figm·e of given organisms and discuss:
L Make three pairs of living being from the given figure based on
some common features.
11. With which common feature , you made the pairs?
ni. What may be the differences between the organismswhich you
made pairs?
There are many types of living beings on Earth. Every type of life has its
typical characteristics with w hich it differs from other types of living
beings . Living beings differ from each other by their habitat, mode of
nutrition, type of reproduction they have adopted, physical structures
etc. Though, living beings differ from each other in inany aspects if we
observe them carefully. We can also find some similarities between
them. For example, a bat flies and a rabbit runs, but both of them give
direct birth and feed babies their milk until they grow enough to take
other solid food . Therefore, bats and rabbits can be kept in the same
group called mammalia. In the same way, all known and discovered
organisms are classified into different groups and subgroups. The
objective of the classification of living beings is to make their study
quite easy and systematic. Classification of living beings not only
makes their study easier but also imparts knowledge about the trend of
organic evolution on Earth. Living beings can be classified in different
ways but there are mainly two systems to classify then1. They are the
'Two kingdom system' and 'Five kingdom system'.
Kingdom of Monerans ~
,k~~ ba~
~~ ~~~~
~~~~ o~ ~ -
Kingdom of Fungi Kingdom of Plants Kingdom of Animals
A!
7 ·
.insect
~~
A. /
mushrooms
~
~~
yeast
.:£..~~
-~
•
~~">Jo.
......,._
\
...
I
~~
..,/ - - _J
Fig 3.28
Observation and Discussion
Now observe the slide under the microscope and prepare a 'practical
sheet' with appropriate drawings and characters to show to your
teacher.
3.4.1 Effects of Microorganisms
Positive Effects
1. Some amoeba, like Amoeba proteus feed on bacteria, so they are
used to control bacteria.
Scien ce an d Teclm ology, Grad e 8 81
2. Most of the bacteria are decomposers. They decompose excreta
and the dead body of organisms. While decomposing, they
convert complex organic molecules into simple inorganic
molecules/minerals which increases the fertility of the soil.
By this, bacteria are helping to keep the ecosystem in balance.
Nitrosomonas, Clostridium, and Nitrobacter are some examples
of decomposing bacteria.
3. Rhizobium bacteria present in the rootnodules of leguminous
plants absorb atmospheric nitrogen and make nitrate which
increases the fertility of the soil and agricultural productivity.
4. Lactobacillus and Lactococcus are the bacteria found in milk and
help to convert milk into yoghurt. Streptococcus lactis bacteria
are used in producing cheese from milk.
5. To develop the products of medical science like insulin
(hormone), antibiotics, vaccines, vitamins, antiseptics, antiserum
etc, bacteria and fungi are used.
6. Yeast (a fungus) can convert carbohydrates and protein present
in foodstuffs into acetic acid and alcohol. This process is called
fermentation. Distilleries use yeast to ferment foodstuffs to
produce alcohol and acids.
7. Nepalese use yeast to produce alcohol and to prepare pickles,
Gundruk (fermented veggies) etc on a domestic scale.
8. Bacteriophage virus can kill bacteria. Because of this reason, this
virus can be used to control some bacterial diseases like plague,
dysentery, diarrhoea etc . and in the treatment of water.
9. In genetic engineering, many viruses are being used to replace,
transfer, repair, and synthesis of genes to develop high-yielding
plants and animals.
10. Virus is the link between living and non-living things, its study
has great significance to understand the origin of lives and the
trend of their gradual evolution.
Fig 3.29
a) Before storing, why are cereals dried enough in sun?
b) Why ar·e lemons dipped in salt and oil?
c) Why is Gundruk dried in sun? What happens if it is not done
so?
In daily life, different kinds of foodstuff are preserved with a different
methods to be used for a long time. With preservation, the nutritional
value of the foodstuffs can be conserved and they can be kept safe
from infectious microorganisms. The nutritional value of food can be
conserved by avoiding decomposition reactions a1nong the nlolecules
of nutrients and blocking the entry of microorganisms. To do this,
a suitable physical and che1nical environment should be provided
for the foodstuffs . Protecting from infectious microorganisn1s and
conserving the nutritional value of food is called food preservation.
Some methods of food preservation ar·e mentioned as follows:
1. Dry Preservation
Using a certain temperature and maintaining certain moisture, the
drying of foodstuff before storing is called dry preservation. It is a very
easy and cheap method. Because of dryness, microorganisms cannot
affect them and due to certain moisture (very less) the nutritional value
of food is maintained and they can be stored at room temperature for a
long time (months or even year·s). In our country, people are using this
technique for a very long time to preserve cereals, dry meat, dry fish,
dry fruits, nuts, dry veggies, fermented veggies etc. This technique
prefers a moderate temperature between 20°-30°Celsius for some days
either in sun or in an oven or electric dryer until they are completely
dry externally and keep very less moisture internally.
84 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
2. Wet Preservation
Preservation of foodstuffs by dipping in certain liquids which
can block the entry of infectious microorganisms is known as wet
preservation. To avoid microorganisms, the foodstuffs must be germs-
free the111selves and to do this, they must be washed or boiled and dried
well before dipping into a preferred liquid. Generally, concentrated
salt solution, citric acid (juice of any citrus fruit) , vinegar, mustard or
olive oil etc are used in wet preservation. The vessels must be lidded
airtight to avoid the entry of germs/spores through the air to keep the
foodstuffs inside safe. In Nepal, pickles oflemon, chilly, ginger, garlic,
fenugreek (Methi), radish, bamboo shoot (Tama) etc are stored using
the wet preservation method since ancient times.
3. Cold Preservation
Preserving food by keeping them in closed cabins or roo1ns with
very low temperatures (generally -180 to 4.4o Celsius) is called
cold preservation. Most of the infectious microorganisms will be
completely passive or killed under this range of temperature. Keeping
raw or cooked food in fridges in the kitchen or storinga mass of raw
vegetables and fruits in coldstores for months are some exan1ples of
cold preservation. Preserving some of the agricultural production like
potato, ginger, tunneric, squash (Skuss), fresh paddy etc in the dry
and well-covered pit for future use is still in practice.
Glossary:
Chemosynthesis Food-making process by some bacteria using
their chemicals.
Metabolism Chemical reaction inside living cells to keep
the cell alive.
Exercise
1. Select the best answer from the given alternatives:
(a) Who proposed the 'Two kingdom system' of classification?
i) Whittaker ii) Haeckel iii) Linnaeus iv) Aristotle
(b) To which kingdmn do protozoans belong according to the
'Five Kingdom system'?
i) monera ii) protista iii) mycota iv) animalia
(c) Why are bacteria called decomposers?
i) t hey cause diseases
iii) they survive in extreme environment
ii) they infect wounds
iv) they decay dead bodies and excreta of organisms
(d) Which virus causes COVID-19?
i) SARS CoV-1 ii) SARS CoV-2
iii) Corona virus iv) Flu virus
Fig 4.1
Questions:
1. Is the physical environment in the first figure suitable for a rhino?
If yes. w hy? If not, what kind of environment would be suitable
for them?
2. In the second figure, people are collecting fodder and firewood
from the forest. What consequences may occur to the surrounding
environment when people collect such things in excess quantity?
3. Which syste1n of farming is shown in the third figure? What are
the advantages of adopting this system in hilly regions?
4. What may be the reason for collapsing a part of the road shown
in the fourth figure? What may be the permanent solution to
such incidences?
Many types of organisms are found on the earth. Every type of them
has its typical characteristics that make them different from other
organisms. But every organis1n is interrelated with each other for
their existence. Differences seen in physical appearance, habitat,
and the mechanism of lifeprocesses of various organisms represent
the natural biodiversity. Living things are acquiring their every need
from the surrounding environment. Whatever things and services
are being obtained by human beings and other organisms from the
environment is the Service of the Ecosystem.
Science a nd Tech nology, Grade 8 89
For example, people are getting fodder and firewood, fruits and
inedicines, timber, water etc.from the forest. These are the services
of the ecosystem to living beings . Excessive use of such services of
the ecosystem harms their sources and they won't sustain for a long
time. Therefore, the wise use of these services and their conservation
while conducting any social, economic, cultural and developmental
project helps their sustainability and balancing environment.
4 .1 Biodiversity
Study the given figure and d iscuss it with your classmates:
~ ~
w
. • ll"f • Fig 4.2 ; lll~~~~!...:!.~~~~ii."!o "'lo:~~~
. t
i) Are all monkeys shown in the above figure have the sa1ne
characteristics? If not, what may be the reason?
ii) Do all these monkeys live in similar habitats?
iii) Which characters of rhino, monkey, tiger and deer are similar
and which are different?
iv) What is indicated by the variation found in different living beings?
There are varieties of organisms having different habits and habitats
on Earth. Different types of organisms have different characteristics
from each other and they live in different habitats. Varieties found
in different organism of different habitats is called biodiversity.
Organisms found in water, desert, cold climate, tropical (hot and
moist) climate etc . have different body structures and physical
characteristics. There is some variation among the individuals of the
same species too. For example, height, girth, number and length of
leaves, position and number of the ear of maize plants on the same
farmland are also not the sa1ne. Different organisms exist in different
environments with different physical structures and abilities is called
biodiversity. Biodiversity indicates the 'species richness' of the earth.
90 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
According to the 'Earth Su1nmit' held in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil),
biodiversity can be defined as the variations among organisms of the
same or different varieties regarding their genus, species and habitat
or the ecosystem to which they belong.
According to Convention on Biological Diversity -CBD, biodiversity
is defined as the variation among aquatic and terrestrial organisms.
Activity 4.1
Objective: To study the biodiversity of grassland.
Materialrequired: Measmingtape , nails, cord orrope, plastic bags, scissors.
Procedu1·e
1. Make a square on grassland with the
help of measuring tape and hoist - -
four nails at four corners.
2. Tie the cord or rope around the four
nails to declare a 1m2 area.
3. Now the square quadrate sampling
Fig 4.3 Quadrat sampling
on grass l and for the study of
biodiversity is ready.
Observation and discussion
Collect every single plant and animal that is grown or found within
the area of quadrate sampling and keep them in separate plastic bags.
After clearing the quadrate sampling area, count the collected plants
and animals separately, fillup the given chart and present it to your
subject teacher.
Plants Animals living beings found in the
highest number
Naine Nu mber Name Number
crabgrass 12 grasshopper 4
............... ............... ............... ·················
............... ··············· ............... ·················
Types of Biodiversity
Project work
1. Visit any protected area like a national park or a safari park near
your h0111e or school with your parents or teachers. Prepare a
report including the types of protected animals and plants, their
present status, the method of conservation adopted and general
information about the protected area and present in your class.
2. Prepare an informative video or report about the protected area
and conserved wild lives by visiting the computer lab of your
school and show it to your class.
98 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
Exercise
1. Choose the best alternative:
(a) Where was the Earth Summit about Biodiversity 1992 held?
i) China ii) Brazil
iii) Africa iv) Japan
(b) Which of the given alternative is related to faunal diversity?
i) Animals ii) Plants
iii) Animals and plants iv) Only ma1nmals
(c) Riya is thinking to conserve an endangered plant. Which
of the following action going to be taken by her represents
the Ex-situ method of conservation?
i) She plants the plant in the community forest.
ii) She plants the plant in the same forest where it was
obtained from
iii) She plants the plant in her kitchen garden
iv) She plants the plant on a riverbank
(d) Which one of the following represents the significance of
biodiversity?
i) Fodder and firewood are obtained from forests.
ii) Forests maintain greenery
iii) Tourists often visit attractive forests for fun
iv) There is always son1e fear of wild animals from forests.
(e) What percentage of plant species in the world is found in
Nepal?
i) 1.1% ii) 3.2%
iii) 10% iv) 0.1 %
3. Give a reason:
(a) There is some variation among the individuals of the same
species.
(b) It is difficult to conserve any native species with the Ex-situ
conservation method.
(c) Forestfire devastates biodiversity.
(d) Nepal is rich in biodiversity.
Fig. 4.6
(a) What may be the reason forthe landslide while constructing the
road in the first picture?
(b) Does this road last long?
(c) What parameters should be followed while constructing roads
in such places?
(d) As shown in the second figure, why is it necessary to make such
a barrier at the places of landslide?
(e) Except for making a barrier, what next can be done to prevent
landslides?
Read this part of the story carefully and attempt the following questions:
Norbu was helping his father at a paddyfield,it was full of water being
prepared to transplant paddy saplings. In the meantime, the ridgeat
a place of the field collapsed due to overload and pressure and water
started flowing down. Norbu's father stopped to plough and both of
them tried to stop the water by keeping mud at the collapsed ridge but
couldn't do so. Due to extra water, the ridge of the lower terrace also
collapsed. Norbu, then diverted the flow of water inanother direction,
only then they could repair the ridge of the paddy field once again.
(a) Why the collapsed ridge couldn't be repaired with mud?
(b) What would happen if they had used leafy twigs with mud while
repairing the collapsed ridge? Could it be sustained'?
(c) What could be done to the edge to prevent collapsing?
Exercise
2. Differentiate:
(a) Development and Sustainable development
(b) Social and Environmental aspects of sustainable
development
110 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
3. Give reason:
(a) Environment must be considered while implementing
developmental works .
(b) Sustainable development helps to establish social harmony.
(c) Degradation of biodiversity affects sustainable develop1nent.
4. Answer the following questions:
(a) What is sustainable development? Give an example.
(b) What are the principles of sustainable development?
Describe any one of them in brief,
(c) 'Skilled human resource is the foundation as well as
the destructor of sustainable development'. Clarify this
statement on your own.
(d) Describe the importance and necessity of sustainable
development for a balanced environment.
(e) What is sustainable development goal? Illustrate the effort
of Nepal to harness the goals of sustainable development.
(f) If any road is being constructed in your town/village, give
any three suggestions to the construction company for the
sustainability of the road.
(g) What are the aspects of sustainable development? Describe
briefly the interrelationship between various aspects of
sustainable development w ith a suitable venn diagram.
(h) Suggest to your local government what it needs to do for
the achievement of the goals of sustainable development
regarding biodiversity.
f*"-+" /
*
f ' - f! - F.tg .51
.
(a) Do the process shown in the above pictures occur at any stage
of life?
(b) As a baby rat is produced in the second picture, what is formed
in the picture of plant?
(c) According to the above pictures, what similarity can be found
in reproduction in plants and animals?
All organism have capacity to produce offsprings. In the life cycle of
organisms, the m echanism of producing reproductive units in males'
and females' bodies, their fusion to make the very first cell of new life
and its development into a baby organis1n of the same kind is called
reproduction. In general, reproduction in flowering plants takes place
by the formation of seeds in flowers and gennination of the seeds
into new plants . In non-flowering plants, direct growth of new plants
occurs throu gh their root or stem or leaf and other parts. Some of
the lower plants and fungi make special units of reproduction called
spores. In higher anilnals, males and females are separate and they
make reproductive cells or gametes in their reproductive organs. After
mating between an adult male and an adult female of the same species,
the fusion of their gametes leads to develop new life which gets birth
either directly from the mother's womb or through the hatching of
eggs. Organisms wh ich are least developed and have a poor ability of
fertilization continue their race asexually. In this way, reproduction
is an essential lifeprocess for the continuation of generations.
112 Science nnd Technology. Grade 8
5.1 Reproduction
Observe the given pictures and discuss :
Fig.5.2
(a) Before hatching, which events occur in the hen?
(b) What may be the reason behind the production of grains in corncob?
(c) What would happen if chickens do not hatch and maize is not
produced in cob?
There are many kinds of organisms on Earth . All these organisms are
giving birth to their kind anyway. Animals reproduce either through
eggs or giving direct birth or adopting any of the asexual methods.
In plants, reproduction occurs either through th e seeds or spores or
any of the asexual methods. Giving birth to ow n kind through any
biological method by organisms is called reproduction. Reproduction
is an essential and internal quality of every organism through which
they are continuing their generation.
Importance of Reproduction
(a) Reproduction prevents the extinction of organisms by continuing their
generation.
(b) Reproduction balances the death rate of organisms by giving new births.
(c) Reproduction is th e basis of existing of new generations.
(d) Reproduction balances the magnitude of biodiversity in the ecosystem.
Project work 5 .1
Observe the process of reproduction in five different organisms available
in your surrounding and discussafter completingthe given table :
Name of organisms Type of organisms Type of reproduction
Ant Animal Through eggs
.............. .............. ..............
Science and Technology, Grade 8 113
Asexual reproduction in plants and anilnals
Find out the answer through the internet or any other source after
observing the given pictures for discussion :
Fig.5.3
....... ~
Vegetative Propagation
i
Natural Artificial
Vegetative Propagation Vegetative Propagation
t t
i + i l i
under- aeria tissue
root leaf bulbils cutting gooleo gratli ng
ground stem culture
stem
t
sucker
•t
rhizome corn
t
bulb
t
•
tuber
Fig 5.10
(b) Underground stem
Underground stems are of five types : i) sucker, ii) rhizome, iii) corm,
iv) bulb, and v) tuber and they are more able for vegetative propagation.
Suckers with a bunch of roots are developed under the main stern
which later on develops as new plants in the case of mint, pistia,
banana, bamboo, ground raspberry etc,. The rhizome is underground
stem storing plenty of water and nutrients and lies almost flat just
under the surface. Ginger, turmeric, calamus root (Bojho ), and plants
like ferns have rhizomes. Rhizonie has given rise to inany buds which
grow as new plants in every next season. Colo cassia (pindaloo) and
gladiolus have corm, full of nutrients and water, at the base of their
green shoot which produces few buds that can be grown into new
plants. The bulb is another round-shaped underground stem found
Science and Technology, Grade 8 119
in onions, garlic, tulips etc. which are also enriched with nutrients
and water and can give new plants from the buds they have. The
underground stem of potatoesand yamsis calleda tuber. A tuber has
some depressions called eyes (aankha) in the beginning, later on, buds
arise from these eyes for propagation.
Procedu1·e :
(a) Collect some samples of vegetative propagation through the root,
stern and leaf of different plants.
(b) Let the samples dry in a room (not in direct sun) for a few days.
(c) Press the dry samples and keep them closed each in a plastic
bag.
(d) Paste the plastic bags along with samples on the cardboard paper
serially. Samples of vegetative propagation are now ready to
den1onstrate.
Demonstration and Discussion
Demonstrate the sample board in your class, conduct a discussion
program and keep it safe in your science lab for future use.
Artificial vegetative propagation
Activity 5.3
Download a video about grafting in plants and some grafts from the
internet and demonstrate it in class for interaction.
Production of new plants asexually using tools and techniques for the
hnprovement of quality and quantity of crops or cashcrops is called
artificial vegetative propagation. Plants from any of the artificial
inethods have good genetics and they start yielding much sooner than
Science and Technology, Grade 8 121
the plants which are grown from seeds. The reason for good genetics
is nothing but the selection of genetically sound parent plants and
that of earlier yielding is to spend less effort by plants to grow and to
gain inaturity. Cutting, Layering, Gootee, Grafting, and Tissue culture
are some methods of artificial vegetative propagation.
Advantages of artificial vegetative propagation
i) With this, the breed and genetics of plants can be directed as per
need.
ii) With the artificial method, fast-yielding plants can be obtained
iii) Many genetically identical saplings can be produced in a short
period from a single parent plant.
iv) This technique is very useful for spreading plants which have
no viable seeds.
(a) Cutting
The method of sowing cut piecesof
leaf,stem and root of some plants to get
new saplings is called cutting. Raspberry,
ground raspberry, blackberry etc. can be
grown from the cut pieces of their root
whereas in sugarcane, rose, pear, le1non Fig 5.15
etc. stem is cut to sow for their new
plants. Normally, a year-old twig should
be selected for cutting and each cut piece
should have at least two nodes. After a few
days of sowing, new root and shoot start
x 'OWing from the sowed pieces.
ctivitj 5.4 Fig .
5 16
Follow the process of cutting to a rose or any other suitable plant in
your school garden. Keeping the soil moistened, observe them for 15
days and note the changes that occur in the1n. Prepare a report and
present it to your class.
(b) Layering
Layering is done to the plants having soft branches grown from the
very lower part of the stem. The branch selected for layering is called
A B c 0
Fig 18
Materials required: Two similar and closely related potted fruit plants
(for example lemon and po1nelo) , a grafting knife, grafting clay,
planttape and a brush.
Procedure:
(a) Take two potted plants of the same family.
(b) Clean well the plant at the grafting area with the bush to avoid
contamination.
(c) Make a scion and join at the stock of another.
(d) Tightly pack the area of grafting with grafting clay and planttape
to prevent the flow of air.
(e) Keep the grafted plant in shadow.
(f) If possible, inake a video of the whole process.
Observation and Discussion
Observe the newly grafted plant regularly for 15 days. Note the
changes you observed in copy and submit it to your subject teacher
124 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
and exhibit the video you have produced in your multimedia class
for all your mates.
(e) Tissue culture
Callus
Shoot
R~
Fig 5.19 plant produced from tissue culture method
Fig 5.20
Procedure:
(a) Collect a bisexual or a staminate flower and carefully remove its
corolla.
(b) Shed its pollen grains on the middle of the slide with the brush
and cover the pollen grains with a cover-slip after keeping a drop
of water over the grains .
(c) Observe the slide under the microscope.
Observation and Conclusion
Draw a neat and labelled diagram of a pollen grain on the practical
sheet with its characteristics and present it to your subject teacher.
(a) Self-Pollination
Transferring pollen grains onto the flowers of the same plant is called
i_....+-#--:"!:'- Sl)tt
t--+-+--P-" " - SpcrmN~
~-~~!!f-- Plasma
membrane
Zona
pellucida
Fig 5.29
At the end of mating between a couple of animals, fertilization happens
through the fusion of a sperm and an egg. Although, thousands of
sperms circle an ovum, only one of them will be able to fertilize the
ovum. Fertilization is the mixing of nuclei of a sperm and an ovum.
After fertilization, the ovum is turned into a zygote which carries the
nuclei of both sperm and egg. Zygote is the first cell of a new body
to be born. The rapid development of the zygote makes the complete
body of a baby organisni. The duration required for a zygote to be
developed into a con1plete body to be born or hatched is called the
embryonic period or pregnancy period.
I\
Mate '\ Zygote Embryo Baby
Sperm ~ ~ •./"(,,.
~
~
Female
- -
Egg
Fig 5.30
Fig 5.31
Project wo1*: 5.5
Collect various kinds of seeds . Keep the collected seed separately in
plastic bags and seal them with a candle and paste them serially on
chart paper and sub1nit them to your subject teacher for discussion.
Dispersal of seeds
In general, seeds are grown inside fruits . A single fruit may have one or
many seeds. Seeds also ripen along with fruits and be separated from
the fruits. Seeds of some plants are carried to distant places through
caniers. Reaching of seeds from their origin to different places through
the help of any one of the carriers is called dispersal of seed. Dispersal
of seed is one of the adaptation of flowering plants by which they can
reach a different environment and try to be adjusted. Generally, the
Fig 5.32
S1nall and light seeds are dispersed through the wind. These seeds
may have feather-like scales, wing-like scaly structures or small
pouches of air which help seeds to be suspended in the air for a long
tinrn and wind can blow them to distant places. When their fruit is
ripened and open, seeds start taking off from the fruits and dispersed
along with the wind. Seeds of red silk cotton trees, Aak trees, Kans
and other grasses like Dandelion, cotton, maple etc are dispersed
through the wind.
(b) Dispersal through water
Fig 5.33
Seeds of hydrophytes, plants that grow at river banks and wetlands
are dispersed through water. Such seeds are water-proof, light and
floating type. When their fruits ripen and fall in the water, they are
carried by water up to distant places. Lotus, Lily, Mangrove, Coconut,
cattail etc are dispersed running or moving through water.
Science and Technology, Grade 8 141
(c) Dispersal by animals
Fig 5.34
Fruits of many plants are edible and eaten by monkeys, deer, squirrels,
mice, rabbits, birds, flyingfoxes etc. These animals eat soft and
delicious parts of fruit but due to hard covering they either cannot
eat or cannot digest their seeds, so they dispose of only seeds at
different places . Human beings have transported the seeds of cereals,
legumes, fruits , and vegetables throughout the world. Some seeds
like cobblers pegs (Kuro),and cocklebur (Bhede Kuro) have spiky
bristles all around with which they get stuck on animals' bodies and
reach different places. Seeds of small fruits are eaten and swallowed
along with fruits but seeds are egested here and there without being
digested and they get a chance to grow. Seeds of Java plum (Jaamun),
Chebulic Myrobalan (Harro), Myrobalan Beleric (Barro), Gooseberry
(Amla), Guava (Amba), Pears (Naspaati), Myrica (kaafal), Raspberry
(Ainselu) etc are dispersed by animals by swallowing and egesting.
(d) Dispersal by gravity
Embryo
Cotyledon
Fig 5.36
Part of the seed just under the seed coat is called endosperm. It
occupies the largest volume of seed and preserves plant nutrients in
the form of starch and proteins, which are used by embryo during
the germination period until the new plant initiates nlaking the food
itself. Except for some, most of the dicot seeds do not have endosperm
and they store such nutrients in cotyledons. All monocot seeds have
endosperm to preserve nutrients and their cotyledon just protects
the embryo.
Activity 5.11
~oty~ Coty1:a'J
Hypoco~ f 1-l
Radicie
..LJ:~,~~\
Fig 5.37
REST
~
I
velocity V8
velocity VA
11. Why do we feel that our bus is moving slowly when another bus
overtakes our bus moving in the same direction?
HI. Why do we feel that the bus is moving faster if another bus passes
nearby in opposite direction?
22m/s A r; 22m/s
22m/s B 22m/s
Q Q'
Fig 6.4 Buses moving in the same direction at the same speed
Alie
M
,..,
A
B
,..,
10m/s 10m
. .
15m/s 15In 5m I~
N N
Fig 6.5 Buses moving in the same direction with different speed
20m/s p 20m/s
l 1
A Q B
v- u+ v
2
2.
. .. . .
retardation (-a) = ?
(v-u)
By using formulae, a=
t
0 -20
or, a =
4
or, a =- 5 m/s 2
:. retardation (-a) = 5m/s 2
Project work:
Mark two points at a distance of 200 m on a road or playground. Mark
another point exactly in the middle between these two points. Call
two of your friends and request them to run in the opposite direction
from the mid point. Note down the time required for them to cover
100 m of distance. Calculate the velocity and relative velocity of one
person with respect to others.
Questions:
iii. What are the other similar tools used in daily life?
Load
effort
l
Fulcrum ~
l__:_oad dista_n_c_
e _ __ Effort distance
t.- - - -
Fig 6.9 lever
Effort
load
scissors
beam balance
Fig 6. 10 First.class lever
loa~
d ,
1
. ~~:::;;;;~
Fulcrum nut cracker Fulcrum - ~
lemon squeezer
Fig 6.11 Third Class Lever Fulcrum
Fulcrum
Shovel Hammer
Activity 6.2
Write down the name of the levers shown in the picture and classify
them as a first, second or third-class lever.
Activity 6.3
Take a 1 m long thick plastic scale . Effort
Make a hole exactly in the middle (at a
distance of 50cm from the left). Balance
the scale by inserting a piece of wire
into the hole as shown in the picture.
Fig 6.13 Tools based on the Prin-
Balance the various inasses hanging to ciple of a Lever
the right and left of the scale. Convert
n1ass to the effort. 1 kg inass equals 1 O
N effort on the earth's surface. Consider the mass on the right as load
and the mass on the left as effort. Balance the load by placing mass
at different distances from the hole. Measures the load and effort
distance from the hole by considering the hole as a reference point.
Fill the result obtained frmn this experiment in the table given below.
More effort is required if the effort distance is less and if the load
distance is less we need less effort to lift the load. In equilibrium
condition, all the levers work on the principle i.e.E x E.D. = L x L.D.
Here,
800 x 0.5m
:. Effort = = 266.66N
1.5m
Mechanical Advantage-MA
Less effort is required to lift the heavy load by using the lever. For a
lever, the ratio of load to the effort is called mechanical advantage.
Mechanical advantage is calculated to give the number of times to
which the applied effort is multiplied while lifting the load.
Load (L)
Mechanical advantage (MA) =
Effort (E)
Or,MA = _L
_
E
Mechanical advantage is the ratio of two similar physical quantities
of force so it has no units.
168 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
For example, if a person requires 150 N of effort to lift a load of 600
N by using alever, thenmechanical advantage of the lever is;
( MA) = L / E
600N
MA=
50N =4
The mechanical advantage of any
sim.ple machine is 4 , which means that
the machine can lift a load which is 4
times heavier than the applied effort.
Mechanical advantage is the ratio of two
forces so it is affected by friction. Frie- -;g;r;J~t'.i~
tional force reduces the mechanical ad- Fig 6. 14 use of the Lever
vantage. If the mechanical advantage of a
machine is more than 1 , then such a machine multiplies the applied
effort but if the mechanical advantage of a machine is less than one;
then nlore effortis required than the load to lift.
Velocity Ratio:
Both load and effort cover a certain distance w hen the load is lifted
by using a lever. The distances covered by load and effort are not
equal in simple machines. When the heavy load is lifted by using
less effort, then the effort covers more distance than the distance
covered by the load. So, the velocity of effort is more than the veloc-
ity of the load. The ratio of the velocity of effort to the velocity of the
load is called the velocity ratio.
Both load and effort cover a certain distance in equal time so,
distance travelled by effort(E.D.) time(t)
Velocity ratio (VR) = - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
distance travelled by load(L.D.) time(t)
(distance travelled by effort(E.D.))
(distance travelled by load(L.D.)
(effort distance(E.D.)
(load distance (L.D.)
Science and Teclmology, Grade 8 169
The velocity ratio of a simple machine is not affected by friction.
Mechanical advantage is affected by friction but not the velocity ratio
so, the mechanical advantage is always less than the velocity ratio.
Efficiency
Work done by effort in a simple machine is called input work
Input work (WJ =Effort (E) x Effort distance (E.D.)
Work done by the machine when the effort is applied to it is called
output work. Input work (Wo) =Load (L) x Load distance (L.D.)
The ratio of output work to the input work expressed in percentage is
called the efficiency of a machine. It is denoted by the Greek alphabet
eta (YJ) .
input work
Efficiency(ri) x 100%
output work
mechanical advantage(MA)
Efficiency(ri) = - - - - - - - - - - - - x 100%
Velocity ratio(VR)
inechanical advantage(MA) 4
Efficiency(ri) = x 100% = x 100%
Velocity ratio(VR) 5
Efficiency(11) = 80%
Therefore, inechanical advantage (MA) = 4, velocity ratio (V.R.) = 5
and efficiency = 80%.
Exan1ple: 1
If 1.5 m2 of anarea is covered by the cupboard of weight 1800 N,
calculate the pressure exerted by the cupboai·d. What would be the
pressure exerted by the cupboard if itcovers an area of 3 m2?
Here,
Weight of the cupboard or force (F) = 1800 N
Area covered by cupboai·d (A) = 1.5 m2
Pressure (P) =?
Pressure (P) = FIA = 1800Nll.5m2 = 1200 pa
force (F) = 1800 N
area (A) = 3 m 2
Pressure (P) = FIA = (1800 N)l3m2 = 600 Pa
Here, more pressure is exerted by the cupboard if it covers less area.
Pressure will be reduced to half if its ai·ea is doubled.
Applications of Pressure in daily life
Pressure has an important role in different work that we do in our
daily life. Shai·p plough share made of iron is used to plough the field
to make it easier to ploughbecause more pressure will be exerted
even while applying less force due to less ai·ea of the ploughshare.
Similarly, one end of the sickles and knife are made sharper to cut
or chop the wood easily.The tip of the iron nail is made shai·per to
Science and Teclmology, Grade 8 175
drive the nails easily on the wall.
In some cases, nlore pressure inay make it difficult to work in daily
life. In such situations, pressure has to be reduced. For example, the
back wheel of a tractor is made big and wide to esure that it does not
sink on the eround while digging a field. Similarly, pair of tyres are
'I
..:....•::..... , ~ \ ~·
' ( IJJ.. ') ,, .'::. a.6-:-..-.
A~ . .-_
The pressure exerted by the liquid column at its bottom is the force
acting normally per unit area of the body.
Therefore ,
weight of liquid column(W)
Pressure (P) -
cross section area (A)
W mass (m) x accelera tion due to gravity(g)
or, P = - - = (:.w =mg)
A A
density (d) x (volume (V)x acceleration due to gravity(g)
m= dxV
A
dxVxg
A
d x Ax hx g
(V =Ax h)
A
:.p = hdg
From the above relation, the pressure exerted by a liquid depends on the
depth of the liquid cohnnn (h), density of the liquid (d) and acceleration
due to gravity (g). The pressure exerted by liquid increases with the
increase in depth of the liquid column and density of the liquid.
Activity 6.7
Take a glass and fill it with water. Cover the top
of the glass tightly with cardboard or a piece of
thick paper so that it becomes air tight. Now
keep the glass in inverted position by keeping tf ttf
your. palm of one hand on the cardboard a1~d Fig 6 .20 Demonstration
holding the glass by another hand as shown in of Atmospheric Pressure
the figure. Now remove the hand holding the
cardboardslowly. Observe what will happen.
Activity 6.8
}
Take a small tin can with its lids. Open
the lid of the can and fill some water in it
and boil the water. When the water boils
j Jt~
<=>
and starts to evaporate, close the lid of Fig 6.20 Demonstration of the
the cantightly. Cut off the source of heat effect of atmospheric pressure
and keep the can under tap water. What
happens when the cold water is circulated on the outer surface of the
heated can? Observe it.
Caution: Use thick cotton clothes or tongs to hold the heated can and
keep your hands away from steam.
The cardboard placed in the mouth of the glass in Activity 6.7 does
not fall. How can it hold the water? Discuss with friends. In activity
6.8, the tin can starts to be crushed. Why does this happen?
In Activity 6 . 7, the air pressure exerted frmn the bottom keeps the
cardboard from falling. Similarly, in activity 6.8, the air pressure
inside and outside the can is different and the can is crushed. Before
the canis heated, the pressure inside and outside was equal therefore
there was no impact on the surface of the tin can. When the can is
filled with water and heated, then the air was pushed up by the steam
produced inside it and the air pressure inside the can is reduced on
cooling therefore can is crushed.
3
The pressure exerted by fluids (liquid and gas) is 2
Activity 6. 9
Measure the pressure of the lungs ofall students by blowing air in the
nrnnon1eter one b y one. Compare the pressure exerted by theirlungs
while blowing air into the manometer to your friends.
Project work
Make a list of instruments that make use of the atmospheric pressure.
Write down the function of these instruments in our daily life.
7.1 Heat
Observe the picture ancl discuss the questions given below:
:- "·~
K~ . ~. .
'#" ---11---
'
Activity 7 .1
I
Take a small metal plate or rod about 20
c1n long. Put a drop of wax on it and stick TI
the pin as shown in the figure. To make the T
pin turn downward, fasten the metal rod or
Fig 7.3 Transmission of heat
plate to one side of the table as indicated in in solid
the illustration. Use a heat source such as a
spirit lamp to heat one end of the rod. What did you seeafter a while?
Observe it. Are these pins stick to the rod or start to fall on heating?
Did all these pins fall at once or did they fall in sequence one after
another? Note down the learning from this activity in copy.
In the above activity, when the metal rod is heated, the pin on the
heated side starts to fall. Then the pins on the other side of the rod
fall in sequence. This proves that the heat is transmitted from one
end of the rod to anotherend. Heat is transferred by conduction in
a solid. When a solid object is heated, molecules vibrate from their
mean position without changing their actual position.Molecules do
not move from one place to another during the transmission of heat
but they are vibrating about their positions. When a metal rod is
heated, a nearby molecule heats the adjacent molecules . It warms a
subsequent molecule in the chain once the neighbouring molecule
has already been heated. In this way heat transfers fr01n one end to
the other end of the rod. The process of heat transmission of heat in a
solid without actual movement of the molecules is called conduction.
In the above activity, steel spoons, aluminium ladles and iron nail
conduct heat but a pencil, wooden piece, and plastic pipe do not
conduct heat and rather start to burn then1selves. Generally, heat
flows in metals but not in non-metals.
Materials that allow heat to pass through them easily are called good
conductors of heat. For example; iron, copper, aluminium, gold, etc.
are good conductors of heat. Materials that do not allow heat to pass
through them are called insulators of heat. For exan1ple; wood and
plastic are insulators of heat.
Questionto think:
Why non-stick vessels and pressure cooker handles are made of
plastic-like materials?
188 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
The Conductivity of Various Objects
Conductivityis an intrinsic property of an object that conducts heat.
Thermal conductivity refers to how quickly or slowly a material
conducts heat. Objects with high conductivity conduct heat faster than
objects with low conductivity. Most of the metals have high thermal
conductivity. Therefore, when inetals arebrought near the source of
heat theyare heated very quickly. Due to this property of metal, they
are used for making cooking utensils. On the other hand, inaterials
like plastic, cotton and rubber have very low thermal conductivity.
However, low conductivity of heat can also have several advantages.
For example; warm clothing made of cotton/wool prevents escaping
of heat into the atmosphere.
The conductivity of different metals is not uniform. The thennal
conductivity of a material depends on the n1olecular properties of the
material and its temperature. Even though diamond is a non-metalit
hashigher thermal conductivity than metals . Graphite is a conductive
non-metal.
Application of Conductionin daily life
Why the cooking utensils made of copper, steel, iron or aluminium
metals but their handles are n1ade of wood or thermosetting plastic?
Why is it warm when you wear a jacket? Why is the house made up
of n1ud cool in summer and warm in winter? Why do birds seem fat
on very cold days? The answers to these questions are related to the
transmission of heat. Some applications of the conduction of heat in
daily life can be mentioned as follows:
1. Metals are used to inake cooking utensils like pans and kettles
because it easily transfers heat from the source to food.
2. The handle of the tea kettle is made of plastic because plastic is a
poor conductor of heat, so it does not allow heat to reach the hands.
3. Woolen clothes or blankets are used to keep our bodies warm
in winter because wool prevents body heat from escaping. The
air that lies between the layer of heavy wool clothing, acts as a
heat insulator. So, woolen clothes and blankets keep the body
warm in a inore efficient inanner.
Science an d Technology, Grade 6 189
4. Teacupsand coffee mugs are made of porcelain because porcelain
is an insulator of heat.
Examples of convection
Convection is the process of transfer of heat in liquid and gas due to
the actual movement of the inolecules. The density of the heated layer
of a liquid or gas decreases as the liquid or gas is heated. A less dense
heated layer goes up and creates an empty space that is filled by the
downward displacement of the denser cold layer at its bottom. This
process continues until the whole liquid or gas is heated. Therefore,
the transmission of heat in liquid and gas takes place by convection.
Sea breeze
Sea breeze occurs during
the daytime. During
the day, solar· radiation
heats both the surface of
COOi briloli:O .........
the water and the land. moving iowards
lnnd
Activity 7.4
How does rainfall occur due to the natural convection of heat?
Discussed with your friends and present the result in your classroom.
Project work 7. 3
Make a group of friends in your class. Take a balloon by each
memberof a group.Inflate the balloon by blowing air into and tie its
mouth with thread. Hot air is filled in one of the balloons.Release this
balloon in the surroundings and observe whether it goes up or not in
the atmosphere.Is the balloon propelled into the air by the convection
principle? Discuss with your friends and present the finding of this
activity in your class.
7.1.4 Waves
Activity 7.5
What would happen if you were to throw a stone into a pond, frozen
lake, or the ice and stagnant water in your surroundings? Observe it.
Ripples of water are formed while throwing stones into the surface
of the lake and these ripples move towards the edge of the pond. It
is called a water wave.
These waves are formed when the molecules of water raise up
and down regularly and spread in all directions from the point of
disturbance. Water waves spread from the point of disturbance
to the extremities of the pond but the water n1olecules remain in
their position. Like in water, a wave is produced in a rope when we
jerkits one end. Therefore,waves are produced due to the vibration
of molecules.
cup
Cap
-~ Silvered
surfaces
Insulated
support
Activity 7.8
Making a model of an artificial greenhouse
Procedure:
1. Take a square-shaped plank of wood and fix the wooden or
bamboo stick vertically around its all sides as per necessity. Fix
these sticks with glue or s1nall iron pins.
2. Fix three sticks in a row in the centre of the plywood which is
longer than that used at its sides. Fixed one wooden stick at the
top of these sticks with iron pins. Now make a slanting surface
by keeping sticks horizontally fron-i the centre position to the
sides of the plywood.
3. The slanting surface and its vertical walls are covered by sheets
of transparent glass or plastic materials. The prepared model of
the greenhouse looks similar toa tunnel inade for off-seasonal
vegetable farming or the nursery bed.
4. Take a laboratory thennometer and note down the te1nperature
of the surroundings. Make a small hole in the slanting roof of the
artificial greenhouse to fix the thermometer in it and keep the
bulb of the thermometer inside the greenhouse. Keep the model
of the greenhouse outside on a sunny day for some time. What
200 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
is the difference in temperature between the inside and outside
of the greenhouse?Observe it and note down the difference in
the temperature.
Observation and conclusion:Short-wave radiationof the sun can
enter the greenhouse from its transparent roof and walls. These
radiations are partly absorbed, partly reflected and the remaining
transmitted to the inside of the greenhouse. Some portion of reflected
radiation changes into long-wave radiation and istrapped inside the
greenhouse. This is responsible for increasing the temperature inside
the greenhouse. The roof of the greenhouse is made slanted to enter
more solar radiation.
Question to think:
Why do we feel wanner on a cloudy day/night rather than on a clear
day/night?
hnpacts of the Greenhouse Effect
a) It increases the average global temperature.
b) It changesthe pattern of the water cycle.
c) It brings negative impacts on human health.
d) It decreases the agricultural production and productivity of the
land.
e) Melting of snow in the mountain causes the risk of glacier lakes
outburst flood (GLOF).
f) Due to the increase in the level of water in the ocean nearby
lowland areas are at high risk ofbeing subn1erged underwater.
g) It reduces biodiversity.
h) It causes desertification.
i) It causes an imbalance in the ecosystem.
Applications of Greenhouse Effects
It is essential to have a natural greenhouse effect on the Earth.
Greenhouse effects are crucial to keeping our planet's te1nperature
suitable for the survival of life. Without the natural greenhouse
Science an d Technology, Grade 6 201
effect, the heat radiated by the Earth's surface would simply escape
into space, resulting in an average te1nperature of -20°C. Due to this,
the existence of life on Earth will be merely impossible. Off-season
vegetables can be grown inside the greenhouse due to the increase
in temperature inside it. Farmers can make a good source of income
from off-season vegetables. Son1e plants that have lost their existence
in cold temperatures can be saved in an artificial greenhouse. In
addition, plants growing in hot places can be protected even in very
cold countries. If the greenhouse effect is more, it would have many
negative effects on the environment.
Project work 7.4
Go to the agricultural farm near your home or school and observe the
tunnels (artificial greenhouses) built there. Build a small greenhouse
in your school premisesin a group by using materials like those used
in the tunnel.
Exercise
1. Choose the best alternatives:
(a) What is the process of transmission of heat due to the actual
movement of molecules?
(i) conduction (ii) convection
(iii) radiation (iv) temperature
(b) What is the name of the process of transmission of heat in
liquid and gas?
(i) conduction (ii) convection
(iii) radiation (iv) evaporation
(c) How does the heat transmit in a vacuum?
(i) by conduction (ii) by convection
(iii)by radiation (iv) by transpiration
(d) In which of the following activities is heat transmitted by
the radiation process?
Reflective surface
Reflective surface
Fig 7.17 Convex mirror
Prlnclpal axis
C F: c
'
---- p ...············ F
p
... ../
,,. ~
f c ·-
F C
~·
object is kept beyond 'C' of the concave
mirror, the image is formed between 'F' A'
and 'C' . The image is real, inverted and D N
6 D ---I Amplitude
i\J7I
- .
~
Figure 7.33 Characteristics of Waves
Period:
The rune taken by the body to makeone complete wave is called the period.
It is denoted by 'T' and its S.I. unit is second (s). If 'f'' complete waves are
fanned in 1 second thenl c01nplete wave is fanned in 1/f seconds.
1 T
: . time period = - - - - - or 1
frequency F
Wavelength:
The distance h'avelled by a sound wave in one complete vibration is
called wavelength. It is also defined as the distance between any two
consecutive crests or troughs or c01npressions or rarefactions in the wave.
ILis denoted by the Greek Letter Lambda 'A,' and its S.I. unit is meter (m).
218 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
Amplitude:
The maximu1n displacement of particles of the niedium above or
below the mean position in a wave is called the amplitude of the
wave. It is denoted by 'A' and its S.I. unit is rneter (m).
Speed of Sound Wave
The speed of sound is different in different media but it is constant
in a particular medium. For example, the speed of sound in the air is
332 m/s. The distance travelled by the sound in a unit time (or ls) is
called the speed of the sound wave.
Mathematically,
Speed of sound wave (v) =Frequency (f) xWave length (A)
Wavelength is measured in ineters and frequency is measured in
hertz (per second), therefore speed of sound is measured in m/s. In
any medium, the speed of a sound wave remains constant even if the
wavelength and frequency of sound vary. Wavelength and frequency
are in the form of product, so if the wavelength is increased then
thefrequency decreases and vice-versa.
Example 1
Find the speed of a sound wave whose frequency is 66 Hz and
wavelength is 5m.
Solution:
Here,
Frequency of sound (f) = 66 Hz
Wavelength (A) = 5 111
Speed of sound (v) =?
We know that,
Speed of sound wave (v) =Frequency (f) xWave length (A)
or, v = 66 x 5
or, v = 330 m/s
Therefore, the speed of sound in air is 330 m/s.
Exercise
1. Choose the best alternatives:
(a) Which is the time the number of sound waves produced is
called wave?
(i) 1 second (ii) 2 seconds
(iii) 3 seconds (iv) 4 seconds
(b) What is the range of frequency of audible sound?
(i) 2 Hz to 20 Hz (ii) 2 Hz to 20 kHz
(iii) 2 Hz to 200 kHz (iv) 2 Hz to 200 Hz
(c) What is the range of intensity of audible sound?
(i) 2 Hz to 20 dB (ii) 2 Hz to 40 dB
(iii) 2 Hz to 200 dB (iv) 2 Hz to 200 dB
(d) What is the intensity of sound having a higher amplitude?
(i) more (ii) Less
(iii) re1nainsthe same (iv) more or less
(e) What is the threshold of hearing for deafness?
(i)90 dB (ii)80 dB
(iii)60 dB (iv)55 dB
(f) Which of the following animal can produce and hear
ultrasound?
(i) elephant (ii) bat
(iii) crocodile (iv) whale
Read the given passage and discuss the questions given below.
Sumnima is doing experiments onthe properties of magnets in the
laboratory. She is surprised while seeing the attraction between the
N-pole of one and the S-poles of another magnet and the repulsion
between the N-N poles and S-S poles of two magnets. In the course of
the experiment, a bar magnet fell into the floor andbroke into pieces.
She carefully picked up the broken pieces of magnet and repeats
the above activity by using them. When the ends of these magnets
are brought close together, the attraction between some pieces and
repulsion between the other pieces occurred. On seeing this incident,
curiosity arose in her mind. Meanwhile,the electricity was cut off and
the laboratory became dark. Sumnima was about to come out of the
lab after closing the door, the science teacher came into the lab and
said "MCB trips. there may be some problem in the electric circuit."
(a) Why does a magnet attract another magnet or magnetic substance?
(b) Does the magnet retain its magnetic properties even if it is cn1shed
into small pieces?
(c) Why did the electrical line cut off in the laboratory?
(d) What is the function of MCB in an electric circuit'?
A magnet is a substance that attracts unlike poles, repels like poles,
and produces a magnetic field around it. Magnets are widely used
invarious equipment including generators that generate electricity.
Electricity is the one form of energy. Electricity has been used in most
modern appliances to run them. Therefore, various devices operated
by using electricity and magnets have inade our life easier.
8.1 Magnet
Read the given passage and discuss the questions given below.
It has been many days since the television doesn't function properly
Science ond Tech no l o~_v, Grade 6 227
in Samprit's house. One day, amechanic was called to his house for
repairing the televisions. The mechanic tried to find the problem by
opening its cover. There wasa lot of dust inside the television. He
started cleaning the dust by using a brush. When the screws were
kept on a round object inside the TVs they were pulled by that object.
While cleaning, them echanic found that a connecting wire was
broken inside the TV. As soon as it was reconnected, the television
started functioning properly and everyone was happy. Samprit who
was closely watching all those activities wondered why these screws
stuck onto the round device inside the TV.
(a) Why are these screws pulled by the round object inside the TV?
(b) What would happen if you put small pieces of wood instead of
screws in the round object inside the TV?
Magnet is a substance that attracts some metals like iron, cobalt and
nickel. Objects which are attracted by inagnets are called magnetic
materials. Iron, cobalt and nickel are examples of magnetic materials.
A magnet can attract only those magnetic materials kept inside the
magnetic field. A magnet has a north pole (N-pole) and a south pole
(S-pole) . The property of attracting opposite poles and repelling similar
poles of the magnet is called nlagnetic property.
Activity 8.1 Study the properties of magnets (By using bar magnets).
Objective: To study the magnetic properties of magnets.
Materials required: Two bar magnets.pins or small iron nails and
cotton thread.
Procedure
(a) Tie the bar magnet with the cotton threadin the middle and
suspend it onthe stand.
(b) Bring the north and south poles of another magnet alternately
to any pole of the suspended magnet.
(c) Bring pins or iron nails near the suspended magnet.
+
pins and small iron nails.
Procedure
Cut 50 cm long insulated Switch
Cell
copper wire with the help of '] 017.b
pliers. Fig 8.3 Making an Electromagnet
d. In factories and ports, huge iron plates and rods are loaded and
unloaded using electromagnets.
Fig 8.4 (i) molecular magnet in magnetic substance (ii) magnetic molecules in magnet.
inagnet is demagnetized.
Keeping like poles together
Like poles repel each other. If like poles of two magnets are kept
together forcefully for a long time then the repulsion disturbs the
parallel arrangement of the molecular nlagnets and the magnets get
demagnetized.
d. .Naturalloss
If the pennanent or bar magnet is kept in an open place or without a
keeper for a long time, it gets demagnetized. The magnetic intensity
of anold magnet slowly decreases. If this process would be continuing
for a long time, the magnet may lose its magnetic properties.
Activity 8.3
Objective: To study the demagnetization of the permanent magnet
Materials 1·equfred: Bar magnet, insulated copper wire, low voltage
A.C. current, switch, pins or iron nails and pliers.
c.
Do not hanuner or drop the magnet
on the hard floor. ?1
Kccpcr
Do not keep a current-canying wire Fig 8.9 Bar Magnet in its keeper
near the magnet.
d. Keep the bar magnet always in its keeper if it is not in use.
Geomagnetism
Earth also possesses a magnetic property and it is considered a huge
magnet. Magnetic properties associated with the earth are called
gemnagnetism or terrestrial magnetism. The geomagnetic North Pole
and South Pole exist in terrestrial magnets too. Terrestrial magnetism
is generated by convection currents of molten iron and nickel in
the earth's outer coreover the inner core. The poles of the terrestrial
rnagnet are located opposite to the geographic poles and they are
gradually changing their position very slowly.
234 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
Fig 8.10 Terrestrial magnetic field and structure of the earth's core due to terrestrial
magnetism.
Electric Meter
The electric meter is the device that measures the energy consumed
238 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
by the electrical equipment or loads. The electric
ineter is kept inside a plastic or wooden box which
is called an electric meter box. It is kept in a series
combination with the main switch. The electrical
energy consumption is recorded in digital form on
an electric meter. The comn1ercial unit of electrical
energy consumption is a kilowatt hour (kWh) or
unit. One unit of electrical energy consumption Fig 8.16 Electric meter
is equivalent to a 1-kilowatt hour. One unit of
electricity is consumed while using any electrical device of power
1000 W for 1 h our. Based on this inforn1ation, monthly energy
consumption is recorded in the form of units and we can calculate
the monthly charge for electricity. For example, if the electric meter
shows 40 units of electrical energy consumed in a month and the cost
of electricity consumption is Rs. 8 per unit. We should pay Rs 320 to
the electricity authority for the consumption of electricity in that month.
We can use the following formulae to calculate the electricity bill.
Let us consider,
Energy consumed = E.C. (kWh or unit)
Power of electrical device = P (kW)
Tin1e = t (hr)
Number of devices = N
Then the formula to calculate the energy consumption is given below,
E.C. = P x N x t
By using the above formula, we can calcu late the electrical energy
consumed by total electrical equipment and the bill amount that must
be paid to the electricity authority.
Numerical proble1n
If there are 4 electric bulbs each of power 60 W in a house used for
3.5 hrs in a day. Calculate the electricity bill for the month if the cost
of a unit of electricity is Rs 8 .50
--
in domestic electrification. Plug and socket I
are fixed on the wall and electrical devices are
connected tothe plug and socket to operate them.
In the same socket, we can insert one or manyFig 8.21 Plug and socket
plugs. The sockets are either 2-pin or 3-pin
sockets. Plug and socket are used to distribute the electric current
safely and to minimize the risk of electric shock in domestic wiring.
Electric Bulb
An electric bulb converts electrical energy into light energy. Bulbs are
connected in parallel combination in domestic wiring but they are
connected in series combination in disco lights. The bulb is made of
Science an d Technology, Grade 6 241
transparent glass. A tungsten filament is kept inside the bulb to convert
electrical energy into light energy. Filament lan1ps, fluorescent lamps,
compact fluorescent lamp (CFL) bulbs and light emitting diode (LED)
are some common types of bulbs. We should be very careful while
disposingof the broken bulb because the broken pieces of glass are
sharp and harmful chemicals may have been used inside the bulb .
Project work 8.4
Identify the various electrical devices used in your school premises.
Make a report by including the condition of these devices and their
application. Present your reportin the classroom.
8.2.2 Electric \Vire
Conducting wire is used to distribute the electric current in domestic
electrification. We cannot make an electric circuit without conducting
wires. Electric current flows through the path provided by the wire.
Three types of wires are used in domestic electrification; i.e. Phase
or live wire,neutral wire and earth wire.
Phase or Live Wire
The wire containing a higher potential current is called phase wire
or live wire . It gives the electric shock while touching because a high
potential current flows through our body. So, we should be very
careful. Switches and fuses are used in phase or live wire so that
the high potential current doesn't flow through the circuit when the
switch is OFF. Generally, red or dark-red coloured wires are used for
rnaking phase or live wire.
Neutral Wire
An electric current of zero potential flows in a neutral wire. Electric
current flows through the electric
equipment due to th e difference Earth / -
in potential between a phase and Red ,,,,,,,,,,,
Caution: Electric shock may kill a person, so turn OFF the main switch
before performing any electTical activities with the real domestic
electric circuit. You must carry out such activities only in the presence
of parents or teachers.
Activity 8.5
Objective: To connect the wire to a plug
Materials required: Screwdriver, tester, pliers, knife and conducting
wires.
Procedure
a. Take a plug and unscrew its cover witha screwdriver.
b. Take a cable connected to a piece of electric equipment at one end.
c. Identify the live, neutral and earth wires at the free end of the
cable and remove about 1 . 5 cm of insulation from the tip of each
Activity 8.6
Objective: To construct the electric circuit of lamps
Materials required: Wooden electric board, holder, cable, wire,
switch, multiplug, screwdriver, screws, pliers, knife, insulation tape,
and a tester.