Science and Technology: Grade 8

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Science and Technology

Grade 8

Government of Nepal
Ministry of Education, Science and Technology
Curriculum Development Centre
Publisher: Government of Nepal
Ministry of Education, Science and Technology
Curriculum Development Centre
Sanothimi, Bhaktapur

© Curriculum Development Centre

All rights reserved, no part of this publication may be reproduced,


transmitted in any other form or by any means without the written
permission of the publisher. However, this does not prohibit
making photocopies of its pages for teacher training or other
non-profit making purposes.

First Edition: 2023

Send your comment and suggestions to:

Editing and Publishing Section, Curriculum Development Centre


Phone: 01-6630-588, Fax: 01-6630-797
Email: cdc@ntc.net.np
Website: moecdc.gov.np
Preface

School education is the foundation for preparing the citizen who are
loyal to the nation and nationality, committed to the norms and values
of federal democratic republic, self-reliant and respecting the social
and cultural diversity. It is also remarkable for developing a good moral
character with the practical know-how of the use of ICT along with the
application of scientific concept and positive thinking. It is also expected
to prepare the citizens who are moral and ethical, disciplined, social and
human value sensitive with the consciousness about the environmental
conversation and sustainable development. Moreover, it should be
helpful for developing the skills for solving the real life problems. This
textbook 'Science and Technology, Grade 8' is fully aligned with the
intent carried out by the National Curriculum Framework for School
Education, 2076 and is developed fully in accordance with the new
Basic Level Science and Technology Curriculum, 2077.
This textbook is initially written by Mr. Dambaru Prasad Pokhrel,
Mrs. Rabina Maharjan, Mr Ram Sharan Regmi, Mr. Yubaraj Adhikari and
Mr. Lav Dev Bhatta. It has been translated by Mr. Surendra Jung Karki, Mr.
Mukti Subedi and Mr. Subash Kharel. The contribution made by Director
General Mr. Baikuntha Prasad Aryal, Prof. Dr. Krishna Bhakta Maharjan,
Dr. Kamal Prasad Acharya, Mrs. Pramila Bhakati, Mr. Uma Nath
Lamsal, Mr. Heramba Raj Kandel, Mr. Keshar Bahadur Khulal,
Mr. Shailesh Bahadur Pradhan and Mrs. Mina Shrestha is remarkable
in bringing the book in this form. The language of the book has been
edited by Mr. Arjun Prakash Bhusal. Art editing of this book was done
by Mr. Shreehari Shrestha by making it four colour. The Curriculum
Development Centre extends sincere gratitude to all of them.
The textbook is a primary resource for classroom teaching. Considerable
efforts have been made to make the book helpful in achieving the
expected competencies of the curriculum. Curriculum Development
Centre always welcomes constructive feedback for further betterment
of its publications.
2080 BS Curriculum Development Centre
Sanothimi, Bhaktapur
Contents

Unit Topic Page

1 Scientific Learning 1

2 Information and Communication Technology 18

3 Living Beings and Their Structure 55

4 Biodiversity and Environment 89

5 Life Process 112

6 Force and Motion 152

7 Energy in Daily Life 185

8 Electricity and Magnetism 227

9 Matter 250

10 Materials Used in Daily Life 277

11 The Earth and Universe 302


Scientific Learning

Scientific Learning
Activities like observation, testing, survey, project work and model
building are done for scientific learning. Such activities are done
inside or outside the laboratory.Fact, theories and rules of science
are discovered based on these activities. Safety precautions should
be taken in laboratory work to avoid accidents. Such precautions also
help to obtain correct results fron1 scientific expedn1ents, observations
or research.
1.1 Precautions to be taken while Performing Experimental
work in the Science Laboratory
A n otice with the signs shown in
the figure is pasted in the science
lab. What precautions do these
signals indicate? Discuss with your
friends in the class.
A science laboratory is a special
room for conduc ting various
scientific studies and experimental
activities. Necessary equipment @
and ch emicals for scientific studies
and research are available there.
Various facts, theories, objects and
substances related to science are
Ix
studied, observed, tested and used
in the school's science laboratory.
We sh ould pay attention to safety
w hile doing such work. In the
®
-~ ~
science lab, we must follow safety
Fig: 1. 1 ~
rules.
Science a nd Technology, Grade 8 1
Random scientific work without following safety measures nlay
cause accidents as well as affect the results of observations, tests and
experiments.

Figure: 1.2 Observation of Mushroom Cultivation and Experimental work in the


laboratory

The following safetyrules must be followed while doing experimental


work in a science laboratory:
(a) The materials should not be handled haphazardly.
(b) Masks, gloves and goggles should be worn while using harmful
chemicals.
(c) An apron or a lab coat must be put on while working in the
laboratory.
(d) Everyone should be aware of the emergency exit.
(e) Hands should be was hed thoroughly with soap after the
experimental work.
(f) Eating and drinking should not be done in the laboratory.
(g) Chemicals must not be tasted or smelled in the lab.
(h) No playing and teasing in the laboratory.
(i) The prescribed method shoul d be used while performing
experimental work in the laboratory.
(j) Special care should be taken while using a burner or touching
hot objects in the laboratory.
(k) Hot equipment should not be placed directly on the table during
the experimental works.
2 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
1 .2 Experimental works in Science

Fig: 1.3 Experimental works in the laboratory

Observe the pictures and discuss


L What are the students doing in the picture?
ii. Which experiment have you done in the science laboratory?
ui. What should you pay attention to when you are in the science
laboratory'?
iv. Why is science laboratory important?
Experimentation is an act of drawing conclusions by using science
process skills like observations, research, tests and model making in
order to verify different theories and principles. If the desired results
are not obtained through experiments in science, other alternatives
are appliedto achieve it. Experimental work inay be done in the
laboratory or outside but the safety measures listed above should be
followed at any time.
Observation
Mamta was walking in the garden. She saw different kinds of colourful
flowers in the garden. Since she has already learned about different
parts of a flower in class, she picked a flower and looked at it. She
slowly took out each part of the flower carefully to see the four parts of
the flower one by one. In the beginning, she took out a calyx, corolla,
androecium and gynoecium. Then she became clear about what was
taught in class.
Science and Technology, Grade 8 3
In a meantime, she noticed a caterpillar Uhusilkira)sitting on a leaf
of the same plant and eating it. Man1ta was amused.She had studied
in the previous classes that a caterpillar turns into a pupa and then
to a butterfly. Therefore, she thought of keeping the caterpillar in a
glass jar to observe if it turns into a butterfly. She slowly plucked
the leaf along with the caterpillar, took it home and kept it safely in
a jar without closing the lid. She gave soft leaves for food everyday
and continuedobserving the changes. The caterpillar developed into
a pupa after 15 to16 days.The caterpillar did not eat leaves after this.
Thirteen to 14 days later, a yellow butterfly with black spots on the
wings emerged. Man1ta shared all these observations with her friends
and the science teacher. The teacher explained that observations like
that of Mamta play an important role while studying science.
The process of experiencing an object, event or process very carefully
using the sense organs is called observation.
Sense organs are used in observation. In cases
where observation with our sense organs is -
difficult, various tools such as hand lensesj
microscopes etc. are used. Observe the given
experiment for instance;

Activity 1.1
Fig 1.4 Observation of the
Title : Observation of Fungi
experimental work
Objective:To study the structure of fungi
Material required: Bread, water, forceps or tongs, a glass slide, a
coverslip and a microscope
Method:
i. Take a piece of bread.
ii. Sprinkle some water on it and keep it covered in a moist place
ni. Sprinkle a little water every day.
iv. You will see fungi growing after a few days . Place a drop of
methylene blue on the glass slide and put one of the mycelia
in the drop with the help of forceps or tongs, cover it with the
cover slip and observe it under the microscope.
4 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
v. Observe the structure of fungi and draw its figure in your practical
file and list the characteristics of fungi based on it.
Any object is observed and experienced by seeing with the eyes,
hearing with the ears, smelling with the nose, touching with the
skin and tasting with the tongue. Observation is not limited to the
laboratory. The rules, principles and characteristics of science can be
studied by observing various natural and artificial objects, processes
and events around the school and h01ne. Apart fro1n that, some laws
and principles related to science can be observed even by visiting
zoos, botanical gardens, pharmaceutical companies and information
communication companies. When observing, it should be clear which
object, process or event is to be observed. Accordingly, the purpose
of observation should be determined. Similarly, it should be clear
about what to observe and how to present the information obtained.
In general, the report should be written after the observation work.
There can be different formats for writing a report. For example. the
report for activity 1 .1 can be written as follows :

Fig 1.5 Structure of fungi

Title Observation of Fungi


Objective: To study the stTucture of fungi
Material required: Bread, water, forceps or tongs, glass slide, inicroscope
Method:
(i) The bread was taken.
(ii) Every day a little water was sprinkled on it and kept covered in
a inoist place.
(iii) Fungi appeared on the bread after a few days.
The fungus was placed on a slide of glass with the help of forceps or
Science and Technology, Grade 8 5
tongs and was observed under a microscope to study the structure
of a fungus.
Result of the Observation
The following characteristics were identified while observing the fungi:
i. No green pigments were seen in them.
11. Root-like mycelia were seen.
111. Stem-like hyphae were observed.
iv. Sporangia were observed on the tips of long branches growing
from hyphae.
Precautions
i. Be careful when using forceps as they are sharp.
11. Avoid the fungus getting into your mouth and eyes.
Activity 1.2
Prepare a report based on observation of permanent slides of single-
celled organisms like an amoeba, paramecium and euglena with the
help of a microscope in a science lab.
Scientific test
It is not possible to get all the information about a subject matter,
process or event only by observation. We make various assumptions
based on observations. A certain scientific procedure is followed in
or outside the laboratory to check whether the assumption is correct
or not. The scientific investigation performed in this way is called a
test. For example, perform the test given below.

Activity 1.3
Title: Test of Acids, Bases and Salts

Objective:To identify the given substances whether they are acids,


bases or salts with the help of indicators.
Materials required: Lemon juice, soap water, salt water, red litmus
paper, blue litmus paper, and test tubes.
Method
i. Keep lemon juice, soap water and salt water in separate test tubes.

6 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


11. Dip a red and blue litmus paper respectively in a test tube
containing lemon juice and observe the change in the litn1us paper.
111. Similarly, repeat the same process for soap water and salty water.
Observation:

Record the results of the reaction on the Practical file:

Indicators Lemon juice Soap water Saltwater


Red litmus paper
Blue litmus paper
Conclusion:
Red litmus with lemon juice shows ...... .colour and blue litmus shows
....... colour. Red litmus with soap water shows ... colour and blue
litmus shows ......... colour. Red litmus with salt water shows ...... .
colour and blue litmus show ...... colour. Hence, ........................ is
an acid, ..................... a base and ...................... is salt.
Determining whether the substances given in activity 1.3 are acids,
bases or salts are not possible by observation only. One can only
guess from the observation of the given activity. In the scientific
learning process, inference or assumption is also called a hypothesis.
Testing is the act of checking whether a hypothesis is true or not.
Testing in science is also a kind of experimental work. It should be
clear what is going to be tested and what is our assumption before
any test. It should be clear about the purpose and process of testing
with necessary materials, and the format to present the information
obtained after testing.
A report should be written after the test work. There may be different
formats for writing the reports. A sample format of the report writing
is given below.
Title: Test of acids, bases and salts.
Objective: To separate the given substances as acids, bases and salts
with the help of indicators.
Materials Required: Len1011 juice, soap water, salt water, indicators

Science and Technology, Grade 8 7


(red and blue litmus paper) and test tubes.
Method

(i) The given substance was placed in three separate test tubes.
(ii) Changes in the colour of red and blue lihnus paper were observed
by dipping in lemon juice, soapy water and salt water one by one.

Observations

Indicators Lemon juice Soap water Salt water


Red litmus No change Blue No change in
paper in colour colour
Blue litmus Red No change in No change in
paper colour colour

Conclusion:
........... is acid as it turns blue litmus paper to red colour.,
......... is a base as it turns red litmus paper into blue colour, and
.... .... should be neutral because no colour change was observed.
Activity: 1.4
Write a report with the help of a teacher, after testing the fact that
salt and water are formed by the chemical reaction of acid and base.
Activity 1.5
Two new students from class 8 are going to the science lab to do
experimental work. What suggestions would you give them about the
precaution they should take while working in the laboratory? Prepare
a chart about the suggestions given and demonstrate it in class.
1.3 Research work
Any research begins with a question or a curiosity. Generally, research
is a study in depth or to find an answer to a question or curiosity.
All the discoveries made are the achievements of such studies and
research. While researching, the researcher has to patiently study
a subject by completing a certain procedure. Even if you fail many
8 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
thnes, you should try again by finding the weaknesses and improving
on them. You have to follow different scientific inethods while
conducting research work.
Phases of the Research Work
The following steps are generally followed in carrying out research
work:
a. Goal setting.
b) Making inferences or hypotheses.
a. Choice of the data collection inethod.
c) Preparation of required materials .
d) Data collection
e) Analysis of data
f) Conclusion
Read the given dialogue

Rusa What are you thinking about, Samprit?


Samprit Yesterday, the teacher said that the manure used in
the fields causes water pollution. I did not understand
that. Manure is applied to the fields for the plants and
how does it pollute water?
Rusa Can plants take all the fertilizers applied in the fields?
Samprit Perhaps not.
Rusa Where does the manure that is not absorbed by the
plants go?
Samprit Rainwater, perhaps will wash it away.
Rusa Where w ill the rainwater take it away?
Samprit They may bring it to the rivers, lakes and ponds.
Rusa In this way, excess fertilizer on the plant is washed
away with rainwater into rivers, lakes, and ponds, and

Science and Technology, Grade 8 9


it causes the growth of algae there. The increased algae
take up dissolved oxygen in the water and oxygen will
be deficient for aquatic animals.
Samprit What you said may be correct, but I am still not
convinced how algae develops due to the manure
swept away by rainwater.
Rusa So let's have an inquiry or conduct research work.

Activity 1.6
Research question: What factors affect the growth of algae?
Objective: To explore the role of chemical fertilizers and acids in the
development of algae.
Materials required: Pond water containing algae, three bottles, chemical
fertilizers , vinegar etc.
Method
i. Bring algae-containing water from a nearby pond.
11. Now pour an equal amount of algae containing water into three
glass bottles so that they are half filled .
iii. Do not add anything in the first bottle, put a little chemical
fertilizer in the second bottle and a little vinegar in the third
bottle respectively. Name it accordingly from the outside.
iv. Observe the growth of
algae at the interval
every five days.
v. Write a conclusion
based on the results
obtained in 15 to 20
days.

Observation: Fig: 1.6 Observation of the growth of algae

10 Scien ce an d Techn ology, Grade 8


Fill in the table below with the results obtained based on the
observations:
Date Growth of algae in the Growth of a]gae in the Growth of algae in the
first bottle second bottle third bottle

Conclusion:
Chemical fertilizers play a .. ... .. .role and acids play a ..... role in the
growth of algae.
Its report should be written after research work. There may be different
formats for w riting a report. The report of the research work can be
written as follows:
Research Title: Effects of chemical fertilizers and acids on the growth
of algae.
Objective: To find out the role of chemical fertilizers and acids in the
growth of algae.
Materials required: pond water containing algae, three glass bottles,
che1nical fertilizer, and vinegar.
Method
i. Water containing algae was brought from a nearby pond.
IL Three glasses were half filled with an equal amount of water.
iii. Only pond water containing algae was kept in the first bottle and
pasted a sticker named pond water.
iv. A little chemical fertilizer was kept in the second bottle and
pasted a sticker named water containing chemical fertilizer.
v. A little vinegar was placed in the third glass bottle and pasted a
sticker named water containing vinegar.
Observation:

Science and Technology, Grade 8 11


The following results w ere obtained by observing at an interval of
every five days.
Dale Growth of algae Growth of algae in Grow th of algae
in the first bottl e the second bottle in the third bottle
Initial condition The number of algae in all three bottles was almost the same.
After 15-20 days Th e growth of The growth of algae Algae started to
algae is seen to is faster compared die.
some extent. to the first bottle.

Conclusion:
Chemical fertilizers p lay a positive role in the growth of algae while
acids play a negative role.

Activity 1. 7
Which absorbs more heat among white and black colour? Prepare a
report and present it to the class by deriving a conclusion after a brief
research on the subject.
1.4 Survey
The process of collecting data related to a topic or problen1 directly and
deriving a conclusion is called a survey. Questionnaires , interviews,
discussions and observations are th e guidelines for collecting data
while doing a survey focu sing on a problen1 or a subject.
In this way, conclusions are drawn after analyzing the collected data,
and solutions to the issues or problems are obtained. Generally , the
survey work is completed by following th e steps given below.
a) Selection of objective
b) Choice of data collection method
c) Collection of data
d) Analysis of data
e) Conclusion

12 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


A report is prepared including the title of the study, the purpose of the
study, tools or methods of data collection, analysis of the collected data
and finally conclusions and suggestions are written after completing
the survey work by following the above steps.

Activity 1.8
Perform a survey about solid waste management by visiting at least
50 houses in your com111unity. Prepare a questionnaire for the survey.
Analyze the collected data and prepare a report with conclusions and
necessary suggestions
Sample of Survey Report Writing
The sample of survey report writing which has been done in activity
1.8 and can be written as follows:

Title: A study on solid waste management in one of the villages of


Kathmandu.
Background

The surveyed area is a culttrrally rich village located in the inner city of
Kath1nandu. There are many temples, monasteries and archaeological
monuments in this village. People do business, office jobs and farming
for living. Solid waste has emerged as a problem in this village due
to the modern lifestyle. In this survey, study was done to find out
how the people living here manage the solid waste that c0111es out of
their houses daily.
It is expected that the findings from this survey also help in the
management of solid waste in other areas too.
Objective: To study solid waste management in the study area.

Data Collection Method:

A questionnaire was developed to collect data on solid waste


management, and 50 households were selected for the survey.
Necessary data was collected based on the prepared questionnaire.

Science and Technology, Grade 8 13


Analysis of Data:
From the analysis of collected data, it was found that 50 percent of
houses used to throw solid wastes into ni.unicipality vehicles without
separating degradable and non-degradable, 30 percent of houses used
to separate degradable wastes and make compost manure and the
remaining 20 percent used to utilize degradable waste for making
compost manure and the non-degradable to make various materials.
The obtained results are presented in a bar diagram.

non seperated making composte making composte manure from


manure degradeab/e waste and other things
from non degdrab/e waste
Fig: 1.7

Conclusion:
The results obtained from the above survey show that the practice
of recycling and reusing solid wastes has started in the survey area.
Annex 1 : Survey Questionnaire
1. What do you do with the solid waste that comes out of your house?
a) Give it to waste collection agencies.
b) Manage some of the waste at home and give the rest to the
waste collection agencies.

14 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


c) All wastes are managed at home.
2. What do you do with biodegradable waste?
a) Make compost manure from it.
b) Throw it on the road or in the river.
c) Hand it over to waste-collectors.
3. What do you do with non-biodegradable garbage?
a) Use it to make different materials.
b) Collect and give it to the collection agency.

c) Burn or bury it.

Activity 1.9
Prepare a report by surveying at least 30 individuals or families
through interviews, questionnaires or any other means on the various
methods they use to preserve food materials.

Science and Technology, Grade 8 15


Exercise

1. Choose the correct alternatives.


a) What is the process of experiencing an object, event or
process carefully through the sense organs?
(i) test (ii) hypothesis
(iii) curiosity (iv) observation
b) Which of the following methods is suitable if one has to
study whether the farmers of a region use more chemical
or organic fertilizers?
(i) observation (ii) test
(iii) research (iv) survey
c) Which of the following would you stop your friend from
doingin the laboratory?
(i) Tasting or smelling laboratory chemicals.
(ii) Wearing a lab coat.
(iii) Boiling water in a beaker.
(iv) Using test tube holder while heating it.
d) What should be done while performing a chemical reaction
that produces fumes?
(i) Hands should be kept away.
(ii) It should be carried out on a table.
(iii) It should be kept on a stand. (iv) It should be carried
in a hood.
e) Which is the first step of a scientific study?
(i) investigation (ii) observation
(iii) testing (iv) experimentation
16 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
2. Distinguish between:
(a) Observations and tests
(b) Research and survey
3. Write the reason:
a) Precautions should be taken while conducting experimental
work.
b) A report is prepared after the experiment and survey are
done.
c) Observation is the first step in scientific learning.
4. Write the answers to the given questions:
a) What is observation?
b) What is the importance of observation in scientific work?
c) What is done in scientific work when there is not enough
infonnation from observation?
d) What precautions should be taken while carrying out a
scientific experiment?
e) List the things that should be done and should not be done
while working in the laboratory.
f) Whatshould we pay attention to while researching'?
g) In what conditions is the survey conducted?
h) What is meant by survey tools? Write with examples.
i) Elina is interested to study the requirements of sunlight for
green plants. Suggest a clear method for her how to conduct
that study.
j) A class had to be conducted in the absence of the science
teacher in grade eight. Prepare a worksheet for conductin a
practical class on the study of plant and animal cells.

Science and Technology, Grade 8 17


Information and
Communication Technology

Modern information and communication technology and scientific


advancen1ents have simplified and increased the efficiency of human
life. Our daily lives are made easier, more instinctive and spontaneous
by information and communication tools including the computer,
internet, digital camera, CC camera (Closed Circuit ca1nera), radio,
television etc. Similarly, information and communication equipment
like ATMs . photocopiers, scanners, printers, routers, and Wi-Fi devices
have made human livesmore efficient, smarter and practical. With the
development of technologies, the use of Artificial intelligence (AI),
virtual reality, robotics and cloud computing are also increasing day by
day. For the accountability of online transactions, the Computer Code
of Conduct. cyber law, and other aspects of Internet security should
be followed strictly. In this chapter, we will discuss the application
of these ICT tools.
computing

l.a ptop

router n.,h drive / use drive natbed scanner


(•tso memoty suck tipec»/ly BIE)

POA dlgt~I ca....,. MP3 pr.,..


Fig 2. 1 Information and Communication Devices

18 Science nnd Technology. Grade 8


2.1 Tools of Inforn1ation and Communication Technology
Radio

Wireless Sets Television

Computer

Fig 2.1 ICT Tools

Information and communication technology refers to theintegrated


tools of communication. Radio, television, newspapers, computer,
projectors etc. are the tools of information and communication
technology . These tools create, display, store, transmit, and
exchange information. Information and comn1unications technology
(ICT) has influenced all aspects of life significantly. Therefore,
ICT is a wide subject in the modern age. Modern organizations
and different professionals depend heavily on network con1puting
and communication technologies. The use of such technologies is
increasing mainly in the fields of education, business, management
and entertain1nent. In this lesson, we will study the introduction and
general use ofATMs, photocopiers, scanners, printers, routers, Wi-Fi
devices, television, and set-top box.
Science and Technology, Grade 6 19
Activity 2.1
What type of devices of information and communication technology do
you u se every day to accmnplish different tasks? Find the application
of these devices and fill in the table below:
S.N. ICT devices Application in daily life
1 Computer To use the internet and store data.
2 • 0 0 0 I I 0 I oeo 0 0 0 0 0 eot Ill 1001 I 00111011 1 11 1 1 1 0 0 111110111111 Ill I I I I I I Ill

Automatic Teller Machines (ATMs)

ATM stan ds for automatic teller mach in e in its full form . It is an


electromechanical machine that provides automated banking services.
It helps the customer to make their transaction easily without the help
of a branch office, representative or teller. Cash can be withdrawn
from ATM using a debit card or credit card. ATMs h elp customers
conduct transactions by providing fast, easy andautomated services
such as cash withdrawals, cash deposits, bill pay1nents and account
to account fund transfers etc.
Basic parts of ATM

Input and output devices are the main


parts of an ATM. It makes it convenient for
customers to deposit or withdraw cash. A brief
description of the input and output devices in
an A TM is given below: Fig 2.3ATM.
Input devices
Card reader: The card reader recognizes the data stored in the magnetic
stripe located at th e back of the ATM card. Account details are
retrieved by the card reader and sent to the server. Once the card is
inserted into the designated slot of the ATM, the card reader allows the
cash dispenser to dispense cash to the user based on the instructions
received from the server.
Keypad
The keypad is a standard input device found in most ATMs. It is used
20 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
to enter the Personal Identification Number (PIN) to authenticate the
user and access their accounts. The keypad typically consists of a set
of 10 numeric keys (0-9) and several additional function keys such as
"cancel", "clear", "enter", and "language". Users are required to enter
their PIN on the keypad to complete a transaction.
Output devices
Speaker: Many ATMs also have an audio systen1 that provides spoken
instructions and feedback to users, especially those who are visually
in1paired. The audio system inay also provide an audio confirmation
of the transaction.
Display Screen

The display screen is an essential output device found in all ATMs. It


provides users with visual information about their transaction, such
as the balance in their account, transaction status, and prompts for
entering information.
Receipt Printer

The receipt printer is another critical output device found in ATMs.


It prints out a receipt with the details of the transaction, such as the
amount withdrawn or deposited, the remaining balance, and the date
and time of the transaction.
Cash Dispenser

A cash dispenser is an important output device of the ATM that


dispenses cash to the user at the end of the transaction. The highly
sensitive sensors used in the A TM allow the cash dispenser to
administer a specified amount of cash according to the user's needs.
ATMs perform cash deposits, cash withdrawals, account statements,
account balance statements, PIN code changes etc.
Precautions to be taken while using ATMs

a) ATM cards and PINs should be kept safe and should not be given
to anyone.
b) The PIN should be changed from time to time.

Science and Technology, Grade 6 21


Activity 2.2
Visit the nearby bank ATM location with your parents. Watch how the
cash is withdrawn from the ATMs. Try to use ATMs under parental
supervision and with their consent.

Photocopy Machine
A photocopy machine ni.akes the copy of documents. Xerography
technology is used in most photocopy machines. For many years,
photocopying was informally known as xeroxing because most
photocopiers used xerography. Xerography is a dry process. It
uses light as an electrostatic charge on a sensitive photoreceptor.
A photocopy machine needs light, heat,
pressm·e, chemicals and electrostatic charge
to function. A photocopier is a machine
for making copies of graphic content and
is commonly used in business, education,
and government sectors. A scanner, printer,
computer network, etc. are also connected
to modern photocopy machines.
Methods of using photocopy machine
Here are the general steps to use a photocopy
' ·-
.1

machine. Fig 2.4 Photocopy Machine

1. Turn on the machine


To use the photocopier, the first step is to make sure that the plug is
connected to a nearby pow er outlet or not. Then press the button to
switch on the machine. Most photocopiers have the pow er button
on the top, but son1e machines may have the switch button on the
side. If the machine does not respond when the button is switched
on, it 1nay be in sleeping mode. Before going to the next step, make
sure that there is enough paper in the paper tray. The paper tray is
usually located at the front of the machine. If there isn't enough paper
or the tray is empty, we should keep paper in it.
2. Put the paper in the copier:
At this stage, the cover (top) of the photocopier should be lifted and

22 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


the document to be copied should be placed on the glass surface. The
docu1nent to be photocopied should be placed in the machine with
the content facing down. Guide marks are also included on the glass
to align the document so that it is straight and centred. After placing
the document, the cover should be closed.
3. Select the paper size and type

Most photocopy inachines have settings to adjust the paper size and
type. Select the appropriate size and type based on the document you
want to photocopy.
4. Adjust the settings

Use the control panel of the photocopy machine to adjust the settings,
such as the number of copies, the darkness or lightness of the copy,
and any other desired features like colour or black and white printing.
Many photocopy machines have only black and white mode.
5. Start the photocopy

Press the "Start" button to begin the photocopying process. The


machine will scan the docun1ent and produce the required number
of copies.
6. Collect the copies
Once the photocopy is complete, collect the copies from the output
tray. Make sure to check the quality of the copies before proceeding.
Activity 2.3
Make a photocopy of an image on an A4 size paper and display it to
your class.
Scanner

An input device used to digitize a picture or text printed on paper


and store it in a computer is called a scanner. Some photocopiers
can scan documents to create soft copies of the originals. A scanner
is an input device that digitizes the picture from the required source
for photographic prints, posters, magazine pages, computer editing,
and display. A scanner works through Optical Character Recognition
Science and Technology, Grade 6 23
(OCR) technology. This process is
performed by a scanning head and uses
one or more sensors to detect letters or
images as light or electrical charges.
The majority of scanners are flatbed
machines with a flat scanning surface. As
Fig 2.5 Scanner
a result, it can scan extensive content with
ease. Generally, scanners are attached to
a computer system and use scanning software. It works to resize the
photo or picture and modify the image. A hard copy of the scanned
image can be printed if a printer is connected to the computer
otherwise it can be stored in digital format. These days, a smartphone
app can also be used to perform scanning work.
Activity
Scan a document at school using a smartphone or scanner with the
assistance of theteacher and present it in your class.
Printer
A printer takes electronic data stored on a computer or other device
and produces a hard copy. Since the
printer prints digitally stored files in
a computer or other device, it is also
called a hardcopy output device. A
printer is the most popular device
used to print textual materials and
photos among the external devices
of the computer Nowadays , there
are different types and capacities of
printers available in the market for Fig 2.6 Printer
different purposes. Some printers
only produce plain black and white prints, while others also produce
multicoloured prints. Printer speed is measured in Character Per
Second (CPS), Line Per Minute (LPM) and PagesPerMinute (PPM) .
The printing methods may be different in different printers such as
dot print, ink-jet print, laser print etc.

24 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


Common Steps to use a Printer
1. Ensure that the printer is connected and turned on: Make sure
that the printer is properly connected to your computer or mobile
device and that it is turned on. Check that there is paper in the
paper tray and that there is enough ink or toner in the cartridges.
2. Open the document or image to be printed: Open the digital file
that you want to print. This can be a document, image, or another
type of file .
3. Choose the printer: If you have inultiple printers connected to
your device, choose the printer you want to use from the list of
available printers.
4. Choose the print settings: Select the desired print settings, such
as the number of copies, orientation, paper size, and print quality.
Some printers may have additional settings, such as double-sided
printing or borderless printing.
5 . Preview the print: Before printing, preview the print to ensure
that it looks as you intended. You can usually do this by clicking
on the "Print Preview" option.
6 . Print the document or image : Once you are satisfied with the
print preview, click on the "Print" button to start printing. The
printer will start printing the document or image based on the
settings you selected.
7. Collect the printout: Once the printing is c01nplete, collect the
printout from the output tray. Make sure to check the quality of
the printout before proceeding.
8. Turn off the printer: When you have finished printing, turn off
the printer and disconnect it frmn your device if necessary.
Note that the specific steps may vary depending on the inodel of
the printer, so it's always a good idea to consult the user manual for
detailed instructions.
Activity 2.4
Go to the computer labat your school. Make a Word document of
your bio-data on a computer and print it with the assistance of your
teacher. Observe the printing process while printing documents.
Science and Technology, Grade 6 25
A Router
A router is a network connecting device that helps
to connect different wired or wireless networks.
A router helps to send data from one network to
another. It works on the principle of IP (Internet
Protocol) address . Nowadays DSL and Optical fibre
router are more popular in the market. Routers are Fig 2.7 Router
inainly of two types; i.e. wired and wireless.
Uses of a Router
i. A router is used to connect hardware devices and other servers
to a network at a remote location.
11. It exchanges data at a higher speed. So, it is used in both wired
and wireless communication.
ni. Routers are frequently used by internet service providers to
transmit data in the form of email, websites, voice, or video files
from source to destination. Additionally, it can transmit data
across the globe with the aid of the target IP address.
iv. Wireless routers can be used in a client-server format that permits
sharing of the Internet, video, data, voice, and hardware resources
by configuring a Virtual Private Network (VPN) .
Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi is the short form of 'wireless fidelity' . Wi-Fi is a type of wireless
networking system. Communication between
devices is established through radio waves
in Wi-Fi. It allows Wi-Fi-enabled devices
to connect to the Internet and exchange
infonnation, digital docun1ents , ilnages ,
movies, etc. Wi-Fi is a popular wireless
networking technology. Wi-Fi was invented
by NCR Corporation in the Netherlands in
Fig 2.8 Wi-Fi
1991. We can exchange information or data
between two or more devices by using Wi-Fi.

26 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


Wi-Fi was developed for computing devices such as computers and
laptops, but nowadays it is widely used in electronic devices such as
mobile phones, televisions and digital cameras.Wi-Fi is commonly
called Wireless Local Area Network (LAN). Wi-Fi technology allows
local area networks to operate wirelessly. It is becoming more and
more popular for dmnestic and business uses every day. There are
three methods for Wi-Fi signal transmission which are as follows:
i. Base station network or Ethernet connection: This is the main
host network from where the network is connected to the router.
It helps to bring the network signal to our house.
11. Access Point or Router: It is a bridge between wired and wireless
networks. A Wired Ethernet connection is used in the router to
convert wireless connections. It also spreads the signal around
in the form of radio waves.
11i. Devices: We use mobile, computer etc. devices with the help of
which we use wireless internet.
Set-Top Box
A set-top box (STB) is a device that receives
digital signals , and decodes and displays
television channels. A set-top box is a hardware
device. The signal received by the set-top box
can be a television signal or an internet data
signal. The signal can be received via cable, Fig 2 ·9 Set-top Box
optical fibre or telephone connection. The set-top box allows the
user to view various programs received from the service provider
over the Internet. The set-top box converts the television signal into
audio-visual content that can be displayed on a monitor, captured and
recorded. In the past, set-top boxes were mainly used for cable and
satellite television. Nowadays, Internet facilities are also available
in the set-top boxes provided by various Internet service providers.
Activity 2. 5
Observe the TV set-top box in your home. Make a list of different
parts in the set-top box by identifying them.
Science and Technology, Grade 6 27
2.2 Introduction of a Search Engine, Website and ISP
Search Engine
The search engine is a comn1unication program to search the content
on the internet.The search engine is a software system that provides
necessary details to users from information placed on the Internet.
To get information on any topic, we can use a search engine to find
a website related to that topic. Refining your content with a search
engine is used for search, saving time and allowing for more precise
results. Differentiating between official and non-copyrighted content
is silnple with a refined search. Even if don't know the address of
the website related to the subject are trying to get, can search by
just typing a word. Among the search engines used today, the most
used is Google. Due to the excessive use of Google search engines,
searching for something new or a topic is usually called 'Googling'.
Google has provided various services such as emailing, and translating
from one language to another through Google Translator along with
the search engine
Numerous websites publish the information that we need to use the
Internet. We may not know the name of that website. In this case,
we can get information by typing only the keyword with the help of
a search engine. A search engine is a special type of software that
is used to search for content ona website. From the huge amount of
information available on the Internet, search engine assists us in finding
the information we require. Some of the major search engines are:
1. www.google.com
2. www.yahoo.com
3. www.bing.com
4. www.ask.com
5. www.altavista.com
Activity 2.6
To find the Curriculum Development Center website, go to any
browser's search engine, click the search button, and type in CuITiculum
Development Center. Choose the www.moecdc.gov.np link from the
list of links to access the educational resotU'ces you require.
28 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
Website
l. Government of N•JMI
MiNM:ty of fduc.t~. ScMnc• and T.chnOIOgy
Curriculum Development Centre

Homo AOou1 Ut "' Org:intt3Uon " Publla?Jons • 0191tM Llbary • Do'Nnlood Contaet Ut Ot'hOrs • Onh"n-1 Equiva11nca

Fig 2.10

A website serves as a hub for the collection of inultiple web pages and
the storage of information about an organization. Any government or
non-government organization or business person can create a website
on the Internet. Nowadays there are many websites on the Internet
where various organizations keep their information. The website starts
from www. The full form ofwww is the world wide web. The website
of any organization or person is not compatible with any other website
in the world. So, every organization has a specific website address
which is called a Web address or Universal Resource Locator (URL). A
website for a curriculum development centre is www.moecdc.gov.np
which contains a variety of educational resource materials. A mobile
or co1nputer browser, such as Google Chrome, Microsoft Edge, Safari,
Mozilla Firefox, etc., is required to access any website.
Parts of the Website
A website is a collection of web pages hosted on a web server and
consists of the following parts;
L Webhosting:Web hosting is a service that allows individuals and
organizations to make their websites accessible on the internet.
A web hosting company provides server space to store website
files, which can then be accessed by internet users via a domain
name.

Science and Technology, Grade 6 29


11. Web address:A web address, also known as a URL (Uniform
Resource Locator), is a unique address that identifies a specific
website on the internet. A web address typically consists of three
parts: Web addresses are used to navigate to specific websites,
pages, or resources on the internet using a web browser.
11i. Homepage: The homepage is the first and most important part
of a webpage. It appears first when the user visits the website.
The home page defines the look of the website and provides links
for the user to browsethe desired page of the website.
iv. Digital Content: Each web page in a website contains various
types of digital content. Good content placed on the webpage
makes the website more effective and attractive.
v. Navigation Structure: Navigation structure in a website refers
to the organization and arrangement of the pages and sections
within the site. It helps users easily navigate and find the content
they are looking for.
Activity 2.7
Go to the search bar of any web browser, type www.moecdc.gov.
np, and press the enter key. Homepage with several options will
be displayed choose one of them, such as a Textbook, a catalogue of
textbooks for various classes will appear. You can choose the textbook
of your class and download it.
Internet Service Provider (ISP)
Internet service provider refers to
a company that provides access
to the Internet to personal and
business customers. These enable
customers to search the web,
shop online, conduct business as
well as connect with family and
friends digitally . ISPs provide
their clients with a variety of
services, including domain and
Fig 2. 11 ISP's Services
email hosting, and web hosting.
30 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
To use this service, the customer has to pay a certain amount to
the ISP organization as per their package. This amount also varies
according to the amount of data used by the customer or the data plan
that the customers want to purchase. Internet Service Providers are
also known as Internet Access Providers or Online Service Providers.
A provider of information services, storage services, Internet network
service providers (INSPs), or a combination of all of these, is referred
to as an ISP. In the initial phase, internet service was limited to son1e
government agencies and some departments of certain universities.
Towards the end of the 1980s, technology was developed to provide
Internet access to the common people through the World Wide Web.
Telenet is the world's first Internet Service Provider (ISP) and started
its service in 1974. Mercantile Company first started internet service
in 1994 in Nepal.
Features of ISP
i. ISP provides high-speed internet service.
11. Most ISPs provide e1nail addresses to their customers.
111. Most ISPs protect their customers against problems such as
phishing, malware etc.
iv. Smne ISPs also provide web hosting services.

2.3 Social Networking Site

Fig 2.12 Various Social Networking Sites

This era is the era of technology. There is a saying that goes,


"Technology is a useful servant but a dangerous master," attributed
to historian Christian Lous Lange.

Science and Technology, Grade 6 31


Social networking sites are also known as social networks or social
inedia. Social media is a collective form of online communication
channel dedicated t o com.munity-based interact ion, content
sharing and collaboration. While using social media, users have
responsibilities which they must fulfil by following the norms of social
media. Some examples of social media are Facebook, Messenger,
YouTube, Twitter, Instagram, Google Plus, Tiktok, Blog, etc. The
number of Facebook and Twitter users in Nepal is increasing day by
day. Any social network has its advantages and disadvantages . Social
n1edia has numerous advantages if we can use it properly, but there
are a variety of drawbacks if we abuse it.
Introduction to the Blog
A blog is a short version of a weblog. It is an online journal or
informational website where an author or group of authors share
their thoughts on a personal topic . Although blogs started as
personal diaries, there are more than 570 million blogs on the web
nowadays. Blogs are becoming widespread not only for personal
use but also in economic, political and social fields. Blogs are also
considered important in business. The main purpose of a blog in
business is to connect the produced content with the customer.
Great blogging makes a business more credible. The b log should be
updated frequently. Compared to blogs, websites are static in nature.
Blogging is the process of equipping a webpage with tools to facilitate
the process of writing, postingand sharing content on the Internet.
Similarly, a person who runs and controls a blog is called a blogger.
Creating Blog
Creating a blog is relatively easy and can be done in just a few simple
steps. Here is given how to open a blog account:
i. Choose a Platform: The first step in creating a blog is to choose
a platform. There are nlany free and paid platforms available
including WordPress, Bloggerand Squarespace. WordPress is the
most popular blogging platforn1, with over 60 million websites
using it.
n. Choose a D01nain name: A d01nain name is the address of your
32 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
blog. It should be easy to remember and related to your blog's
content.
ni. Select a Hosting provider : A hosting provider is a service that
stores your blog's content and makes it available to users on the
internet. There are ni.any hosting providers available, including
Blogger.com, WordPress.com, Bluehost, and SiteGround etc.
iv. Choose a theme: A the1ne is the design of your blog. It determines
how your blog looks and feels . Most platforms offer a variety of
the1nes to choose from, or you can purchase a custom theme
from a designer.
v. Start writing: Once you have your platform set up, it's time to
start writing! Write high-quality, engaging content that is relevant
to your audience. You can also add images , videos, and other
multimedia to make your blog more engaging.
vi. Promote your blog: To attract readers, you'll need to promote
your blog. Share your posts on social media, participate in online
communities related to your niche, and engage with your readers
to build a following.
Creating a successful blog takes time and effort, but with the right
strategy and dedication, it can be a rewarding experience.
Activity 2.8
Open a blog on the school computer or your parents' smartphone with
the help of the teacher/parent, then enter any ideas or write a quick
article that you prefer.
Opportunities for Social Networking
Social media has helped to spread information and communication
over the world. The use of social media has spread to almost every
nation. People froni. villages and cities everywhere are addicted
to social media. If used correctly, social media can be a powerful
tool in the world of communication. Some of the advantages and
disadvantages of social media are briefly described below

Science and Technology, Grade 6 33


Benefits of social media
a) Strong Medium
Social media is not only a place to share personal sorrows and joys,
it has also become a platform for intellectual debate. Recently, social
media has also emerged as a powerful ineans of the election campaign
and agenda-setting. Therefore, nowadays social media has become a
powerful means of personal expression.
b) Brand Development
Users can get information about any business by using social media.
This helps businessmen to achieve professional success. It is also
found that people involved in various businesses advertise through
social media.
c) Customer Interaction
The positive feedback given by different custo1ners in the business
can be an inspiration for other customers, while the negative feedback
can point out their weaknesses in the business and guide the way to
improve.
Activity 2. 9
StaTt up your parent's smartphone or the PC at school which includes
several forms of social networking sites. Ch oose YouTube from the list,
then enter "NCED Virtual" in the search field and press the Enter key.
Virtual class videos of different subjects of different classes appear as
shown in the picture. Open and watch the video of the topic you need.
Disadvantages of Social Media
Every technology is not only a blessing but also a curse. This state1nent
applies to social media as well. Recently, many side effects of social
media have also been exposed. Along with its popularity, it has
created many dangers or risks which are as follows:
a) Health problems
People who use social media excessively are at risk of becoming
victims of mental illness. They often have problems like depression
and insomnia. Blue light emitted from mobile or computer screens
inhibits the production of the hormone melatonin that controls our
34 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
body's "body clock". Melatonin acts to make us feel sleepy. But when
its production stops, we stay up late. Many types of health problen1s
arise if we do not sleep well.
h) Fake accounts
It is seen that by creating a fake account in the nanie of a person with
any name, sending friend requests to more and more people and taking
unauthorized advantage of it. Some people use Facebook and Twitter
to spread spam and malware.
c) Confidential information leak
In this , especially, the employees of any company use social media
informally to publicize technical information, so that the confidential
information of the company gets out.
cl) Targeted })hishing attack
Targeted phishing attacks are used to steal money or confidential
information. Cyberbullying is an example of phishing.
Project work
Make a Group discussion with friends about the dangers of social
media, the precautions to be taken and the benefits of social media.
Present the findings on chart paper.
2.4 General Introduction of Cybercrime, Computer Code
of Conduct, Cyber Law and Internet Security
Cybercrime


Fig 2.13 Various Cybercrime-Related Activities

Cybercrime is defined as any crime against a person or group that


harms someone's reputation or causes physical or niental trauma

Science and Technology, Grade 6 35


through electronic means. Cybercrime is also known as computer
crime. The use of computers for illegal activity such as theft of
intellectual property, identity theft, violation of privacy, etc. falls
under cybercrime. In cybercrime, especially banks and financial
institutions, government websites or famous people are targeted
through the Internet. Cybercrime is considered a serious crime.
Most cybercrimes attack individuals, institutions or government
information.
A Common Form of Cybercrime
i. Identity Theft: Identity theft is the misuse of personal inforn1ation
to gain unauthorized access to financial services or steal financial
assets.
11. Cyber Terrorism: Cyber terrorism is a cybercri1ne committed
against any person, group of persons or government to cause
serious harm or extort donations.
111. Cyberbullying : Cyberbullying refers to electronic media such
as social mediaor using mods to threaten, intimidate, harass, or
hu1niliate someoneor any other form of mental torture.
iv. Hacking:Hacking or shutting down a website or computer
network through unethical meansis called hacking.
v. Defa1nation: Every person has the right to speak on the Internet
platform. But if someone's statement harms the reputation of
any person or organization, then it is considered defamation and
it is also considered a type of cybercrime.
Apart from those mentioned above, obscene content and abuse spread
on the web, harassment and suffering, spreading hatred and inciting
terrorism, distributing child pornography, attracting minors to sex,
etc. are also cybercrimes.
Project work
Attacks against bank ATMs, privacy breaches, the dissemination of
offensive content online, the spread of unwanted rumors, and other
such crimes are some of the major cybercrimes that take place in our
society. Create and post posters with messages to discourage these
and other occurrences.
36 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
Computer Code of Conduct
Activity 2.10
A list of dos and don'ts when using a computer is provided in the
table below. As listed in the table, observe the dos and don'ts you are
aware of and complete the table.

S. N. Action to be taken Action not to be taken


1. Listening to music , Do notdownload or copy a file
watching videos and that is protected by copyright.
reading the news.
2. ••••••• •• 0 0 I 0 0 I 0 I I I I I 0 I I 0 I I ... ..... ......... ... .. .........
3.
4.
A computer code of conduct, also known as a code of ethics, is a set
of guidelines that outlines the ethical and professional standards
expected of individuals who use computers and technology. This
prevents the user from committing illegal acts such as being cheated or
involved in bad deeds. While using Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) users, programmers, operators or anyone else must
follow the code of computer ethics. One should not steal information,
software, data file or any personal or collective record using computers,
smartphones, tablets etc. to causeharm to others, spoil them or use
computer viruses to do unethical acts. It is the responsibility of all
of us to follow the code of computer ethics. The list below, provided
in point forn1, includes some computer usage guidelines.
a) Respect for Intellectual Property: Users should respect the
intellectual property rights of others and not copy, distribute,
or use copyrighted materials without permission.
b) Security: Users should take appropriate security measures to
protect their data and systems from unauthorized access, viruses,
and other threats.
c) Professionalism: Users should behave professionally w hen
using computers and technology, including avoiding offensive
or harassing behaviour.
Science and Technology, Grade 6 37
d) Accuracy: Users should ensure that the information they provide
or publish is accurate and truthful.
e) Compliance with laws and regulations: Users shou ld comply
with all applicable laws and regulations related to computer and
technology use.
f) Reporting violations: Users should report any violations of the
code of conduct to the appropriate authorities.
Concept of Cyber Law
Cyberlaw, also known as Internet law or digital law, is the legal
framework that governs the use of the Internet, computers, and
related technologies. By defending access to information, privacy,
communication, intellectual property, and freedom of speech
connected to the use of the Internet, websites, email, c01nputers,
smartphones, software, and hardware, cyber laws prevent or mitigate
the large-scale harm caused by cyber-criminal acts. Cyber laws provide
legal protection to people who use the Internet. Understanding cyber
law is extremely in1portant for anyone who uses the Internet. Cyber
law is also known as the "law of the Internet". Simplycyber law is the
legal system to combat computer crime and harassment. It has strict
provisions to punish cyber criminals. Cyber laws give legal authority
to digital signatures and electronic documents that are then used in
electronic banking, shopping and e-c01nn1erce. It creates rules for the
construction of a justice system related to computer crime.
The Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (CFAA) was enacted in 1986, as
an amendment to the first computer fraud law, to address hacking in
the USA. The governn1ent of Nepal passed "The Electronic Transaction
and Digital Signature Act-Ordinance" popularly known as 11 Cyber
Law" on 30th Bhadra 2061 BS (1 5 September2004) . The government
of Nepal has passed the "Electronic Transactions Act, 2063 (2007)"
and "Electronic Transaction Rules, 2064". Major areas of cyber law
include computer crimes such as hacking, digital signatures, Internet
of Things (IoT) and identity theft.
Cyber Act in Nepal
With the increasing incidence of cybercrime in Nepal, it has become

38 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


necessary to make a separate law. "The Electronic Transactions Act,
2063" deals with various offences of cybercrime, the salient features
of which are as follows :
i. Hacking or destroying any computer system knowingly without
authority will be punished with imprisonment up to three years
or a fine of two lakh rupees or both.
11. Access to any computer system without authority will be
punishable with imprisonment up to three years or a fine of two
lakh rupees or both.
111. Knowingly damaging data from computer systems will be
punishable with imprisonment of up to three years or a fine of
two lakh rupees or both.
iv. Five years imprisonment or one lakh for publishing illegal
material through electronic means.
v. Computer fraud is punishable with imprisonment for two years
or a fine of one lakh rupees or both
In addition to the above-mentioned Act, "The Act Relating to Children,
2075"prohibits taking any immoral pictures of children. In addition,
the publication and distribution of any pictures of children are
prohibited. Similarly,"The copyright act, 2059" protects the copyright
of ideas including computer programs. It prohibits people from
copying, n1odifying or using the original work for their benefit. "The
Privacy Act, 2075" places responsibility on public organizations to
protect individuals' data. They cannot transfer such data to anyone
without the owner's consent. Under this, the law provides that anyone
who violates privacy by transferring someone's data without consent
will be punished with three years of in1prisonment or a fine of 30,000
rupees or both.
All the above-mentioned laws issued by Nepal for cybercrime are
still not enough. The country needs to address the loopholes in these
laws and encourage their citizens to report incidents of cybercrime.
E-commerce, social media and cyber terrorism, among other areas of
cyberspace, also require comprehensive legislation.

Science and Technology, Grade 6 39


Project work
Make a groupby the teacher's directions, and then present a table in
each group detailing the offences c01nmitted while using computers
and the Internet and the associated penalties through group discussion
and reference material research.
Internet Security
Internet security focuses on the specific threats and vulnerabilities
of online access and Internet use. Various security strategies are
involved to protect the activities and transactions conducted over the
Internet. These strategies are intended to protect users from threats
such as hacking into cornputer systems, ernail addresses or websites.
Using various software on the Internet, hackers can steal personal
data such as bank account infonnation and credit card numbers
etc. In today's digital world, many of our daily activities rely on the
Internet. Various forms of communication, entertainment, financial
and other related activities are completed online. This means that a
lot of data and sensitive information is constantly being shared over
the Internet. The Internet is often private and secure, but it can also
be an insecure ch annel for sharing infonnation. There is a high risk
of security by cyber criminals. Internet security is a matter of priority
for individuals and official purposes.
Data entered into web forms, as well as overall authentication and
security of data delivered over Internet Protocol, are all covered by
Internet security in general. Internet security is a branch of computer
security. It covers internet, browser security, website security and
network security. The purpose of Internet security is to find ways to
protect against various attacks on the Internet.
Risk of Internet security

The internet has become an integral part of our daily lives, and while
it offers many benefits, there are also risks associated with internet
security. Some of the most common risks of internet security include:
Malwa.re: Malware is a type of software that is designed to harm
or exploit a computer syste1n. Malware can come in many forms,

40 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


such as viruses, worms, Trojan horses, and spyware. Malware can
steal personal information, damage files, and even take control of a
computer system.
Phishing: Phishing is a type of social engineering attack that involves
tricking people into giving away their personal information. Phishing
attacks usually come in the form of emails, text messages, or pop-up
windows that appear to be fro1n a trusted source.
Identity theft: Identity theft is a type of fraud that involves stealing
son1eone's personal information, such as their name, date of birth,
Social Security number, and credit card information. This information
can be used to commit various types of fraud, such as opening credit
card accounts or taking out loans in the victim's name.
Hacking: Hacking is the process of gaining unauthorized access to a
computer system or network. Hackers can steal sensitive information,
install malware, and even take control of c01nputer systems.
Botnet: Botnets are a significant threat to internet security, as they
can be used to carry out large-scale attacks that can disrupt critical
services, steal sensitive information, and cause significant financial
damage. Protecting against botnets requires a multi-layered approach,
including deploying effective security software, keeping software and
systems up-to-date, and educating users about safe online behaviour.
Measures of Internet Security

Internet security requires various measures to properly protect data.


Many measures can be taken to improve internet security, and some
of the most effective ones include:
i. Use strong passwords: Strong passw ords that are complex and
difficult to guess can help protect against unauthorized access
to online accounts.
ii. Enable two-factor authentication: Two-factor authentication
adds an extra layer of security to online accounts by requiring a
second form of authentication, such as a code sent to a mobile
phone.

Science and Technology, Grad e 6 41


iii. Keep software up-to-date: Keeping software, including operating
systems and applications, up-to-date with the latest security
patches can help protect against known vulnerabilities.
iv. Use reputable antivirus and security software: Antivirus and
security software can help protect against malware and other
cyber threats.
v. Use a firewall: A firewall can help block unauthorized access to
a network or computer.
vi. Back up important data: Regularly backing up important data can
help ensure that it can be restored in the event of a cyber-attack
or data loss.
vii. Educate users: Educating users about safe online behaviour, such
as avoiding suspicious emails or links, can help reduce the risk
of cyber-attacks.

2.5 Introduction of Robotics and Virtual Reality


Robotics
Robotics is an interdisciplinary branch of cmnputer science and
engineering. Robotics involves the design, construction, operation
and use of robots. The goal of robotics is to design machines that
can help humans. The fields of mechanical engineering, electrical
engineering, computer engineering, and rnathematics are integrated
by robotics.
Robotics develops machines that can assist
humans and imitate human actions. Robots
can be used to perform hazardous tasks that
humans are unable to complete with the aid of
programming, such as following orders in space,
disposing of explosives, performing a range of
tasks in the deep sea, and working securely in
areas with radiation threats. Fig 2. 14 Robot
Computer programming has given robots the
capacity to do tasks automatically. Cornputer programming is simply

42 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


understood as software. Robots mainly have two parts software and
hardware. Hardware is a physical structure that can be shaped by
humans and can be physically touched. Son~e robots look like humans,
while others look like machines. This computer programming is done
by the tasks that they are designed to perform. The robot functions
as a robotics program. Robotic process automation (RPA) imitates
human action, and intelligent machines can be built using this model.
The following list includes the applications for robots as well as sonie
of the crucial tasks they carry out are given below:
1. Manufacturing: Robots are widely used in manufacturing
processes to automate repetitive and dangerous tasks such as
welding, painting, and assembling pieces of machinery.
2. Healt11care: Robots are used in healthcare to assist with surgeries,
deliver medications, and provide physical therapy to patients.
3. Agriculture: Robots are used in agriculture to automate tasks such
as planting, harvesting, and crop monitoring, which can improve
efficiency and productivity.
4. Logistics: Robots are used in logistics to automate tasks such as
packing, sorting, and transporting goods, which can reduce costs
and increase efficiency.
5. Exploration: Robots are used in space exploration and deep-sea
exploration to gather data and samples from environments that
are dangerous or difficult for humans to access.
6. Education: Robots are used in education to teach students about
robotics and program111ing, and to provide a practical learning
expenence.
7. Entertainment: Robots are used in the entertainment industry,
such as in theme parks and movies, to provide interactive
experiences for audiences.
8. Security: Robots are also used in security to monitor and patrol
areas, detect and defuse explosives and other dangerous devices,
fire control, rescuing.

Science and Technology, Grade 6 43


Vh1ual Reality
Virtual reality (VR) refers to a
computer-generated imitati on
of a three-dimensional
environ1nent that can be
interacted within a seemingly
real or physical way using
special electronic equip1nent.
Fig 2.15 Application of Virtual Reality
This ilnmersive technology
creates an artificial environment that simulates a user's ph ysical
presence in a virtual world, allowing them to interact with digital
objects and spaces as if they were real.
Virtual reality technology typically consists of a display screen that
is worn over the eyes, providing users with a stereoscopic view of the
simulated environment. The display is often coupled with headphones
or speakers to provide an immersive audio experience. In addition,
motion-tracking sensors can be used to track the movements of the
user's head and hands, allowing for natural and spontaneous interaction
with the virtual environment.
Virtual reality has a wi de range of
applications, including entertainment,
gaming , education , training, and
simul ation. For example , VR can
be used to create immersive and
interactive gaming experi ences ,
simulate dangerous or complexreal- Fig 2.16 Application of Virtual
world scenarios for training purposes, Reality
or provide a virtual tour of a historical
site or museum exhibit. Virtual reality can also be used for therapeutic
purposes, such as exposure therapy for anxiety disorders or to help
treat post-traumatic stress disorder.
Overall, virtual reality technology provides a powerful tool for creating
immersive and interactive experiences that can be used for a wide
range of applications, from entertainment to education and many
other different fields.

44 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


Application of Virtual Reality
Real-world situations are modelled by virtual reality technologies.
This technology is utilized in several areas, including the military,
sports, mental health, and daily living. The following are some
exan1ples of how virtual reality is used :
1. VR in the Military Field
VR is widely used in the military field. Virtual reality has been utilized
by the military of developed nations for training. Virtual reality has
been employed in military training to properly mimic hazardous
training scenarios for soldiers and to fly in conflict zones, etc. VR
technology is also used to treat post-traumatic sh·ess disorder (PTSD) .
This treatment is also called Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy (VRET).
Which is considered indispensable for soldiers returning from battle.
2. VR in the Education Sector
VR is also used in the education sector for teaching and learning
activities. Using this technology, students can also be taken on virtual
field trips such as museums, solar system tours, and the artificial
feeling of going back in time to different eras. These days, virtual
classroon1s are being used for an increasing number of teaching and
learning activities.
3. VR in the Sports
Virtual reality technology can be used by coaches and players to
train effectively. Players can improve their performance each thne
by repeatedly watching and experiencing specific game scenarios.
Similarly, this technology is also being used to improve the audience
experience of live sports events. Various sports broadcasters have
started strea1ning live games through VR and have arranged to sell
virtual tickets for live sporting events. It can enable people anywhere
in the world to watch any sports event. Additionally, it enables
those who aren't able to afford to spend money to enjoy the game by
providing a low-cost live broadcast from their area.
4. VR in the field of Mental Health
VR technology is used in Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy (VRET)
and it is also being used in the treatment of emotional diseases like
anxiety and phobia. For example, an anxious patient can meditate

Science and Technology, Grade 6 45


using VR to deal with stress sensitivity and increase coping skills.
The VR technology can facilitate a safe environment for patients to
face the components that they fear, whilst staying in a guarded and
secure environment.
5. VR in Medical Training
VR technology is used by medical and dental students to practice
surgery. This minimizes the risk of any harm. Practicing medicine
through VR helps to in1prove the quality of medical training and also
reduces the cost of medical training.
6. VR in the Field of Fashion
Nowadays, VR is also being used in the field of fashion. VR is used to
display various fashion products, as well as to develop shop layouts.
Some of the world's most famous brands are adopting VR technology
to facilitate the fashion experience and entice consumers through
advertising.
7. VR in the Field of Architecture
VR applications provide architects with scale as well as information
to present their ideas and designs. Virtual reality applications will
be advantageous for all types of construction projects, whether they
are residential buildings, commercial buildings, or any other kind.
This is because they will enable these projects to be visualized in a
virtual environment to interpret every aspect of the project, such as
safety precautions or reducing any discrepancy from the final design.
The uses and capabilities of technology are limitless. In addition to the
above-mentioned uses,VR technology is also being used in fields such
as research, entertainment health and safety, heritage and archaeology,
fine arts, niarketing, music and concerts etc.
2.6 Introduction and Application of Artificial Intelligence
and Cloud Computing
Artificial Intelligence
Artificial Intelligence (AI) refers to the creation of computer programs
or machines that can perform tasks that normally require human
intelligence, such as understanding natural language, recognizing
objects, making decisions, and solving problems. Artificial intelligence

46 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


is an emerging technology that can act by
understanding intelligence and hunrnn
abilities through the use of machines. In
the beginning, artificial intelligence was
considered a technology that can imitate
human intelligence, but nowadays it has
been developed in many ways. Artificial
intelligence has the power to enhance
different types of work, connectivity
and productivity. The capabilities of
AI are expanding rapidly and its areas
of application are increasing day by day Fig 2.17 Artificial Intelligence

Artificial intelligence (AI) has also had a great impact on scientific


inventions . AI can be classified into three main categories based on
its capacity:
1. Narrow or Weak AI: This type of AI is designed to perforn1 a
specific task, such as speech recognition or image classification.
These systems are not capable of doing anything beyond the task
they were program1ned to do.
2. General or Strong AI: This type of AI is designed to be as
intelligent as a human being and is capable of performing any
intellectual task that a human can do.
3. Artificial Superintelligence (A.SI) :This is a theoretical level of AI
that would surpass hun1an intelligence in every way and would
be capable of solving problems that are cu1Tently beyond human
comprehension.
Artificial intelligence can perform various tasks similar to human
mind functions. It can comprehend human emotion and engage
in social interaction in a group setting. An outstanding example of
artificial intelligence is found in self-driving cars, generic robots,
chatbots etc.
Sophia, the first humanoid robot was brought to Nepal in 2018 at
the UNDP conference on "Technology for Public Services" and gave
a keynote speech on science and technology, anti-corruption, and
other topics.
Science and Technology, Grade 6 47
Fig 2.18 Application of Al in a different field

Application of AI
Artificial Intelligence has various applications in today's society. It
is becoming essential for today's tin1.e because it can solve complex
problems efficiently in multiple industries, such as healthcare,
entertainment, finance, education, etc. AI is making our daily life
more comfortable and faster. Following are some sectors which have
the application of Artificial Intelligence:
1. Al in Astrono1ny: Artificial Intelligence can be very useful to
solve complex universe problems. AI technology can help us
understand the universe such as how it works and its origin.
2. AI in Healthcare: In the last five to ten years, AI becoming more
advantageous for the healthcare industry and going to have
a significant in1pact on this field. Healthcare Industries are
applying AI to make a better and faster diagnoses than humans.
AI can help doctors with diagnoses and can inform them when
patients are worsening so that inedical help can reach the patient
before anything happens .
3. AI in Gaming:Al can be used for gaming purposes. The AI
machines can play strategic games like chess, where the machine
needs to think of a large number of possible places.

48 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


4. AI in Finance:AI and finance industries are the best matches for
each other. The finance industry is implementing automation,
chatbot, adaptive intelligence, algorithm trading, and machine
learning into financial processes.
5 . AI in Data Security: The security of data is crucial for every
company and cyber-attacks are growing very rapidly in the digital
world AI can be used to make your data safer and secure.
6. AI in Social Media: Social Media sites such as Facebook, Twitter, and
Snap chat contain billions of user profiles, which need to be stored
and managed in a very efficient way. AI can organize and manage
massive an~ounts of data. AI can analyze lots of data to identify the
latest trends, hashtags, and requirements of different users.
7. AI in Travel & Transport: Al is becoming highly demanding for
travel industries. Al is capable of doing various travel-related
works such as making travel arrangements to suggesting the
hotels, flights, and best routes to the customers. Travel industries
are using AI-powered chatbots w hich can make human-like
interactions with customers for better and fast response.
8. Al in Robotics: Artificial Intelligence has a re1narkable role in
Robotics. Usually, general robots are programmed such that they
can perform some repetitive tasks, but with the help of AI, we can
create intelligent robots which can perform tasks with their own
experiences without pre-programmed. Humanoid Robots are the
best examples of AI in robotics, recently intelligent Hunrnnoid
robots named Erica and Sophia have been developed which can
talk and behave like humans.
9 . AI in Agriculture: Agriculture is an area which requires various
resources, labour, money, and time for the best result. Now a
day's agriculture is becoming digital, and AI is emerging in this
field. Agriculture is applying AI in agriculture robotics, crop
monitoring and predictive analysis. AI in agriculture can be very
helpful for farmers.
10. AI in Education: AI can alsobe used in the educational sector. AI
chatbots can communicate with students as teaching assistants.
AI in the future can work as a personal virtual tutor for students,
which will be accessible easily at any time and any place.
Science and Technology, Grade 6 49
Cloud Computing

• 11
Al & Machine Learning

" sccurl yU
Cloud Computing
Networking

containers

compute

Fig 2. 19 Cloud Computing

In the field of information and communication technology (ICT),


cloud cmnputing refers to the use of remote servers hosted on the
internet to store, manage, and process data and applications, rather
than relying on local servers or personal computers.
It is the latest technology based on the Internet. Instead of keeping
various files on a hard drive or local storage device, cloud-based
storage makes it possible to store them in a remote database. As long as
an electronic device is within reach of the web, the data and software
programs to operate it are accessible through cloud computing. Cloud
computing has becmne a popular choice for people due to n1.any
reasons like cost savings, growth, speed, efficiency, performance and
security. Cloud computing means that data or information stored in
the cloud or virtual space can be viewed and used from anywhere.
The companies that provide these computing services are called cloud
service providers. Cloud computing services can be both public and
private. Internet-based public cloud providers charge a fee for their
services. On the other hand, private cloud services only provide
services to a certain number of people. Generally, we charge for cloud
computing services based on usage. Cloud service providers like
50 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
Datahub, Silver Lining, and Cloud Himalaya are working in Nepal.
Advantages of Cloud Computing
There are several advantages of cloud computing some of which are
described below:
1. Cost-effectiveness:
Cloud computing eliminates the need for businesses to purchase and
maintain their IT infrastructure, which can be very expensive. Instead,
businesses only pay for the computing resources they actually use.
2. Accessibility:
Cloud computing allows users to access their data and applications
from anywhere in the world, as long as they have an internet
connection.
3. Reliability:
Cloud computing providers typically have redundant systems and
backup measures in place, which nieans that businesses can be
confident that their data will always be available.
4. Security:
Cloud computing providers often have better security measures in
place than many businesses can afford to implement themselves,
which means that data is typically more secure in the cloud than it
. .
is on-premises.

Project work
Search the internet to learn about using virtual reality in Nepal. Based
on your research, create a PowerPoint presentation and present it to
your class.

Science and Technology, Grade 6 51


Exercise
1. Choose the best alternative:
(a) What is the main function of a set-top box (STB)?
i. Receiving the digital signal
IL Displaying the television channel
ni. Decoding
IV. All of the above
(b) What is the fixed address of the website
1. WWW ll. URL
ni. wave browser IV. wave page
(c) Which type of cybercrime is related to Intimidation,
defamation or any other form of mental degradation by
using electronic means or modes such as social media?
L Identity Theft IL Cyberbullying
iii. Trade Secrets IV. Hacking
(d) What is the latest technology that can understand intelligence
and human ability through the use of machines?
i. Robotics IL Artificial Intelligence
ni. Virtual Reality lV. Google Plus
(e) In which category do digital signature falls which measures
internet security?
i. Certification ll. Browser Selection
ni. email security IV. antivirus software
(f) Which of the following is an advantage of cloud computing?
i. Cloud migration
..
ll. Global scale
ni. IT Governance lV. Unexpected Costs
52 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
2. Differentiate between:
a) Printers and Scanners
b) Search Engines and Websites
c) Virtual Reality (VR) and Artificial Intelligence
d) Computer Code of Conduct and Cyber Law
e) Robotic Humans and Humans

3. Answer the following questions:


a) What kind of technology is an ATM? Write its important
functions.
b) Make a list of various parts of a photocopy machine.
c) What is a printer? Mention its function in brief.
d) What is a search engine? Illustrate the needfor search
engines with exan1ples.
e) Write the main features of ISP.
f) Mention the opportunities and benefits of social media.
g) What is cybercrime? What are the forms of cybercrime?
h) Mention the dangers of internet security and ways to avoid
them.
i) What is computer ethics?
j) What is Artificial Intelligence? What is the main objective
of artificial intelligence?
k) What is robotics? Mention some in1portant tasks performed
by robots.
1) What is meant by Virtual Reality? Write the various sector
in which it is used.
m) What is cloud computing? Write down any two services
provided by cloud computing.
Science and Technology, Grade 6 53
n) Which is device is used to convert hard copy to soft copy?
o) What is a collective form of online communication channel
dedicated to community-based interaction, content sharing
and collaboration?
p) What is the act of shutting down or abusing a website or
computer network by unethical means?
q) What is the name of the software program that makes copies
from one computer to another?
r) What is the legal framework to combat cybercrime and
harassment?
s) Write the full form of the following terms.
(i) ATM (ii) WWW

(iii) URL (iv)Wi-Fi


(v) ISP (vi) AI
(vii) VR

54 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


Living Beings and Their
Structure

Let's observe the given figures and discuss on following questions:

Questions:
a. According to Fig. 3.1, what may be the fundamental unit of the
structure of living beings?
b. Can we classify living beings based onthe type and structure of
the cells present in their body?
c. Is it possible to see all the organisms shown in fig. 3 .1 with the
naked eye?
There are different kinds of plants and animals on earth having
microscopic to developed and large body size. Animals have usually
a head, trunk, tail and limbs in their body and plants also usually
have root, stem, leaves, flowers and fruits with them. Many small and
microscopic organisms do not have such distinct organs or parts in
their body. However, all the body parts of organisms are c01nposed
of very tiny and microscopic units called cells. With the very perfect
coordination of the functions and placement of all these cells, different
physiological and metabolic activities are continuously undergoing
inside their body by which they are being able to survive. Living
beings are classified into different groups and subgroups based on
their body structure.
Science nnd Technology, Grade 8 55
3.1 Cell
Let's discuss on the following questions about plant and animal cells:
a. Are all the cells found in the bodies of various species similar?
b. Do all types of cells perforn1 a similarfunction?
The cell is thebasic unit of every life. The body of every organism,whether
it is microscopic or gigantic, is composed of one or many cells. All the
mechanisms of lifeprocesses like digestion, respiration, reproduction,
internal transportation, photosynthesis etc are accomplished inside
or by the action of these cells through biochemical reactions and
contraction-relaxation motion. Because of these reasons, cells are
also called the functional unit of life. Therefore, cells are structural
as well as functional units of life. The branch of biology, that deals
with the study of the cell is called Cytology.
Activity: 3.1
Take a leaf of water hyacinth or any floating plant. Make slices of the
petiole of the leaf with a razor blade as thin as possible. Stain the cut
slices in safranin for a few minutes and wash them thoroughly with
clean water. Select one of the thinnest slice, put it on a clean slide, cover
the specilnen (the stained slice) with a drop of glycerin and finally with
a coverslip.A cover slip should not have any air bubbles below. Now,
our temporary slide of the petiole of the floating plant is ready. Observe
the slide under a microscope. What may be these tiny roomsseen in
the section? Are they the cells? Discuss the observation in the class.
Let's know
The cell was first discovered by Robert Hooke in
1665. He used the word 'Cellulae' for the small rooms
seen in the thin slice of cork under the microscope
developed himself, which meant 'tiny rooms' in Latin.
He concluded that slices of the cork were composed
of such tin y cellulae or cells. Later on , vari ous
experiments and studies by Theodor Sch wann, Mattias Jakob Schleiden,
Rudolf Virchow etc concluded that the body of all living organism s is
built by th e composition of one or many cells. When this conclusion was
forwarded, cells are considered the fu ndamental (structural as well as
functional) unit of life. Ruber Hooke (18July1635-3March1703
56 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
3.1.1 Shape and Size of Cells
Observe the given figure and discuss the following questions:

,_,
'
Fig 3.2 Different Types of Cells

a. What are the different shapes of the cells shown?


b. Are these all cells found in the same organism?
Cells are of different shapes and sizes. Generally, animal cells are
irregular in shape. They may be oval, spherical, rod-like, elongated,
cubical or columnar in shape. Nerve cells are threadlike thin and
long but most of the muscular cells have spindle shapes . Plant cells
are generally hexagonal. Bacterial cells have mainly four shapes:
spherical, rod-like, filamentous and spiral. Most of the cells are too
small to see with the naked eye but some cells are quite bigger also.
Eggs laid by animals/birds are also single cells. In the present world,
the cell of Mycoplasma (a kind of bacteria) is the smallest one having
a size of only about 0.2 microns and the eggs laid by ostrich are the
biggest cells having 15-18 cm in diameter.
Structure of Cell
- - eel/wall

vacuole
nucleus ---------~

i......;::~===-..i=:=_~__ mitochondrion - - - - - - - - - - -
cytoplasm - - - - - - - - -

Fig. 3.3 Plant cell and Animal cell

Science and Teclmology, Grade 8 57


A cell is composed of different parts. We can simply divide the part
of cells into four groups: cell covering, cytoplasm, cell components
and nucleus .
Activities 3.2 Observation of Onion Cells
Objective: To prepare and observe temporary slides of plant cells and
draw a labelled diagram
Material required: An onion, a blade, a needle, a brush, a watch glass,
forceps , a slide and a cover-slip, safranin, glycerin and a microscope.
P1·ocedui·e
i. Take out a thin translucent peel of onion and make its small
pieces with a blade.
11. Place these small cut pieces of onion peel into the watch glass
having safranin for staining with the brush.
111. After a few minutes, wash the stained pieces thoroughly with
clean water in another watch glass.
iv. Put a drop of glycerin in the middle of a clean slide.
v. Put a piece of stained peel into the drop of glycerin with the help
of the needle carefully and make it flat gently.Put the coverslip
over the speci1nen without any air bubbles trapped under it.
vi. Temporary slide is ready to observe under the microscope.

Fig. 3.4

Observation and Discussion


Observe the prepared slide under a microscope carefully. You will see
many small cells within the specimen. Draw the figure of those cells in
your practicalsheet that has to represent the shape, size, components
and features of the cells and submitit to your teacher.

58 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


Note: Tako a tomato pool, the outer translucent cover of a Zabrina leaf or
the outer cover of Aloe Vera instead of tho thin and translucent peel of an
onion in Lho above activity.

Activities 3.3 Observation of Cheek-cells


Objective: To prepare and observe temporary slide of cheek-cells
Materials requfred: A toothpick, a slide and a coverslip, a needle,
methylene blue, a clean solution of comm.on salt, a dropper and a
microscope
Caution: Never use a sharp and pointed needle of inetal instead of a
toothpick while scratching out cheek cells. This experiment should
be performed under the supervision and guidance of your teacher.
Procedure
i. Scratch carefully the inner surface of your cheek with a clean
and sterilized toothpick to get the tiny mass of cheek cells.
ii. Place a drop of 1% methylene blue and a drop of salt solution on the
centre of a slide and place the mass of cheek cells in the mixture .

...

Fig. 3.5

ni. Gently cover the mass of cheek cells with a coverslip with the
help of a needle to avoid air bubbles.
iv. Now, a temporary slide of cheek cells is ready for observation.
Observation and discussion
Observe the slide under a microscope and compare the shape, size and
components of these cells with the cells seen in Activity 3.1. Draw a
clear figure of cheek cells and submit it to your teacher.
Noto: Tnstoad of hmrn:m cheA k cells, one can lrnve on inner thin layp,r of
chicken s kin from Cl lrntc:h er's shop.
Science an d Teclm ology, Grade 8 59
Parts of a Cell
1 . Covering of Cell
cell wall
- cell membrane - - - - -

Fig. 3. 6

The covering is the outermost layer of a cell. The cell wall and cell
inembrane are the coverings of cells. The cell wall is found only in
bacterial, fungal and plant cells . It is absent in most of the Protozoans
and animal cells. The cell wall is generallya tough, rough, se1ni-
elastic and nonliving substance. The cell membrane (also called
Plasma membrane) is found in all types of cells. In animals and most
protozoans, the cell me1nbrane is the outermost layer of their cells.But
in bacterial, fungal and plant cells, it lies just beneath the cell wall.
The cell membrane is comparatively much smoother and elastic than
the cell wall and it is a living substance.
Functions of the cell wall and cell m embrane
1. Cell wall provides mechanical support and fixed shape to the
plant, bacterial and fungal cells.
2. Cell wall protects the cell from fungi, viruses and bacteria.
3. Cell wall presents at the roothairs of plants helps to absorb soluble
minerals from soil and water.
4. Cell membrane controls and coordinates intercellular
transportation of fluids as it is living and semi-permeable in
nature.
5. In unicellular protozoans like a1noeba, the cell membrane helps
in making pseudopodia for capturing food and locomotion,
excreting metabolic wastes and protecting the body from the
external environment
60 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
2. Cytoplasm
There is a viscous, sticky and clear semi-liquid
called cytoplasm. It is located in between the
cell membrane and the nucleus of a living cell.
Cytoplasm is composed of water, soluble salts,
minerals, proteins, vitamins etc. Cytoplasmic
components like ribosomes, plastids, mitochondria, Fig. 3.7
Golgi-bodies, endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles etc. are found in the
cytoplasn1.
Function of Cytoplasm
1. Metabolic activities of lifeprocesses are accomplished within the
cytoplasm.
2. Cytoplas1n helps to balance the amount of water and minerals
in body organs.
3. Cytoplasm contains cell components like initochondria, Golgi
body, plastids etc.
3. Cell Components
Various functional sites inside a cell are called cell components. Cell
components are of two types: Cell organelles and cell inclusions.
Cell organelles are living sites and each of the1n performs specific
metabolic activitieswhich are essential for lifeprocesses. There are
different types of cell organelles and most of them are found in both
plant and animal cells, whereas some are found in plant or animal
cells only. Cell inclusions are non-living things present inside the
cytoplasm. They are generally droplets of free water, crystals of salts
and minerals, enzymes, hormones, vitamins and waste materials
excreted by the cell. Cell inclusions act as raw materials and sources
of energy generation which are used by various cell organelles for
nletabolic activities.
Some of the cell organelles are mentioned below:
Mitochondria (singular: 1nitochondrion)
There are many mitochondrias in a cell. They are
cylindricalor filamentous in shape and bound with
Fig. 3.8
a double membrane. The inner membrane is highly

Science and Teclmology, Grade 8 61


folded making zigzag spaces inside it where mitochondria conduct
cellular respiration to generate energy. The energy generated by
mitochondria is used by other cell organelles to carry out cell activities.
Therefore, mitochondria act as 'power-houses' of cells w ithout which
cells cannot survive.
Mitochondria use glucose and oxygen to produce carbon dioxide,
water and heat energy. Heat is utilized by the cell but carbon dioxide
and water are excreted.
Function
1. The main function of mitochondria is to generate energy for the
survival of the cell. In the presence of the mitochondrial enzymes,
oxidation of glucose molecules continuously takes place inside
mitochondria which generate plenty of heat energy. This heat
energy is stored in ATP (adenosine triphosphate) molecules in
the fonn of chemical energy and distributed to cell organelles
where it is necessary.
2. Mitochondria also contain some DNA molecules which transfer
hereditary character.
Plastid
Plastids are colourful organelles found only in
plant cells, some bacterial cells and in some
protozoans. Based on colour, plastids are of
three types:
A) Chloroplast
It is green-coloured plastid. It contains a green pigment called
chlorophyll. Chloroplasts are generally round or oval in shape but in
spirogyra, it is spiral ribbon shaped. Chloroplasts are bounded bya
thin double membrane.
Function
1. Chloroplast makes plants green.
2 . In the presence of sunlight, it conducts a photosynthesis reaction
to make carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water molecules.
Carbohydrate is the basic nutrient for all organis111s. All green
plants are considered as 'Producers' in the ecosyste111 because of
their food-making ability.

62 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


3. It helps to make fatty acids and amino acids in leafy vegetables.
4. Chloroplast contains DNA which helps in transferring hereditary
characters .
( Chromoplast J
B) Chromoplast
Chro1noplasts are all colourful
plastids, except green. They are
found in colourful parts of plants like
flowers, ripen fruits, seeds and some
leaves. Chromoplasts are somewhat
Fig. 3.10
flat in shape and they provide
different colours to various parts of plants which directly helps
in the pollination and dispersal of seeds.
Function
1. Chromoplasts make flowers colourful. The colour of the flower
attracts insects and birds for pollination.
2. Colourful ripen fruits and seeds attract birds and animals to
disperse seeds.
C. Leucoplast
Leucoplasts are colourless or white plastids
which are oval in shape.They are found in the
colourless or white part of plants like roots,
white flesh of fruits and in the white part of
cotyledon or endosperm of seeds. Fig. 3. 11

Function
Leucoplast stores starch, protein and fat (lipids) for future use.
Ribosome
Ribosomes are very small in size and the
only organelles in the cytoplasm withoutan
outer inen1brane. They are found freely in
the cytoplasm or attached tothe surface of the
Endoplasmic reticulum. They are found in
mitochondria and chloroplasts too. Like other Fig. 3.12
organelles, ribosomes also have some DNA molecules.
Science and Teclmology, Grade 8 63
Function
1. They synthesize proteins from different amino acids. Therefore,
ribosomes are also called protein factories.
2. They take part in gene expressiondue to the presence of DNA.
Gene expression means DNA is active to make protein or RNA
molecules suitable for the organism.
Endoplasmic Reticulu1n, ER
The endoplasmic reticulum is a highly folded
membranous organelle making zigzag canals U llllii\i!
from the nucleus to the cell membrane.
Shortly, it is called ER. The inner surface of its
Fig. 3.13
canal is smooth but the outer surface of some
ER looks granular due to the sticking of many ribosonrns on it. The
ER with ribosomesis called 'rough ER' and that without ribosomes is
called 'smooth ER'.
Function
1. It makes a structural framework and provides mechanical support
to the cell. Therefore, ER is also called the endoskeleton of the
cell.
2. As ER contains many enzymes, it helps in the metabolism of the
cell.
3. During celldivision, ER helps to make new cell me1nbranes. It
helps to construct the Golgi body in the cell.
4. ER actively takes part in the cellular transport system.
Golgi body
Golgi body in cells was discovered by an Italian
scientist Camillo Golgi in 1898, so the name
is kept in honour of his name. This organelle
looks like a bunch of bananas and is composed
of layers of flattened membrane-enclosed sacs 0
called 'cisternae' and some vesicles . The Golgi 0

body is also called the Golgi apparatus. Fig. 3.14

64 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


Function
1. Golgi body helps to secrete gum, mucus, sweat, saliva, tear etc.
2. During cell division, the Golgi body contributes to nlaking new
cell membranes(in animal cells)and new cell-plate (in plant cells).
3. Golgi body also helps in the internal transportation of cells and
sorting of proteins.
Lysosome
Lysoso1ne is a very small and round organelle with
a single-layered membrane. It is found inainly in the
cells of the liver, kidney, pancreas, spleen and some
meristematic cells of the plant. Lysosome contains
plenty of digestive enzymes. Fig. 3. 15

Function
1. Lysoson18 produces a lysoso111al enzyme which digests protein,
lipid (fat), and glycogen (complex carbohydrate) to provide
energy to the cell.
2. Lysoson18 also digests dead and fragn18nted cells to provide
extra energy in animals. When the level of the lysosomal enzyme
becomes high, the organelle itself is digested. For this self-
digesting mechanism, lysosmues are also called suicidal bags.
3. During the gern1ination of seeds, lysos0111e present in meristematic
cells provides nutrients to the germinating e111bryo.
Vacuole
Vacuole is not a true organelle but a space
bounded by a tonoplast membrane which is
generally filled with water, mineral salts and
enzymes etc . These liquid substances in the
vacuole are called 'cell-sap'. Vacuoles in animal
cells are very small and in old plant cells are Fig . 3.16
quite bigger. Cells of aquatic bacteria generally
have air vacuole that helps themto float on the surface. Contractile
vacuoles in protozoan cells contribute to intracellular transportation
and food vacuole in amoeba stores, digests food and excretes wastes.

Science and Teclmology, Grade 8 65


Function
1. Vacuoles balance the amount of water and salts in the cytoplasm.
2. It collects metabolic wastes of organelles before they are excreted
out of the cell membrane.
Activity 3.4
Objective: To prepare models of an animal cell and a plant cell
Material required: Thermocol sheet, knife, colour pencils

Procedure
1. Take an appropriate sheet of thermocol.
2. Draw the layout of the plant cell and animal cell on the thermocol
with colour pencils.
3. Carefully cut the thermocol with the knife or paper cutter to have
the model of plant and animal cells as shown in the figure below.

Fig. 3.17 Model of animal and plant cell prepared by using thermocol

Discussion and Conclusion


Present your models of plant and animal cells in your class, compare
each other's n1odels and write a conclusion about these cells .
Note:
If thermocol is not available, one can use locally available material
like clay, hey, colourful threads, colourful clothes etc to prepare the
model of plant and animal cells.
Project wo1*
Observe the cell components carefully from the school's computer
lab by using internet. Prepare power point slides and present it in
your class.
66 Science and Technology, Grade 8
4. Nucleus
The nucleus is the central part of a Nuclear
membrane
cell. It is round and enclosed by a Nuctcolus -ftE~.,., ,"°~"'""
double-layeredperforated membrane. Nuclearpore
The nucleus is found in most of the
cells of eukaryotic organisms viz. Fig. 3.18 Nucleus
plants, animals, protozoans and fungi.
Bacteria are prokaryotic organis1ns and they have no distinct nucleus
in them. They have only genetic material without any covering instead
of a nucleus. Nucleus controls and coordinates the function of every
cell organelle, so it is also called 'the brain of a cell'. A nucleus has
mainly four parts:
1. Nuclear mem.brane
2. Nucleolus
3. Nucleoplasm
4. Chromatin fibres
Nuclear Membrane
The nuclear membrane is the outer covering of the nucleus which
is composed of two perforated layers of lipid (fat) and protein. It is
an elastic membrane and protects the nucleus. It allows the solution
of various biochemicals to go in to and out of the nucleus. It also
synthesizes antibiotics and enzymes.
Nucleolus
It is a round and non-membranous unit of the nucleus. It disappears
during cell division and reappears after cell division It is composed
of protein and RNA inolecules and helps in cell division by assisting
to inake spindle fibres (which are used to pull chromosomes towards
respective poles during a phase of cell division).
Nucleoplasm
The liquid solution of water, amino acids, minerals, nucleic acids and
enzymes present inside a nucleus is called nucleoplasm. Nucleolus
and chromatin fibres are scattered within the nucleoplasm. It assists
the nucleus by balancing the amount of water, providing enzymes

Science and Teclmology, Grade 8 67


and synthesizing DNA and RNA molecules. Nucleoplasm gets all the
necessary things from the cytoplasm outside the nucleus through
many tiny holes in the nuclear membrane.
Chromatin Fibres
The complex network of ultra-thin, long and invisible thread-like
structures is called chromatin fibres. They are the genetic material
of the nucleus that control and coordinate all the function of the cell.
Chromatin fibres are made of a super ultra-thin and long polymer of
DNA molecules and histone protein. The number of chromatin fibres
is fixed according to the species of organism. For exa1nple, every
nucleus of a human cell has 23 pairs of chromatin fibres . Chromatin
fibres transfer parents' genetic character to their offspring (children).
Chromatin fibres are changed
into visible chromoson1es during
cell division. At that time they
look thicker and shorter. After the a

completion of cell division, they


are again changed into thin, long Fig 3.19 cells and parts of nucleus
and invisible chromatin fibres . seen in microscope

Function of Nucleus
1. All metabolic activity and internal transportation of the cell are
controlled and coordinated by the nucleus.
2. It inherits (transfers) genetic character from parents to their
offspring through reproduction.
3. During cell division, the nucleus itself takes part actively. First,
it disappears and makes a pair of new nuclei.After the division
of the nucleus,the cell is divided into two from the centre to have
a nucleus in each newly formed cell.
4. Nucleus is directly involved in the reproduction process of
unicellular organisms.
Activity 3.5
Observe a permanent slide of the cell under a high-power microscope
and draw its labelled diagram. Show the labelled diagram to your
teacher.
68 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
Comparision between plant and animal cell
Activity 3.6
Divide all students of your class into three groups named A, B and
C and tell them to observe the permanent slides of plant and animal
cells to find out th e special features seen in the observation. Tell
Group A to write the typical features found only in an animal cell,
tell Group B to write a similar report on a Plant cell and tell Group C
to write th e common features foun d in both plant and animal cells.
Fill the written features by all three groups on a chart paper, exh ibit
it in th e class and conduct a discussion program.
Features found Features found only Common features found in
only in animal cell in plant cell both animal and pla nt cell

3.2 Interrelationship among cell, tissue and organ in human body


Observe the given figure and discuss

Fig 3.20 cell, tissue, organ, system and body

a. How is an organ formed as sh own in the above figure?


b. Do cells help in the function ing of organs?
c. How is the wh ole body of human beings constructed?
Th e human body itself is a very complex creation of nature where
different cells, tissues, organs and systems play a vital role to keep
the body alive by conducting various metabolic activities smooth ly.
The human body has different types of cells. Tissues are formed from
th e combination of similar or dissimilar cells. Various tissues are
Science and Teclmology, Grade 8 69
combined at certain sites of the body to make a specific organ which
has to perfonn one or inore specific functions. Direct connection and
coordination of different organs make an organ-system to perform
a specific function. The connection and coordination of such
organsystems make a complete functioning body. The task of digestion,
respiration, reproduction, transportation, assimilation, excretion etc all
begin from the functioning of one or many cells. It is the cell, that makes
every tissue and begins every chemical, physical and physiological
function of the body. For example, a muscle fibre is shown in the above
figure from which muscular tissue in the body is fanned.
Among the various organs of the digestive system, muscular tissue
is found in the middle layer of the foodpipe, stomach and intestine.
This tissue creates rhythmic contraction and relaxation of these
organs by which the food inside then1 is gradually pushed behind.
The digestive glands present on the inner wall of the stomach and
intestine secrete various digestive enzymes to digest different nutrients
present in the food we eat. It means that the muscular and glandular
tissues of the digestive system are directly helping in the digestion
of food at different sites of the digestive system. From this exan1ple,
we can conclude that cells, tissues, organs and organsystems are
interrelated to each other forthe construction and functioning of the
body of organisms.

Exercise
1. Select the correct option from the followings:
a. What is called the branch of science that deals with the
study of the cell?
i) Histology ii) Cytology
iii) Cytogenetics iv) Anaton1y
b. In which form is the energy generated in a cell stored before
it is distributed to organelles?
i) DNA ii) RNA
iii) RBC iv) ATP
c. What is the common feature of the nuclear membrane and cell
70 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
membrane?
i. they help in internal transportation
11. they are composed of Pectin
111. they are non-elastic in nature
iv. they inherit heredity to offspring
d. What is indicated by 'R' in the given figure?
i) Nucleus ii) Chloroplast
iii) Mitochondrion iv) Vacuole
e. Which of the following function is done by both plant and animal
cells?

i) Photosynthesis ii) Cellular respiration

iii) Transpiration iv) Guttation

f. What would happen if there was no cell me1nbra


i) cell organelles would be lost ii) cellwould die
iii) cell couldn't conduct metabolism iv) nucleus would be lost
g. Which of the following is a function of the nucleus for the growth
and development of the body?
i) to synthesize protein
ii) internal transportation of cell
iii) to take part in cell division
iv) to control and coordinate all the functions of cell
2. Differentiate:
a) Cytoplasm and Nucleoplasm
b) Chloroplast and Chromoplast
c) Cell wall and Cell membrane
d) Cell organelles and Cell inclusions

Science and Teclmology, Grade 8 71


3. Give reason:
a) Ribos01nes are also called 'protein factories.
b) Cell wall provides a fixed shape to plant cells.
c) Metabolism occurs in the cytoplasm
d) Cell is considered as the basic unit of life.
e) There should be proper coordination among cells, tissues
and organs to conduct the life process.
4. Answer the following questions:
a) What is a cell?
b) Draw a labelled diagram of plant and animal cells .
c) Where are the mitochondria located in a cell? Write their
functions.
d) Which organelle of the cell undergoes self-digestion and
w hy'?
e) Make a list of cell organelles and cell inclusions found in a cell.
f) Mention the function of plastids
in a plant cell. Plant both Animal

g) Complete the Venn diagram by


comparing plant and animal
cells.

h) Mention the role of the Golgi body


and Vacuole in a cell.
i) Study the given figure carefully and c
answer the following questions: A _..,..,,.~

72 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


i) Copy this figure in your exercise book and label 'A', 'B', 'C',
'D'
ii) What is the function of 'B'?
iii) What happens if there is no nucleus in a cell?
j) Among various organelles of a cell, which one is th e most
important in your opinion and why?
k) What would happen in the plants' life processes if there were no
chloroplasts in them?
1) What is the reason that the nucleus is also called 'the brain of
cells'? Clarify.
m) If there were no metabolic processes in a cell, what effect would
occur in the life processes of the organism.?

Glossary:
Cork Slightly conical lid of bottle or flask made
of rubber or cork- cambium of certain
plants' stem
Oxidation reaction Process of generating heat energy in a
cell by the decomposition of glucose
molecules in the presence of oxygen
ATP Adenosine triph osphate. Mol ecules
that store the heat energy obtained from
the oxidation of glucose in the form of
chemical energy
Eukaryotes Cells or organisms h aving developed
nucleus
Prokaryotes Cells or organisms having no distinct
nucleus
Aleurone Layer of single or multiple cells full of
nutrition that encloses the endosperm
of monocot seeds, especially grains
Cellu lar transportation Movement of water, minerals and gases
in and out of living cells.
Science and Teclmology, Grade 8 73
3 .3 Classification of living beings
Study the figm·e of given organisms and discuss:

mustard Yarchagumba tortoise mushroom sunflower lizard


Fig 3.21

L Make three pairs of living being from the given figure based on
some common features.
11. With which common feature , you made the pairs?
ni. What may be the differences between the organismswhich you
made pairs?
There are many types of living beings on Earth. Every type of life has its
typical characteristics with w hich it differs from other types of living
beings . Living beings differ from each other by their habitat, mode of
nutrition, type of reproduction they have adopted, physical structures
etc. Though, living beings differ from each other in inany aspects if we
observe them carefully. We can also find some similarities between
them. For example, a bat flies and a rabbit runs, but both of them give
direct birth and feed babies their milk until they grow enough to take
other solid food . Therefore, bats and rabbits can be kept in the same
group called mammalia. In the same way, all known and discovered
organisms are classified into different groups and subgroups. The
objective of the classification of living beings is to make their study
quite easy and systematic. Classification of living beings not only
makes their study easier but also imparts knowledge about the trend of
organic evolution on Earth. Living beings can be classified in different
ways but there are mainly two systems to classify then1. They are the
'Two kingdom system' and 'Five kingdom system'.

74 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


Two Lingdom sys1em Five kingdom S}'S!mi

Monera Protista Mycota or Fungi Plantae

classification chart of living being

3 .3 .1 Two-Kingdom System of Classification


The two-kingdo1n classification system of organis1ns is proposed
by Swedish biologist Carl (or, Carolos) Linnaeus in 1753. Based on
structure and characters, he has classified all the organisms of the
earth siinply into two kingdoms: Plant and Animal. Therefore, this
system of classification is called the two-kingdom system.
Basis of Two-Kingd01n Syste1n Classification
The main basis of the two kingdom systems is nutrition, movement,
growth and development of the body and the mode of reproduction.
In general, n1ovable, heterotrophic modes of nutrition and limited
growth of the body up to a certain phase of lifespan are the basis to
keep any organism in the animal kingdom. Similarly, non-movable
organis1ns with the autotrophic mode of nutrition and unlimited
growth throughout life are kept under the plant kingdom.
Special Features of Two-Kingdon1 System
1. All living beings are divided into plant and animal kingdoms.
2. This is the first scientific system of classification of living beings.
3. It is sin1ple by which plants and animals can easily be
distinguished.
Drawbacks of Two-Kingdom System
1. The living beings which cannot conduct photosynthesis also
kept in the san1e section of plant kingdom. For example, algae
and fungi both are kept in the plant kingdom.

Science and Teclmology, Grade 8 75


2. Prokaryotic bacteria and Eukaryotic algae are kept in the same
kingdom.
3. Two kingdom system does not separate unicellular and
multicellular organisms.
4. Two kingdom system is not able to include organisms like Lichens.

Kingdom of Monerans ~

,k~~ ba~
~~ ~~~~
~~~~ o~ ~ -
Kingdom of Fungi Kingdom of Plants Kingdom of Animals

A!
7 ·
.insect
~~
A. /
mushrooms
~
~~
yeast

.:£..~~­

-~

~~">Jo.

mold fern earthworm sponge

Fig 3.22. Organism in five Kingdom System

After 234 years, by improving the drawbacks of the two-kingdom


system, an American ecologist R.H. vVhittaker proposed a five-kingdom
system in 1969 . His classification is based upon certain characteristics
of the organism like mode of nutrition, thallus organization, cell
structure, phylogenetic relationships and mode of reproduction. He
has proposed five kingdoms asMonera, Protista, Mycota or Fungi,
Plantae and Animalia.

76 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


Basis of Five Kingdon1 System Classification
Based on types of cell (prokaryotic or eukaryotic) , body structure
(unicellular or inulticellular), mode of nutrition (autotrophic or
heterotrophic) , role in the ecosystem (either producer or consumer or
decomposer) and phylogenetic relationship (trend of evolution from
least developed to more developed}, Whittaker has divided all the
known organisms into five kingdoms. Here, all unicellular prokaryotes
like archaea, mycoplasma, and bacteria are kept under the kingdom
Monera. All unicellular eukaryotes except free-living fungal cells are
kept under the kingdom Protista.All saprophytic (that feeds on dead
bodies) and parasitic fungi that exhibit extracellular digestion are kept
under the kingd0111 Fungi or Mycota.All autotrophic green organisms
are kept under the kingdom Plantae and multicellular eukaryotic
consumers are kept under the kingdom Animalia.
Special Features of Five Kingdom System
1. Unicellular and multicellular organisms are kept in separate
kingdoms.
2. Prokaryotes and eukaryotes are also separated.
3. Autotrophic and heterotrophic organisms are kept in Plantae,
Animalia and Mycota kingdoms respectively .
4. In this system organisms are arranged in sequential form from
least developed to more developed which also refers to the trend
of organic evolution.
Activity 3.7
Collect 20 different organisms or their photograph from y our
surrounding environment and place them in the given table. Also,
discuss the reason for their classification.
Two kingdom Five kingdom system
syste1n
Plant Animal Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia

Science and Teclmology, Grade 8 77


3 .4 Microorganism
Activity 3.8
Take an egg. Break a part of it at a side andleave it in a beaker for
some days. After a few days, observe the changes that occurred in
the egg. Why did it happen? Discuss with your classmates and try to
conclude the reason.
There are many types
of organisms in our
surroundings. Some of
the1n are too small to see
with the naked eye. These Aspergillusnavus Giardla lamblia SChistosoma manson/
. . .
m1croscop1c organisms are
Fungus Protozoan Helm1n1h • worm

found in air, water, soil,


unsaved food, dirt and on/in
the body of living dead and
decaying organisms. They Chlamyctomonas Vibrio choterae SARS·COV·2
Alga Bacterium Virus
are called microorganisms
and have direct and indirect Fig 3.23
influenceson our daily life.
For exan1ple, in the above case, the broken egg has decayed and become
smelly due to the action of some microorganisms. Bacteria, some fungi
(yeast, slime mold) , sonrn algae (Chlan1ydomonas, chlorella) and
protozoans (amoeba, paramecium, plasmodium, vorticella) etc are
son1e examples of microorganisms. Microorganis1ns are commonly
called 'genns' or 'microbes'. The branch of biology that deals with the
study of microorganisms is called microbiology.
Practical Work 3.3
Observe the permanent slides of microorganisms like an amoeba,
paramecium, yeast etc. in the lab and prepare short notes about their
characters with a diagram and submitthem to your subject teacher.
Activity 3.9
Prepare power-point slides of microorganisms like viruses, bacteria,
amoeba and fungi about their structure, size, habitat, mode of
reproduction and their importance for the environmentby visiting
the computer lab and present in your class for discussion.

78 Science and Technology, Grade 8


(A) Virus Gonuto0 •notorwl

Viruses are the smallest germs that can infect


plants, animals, bacteria, fungi and any other
rnicroorganism including other viruses too. The
meaning of its name is taken as a 'molecule of
poison'. The virus is not an actual organism
because it has no cell (acellular)therefore it
does not belong to any kingdom. The body of a Fig. 3.24 bacteria
virus consists only of nucleic acid (DNA or RNA)
which is enclosed in a protein case called a capsid. S01ne viruses
have an extra outer covering called an envelope. It may have various
shapes and sizes. The virus shows the characteristics of both living
and non-living things, therefore called a 'bridge or link organism.'.
When a virus is inside the living host cell, it behaves as living and
when it is in an external environment, it behaves as a non-living
thing. Inside a host cell, a virus can increase its number by using the
biomolecules of the host cell damaging it, therefore they are also called
'obligatory parasites'. Viruses are found everywhere in the air, water,
soil etc. Viruses do not eat, drink or breathe, therefore, there is no
metabolism inside them. Rhinovirus, Coronavirus, Tobacco mosaic
virus, Bacteriophage, Virophase etc, are some examples of the virus.
(B) Bacteria
Bacteria are unicellular prokaryotes
and therefore belong to the kingdom
Monera. The bacterial cell may be
spherical, filamentous, cylindrical
etc . Bacteria can be found in all
environments i.e. air, water, soil, in
and on the body of other organis1ns.
Some ofthe1n are found in extremely ~ <:'
hot and cold environment too. Their Fig. 3.25 bacteria
body is enclosed w ithin a tough covering called a capsule which
helps them to tolerate such extreme environment. Some bacteria are
autotrophic but most of them are saprophytic because of which they
play the role of decomposersfor the ecosystem.

Science and Teclmology, Grade 8 79


Some bacteria are parasitic and causevarious diseases to plants and
animals. Cyanobacteria, Rhizobium, Salmonella, Azotobacter and
Pseudmnonas are some examples of bacteria.
(C) Amoeba

Arnoeba is an exa1nple of a unicellular


eukaryote. It is found in water, moist
soil, decaying organic substances
and the body of host organisms . It 5:'~~
has no fixed shape as it can protrude
pseudopodia from any point of its
cell membrane. It moves, swims, and Fig. 3.26 Amoeba
captures food w ith the help of temporary pseudopodia. The process
of digestion, excretion, reproduction etc is done by its single cell.
Amoeba is of various types. Entamoeba histolytica is a type of amoeba
which lives in contaminated water and causes Amoebiasis dysentery if
enters into the intestine of host animals. Naegleria is another example,
which lives freely in water but can infect animals if drunk such water.
(D) Fungi

Fig. 3.27 Fungi

Unicellular or multicellular eukaryotic organisms having cell wallbut


no chlorophyll are called fungi and they are kept under the kingdom
Mycota. Fungi usually grow on dead and decaying substances and
get nutrition from there, therefore they are also called saprophytes.
Some fungi are parasitic and they infect plants and animals to cause
fungal diseases. Their body is composed of very thin thread-like
mycelia (singular mycelium). Mucor, mushroom, yeast, yarchagumba
(Cordyceps), penicillium, Puccinia (plant rust) etc. are some examples
of fungi.
80 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
Activity 3.10

Objective: To prepare a temporary slide of mucor


Required material: a piece of bread, a glass slide, a cover-slip, cotton
blue (staining agent), a brush, a beaker, water, watch glass, and a
n11croscope
P1·ocedure
1. Soak the piece of bread in water and leave it for a few days in
the lab keeping it in a watch glass. After a few days, mucor is
grown in the bread.
2. Place a drop of cotton blue in the middle of the slide and put some
mycelia of mucor in the drop of the cotton blue. Cover the mycelia
with a coverslip with no air bubble trapped. A temporary slide of
mycelia of n1ucor is now ready to observe under the microscope .

......,._
\
...
I
~~
..,/ - - _J
Fig 3.28
Observation and Discussion
Now observe the slide under the microscope and prepare a 'practical
sheet' with appropriate drawings and characters to show to your
teacher.
3.4.1 Effects of Microorganisms
Positive Effects
1. Some amoeba, like Amoeba proteus feed on bacteria, so they are
used to control bacteria.
Scien ce an d Teclm ology, Grad e 8 81
2. Most of the bacteria are decomposers. They decompose excreta
and the dead body of organisms. While decomposing, they
convert complex organic molecules into simple inorganic
molecules/minerals which increases the fertility of the soil.
By this, bacteria are helping to keep the ecosystem in balance.
Nitrosomonas, Clostridium, and Nitrobacter are some examples
of decomposing bacteria.
3. Rhizobium bacteria present in the rootnodules of leguminous
plants absorb atmospheric nitrogen and make nitrate which
increases the fertility of the soil and agricultural productivity.
4. Lactobacillus and Lactococcus are the bacteria found in milk and
help to convert milk into yoghurt. Streptococcus lactis bacteria
are used in producing cheese from milk.
5. To develop the products of medical science like insulin
(hormone), antibiotics, vaccines, vitamins, antiseptics, antiserum
etc, bacteria and fungi are used.
6. Yeast (a fungus) can convert carbohydrates and protein present
in foodstuffs into acetic acid and alcohol. This process is called
fermentation. Distilleries use yeast to ferment foodstuffs to
produce alcohol and acids.
7. Nepalese use yeast to produce alcohol and to prepare pickles,
Gundruk (fermented veggies) etc on a domestic scale.
8. Bacteriophage virus can kill bacteria. Because of this reason, this
virus can be used to control some bacterial diseases like plague,
dysentery, diarrhoea etc . and in the treatment of water.
9. In genetic engineering, many viruses are being used to replace,
transfer, repair, and synthesis of genes to develop high-yielding
plants and animals.
10. Virus is the link between living and non-living things, its study
has great significance to understand the origin of lives and the
trend of their gradual evolution.

82 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


(B) Negative Effects
1. The causative agents of 1nost communicable diseases are
microorganisms. They can spread disease to all types of plants
and animals. Disease decreases the quality and productivity in
every sector of agriculture like farming, fish-farming, sericulture,
apiculture , horticulture , anin1al husbandry, nursery etc.
Tuberculosis, AIDs, Pneu1nonia, typhoid, Covid, etc are spread
due to these microorganisms. Tobacco nlosaic, comn1on blight,
and root rotting-like plant diseases are also due to the infection
of any one of these microorganisms.
2. Fruits, vegetables, cooked food etc. start smelling and decaying if
kept unprotected for some hours or days in an open environment.
Microorganisms like Clostridiu1n bacteria enter into such
food through air, water or any medium and make the toxic
substance. If such contaminated food is consumed then the
person will sufferfromdiarrhoea, vomiting, fever, dehydration,
dry mouth (xerostomia), headache etc. Such conditions due
to contaminated food are called foodpoisoning. Clostridium,
Norovirus, Salmonella, Giardia, and Mucor-like microorganisms
cause foodpoisoning.
3. Occurrence of pin1ples and abscessesof wounds is all due to
infection by harmful microorganisms. If the toxin produced by
the infecting microorganis1ns once enters the bloodstream, sepsis
at different sites of internal organs may occur to make them fail
and most probably kill the victim. To be safe from such terrible
conditions, wounds and pimples should be kept clean with a
gauge soaked in an appropriate antiseptic like Dettol/betadine/
savlon, dress the wound timely, use prescribed antibiotics and
be careful in personal hygiene.
4. Microorganisms cause the spoiling of stored cereals, vegetables,
and other foodstuffs due to which fariners/owners have to bear
the great loss.
5. By the action of microorganisms on disposed organic wastes at
dumping sites, foul smell spreads which pollutesthe surrounding
environment.
Science and Teclmology, Grade 8 83
3.4.2 Methods of food preservation
Observe the given figure and discuss the following questions:

Fig 3.29
a) Before storing, why are cereals dried enough in sun?
b) Why ar·e lemons dipped in salt and oil?
c) Why is Gundruk dried in sun? What happens if it is not done
so?
In daily life, different kinds of foodstuff are preserved with a different
methods to be used for a long time. With preservation, the nutritional
value of the foodstuffs can be conserved and they can be kept safe
from infectious microorganisms. The nutritional value of food can be
conserved by avoiding decomposition reactions a1nong the nlolecules
of nutrients and blocking the entry of microorganisms. To do this,
a suitable physical and che1nical environment should be provided
for the foodstuffs . Protecting from infectious microorganisn1s and
conserving the nutritional value of food is called food preservation.
Some methods of food preservation ar·e mentioned as follows:
1. Dry Preservation
Using a certain temperature and maintaining certain moisture, the
drying of foodstuff before storing is called dry preservation. It is a very
easy and cheap method. Because of dryness, microorganisms cannot
affect them and due to certain moisture (very less) the nutritional value
of food is maintained and they can be stored at room temperature for a
long time (months or even year·s). In our country, people are using this
technique for a very long time to preserve cereals, dry meat, dry fish,
dry fruits, nuts, dry veggies, fermented veggies etc. This technique
prefers a moderate temperature between 20°-30°Celsius for some days
either in sun or in an oven or electric dryer until they are completely
dry externally and keep very less moisture internally.
84 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
2. Wet Preservation
Preservation of foodstuffs by dipping in certain liquids which
can block the entry of infectious microorganisms is known as wet
preservation. To avoid microorganisms, the foodstuffs must be germs-
free the111selves and to do this, they must be washed or boiled and dried
well before dipping into a preferred liquid. Generally, concentrated
salt solution, citric acid (juice of any citrus fruit) , vinegar, mustard or
olive oil etc are used in wet preservation. The vessels must be lidded
airtight to avoid the entry of germs/spores through the air to keep the
foodstuffs inside safe. In Nepal, pickles oflemon, chilly, ginger, garlic,
fenugreek (Methi), radish, bamboo shoot (Tama) etc are stored using
the wet preservation method since ancient times.
3. Cold Preservation
Preserving food by keeping them in closed cabins or roo1ns with
very low temperatures (generally -180 to 4.4o Celsius) is called
cold preservation. Most of the infectious microorganisms will be
completely passive or killed under this range of temperature. Keeping
raw or cooked food in fridges in the kitchen or storinga mass of raw
vegetables and fruits in coldstores for months are some exan1ples of
cold preservation. Preserving some of the agricultural production like
potato, ginger, tunneric, squash (Skuss), fresh paddy etc in the dry
and well-covered pit for future use is still in practice.

Project work Fig 3.30


Perform an awareness program in your community with the help
and active participation of the representatives from the ward office,
schools, public health,office etc. to prevent various epide1nics and
pandemic diseases like Covid-19, Dengue, Cholera, and Typhoid.
Prepare a report of findings from the program in the given format and
publish your report in school in the presence of teachers, guardians,
health workers and local people.

Science and Teclmology, Grade 8 85


Diseases affected Symlom of General Serious Prevention awarness
population Diseases effect of effect of programme activities
Diseases Diseases

Glossary:
Chemosynthesis Food-making process by some bacteria using
their chemicals.
Metabolism Chemical reaction inside living cells to keep
the cell alive.

Exercise
1. Select the best answer from the given alternatives:
(a) Who proposed the 'Two kingdom system' of classification?
i) Whittaker ii) Haeckel iii) Linnaeus iv) Aristotle
(b) To which kingdmn do protozoans belong according to the
'Five Kingdom system'?
i) monera ii) protista iii) mycota iv) animalia
(c) Why are bacteria called decomposers?
i) t hey cause diseases
iii) they survive in extreme environment
ii) they infect wounds
iv) they decay dead bodies and excreta of organisms
(d) Which virus causes COVID-19?
i) SARS CoV-1 ii) SARS CoV-2
iii) Corona virus iv) Flu virus

86 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


(e) What is the main thing to be followed while preserving
foodstuffs?
i) to prevent germs iii) to prevent from decaying of food
ii) drying well iv) keeping cold
(f) Which of the given is a feature of the 'Five Kingdom system'?
i) Classified according to phylogenetic order.
ii) Classified based onthe mode of nutrition and lifecycle.
iii) Classified based on chlorophyll and growth.
iv) Classified based onthe movement of the body.
(g) What should be done to preserve fresh and wet Gundruk
(fernrnnted veggies)?
i) It should be dried extremely in sun.
ii) It should be dried in shadow.
iii) It should be dried maintaining the required percentage
of inoisture.
iv) It should be kept airtight in a bottle or a can.
2. Differentiate :
(a) Bacteria and Virus
(b) Two kingdom system and Five kingdom system
3. Give Reason:
(a) Virus is called a very sniall infectious particle but not an
organism.
(b) We should not consume stale and s1nelly food.
(c) Five kingdom system has provided an appropriate position
to almost all organisms.
(d) Fruits do not get spoiled if preserved after drying well.
4. Answer the foil owing questions :
(a) What is a inicroorganism? Give an exainple from each category.
(b) What are the methods of food preservation? Describe any
Science and Teclmology, Grade 8 87
one method and also mention the importance of food
preservation.
(c) What is food poisoning? Mention its causes and the measures
to be safe from it.
(d) Why is the Five Kingdon1 System more advanced than the
Two Kingdom System?
(e) Make a list of any two diseases caused by each category of
. .
m1croorgan1sm.
(f) What are the common words for microorganisms?
(g) What is Classification? How does classification make the
study of organisms easier?
(h) Write any four advantages of n1icroorganis1ns.
(i) Mention the merits and drawbacks of the Two kingdom system.
(j) Mention the basis and features of the Five Kingdom system.
(k) Study the given figure and answer the following
questions:
i) What are shown in
the figure?
ii) Name a disease
caused by it and
two preventive
nleasures for the
disease.
(1) Two kingdoms system has not differentiated prokaryotes and
eukaryotes, how is this corrected by Five kingdom system?
Describe in brief.
(m) How is an1oeba being used by mankind for beneficiary
purposes?
(n) Fungus sometimes grows in pickles kept in a bottle or jar.
Why does it happen? What should be done to protect pickles
from fungal attacks?

88 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


Biodiversity and Environment

Observe the given figure and have a discussion.

Fig 4.1
Questions:
1. Is the physical environment in the first figure suitable for a rhino?
If yes. w hy? If not, what kind of environment would be suitable
for them?
2. In the second figure, people are collecting fodder and firewood
from the forest. What consequences may occur to the surrounding
environment when people collect such things in excess quantity?
3. Which syste1n of farming is shown in the third figure? What are
the advantages of adopting this system in hilly regions?
4. What may be the reason for collapsing a part of the road shown
in the fourth figure? What may be the permanent solution to
such incidences?
Many types of organisms are found on the earth. Every type of them
has its typical characteristics that make them different from other
organisms. But every organis1n is interrelated with each other for
their existence. Differences seen in physical appearance, habitat,
and the mechanism of lifeprocesses of various organisms represent
the natural biodiversity. Living things are acquiring their every need
from the surrounding environment. Whatever things and services
are being obtained by human beings and other organisms from the
environment is the Service of the Ecosystem.
Science a nd Tech nology, Grade 8 89
For example, people are getting fodder and firewood, fruits and
inedicines, timber, water etc.from the forest. These are the services
of the ecosystem to living beings . Excessive use of such services of
the ecosystem harms their sources and they won't sustain for a long
time. Therefore, the wise use of these services and their conservation
while conducting any social, economic, cultural and developmental
project helps their sustainability and balancing environment.
4 .1 Biodiversity
Study the given figure and d iscuss it with your classmates:

~ ~
w
. • ll"f • Fig 4.2 ; lll~~~~!...:!.~~~~ii."!o "'lo:~~~
. t

i) Are all monkeys shown in the above figure have the sa1ne
characteristics? If not, what may be the reason?
ii) Do all these monkeys live in similar habitats?
iii) Which characters of rhino, monkey, tiger and deer are similar
and which are different?
iv) What is indicated by the variation found in different living beings?
There are varieties of organisms having different habits and habitats
on Earth. Different types of organisms have different characteristics
from each other and they live in different habitats. Varieties found
in different organism of different habitats is called biodiversity.
Organisms found in water, desert, cold climate, tropical (hot and
moist) climate etc . have different body structures and physical
characteristics. There is some variation among the individuals of the
same species too. For example, height, girth, number and length of
leaves, position and number of the ear of maize plants on the same
farmland are also not the sa1ne. Different organisms exist in different
environments with different physical structures and abilities is called
biodiversity. Biodiversity indicates the 'species richness' of the earth.
90 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
According to the 'Earth Su1nmit' held in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil),
biodiversity can be defined as the variations among organisms of the
same or different varieties regarding their genus, species and habitat
or the ecosystem to which they belong.
According to Convention on Biological Diversity -CBD, biodiversity
is defined as the variation among aquatic and terrestrial organisms.
Activity 4.1
Objective: To study the biodiversity of grassland.
Materialrequired: Measmingtape , nails, cord orrope, plastic bags, scissors.
Procedu1·e
1. Make a square on grassland with the
help of measuring tape and hoist - -
four nails at four corners.
2. Tie the cord or rope around the four
nails to declare a 1m2 area.
3. Now the square quadrate sampling
Fig 4.3 Quadrat sampling
on grass l and for the study of
biodiversity is ready.
Observation and discussion
Collect every single plant and animal that is grown or found within
the area of quadrate sampling and keep them in separate plastic bags.
After clearing the quadrate sampling area, count the collected plants
and animals separately, fillup the given chart and present it to your
subject teacher.
Plants Animals living beings found in the
highest number
Naine Nu mber Name Number
crabgrass 12 grasshopper 4
............... ............... ............... ·················
............... ··············· ............... ·················
Types of Biodiversity

Science and Technology, Grade 8 91


Plants and animals fall under living beings. Therefore, biodiversity
simply ineans the diversity in plants (floral diversity) and animals
(faunal diversity). Varieties of plants found in a certain environment
are the floral diversity and the different types of animals living there
is faunal diversity. For example, all plants grown in a pond or lake
are floral diversity and the animals in the water or near the water
represent faunal diversity. Based on nature of existence, biodiversity
can be divided into three disciplines:
(a) Genetic diversity (b) Species diversity
(c) Ecosystem diversity
(a} Genetic diversity

Genetic diversity simply refers to the variation among the individuals


of same or different species. Genetic diversity is due to some variation
in the structure and composition of genes. It is common to find
different characters among the individuals of different species (for
example, the differences between crows and cuckoos, tigers and
lions etc.), but within the same species too, several differences can
be pointed out. All humans of the present world belong to the same
species, i.e. Homo sapiens, but we can observe many variations among
then1 including structure and colour of hair, skin, eye; body height,
the structure of eye-lid and eyebrow, hair pattern, the shape of the
nose, density of body hair etc.
(b) Species diversity

Species diversity refers to the number and type of species living in


a certain environment. It helps to count the number of species at a
certain place. For example, different types of producers, herbivores,
omnivores and carnivores are found in an ecosystem. Each such
category has a vast variety an1ong the1n. All frogs belong to the genus
'Rana' which alone has more than ten different species and they all
havetheir distinct characteristics.
(c) Ecosystem diversity
Ecosystems are of two types, aquatic and terrestrial. According to
climatic conditions, there are various subtypes of them. The terrestrial
92 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
or land ecosystem of tropical climate and alpine climate differs in
inany aspects. Producers, herbivores, omnivores, carnivores and
decomposers of these ecosystems exhibit so many differences in
various aspects. Interaction between the organisms of closely located
two or more different ecosystems brings further complexities in their
structure. The variety of ecosyste1ns based on physical com.ponents like
air, water, minerals, temperature, intensity of light and a wide variety
of local and migrant organisms in them is called ecosystem diversity.
Importance of Biodiversity
The physical and biological environment of a place sustains in
balanced condition only if it is rich in biodiversity. Organisms are freer
and more independent in a balanced and species-rich environment
and they can easily fulfil their need for habitat, nutrition, reproduction
etc. This shows the importance of biodiversity for every individual.
Some importance of biodiversity can be listed as follows:
a. Biodiversity guarantees the nutrition and livelihood of every
organism.
b. Biodiversity helps to keep the environ1nent in balanced condition
and increases the productivity of the ecosystem.
c. Biodiversity helps the sustainable use of biological resources.
d. Biodiversity helps in the conservation of the environment and
sustainable develop111ent.
e. Biodiversity enhances ecotourism and uplifts the nation's economy.
f. Biodiversity helps individuals to adapt even in adverse conditions
like thevarious consequences of climate change.

Present Status of Biodiversity in Nepal


Although Nepal occupies only 0.1 % area of the world's area, it is
very rich in biodiversity due to its varied altitude which ranges from
the lowest 59 m to 8884 m from sealevel. Nepal has a tropical to
alpine climate with mineral-rich fertile soil. Nepal receives plenty of
rainfall during summer and winter monsoons as well. Because of all
these reasons, there are so many varieties of microbes, fungi, plants,
worms and insects, fishes, an1phibians, reptiles, birds and inammals.
Science and Technology, Grade 8 93
Regarding biodiversity, Nepal stands on the world's 27th, Asia's 10th
and south-Asia's 2nd position. Nepal keeps the world's 3.2% plant
and 1.1 % animal variety. There are more than 118 types of ecosystem
sand more than 15 types of forests in Nepal.
Some very peculiar and rare plants and animals are found only in
Nepal. Spiny babbler (Turdoides nipalensis) is found only in Nepal
inthe mid-hilly region; the One-horned rhino and Bengal tiger of the
Terai region and Himalayan Wild Yak which are very rare animals
are found here. The occurrence of 32 species of rhododendron and
native Marsi rice of Jumla which grows at the world's highest altitude
(3050 m) are some examples of the species-rich biodiversity of Nepal.

Table: 4.1 Some important flo1·a of Nepal

Plant group In world In Nepal Percentage of Nepal


Lichens more than 17,000 850 5
Algae 56,579 1,001 1.76
Fungi 98,998 2,467 2.45
Bryophytes 16,236 1,213 7.47
Pteridophytes 12,000 580 4.83
Gymnosperms 1,021 41 4
Angiosperms 369,400 6,973 1.87

Table: 4.2 Some important fauna of Nepal


Animal group In world In Nepal Percentage of Nepal
Mammals more than 4, 765 185 3.96
Birds 9,799 886 8.90
Reptiles more than 7,870 78 0.99
Am.phibians inore than 4,780 118 2.47
Fishes 10,000 187 1.87
Butterfly 17,500 651 3.27
Spiders 39 ,490 175 0.44

94 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


Tiger Kade Vyakur Rhododendron Chyriya saal
Activity 4.2 Fig 4.4
Visit a place near your school which is rich in biodiversity and make a
list of observed animals and plants. Prepare a visit report and submit it
to your subject teacher including 'objective, introduction of the visited
site, materials required, observation, discussion and conclusion'.
Causes of Biodiversity Degradation
Look at the figure below and discuss the issue.

Fig. 4.5 Grazing

(a) What consequences may occur due to excessive grazing in forest


areas?
World's entire ecosystem and biodiversity are getting ruined due
to natural calamities and irrational human activities. Improper
urbanization, industrialization, mining of rocks-minerals-ores,
constructions and agricultural activities are gradually causing
deforestation, erosion, and desertification of land affecting the world's
climate and entire wild lives. Because of all these reasons, many wild
lives are on the verge of extinction and son1e of the1n are already
extinct. For example, the snow leopard of Nepal is on the verge of
extinction and the pigmy hog (dwarf wild boar) is already extinct.
Declination of the number and types of different plants and wild lives
because of over impact in their life-cycle due to natural calamities and
human activities is called biodiversity degradation. The main causes
of biodiversity degradation are as follows:
Science and Technology, Grade 8 95
(a) Excessive grazing in natural forests leads to damaged seeds and
seedlings, decelerates the growth and production of new plants
and finally the decline of forests.
(b) Level of chemical pollution increases due to excessive
industrialization which adversely affects the biodiversity of the
surrounding environment.
(c) Improper mining and blasting of rocks and minerals cause sound
pollution, landslides and soil erosion due to which inany plants
and wild lives will be affected.
(d) Construction of roads, buildings, dams, bridges etc.without
proper planning can harm the habitat of many wild lives.
(e) Collecting excessive fodders and firewood leads to deforestation
and affects the sources of water.
(f) Declaring jungle to get land for farming and residency to meet
the demand of increasing population decreases forest area and
valuable species.
(g) Forestfire kills many wild lives and plants.
(h) Floods and landslides also destroy many plants and wild lives.
(i) Global warming due to clin1ate change is affecting the livelihood
of many plants and animals.
(j) Illegal trade and poaching of wild animals also decrease their
number.
(k) Many encroaching and parasitic plants gradually displace
native plants fr01n forests. Cat-weed (Banmara) displacing many
terrestrial and water hyacinths displacing many aquatic plants
in Nepal are some examples.
(1) Excavating rocks, gravel and sand illegally and irrationally from
rivers lead to landslides at river banks, drying nearby fannlands
and deteriorating biodiversity.
Conservation of Biodiversity
The conservation of plants and wild lives is the conservation of
biodiversity. Conservation of biodiversity balances the natural
environment. The declining number of flora and fauna causes a
great impact on the entire ecosystem, therefore, biodiversity must be
conserved. There are two inethods in practice to conserve biodiversity:
In-situ conservation and Ex-situ conservation.
96 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
Table 4 .3 Methods of conserving biodiversity
Conservation of Biodiversity
In-situ conservation Ex-situ conservation
National parks Botanical garden
Hunting reserves Zoo
Conservation of natural sites or Nursery
topography Safari parks
Wildlife reserves Aquarium
Conservation areas Seed banks, gene banks, embryo
banks, sperm banks etc.
In-situ Conservation
The method of conservation in which wild lives are conserved in
their natural habitat is called In-situ conservation. This method is
easy and the best method as w ild lives can live by interacting with
physical and biological components openly and naturally. With the
In-situ conservation method, all types of wild lives can be conserved
whether they are endangered or not. The challenges of the In-situ
inethod are forest-fire, communicable diseases and mainly poaching
or illegal hunting for inaking some benefit. Because of the larger area
of In-situ conservation, it will be difficult to control such unwanted
activities. In the present context, there are 12 national parks, 1 wildlife
reserve, 1 hunting reserve and 6 conservation areas in Nepal as the
practice of In-situ conservation where native w ild lives are b eing
protected as far as possible.
Table 4.4 Areas of In-situ Conservation of Nepal
NationaJ park Wildlife reserve Hunting reserve Conservation area
1. Chitwan 1. Koshi Tappu 1. Dhorpatan 1 . Annapurna
2. Sagarmatha 2. Kanchanjangha
3. Bardia 4. Rara 3. Manaslu
5. Khaptad 4. Krishnasaar
6. Langtang 5. Gaurishankar
7. Makalu-Barun 6. Api-Nampa
8. Shey-Foksundo
9. ShivapurilO. Parsa
11. Banke
12. Shuklafanta
Science and Technology, Grade 8 97
Ex· situ Conservation
The method of conservation in which w ild lives are conserved beyond
their natural habitat but providing their natural environment as
far as practicable within a small boundary or cage is called Ex-situ
conservation. This method is more effective for endangered species of
both wild lives and plants. Because oflimited area, looking after the1n
and their treatment, case-study etc. bec01ne very easier but disliking
the prison-like captivated life by wild animals and con1pulsory
management of their regular diet and other physical environment
make this method inore laborious and costly. Botanical gardens, zoos,
safari parks etc. are some examples of Ex-situ conservation.
Besides In-situ and Ex-situ methods, there are some other measures
to conserve flora and fauna; which can be listed as follows :
(a) Controlling poaching and illegal trade of wild lives and their
certain body parts,
(b) Establishing furthermore protected areas,
(c) By controlling overgrazing, forest fire , pollution, irrational
urbanization and industrialization
(d) By making and imple1nenting strong law and order regarding
poaching and illegal trade of wild animals and plants,
(e) By making people aware through education regarding the
importance of biodiversity for everyone and the duty of a good
citizen about their protection.

Project work
1. Visit any protected area like a national park or a safari park near
your h0111e or school with your parents or teachers. Prepare a
report including the types of protected animals and plants, their
present status, the method of conservation adopted and general
information about the protected area and present in your class.
2. Prepare an informative video or report about the protected area
and conserved wild lives by visiting the computer lab of your
school and show it to your class.
98 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
Exercise
1. Choose the best alternative:
(a) Where was the Earth Summit about Biodiversity 1992 held?
i) China ii) Brazil
iii) Africa iv) Japan
(b) Which of the given alternative is related to faunal diversity?
i) Animals ii) Plants
iii) Animals and plants iv) Only ma1nmals
(c) Riya is thinking to conserve an endangered plant. Which
of the following action going to be taken by her represents
the Ex-situ method of conservation?
i) She plants the plant in the community forest.
ii) She plants the plant in the same forest where it was
obtained from
iii) She plants the plant in her kitchen garden
iv) She plants the plant on a riverbank
(d) Which one of the following represents the significance of
biodiversity?
i) Fodder and firewood are obtained from forests.
ii) Forests maintain greenery
iii) Tourists often visit attractive forests for fun
iv) There is always son1e fear of wild animals from forests.
(e) What percentage of plant species in the world is found in
Nepal?
i) 1.1% ii) 3.2%
iii) 10% iv) 0.1 %

Science and Technology, Grade 8 99


2. Differentiate:
(a) In-situ conservation and Ex-situ conservation
(b) Genetic diversity and Species diversity

3. Give a reason:
(a) There is some variation among the individuals of the same
species.
(b) It is difficult to conserve any native species with the Ex-situ
conservation method.
(c) Forestfire devastates biodiversity.
(d) Nepal is rich in biodiversity.

4. Answer the following questions:


(a) What is biodiversity? Give examples.
(b) What are the methods of conserving biodiversity? Explain
any one of them in brief.What are the conserving measures
of biodiversity?
(c) What are the common impacts of human activities on
biodiversity? Explain.
(d) Explain the present status of the biodiversity of Nepal.
(e) Explain the causes of the degradation of biodiversity in points.
(f) What is the role of 'species richness' in biodiversity?
(g) Mention the types of biodiversity.
(h) Study the given picture and answer the following questions:
i) Which type of method of
conservation of biodiversity
is shown in the picture?
ii) State the advantages of this
inodel and its procedures in
biodiversity conservation.

100 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


4.2 Sustainable development
Observe the given pictures and discuss the questions below.

Fig. 4.6
(a) What may be the reason forthe landslide while constructing the
road in the first picture?
(b) Does this road last long?
(c) What parameters should be followed while constructing roads
in such places?
(d) As shown in the second figure, why is it necessary to make such
a barrier at the places of landslide?
(e) Except for making a barrier, what next can be done to prevent
landslides?
Read this part of the story carefully and attempt the following questions:
Norbu was helping his father at a paddyfield,it was full of water being
prepared to transplant paddy saplings. In the meantime, the ridgeat
a place of the field collapsed due to overload and pressure and water
started flowing down. Norbu's father stopped to plough and both of
them tried to stop the water by keeping mud at the collapsed ridge but
couldn't do so. Due to extra water, the ridge of the lower terrace also
collapsed. Norbu, then diverted the flow of water inanother direction,
only then they could repair the ridge of the paddy field once again.
(a) Why the collapsed ridge couldn't be repaired with mud?
(b) What would happen if they had used leafy twigs with mud while
repairing the collapsed ridge? Could it be sustained'?
(c) What could be done to the edge to prevent collapsing?

Science and Technology, Grade 8 101


Human beings are fulfilling most of their needs from natural sources
and different ecosystem services. To meet such demands, there must
be suitable infrastructures. While constructing such infrastructures,
we must think about their sustainability so that we can be benefitted
from them over a long course of time. For this, we must think about the
economic, social, cultural and environmental aspects of the projects
we conduct. Considering economic, social, cultural and environmental
aspects while constructing and operating any project for nlankind is
called sustainable development. According to the report of Brundtland
Commission 198 7, 'Development that meets the needs of the present
generation without compromising the ability of future generation to
meet their own needs' is called sustainable development. Sustainable
development keeps the goal forthe future and makes the base for
continuous achievement. For example, if preventive measures forthe
landslide are adopted well while constructing a bridge at such risky
sites, only then the bridge last long and inany generations will be
benefitted from it.
Activity 4.3
Objective: To prepare a model of clean-green and well-managed (ideal)
village
Materials required: Clay, wood , bamboo pieces, cardboard paper or
hard paper, rope, fevicol or glue, scissors, colour, pencil, eraser etc.
Procedure
1. Copy a picture of any clean-
green village from the internet.
2. Using the materials, rnake a
3D model of the village.While
making the model, consult your
Fig 4.7
subject teacher as per need.
3. Let the model dry in shadow for a few days
4. Use different colours to decorate the model in a natural way as
far as possible.

102 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


Discussion and Conclusion
Present the inodel in your class
and conduct a talkprogram about
different aspects of sustainable
development considered while
making the model and explore
a conclusion about sustainable
develop111ent.
Aspects of Sustainable
Develop1nent
Sustainable development has
harnessed and addressed different Fig. 4.8
issues of human society like
poverty, the physical infrastructure of developmental projects, social
inequality, climate change, pollution and environmental imbalance,
biodiversity,appropriate management of forests, peace and justice.
Different diniensions addressed by sustainable develop111ent are
called the aspects of development. There are three main aspects
of sustainable development which are also called the pillars of
sustainable development because without harnessing all these three
aspects, the development will be only for a short period and rather they
may destroy the possibility of a better project instead. The three pillars
of sustainable development are as follows :
(a) Economic aspects (b) Social aspects
(c) Environmental aspects
(a) Economic aspect
The economic aspect of sustainable development indicates the
continuous and balanced economic development of people and
nations. It aims to achieve strong and progressive economic status
by rational distribution and use of resources without discrimination.
It advocates full contentment (satisfaction) of the present generation
in economic activities like production, distribution and consumption
of goods and services. But it does not believe inthe exploitation of
resources.

Science and Technology, Grade 8 103


(b) Social aspect
People from different backgrounds, thoughts and statuses live in our
society .Proportionate and impartial progress of the whole community
only can support sustainable development in their society. For this,
poverty elimination, a common approach to resources, empowerment
of women and marginalized groups, people participation, preservation
of cultural identity, peace and social justice are to be maintained and
in1plemented properly. This is what the social aspect of sustainable
development means. For an affluent (rich) and prosperous society, all
these social aspects of sustainable development must be addressed.
(c) Environmental aspect
For an affluent and prosperous human society, the surrounding
environment must be productive and reliable. For this, the fertility of
the land, water, air, minerals, climate and biodiversity of plants and
animals must be conserved. Proper utilization of natural resources by
balancing the surrounding ecosystem is the environmental aspect of
sustainable development. For the overall development of mankind,
a continuedsupply ofenvironmental services in sufficient amounts
is a must. While conducting any development project, we must not
hamper natural resources. We should focus on the conservation of the
environment while constructing roads, bridges, dams etc. Likewise,
erosion of riverbanks, landslides at construction sites etc. should be
prevented and the natural habitat of plants and animals must not be
destroyed.
Principles of sustainable development
The principles of sustainable development must be adopted in
every kind of developmental work. It is the guideline of the act
while conducting any kind of such work for their sustainability. The
principles are as follows:
(a) Principle of the ecosystem and biodiversity conservation
Keeping the caring capacity of the earth in mind, the norms of
maintaining natural resources, ecosystems and biodiversity while
conducting developmental projects are called the principle of
ecosystem and biodiversity conservation. This principle emphasizes

104 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


the conservation of natural resources, the use of renewable sources
of energy, the search for other alternative sources, pollution control
and biodiversity conservation.
(b} Principle of population control and human resource management
Human beingsare organisms that utilize and consume much more
natural resources than any other organism. To achieve the goal of
sustainable development through different knowledge and skills of
human beings and tocontinue the supply of natural resources, the
human population must be kept within a limit. The assumption of
keeping the human population within a limit for limiting the use of
natural resources for their sustainability is known as the principle of
population control andhuman resource management. This principle
advocates the duty of responsible human beings to control their
population,to promote their knowledge and skills through education,
training, awareness programs etc.
(c) Principle of culture conse1·vation and public participation
A single person cannot contribute much to anything but public
participation in any task has great power to accomplish it. People
only participate in developmental activities if their traditional and
cultural values are addressed for their prosperity and happiness. The
assumption of conserving the cultural heritage and developing positive
concepts in the community about sustainable development is called
the principle of culture conservation and public participation. This
principle en1phasizes social justice and peace in society. For example,
if people participate to construct an irrigation canal in their village,
they all take ownership and the canal lasts long.
Importance of sustainable development
The act of development that addresses and harnesses every aspect
of society and the environment is called sustainable development.
It conserves and utilizes natural resources rationally, ensures the
habitat of plants and animals, maintains social justice, conserves
traditions and cultures and establishes happiness and prosperity in
society. Therefore, in the present context, there is great importance
on sustainable development. Some of such im.portance of sustainable
development can be listed as follows:
Science and Technology, Grade 8 105
(a) Sustainable development balancesthe environment and controls
pollution.
(b) Sustainable development conserves natural resources and
awakens people about their rational use.
(c) The infrastructures of megaprojects are constructed according
to the norms of Sustainable development.
(d) Sustainable development gradually eliminates social inequality
and establishes social justice, peace and harmony among people.
(e) Sustainable develop1nent en1phasizes delivering economic
opportunity proportionately to every people in society.
Activity 4.4
Write a short essay on the topic 'Necessity, importance and
different aspects of sustainable development forthe conservation of
environment' and present it in your class.
Sustainable Developn1ent Goals and Nepal's Efforts
The goals set for 2016 to 2030 for long-lasting development, are
the worldwide goals of sustainable development. These goals were
set and approved by the 70th general assembly of UNO with 193
participating countries in 2015. The Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs) which came into implementationin 2016, contains 17goals,
169 targets and 232 indicators. The goals of sustainable development
that include different economic, social and environmental aspects
within a timeframe is the roadmap of the world's common goal on
this issue. Nepal also has developed a similar roadmap for sustainable
development including smne more indicators which are necessary
for our context. The goals of sustainable development are directly
or indirectly related to the betterment of the environment although
Agenda 15 emphasizes the betterment of both environment and
biodiversity. It includes the practice of better use of terrestrial ecosystems,
their rehabilitation and conservation, proper management of forests,
preventionof dese1tification of land and protectionof biodiversity.
Except for the above-mentioned goalsrelated to environment and
biodiversity, some other goals like food security;assurance of

106 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


inclusive,impartial and quality education, life-long opportunity
forpeople to uplift their level of education, regularity in the supply of
drinking water and sanitary goods,developing strong infrastructure,
generating employment, minimizing the impacts of climate change,
conservation and rational use of seas, oceans and coastal regions etc.
are also included.
To achieve the goals of sustainable development according to the
national fran18work and indicators, the Nepal govern1nent also has
planned 12-year programwhich reflects the long-term strategy of
government for sustainable development.
To address the issue of food security, the imple1nentation of the policy
for the conservation of farmland and native crops is the main thing.
Similarly, exploring new ones and conserving identified watersheds
for safe drinking water also demand sustainable infrastructures.
Biodiversity is directly affected as a consequence of climate change.
Climate change, on one hand, has affected the lifecycle of marine
life and on other hand, it causes floods , landslides, forest-fire, hyper
precipitation (long and heavy rain), drought, partial precipitation,
desertification etc which disturbs natural balance and habitat of
terrestrial flora and fauna.
According to 'The global circulation model', the imbalance of the
environment at one part of the earth affects the environment of the
whole earth because the ocean and atmosphere are common to all.
Therefore,the global mission of pollution control, reduction of emitting
carbon dioxide, well-planned industrialization and urbanization
and rational and proportional use of natural resources,like issues of
conservingthe global environn1ent
can be achieved only through the
full support of all countries.
Intending to become a 'Developing
country' by 2030, Nepal has been
conducting various programs like
poverty elimination, mitigating
the effects of climate change,
biodiversity conservation
Fig. 4.9
programs, budgeting for quality
Science and Technology, Grade 8 107
education, community development programs etc. to achieve the goals
of sustainable development. These programs are being conducted
through periodic plans and annual budgets. Some of the efforts in
this regard are as follows:
(a) Conservation programs of water resources, watersheds and
biodiversity ata local level are still in operation since 2009
through a council called 'Climate Change Council' to minimize
the impacts of climate change and for its correction. To draw the
world's attention towards the consequences of climate change,
the Nepal govermnent held a cabinet meeting at Kalapatthar,
the basecamp of Mt Everest at an altitude of 5550m in 2009
and by the largest lake Rara, situated at the altitude of 2990 m
in 2018. Similarly, an appropriate dam and drainage systemare
constructed at Tsho-Rolpa glacial lake situated at Rolwaling
valley (4580 m) of Dolakha district in 2020 to prevent the
probability of its burstingat any time. As a consequence of global
warming, the volume of water in Tsho-Rolpa Lake is increasing
more rapidly due to the fast melting of Himalayan ice.
(b) To conserve the forest, Nepal has been launching a community
forest program since 1970.After the implementation ofthe Act on
community forest in 1993, both area and density of forest have
been increased considerably by handing over the responsibility
of management of community forests to the local people.
(c) Nepal government is imple1nenting various programs under
the Fourteenth three-year plan 2016-19 for poverty elimination
emphasizing vocational/technical education and income
generating skills, employn1ent generating progran1s, biodiversity
conservation awareness programsand campaigns of education,
sanitationand health for all.
(d) With the thought of a 'Neat,Clean and Green environment'the
fifteenth Periodic plan has assured the right of people to live
in a healthy environment by controlling pollution, managing
solid wastes, maintaining greenery in their residential and work-
places.
(e) National Environment Policy 2076 BS has aimed the assurance

108 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


ofpeople's right to live in a clean and tidy environment by
managing domestic and industrial wastes, promoting and
maintaining greenery and facility of the drainage system, public
toilets in public places, cities etc as far as possible.
(f) The Environment Conservation Act 2076 BS is in execution since
its promulgation which has emphasized people's human right to
live ina neat and tidy environment by providing compensation
fro1n environmental degraders for their loss, maintaining the
balance between environment and development, to minimize the
effect of climate change on nature, environment and biodiversity
and facing the challenges caused by climate change and global
warming.

Exercise

1. Choose the best answer from the given alternatives:


(a) Report of which commission has defined sustainable
development clearly?
i) Kyoto report ii) Agenda-30
iii) UNO iv) Brundtland
(b) Which aspect of sustainable development emphasizes social
justice?
i) Economic ii) Social
iii) environmental iv) Cultural
(c) Which of the following point represents the importance of
sustainable development regarding biodiversity?
i) Sustainable development manages irrigation syste1ns
in bare lands.
ii) Sustainable development helps to make roads for
connecting remote places.

Science and Technology, Grade 8 109


iii) Sustainable development emphasizes poverty
elimination and a h ygienic lifestyle.
iv) Sustainable development ern.phasizes the balancing of
the surrounding ecosystem.
(d) Which number among the goals of sustainable developn1ent,
the goal of biodiversity is related?
i) No. 13 ii) No. 14
iii) No. 15 iv) No. 16
(e) In the context of the declining snow of the Himalayas, which
among the following points represents the main challenge
to sustainable agro managementof the region?
i) gradual desertification of farmland
ii) frequent occurrence of floods and landslides
iii) drying of land due to less snowing
iv) decreasing fertility of the land.
(f) Which strategy of community development is more suitable
for Nepal for the impartial approach of every citizen in
natural resources according to the principle of sustainable
develop1nent regarding social justice?
(i) Income-generating projects, community forest and
awareness programs.
(ii) Environn1ental conservation for sustainable development
(iii) Environmental degradation and promotional program.
(iv) Social harmony and management of solid wastes.

2. Differentiate:
(a) Development and Sustainable development
(b) Social and Environmental aspects of sustainable
development
110 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
3. Give reason:
(a) Environment must be considered while implementing
developmental works .
(b) Sustainable development helps to establish social harmony.
(c) Degradation of biodiversity affects sustainable develop1nent.
4. Answer the following questions:
(a) What is sustainable development? Give an example.
(b) What are the principles of sustainable development?
Describe any one of them in brief,
(c) 'Skilled human resource is the foundation as well as
the destructor of sustainable development'. Clarify this
statement on your own.
(d) Describe the importance and necessity of sustainable
development for a balanced environment.
(e) What is sustainable development goal? Illustrate the effort
of Nepal to harness the goals of sustainable development.
(f) If any road is being constructed in your town/village, give
any three suggestions to the construction company for the
sustainability of the road.
(g) What are the aspects of sustainable development? Describe
briefly the interrelationship between various aspects of
sustainable development w ith a suitable venn diagram.
(h) Suggest to your local government what it needs to do for
the achievement of the goals of sustainable development
regarding biodiversity.

Science and Technology, Grade 8 111


Life process

Observe the given picture and discuss in the group.


/
, · :F

f*"-+" /
*
f ' - f! - F.tg .51
.
(a) Do the process shown in the above pictures occur at any stage
of life?
(b) As a baby rat is produced in the second picture, what is formed
in the picture of plant?
(c) According to the above pictures, what similarity can be found
in reproduction in plants and animals?
All organism have capacity to produce offsprings. In the life cycle of
organisms, the m echanism of producing reproductive units in males'
and females' bodies, their fusion to make the very first cell of new life
and its development into a baby organis1n of the same kind is called
reproduction. In general, reproduction in flowering plants takes place
by the formation of seeds in flowers and gennination of the seeds
into new plants . In non-flowering plants, direct growth of new plants
occurs throu gh their root or stem or leaf and other parts. Some of
the lower plants and fungi make special units of reproduction called
spores. In higher anilnals, males and females are separate and they
make reproductive cells or gametes in their reproductive organs. After
mating between an adult male and an adult female of the same species,
the fusion of their gametes leads to develop new life which gets birth
either directly from the mother's womb or through the hatching of
eggs. Organisms wh ich are least developed and have a poor ability of
fertilization continue their race asexually. In this way, reproduction
is an essential lifeprocess for the continuation of generations.
112 Science nnd Technology. Grade 8
5.1 Reproduction
Observe the given pictures and discuss :

Fig.5.2
(a) Before hatching, which events occur in the hen?
(b) What may be the reason behind the production of grains in corncob?
(c) What would happen if chickens do not hatch and maize is not
produced in cob?
There are many kinds of organisms on Earth . All these organisms are
giving birth to their kind anyway. Animals reproduce either through
eggs or giving direct birth or adopting any of the asexual methods.
In plants, reproduction occurs either through th e seeds or spores or
any of the asexual methods. Giving birth to ow n kind through any
biological method by organisms is called reproduction. Reproduction
is an essential and internal quality of every organism through which
they are continuing their generation.
Importance of Reproduction
(a) Reproduction prevents the extinction of organisms by continuing their
generation.
(b) Reproduction balances the death rate of organisms by giving new births.
(c) Reproduction is th e basis of existing of new generations.
(d) Reproduction balances the magnitude of biodiversity in the ecosystem.

Project work 5 .1
Observe the process of reproduction in five different organisms available
in your surrounding and discussafter completingthe given table :
Name of organisms Type of organisms Type of reproduction
Ant Animal Through eggs
.............. .............. ..............
Science and Technology, Grade 8 113
Asexual reproduction in plants and anilnals
Find out the answer through the internet or any other source after
observing the given pictures for discussion :

Fig.5.3

(a) Where are the flower-like reproductive parts in fern plants?


(d) Does fern produce seeds?
(c) How does h ydra increase its population?
Organisms reproduce in various ways. Advanced organisms have
separate male and female reproductive organs to produce male and
female gametes and they reproduce their kind by fusion of rnale
and female gametes. A fused female gamete is called a zygote which
gradually develops into seed or baby animals. But so1ne organisms
reproduce through a specific organs w ithout the fusion of gametes.
New younones are developed through such organs by fragmenting,
budding or specific reproductive units.The reproduction through
a specific organ w ithout the fusion of gametes is called asexual
reproduction. The asexual reproduction is found in many organisms.
Asexual reproduction is of various types.They are:
(a) Fission
(b) Budding
114 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
(c) Fragmentation
(d) Regeneration
(e) Sporulation
(£) Parthenogenesis
(a} Fission

....... ~

fig.5.4 binary fission in Euglena

The formation of new organism by splitting parent body is called


fission. It occurs only in unicellular organisms like prokaryotic
Monera and eukaryotic Protista. After fission, the parent cell does
not exist, it is broken into new smaller cells of its kind. There are
two types of fission: binary and multiple. The splitting of a matured
parent cell into two halves is called binary fission. In this, the
parent cell splits longitudinally or transversely into two new cells.
Therefore, binary fission may be longitudinal
or transverse. All unicellular organisms like
amoeba, paramecium, euglena, archaea,
bacteria, chlorella, Anabaena, and blue-green
algae adopt binary fission for reproduction.
In multiple fission, the body (cell) of a living
being is divided into more than two pieces and
every piece develops into an individual cell Fig .5.3 Multiple fission in
(body). Multiple fission is adopted mainly by chlaydomas
Plasmodium, Chlamydomonas, Vorticella and
almost all protists and algae.
Activity 5.1
Observe the permanent slides of binary and multiple fission of
amoeba, paramecium, euglena, plasmodium, Chlamydomonas etc
Science and Technology, Grade 8 115
under a microscope, draw their figure on the practical sheet and
submit to your subject teacher. And, discuss about the method of
asexual reproduction in them.
(b) Budding
Yeast, hydra, obelia, taenia, corals,
and jellyfish like lower organisms
adopt the budding process for asexual
reproduction. In this method, a small
bud appears on a body (or, cell) which Fig. 5.6 budding in hydra
gradually grows into the co1nplete
organism and separates from the parent
body.
(c) Fragm entation
With various physical activities of
/I=-~
Fragment 1

developed animals, wind and water, the


body of som.e plants gets fragmented
into many pieces and every piece grows
-1 ~1m
Fragmenl2
.,...
into a new plant. The111echanism of
growing fragments into cmnpletely new
plants in their natural habitat is called
;;-: ' ~~--+ ~
~
F~menl3
Grows

fragmentation. Many lower plants like


Fig 5. 7 fragmentation in
spirogyra, Marchantia, ferns, lichens, spirogyra
mucor etc follow this method.
(d) Regeneration
Regeneration usually occurs in lower
animals like a hydra, tapeworm, I
planaria, starfish, earthworm, leech etc. c=:>
~
- -
tt-~
~
-
v~
The growth of a cut or separated piece (:JD
of the body into a whole new body is rJ ~
called regeneration. In this process, the c=>c=>
separated part of the body doesn't die
*=*= **
Fig 5.8 Regeneration in hydra
if kept in its natural habitat and starts starfish and planeria
to grow into a complete body. The lost
part in the parental body also grows for
compensation.
116 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
(e) Sporulation

Fig 5.9 Sporucation in leaf of fern

Ferns, mushroon1s, Marchantia, mucor etc lower plants reproduce


asexually by producing spores. Reproduction through spores is
called sporulation. A spore is a special type of reproductive unit and
it is a single cell. Spores are produced in capsules called sporangia
(singular: sporangium). The biological process of spore formation
inside sporangia is called sporogenesis. After maturation, spores
spread through wind and germinate into new plants if they get moist
places with plenty of organic substances.
Activity: 5.2

Objective: To study the spores of the fern

Material required: A leaf of fern w ith n1atured sori, microscope, slide,


brush
Procedure:
(a) Collect a leaf of fern with matured sori.
(b) Obtain some spores on a glass slide from sori with the help of a
brush.
(c) Observe the cellular structure of spores under the microscope.
Observation and Discussion
Draw the cellular structure of a spore and discuss its feature with
friends in class.
(f) Parthenogenesis
The development of a new body of organisms from unfertilized eggs is
called parthenogenesis. It is a kind of biological miracle which occurs
in some species of both plants and animals. The ovary and ovule in
Science and Technology, Grade 8 117
apples, pineapples, and cucumbers directly turn into fruits and seeds
without fertilization. The unfertilized eggs of ants, tennites, and
grasshoppers also directly develop into their babies. The drone bees
are also produced directly from the unfertilized eggs of the queen bee.
Significance of asexual reproduction
(a) Asexual reproduction does not need to produce and fuse male
and female ga1netes.
(b) Asexual reproduction has no concept of male and female.
(c) Asexual reproduction can be initiated usually from any vegetative
or somatic cell.
(d) Asexual reproduction develops a specific reproductive unit for
continuous growth to a new body.
(e) Except for environmental effects, the organisms from asexual
reproduction remain genetically identical to each other.
Questions to Lhink about:
Have you seen the seeds of potato, banana and pineapple? In your
opinion, how do they, reproduce? Discuss and present your conclusion
in your class.

Vegetative Propagation

i
Natural Artificial
Vegetative Propagation Vegetative Propagation

t t
i + i l i
under- aeria tissue
root leaf bulbils cutting gooleo gratli ng
ground stem culture
stem

t
sucker
•t
rhizome corn
t
bulb
t

tuber

118 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


Vegetative propagation in plants
The body of a flowering plant has two main parts: vegetative and
reproductive parts. Flower is the reproductive part of plants because
the flower performs pollination, fertilization and formation of seeds
inside fruits. All other parts except flowers i.e. root, stem and leaf
are vegetative parts . The asexual reproduction through any one of the
vegetative parts is called vegetative propagation. There are different
types of natural and artificial vegetative propagation.
(a) Root (b) Underground stem
(c) Aerial stem (e) Bulbils (f) Leaf
(a) Root
The roots of some plants like roses, sissoo, guava etc have some buds.
If such roots with buds are separated from their stern, the buds start
to grow and give new stems. Asparagus, sweet potato, and dahlia also
have stored plenty of nutrients and water in their root which also gives
rise to new stems with leaves. A new set of roots also grows from the
base of the new stem which later on develops into a separate plant.

Fig 5.10
(b) Underground stem
Underground stems are of five types : i) sucker, ii) rhizome, iii) corm,
iv) bulb, and v) tuber and they are more able for vegetative propagation.
Suckers with a bunch of roots are developed under the main stern
which later on develops as new plants in the case of mint, pistia,
banana, bamboo, ground raspberry etc,. The rhizome is underground
stem storing plenty of water and nutrients and lies almost flat just
under the surface. Ginger, turmeric, calamus root (Bojho ), and plants
like ferns have rhizomes. Rhizonie has given rise to inany buds which
grow as new plants in every next season. Colo cassia (pindaloo) and
gladiolus have corm, full of nutrients and water, at the base of their
green shoot which produces few buds that can be grown into new
plants. The bulb is another round-shaped underground stem found
Science and Technology, Grade 8 119
in onions, garlic, tulips etc. which are also enriched with nutrients
and water and can give new plants from the buds they have. The
underground stem of potatoesand yamsis calleda tuber. A tuber has
some depressions called eyes (aankha) in the beginning, later on, buds
arise from these eyes for propagation.

Fig.5.11 propagation through underground stems: Sucker of bamboo,Rhizome of


ginger, Corm of colocassia,Bulb of garlic, Tuber of potato.

(c) Aerial stem


The aerial stem of some plants like sugarcane and
crab-grass (Dubo) bear some buds at their nodes
which, when comes in contact with moisture, can
grow new shoots and roots and take the form of
new plants. This is the reason that farmers use
cut pieces of sugarcane to sow for new crops,
crabgrass (Dubo) rapidly covers the entire field if
Fig 5.12
provided with the required environment.
(d) Bulbils
In some plants, few buds are formed at nodes
or the base of the leaf or on the top of the short-
fleshy stem which is called bulbils. New roots
and shoot grow from these bulbils to be the new
plants. Pineapples, agaves (Kettuke) , lily, onion,
garlic etc propagate through their bulbils.
(e) Leaf Fig 5.13

Leaf of some plants like bryophyllum, begonia,


kalanchoe (Pattharchatta) , sansevieria or snake
plant.and crassula (jade plant or lucky plant)
can give rise tothe new plant from their leaves.

120 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


Notches on the margin of a bryophyllurn
leaf bear a small bud each which gradually
gives rise to new shoot and root systems .
When an old leaf falls on the soil, many
baby plants of bryoph yllurn grow from the Fig 5.14
fallen leaf. Leaves of the above-mentioned
plants also give new plants more or less in
a similar way.
Project w01* 5.2
Objective: To demonstrate the samples of vegetative propagation.

Material required: Knife, plastic bags, cardboard paper, glue.

Procedu1·e :
(a) Collect some samples of vegetative propagation through the root,
stern and leaf of different plants.
(b) Let the samples dry in a room (not in direct sun) for a few days.
(c) Press the dry samples and keep them closed each in a plastic
bag.
(d) Paste the plastic bags along with samples on the cardboard paper
serially. Samples of vegetative propagation are now ready to
den1onstrate.
Demonstration and Discussion
Demonstrate the sample board in your class, conduct a discussion
program and keep it safe in your science lab for future use.
Artificial vegetative propagation
Activity 5.3
Download a video about grafting in plants and some grafts from the
internet and demonstrate it in class for interaction.
Production of new plants asexually using tools and techniques for the
hnprovement of quality and quantity of crops or cashcrops is called
artificial vegetative propagation. Plants from any of the artificial
inethods have good genetics and they start yielding much sooner than
Science and Technology, Grade 8 121
the plants which are grown from seeds. The reason for good genetics
is nothing but the selection of genetically sound parent plants and
that of earlier yielding is to spend less effort by plants to grow and to
gain inaturity. Cutting, Layering, Gootee, Grafting, and Tissue culture
are some methods of artificial vegetative propagation.
Advantages of artificial vegetative propagation
i) With this, the breed and genetics of plants can be directed as per
need.
ii) With the artificial method, fast-yielding plants can be obtained
iii) Many genetically identical saplings can be produced in a short
period from a single parent plant.
iv) This technique is very useful for spreading plants which have
no viable seeds.
(a) Cutting
The method of sowing cut piecesof
leaf,stem and root of some plants to get
new saplings is called cutting. Raspberry,
ground raspberry, blackberry etc. can be
grown from the cut pieces of their root
whereas in sugarcane, rose, pear, le1non Fig 5.15
etc. stem is cut to sow for their new
plants. Normally, a year-old twig should
be selected for cutting and each cut piece
should have at least two nodes. After a few
days of sowing, new root and shoot start
x 'OWing from the sowed pieces.
ctivitj 5.4 Fig .
5 16
Follow the process of cutting to a rose or any other suitable plant in
your school garden. Keeping the soil moistened, observe them for 15
days and note the changes that occur in the1n. Prepare a report and
present it to your class.
(b) Layering
Layering is done to the plants having soft branches grown from the
very lower part of the stem. The branch selected for layering is called

122 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


the layer. 2-3 cm of the bark
of the layer is removed and
then the part is bent down in
the soil and covered with soil.
The soil is kept moist until
a new root system is grown
from the buried part of the Fig 5.17
branch without bark. then, it
is separated from the parent plant and sowed elsewhere.
(c) Gootee
Gootee is also called 'air layering'. It is done by removing the bark of
at least a year-old branches of litchi, mango, guava, orange, pomelo
(Bhogate) etc by peeling off 2-3 cm bark of the layer and covering the
part with soil enriched with minerals and plant hormones. The soil
is tied well with a plastic sheet to prevent infection.
Nearly after a month or two, when a new root arises from the peeled-
off part, it is separated from the parent plant and sowed elsewhere.
(d) Garfting
The process of joining two parts of closely related plants is called
grafting. The grafting technique is used to prepare plantlets of fruit
plants having good productivity. Out of two parts, the first one,
which has roots is obtained from a year-old fruit plant germinated

A B c 0
Fig 18

Science and Technology, Grade 8 123


from seed by cutting its upper part 20-30 cm from the ground, it is
called stock. Another is a twig of a selected fruit plant having good
quality and productivity. This part is called a scion or graft. Scion or
graft should have a few nodes with or without a few half-cut leaves.
The cut points of both parts are given appropriate shapes for fixing
well. While selecting, cutting and joining them, we should keep in
mind that there should be no disturbance in the internal conductivity
between the stock and the scion. Grafting wax and planttape are used
to join them airtight. After a few days, the wounds heal, and both parts
are joined firmly and become a single plant. This plant soon starts
yielding having the same quality as the plant from which the scion
was taken. Nepal Agriculture Research Council (NARC) prepares
thousands of grafted plantlets of varieties of fruits to enhance fruit
farming and many farmers and consumers are being benefited. It also
has supported the modernization of horticulture in Nepal.
Activity: 5.5

Objective: To graft a fruit plant

Materials required: Two similar and closely related potted fruit plants
(for example lemon and po1nelo) , a grafting knife, grafting clay,
planttape and a brush.
Procedure:
(a) Take two potted plants of the same family.
(b) Clean well the plant at the grafting area with the bush to avoid
contamination.
(c) Make a scion and join at the stock of another.
(d) Tightly pack the area of grafting with grafting clay and planttape
to prevent the flow of air.
(e) Keep the grafted plant in shadow.
(f) If possible, inake a video of the whole process.
Observation and Discussion
Observe the newly grafted plant regularly for 15 days. Note the
changes you observed in copy and submit it to your subject teacher
124 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
and exhibit the video you have produced in your multimedia class
for all your mates.
(e) Tissue culture
Callus

Shoot

R~
Fig 5.19 plant produced from tissue culture method

Tissue culture is an advanced and modern technique of artificial


vegetative propagation of plants. With this technique, hundreds
of thousands of disease-free and genetically desirable plantlets of
any kind of plant can be produced within a limited time. Preparing
several plantlets under a controlled environment inside the lab fr01n
a freshly cut small piece or cell or tissue of the parent plant (called
ex-plant) providing an artificially prepared mixture of plant nutrients
(called culture media) is called tissue culture. A small greenish mass
of undifferentiated cells called callus is formed in culture media
from a small piece of ex-plant later on, they turn into tiny plantlets
(differentiated into root and shoot) with the help of different culture
media mixed with some plant hormones.
Gloss ary:
Axis an imaginary line or plant that divides any geometric
object into two halves.
Media a mixture of various essential nutrients to grow clones
. .
or m1croorgan1sms.
Mating sexual intercourse between a couple of the same species
for reproduction
Spore Unit of asexual reproduction (single cell) produced by
some lower plants and fungi.

Science and Technology, Grade 8 125


Exercise
1. Choose the best alternative from the given answers:
(a) How are new organisms formed during regeneration?
i) growth of new life from the freshly fragmented part of
the parent body
ii) regenerating the fragmented part into a whole body
iii) re-fragmenting the fragmented part
iv) direct development of body from fragmented part.
(b) What should be followed while propagating plants through
cutting?
i) there should be few leaves in the cut part
ii) there should be new buds in the cut part
iii) the cut branch should be taken from the upper part of
the stem of the parent plant
iv) there should be a few nodes in the cut part.
(c) Which of the following represents the meaning of
reproduction?
i) mechanism birth and death
ii) to give birth to young ones at maturity
iii) biological process of giving birth
iv) forming seeds, laying eggs, giving birth
(d) Which type of reproduction is shown in the figure?

i) tuber ii) rhizo1ne

iii) bulbils iv) corm


(e) If producing many plantlets from small ex-plant in a lab
under the controlled environment is tissue culture, then
which of the following sentence is related to this method?
i) Only a small piece of stem or branch of the parent plant
is taken

126 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


ii) Whole part of the plant is taken
iii) Small cut pieces of both plants and animals can be taken
for generating offspring
iv) It can be done only in non-flowering plants.
2. Differentiate :
i) Fission and Budding ii) Bulbilsandrhizome
iii) Natural and artificial v. propagation
iv) Layering and Grafting
3. Give reason :
i) Asexual reproduction has no concept of male and female.
ii) The reproduction from the tuber of a potato is called
vegetative propagation.
iii) Farmers will be benefitted frmn grafting techniques
iv) Tissue culture is considered the most advanced method
among other methods of vegetative propagation.
4. Answer the following questions
(a) What is reproduction? Give an example
(b) What are the types of asexual reproduction? Describe any
one of them if brief.
(c) Describe the budding process in Hydra with suitable figures
(d) Make a flowchart of the methods of vegetative propagation.
(e) What kind of reproductive unit is bulbil? Give an example.
(f) What are stock and scion in grafting? Describe the process
of grafting with its advantage.
(g) What is layering? Draw a figure of layering with an example.
(h) Write down the name of the method of asexual reproduction
in the following organism
Yeast, parameciun1, pineapple, banana, planaria, begonia,
ginger, onion, sugarcane, mucor,sweet potato,spirogyra
(i) Artificial vegetative propagation is more important and
beneficiary to everybody. Justify this statement including
smne examples.
Science and Technology, Grade 8 127
5.2 Sexual reproduction in plants and anin1als
Study the given figure and have a discussion :

Fig 5.20

(a) Before fruiting, which different processes have undergone in the


mango tree?
(b) With which method of reproduction, calves are born from cows'?
There are many types of reproductive processes . In multicellular
eukaryotes, reproduction is done by the formation of gametes. Such
organisms have distinct nlale and female reproductive organs. Some
of them have only male or only female organs and they are called
unisexual organisms. But, some organisms have both inale and female
reproductive organs in the same body. They are called bisexual or
hermaphrodite organisms. For example, the mustard flower has both
nlale and female parts but in human beings, the male has only male
reproductive organs and the female has only female reproductive
organs. Male reproductive organs produce male gametes and female
reproductive organs produce female gametes. The reproduction by
the fusion of male and female ga1netes of the same species is called
sexual reproduction. The fusion of opposite gametes forms a zygote
and the gradual growth and development of the zygote lead to the
formingof a new body.
Charatcteristicsof Sexual Reproduction
(a) In sexual reproduction, the formation of male and female gametes
takes place and they fuse to make a zygote.
(b) Body of organisms has separate male and female reproductive

128 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


organs either in the same body or in a different body.
(c) It retains the ability of reproduction in organisms.
(d) The offspring from sexual reproduction are more adapted to
changing environment.
(e) The offspring from sexual reproduction exhibit genetic variation.
(f) The possibility of organic evolution through sexual reproduction
is very high.
5.2.1 Sexual Reproduction in Plants
Study the figure of the mustard plant alongside and
discuss the given questions :
(a) Which part of the plant is the reproductive
part?
(b) From which part, does the plant produce its
grains?
(c) Does sexual reproduction occur in non- Fig 5.21 mustard
flowering plants like fern, and moss? plant

Sexual reproduction in plants is a little bit different


than in animals. Flower is the reproductive part of flowering plants.
A flower has i11ale and female reproductive parts. Non-flowering
plants have a special type of reproductive parts to perform sexual
reproduction. The study of sexual reproduction in flowering plants
can be divided into two steps: pollination and fertilization.
(A} Pollination stigma
pollen tube
The adjoining j anther
figure of a flower stamen I filament pistil
petal
shows different
ovule ovary
parts. Distinguish
receptacle - --.."'!;...,,,
them i nto male sepal
and female parts pedicel
and have a short
discussion on
them.
Fig 5.22 different parts of flower

Science and Technology, Grade 8 129


The gynoecium of the flower is the fe1nale part. It has an upper
stigma, middle style and lower ovals-shaped ovary. Thin fila1nent-
like parts are male androecium. On the top of each androecium,
there is a pair of anthers.
Powder-like pollen
grains are produced in
the pollen sacs within
anthers. When pollen
grains are matured they
are dispersed in air by
bursting of anthers. Fig 5.23
Transferring pollen grains onto the stigma of the same flower or
different flowers of the same species is called pollination. A single
pollen grain is unicellular, microscopic and covered with a double
layer. Its outer cover is full of very thin hair-like structures with the
help of which they stick on stigma. Pollination is of two types: Self-
pollination and Cross-pollination.
Activity: 5.6

Objective: To study the pollen grains

Materials required: A flower, brush, slide, cover-slip, microscope

Procedure:
(a) Collect a bisexual or a staminate flower and carefully remove its
corolla.
(b) Shed its pollen grains on the middle of the slide with the brush
and cover the pollen grains with a cover-slip after keeping a drop
of water over the grains .
(c) Observe the slide under the microscope.
Observation and Conclusion
Draw a neat and labelled diagram of a pollen grain on the practical
sheet with its characteristics and present it to your subject teacher.
(a) Self-Pollination
Transferring pollen grains onto the flowers of the same plant is called

130 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


self-pollination. Self-pollination occurs
in both unisexual and bisexual flowers.
Self-pollination mostly occurs in sn1all,
colourless or dull flowers w ithout nectar
and fragrance. Self-pollination may not
require pollinating agents like bees, and
butterflies. Self-pollination is of two
types; if pollen grains are transferred
onto the stigma of the sanrn flower it is
called autogamy and if it is transferred
onto the stigma of different flowers of Fig 5.24
the same plant, it is called geitonogamy.
Geitonogamy demands pollinating agents. Paddy, wheat, groundnuts,
and lily generally adopt self-pollination.
Advantages of Self-Pollination
(a) Good hereditary character of the parent plant is preserved in
self-pollination.
(b) Self-pollination assures the production of seeds.
(c) Self-pollination is easily carried out in nature.
Disadvantages of Self-Pollination
(a) Self-pollination does not contribute to developing new characters
in offspring.
(b) Adopting only self-pollination gradually decreases the potentiality
of reproduction.
(c) With self-pollination, the unwanted characters present in the
race of organisms can not be corrected.
Cross-Pollination
Transferring pollen grains of a flo wer onto the flowers of different
plants of the same species is called cross-pollination. Cross-pollination
usually occurs in colourful and well-scented flowers having nectar
and in which androecium and gynoecium mature at different times.
Pollinating agents play a vital role in cross-pollination.

Science and Technology, Grade 8 131


Let's know:
Based on the type of pollinating agent, there are several types
of cross-pollination. Air takes pollen grains to the stigma of
another plant in maize, pine, mango, litchi, etc; this is called
Anen1ophily. In aquatic plants, water support for this process,
and it is called Hydrophily. Insects like bees and butterflies are
attracted to well-scented and colourful flowers and unknowingly
perform pollination, which is called Entomophily. If small birds
like a hummingbird, sunbirds, or tailor birds (fisto) come to the
flower for sweet nectar and make pollination possible, it is called
Ornithophily.

Fig 5.25 (Anemophily, Hydrophily, Entomophily and Ornithophily)

Project work 5.4


Visit some farmlands and kitchen gardens in yotll' locality and observe
pollination being done in flowers by insects. Then, fill in the table
given below and present it in your class for discussion.

Name of plant Type of pollination Pollin ating agent


(a) Mustard Entomophily Honey bee
(b) ... ............. ..... .................... .........................
(c) ................. ..... .................... .........................
Advantages of Pollination

(a) Pollination helps to create new plants with improved quality.


(b) Plants obtained from pollination will be more adaptive to the
environment.
132 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
(c) Pollination causes the production of seeds to have more capacity
for germination.
Disadvantage of Pollination
(a) Pollination depends upon pollinating agents, in the absence of
which, it may not occur.
(b) It will be difficult to preserve the good genetics of plants through
pollination.
(c) Offspring may get bad and unwanted hereditary characteristics.
Activity; 5.7
Download a video of pollination from the internet and exhibit it among
your friends for interaction.
(B) Fertilization
The fusion of a male gamete with a female gamete of the same
species is called fertilization. Fertilization occurs inside the ovary in
flowering plants. Pollen grains falling onthe stigma start germinating

_ _...,___ Pokn Tubts

i_....+-#--:"!:'- Sl)tt
t--+-+--P-" " - SpcrmN~

Fig. 5.26 Fertilization occurs In flowering plants

Science and Technology, Grade 8 133


into pollentubes by absorbing water, glucose and other nutrients from
the fluid of the stigma and they gradually penetrate style to reach the
ovary. The nucleus present in the pollen grain is shifted to the pollen
tube. On the way to the ovary, this nucleus is divided into two nuclei,
which are now called male gametes. When the pollen tube reaches the
ovary, both nuclei enter the ovule. One of the male gamete (nucleus)
fertilizes the egg nucleus of the ovule (female gamete) and makes a
zygote; the remaining male ga1nete fertilizes with a secondary polar
nucleus and an antipodal cell forming an endospermic nucleus. In
this way, there will be double fertilization in flowering plants. After
fertilization, the fertilized ovule will be developed into a seed and
the whole ovary is developed into the fruit.
Activity: 5.8
Objective: To study the germination of pollen
grains on the stigma
Materials required: A 1natured flower, forceps,
scissors, watch-glass, slide, microscope
Fig 5.27
Procedu1·e :
(a) Collect only the gynoecium of some flowers and keep them in a
watchglass.
(b) Cut only the stigma of the gynoecium with scissors by holding
the styles with forceps.
(c) Put the separated stigma on a slide and observe under the
microscope.
Observation and Conclusion
Observe some germinating pollen grains of stigma. Draw their neat
and labelled diagra111 in your practical sheet and submit it to your
subject teacher.
5.2.2 Sexual Reproduction in Animals
Males and femal es are separate in most
anin1als. When they become adults, they will
be eligible for reproduction. Both males and Fig 5.28

134 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


females have special organs to produce maleandfemalegametes. For
exa1nple, themale has testes to produce spermand thefemale has
ovaries to produce eggs or ova (singular: ovum) . Sperms and eggs
are male and female gametes respectively. The process of producing
gametes in the testes and ovaries is called gametogenesis.
The male reproductive cell or unit is called sperm and that of the
female is called the ovum or egg.Sperm has an oval head and long tail
but the ovum is quite bigger and round in shape. In human beings,
sperm are produced in millions but in females, only one ovum is
produced by an ovary in one month.
Neck
Corona
Plasma membrane Middle
radiata

/'.::::;r:F-i r ' - - Cytoplasm


e--~~~- Nucleus
r.·\J~~~~~- Nucleolus

~-~~!!f-- Plasma
membrane
Zona
pellucida
Fig 5.29
At the end of mating between a couple of animals, fertilization happens
through the fusion of a sperm and an egg. Although, thousands of
sperms circle an ovum, only one of them will be able to fertilize the
ovum. Fertilization is the mixing of nuclei of a sperm and an ovum.
After fertilization, the ovum is turned into a zygote which carries the
nuclei of both sperm and egg. Zygote is the first cell of a new body
to be born. The rapid development of the zygote makes the complete
body of a baby organisni. The duration required for a zygote to be
developed into a con1plete body to be born or hatched is called the
embryonic period or pregnancy period.
I\
Mate '\ Zygote Embryo Baby
Sperm ~ ~ •./"(,,.
~
~
Female
- -
Egg

Fig 5.30

There are two types of fertilization in animals: External fertilization

Science and Technology, Grade 8 135


and Internal fertilization. The fertilization that is performed inside
the fe1nale body at the end of mating is called Internal fertilization.
In internal fertilization, the fusion of sperm and an ovum takes
place inside the fallopian tube of a female. Provision of internal
fertilization is in arthropods, reptilesi birds and mammals. But in
fishes and amphibians, fertilization takes place outside the body of
the female in the outer environment and this type of fertilization is
called External fertilization . In external fertilization, the female lays
many eggs in water or on substratum without mating and then after,
the male releases sperm over the eggs to fertilize them.
Activity: 5 .9
Objective: To study the eggs of the frog
Material required: A wirenet, watch-glass, hand lens, a permanent
slide of frog egg, microscope
Procedure :
(a) With the help of a wirenet, collect some frog's eggs from nearby
ponds or streams into the watch-glass
(b) Observe the eggs first with a hand lens and then after with a
microscope. Compare the egg with the permanent slide of the
frogeggs to know whether the collected egg is fertilized or not.
Conclusion : Prepare a report on 'External fertilization in frogs'
comparing the structure and condition of collected egg with that of
the permanent slide.

136 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


Exercise

1. Choose the best alternative from the given options :


(a) Where does fertilization take place in flowering plants?
i) In stigma ii) In ovary
iii) In ovule iv) In style
(b) What is called the pollination that is carried out by flies?
i) Self-pollination ii) Cross-pollination
iii) Pollen germination iv) Entomophily
(c) Which of the following statement indicates the meaning of
pollination?
i) Pollination within the same flower
ii) Pollination between two flowers
iii) Pollination between genetically sin1ilar flowers
iv) Pollination between genetically dissimilar flowers
(d) Which part is indicated by 'B' in the figure alongside?

i) Pollen grain ii) Pollen tube


B

iii) Style iv) Germinating pollen


grain

(e) Which of the following animal adopt internal fertilization?


n Llzard ~ Frog
iii) Sea-horse iv) Salamander
(f) Which of the statements are true regarding fertilization?
i) Generally, the ovary changes into fruit and the ovule
changes into a seed after fertilization
ii) In so1ne plants, the ovary changes into the fruit without
fertilization

Science and Technology, Grade 8 137


iii) Firsts fertilization occurs in the stigma and second in
the ovary
(IV) Fertilization occurs at first and then gametogenesis
happens to make a zygote.
i) i and iiiii) i and ii iii) i and iv iv) all statements
(f) Which sequence is true regarding pollination in flowering
plants?
i) anther, stigma, pollen grain, pollen tube
ii) anther, pollen grain, stigma, germination
iii) pollen tube, pollen grain, style, anther
iv) pollen grain, anther, pollen tube, stigma
2. Differentiate :
(a) Pollination and Fertilization (b) GametesandZygote
(c) Anther and Pollen grain (d) AutogainyandGeitonogainy
(e) External fertilization and Internal fertilization
3. Give reason :
(a) Pollinating agents have a great role in pollination.
(b) Both male and female organisms are required for sexual
reproduction.
(c) External fertilization takes place either in water or on land.
4. Answer the following questions :
(a) What is pollination? Give an example.
(b) Compare the self-pollination and cross-pollination with
diagrams and mechanisms.
(c) What is meant by double fertilization? Describe the process
in brief.
(d) Draw a neat and labelled diagram of an ovum and a spern~.
(e) 'Four puppies were born at a home,' Which type of

138 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


reproduction is this? Describe the importance of gametes
in sexual reproduction.
(f) Make a graphical chart showing sexual reproduction in
animals.
(g) What is gametogenesis? In which part of plants and animals
does this process take place?
(h) Name the type of fertilization in given anilnals :
Human, Pigeon, Tortoise, Butterfly, Fish, Bat, Frog, Cow,
Dragonfly, Whale.
(i) What effects would occur if there is no sexual reproduction
in plants and animals? Clarify with a suitable example.
(j) 'If there is no pollination in plants, fertilization will be nearly
impossible' Justify this statement with logic.
(k) 'Internal fertilization is safer than external fertilization'.
How?
(1) How to do 'fragrance in flower' and the 'different time for
anther and stigma to be matured' assure the pollination
process? Describe in brief.
(n1) Study the given diagram of a flower and answer the following
question:
i) Label A, B C and D parts of a flower.
ii) What effect may occur in the fertilization process if
1 1
part B is removed?

Science and Technology, Grade 8 139


5.3 Seed
Discuss the given questions :
(a) What is produced in plants as babies are born in animals?
(b) Do all plants produce seeds?
After fertilization in plants, the egg nucleus of the ovule is turned
into a zygote. Due to sequential development, the zygote inside the
ovule develops into an embryo. After the complete development of
the e1nbryo, the fertilized ovule becomes the seed having the capacity
of germination under a suitable environment to become a sapling
and then into a matured plant. Therefore, the seed is a part of the
life cycle of flowering plants which can germinate into new plants of
their kind. As babies are obtained in the lifecycle of anin1als, seeds
are obtained in the lifecycle of flowering plants. Seeds are very tiny
to quite large in size and oval or, elongated or wrinkled or round or
having scaly wings etc in shape.

Fig 5.31
Project wo1*: 5.5
Collect various kinds of seeds . Keep the collected seed separately in
plastic bags and seal them with a candle and paste them serially on
chart paper and sub1nit them to your subject teacher for discussion.
Dispersal of seeds
In general, seeds are grown inside fruits . A single fruit may have one or
many seeds. Seeds also ripen along with fruits and be separated from
the fruits. Seeds of some plants are carried to distant places through
caniers. Reaching of seeds from their origin to different places through
the help of any one of the carriers is called dispersal of seed. Dispersal
of seed is one of the adaptation of flowering plants by which they can
reach a different environment and try to be adjusted. Generally, the

140 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


following are the mechanisms of the dispersal of seeds :
(a) dispersal through wind
(b) dispersal through water
(c) dispersal by animals
(d) dispersal by gravity
(e) dispersal by bursting of pods
(a} Dispersal through the wind

Fig 5.32
S1nall and light seeds are dispersed through the wind. These seeds
may have feather-like scales, wing-like scaly structures or small
pouches of air which help seeds to be suspended in the air for a long
tinrn and wind can blow them to distant places. When their fruit is
ripened and open, seeds start taking off from the fruits and dispersed
along with the wind. Seeds of red silk cotton trees, Aak trees, Kans
and other grasses like Dandelion, cotton, maple etc are dispersed
through the wind.
(b) Dispersal through water

Fig 5.33
Seeds of hydrophytes, plants that grow at river banks and wetlands
are dispersed through water. Such seeds are water-proof, light and
floating type. When their fruits ripen and fall in the water, they are
carried by water up to distant places. Lotus, Lily, Mangrove, Coconut,
cattail etc are dispersed running or moving through water.
Science and Technology, Grade 8 141
(c) Dispersal by animals

Fig 5.34

Fruits of many plants are edible and eaten by monkeys, deer, squirrels,
mice, rabbits, birds, flyingfoxes etc. These animals eat soft and
delicious parts of fruit but due to hard covering they either cannot
eat or cannot digest their seeds, so they dispose of only seeds at
different places . Human beings have transported the seeds of cereals,
legumes, fruits , and vegetables throughout the world. Some seeds
like cobblers pegs (Kuro),and cocklebur (Bhede Kuro) have spiky
bristles all around with which they get stuck on animals' bodies and
reach different places. Seeds of small fruits are eaten and swallowed
along with fruits but seeds are egested here and there without being
digested and they get a chance to grow. Seeds of Java plum (Jaamun),
Chebulic Myrobalan (Harro), Myrobalan Beleric (Barro), Gooseberry
(Amla), Guava (Amba), Pears (Naspaati), Myrica (kaafal), Raspberry
(Ainselu) etc are dispersed by animals by swallowing and egesting.
(d) Dispersal by gravity

Dispersal by gravity is a normal method for those seeds in which either


seeds or their fruits are dense and heavy. When such ripened fruits
fall on the ground due to gravity, outer fruits decay and seeds are
exposed to the outer environment and germinate if they get favourable
conditions. Seeds of mango, apple, coconut etc are dispersed by this
n1ethod.
(e) Dispersal by bursting of pods
In some plants, due to multiple reasons like the effects of sun, water,
plant hormones and the turgor pressure created in the cells, their pods
once burst after drying and the seeds inside such pods are ejected out
forcefully around th e parent plant. Seeds of rnustard, ladies' finger,
beans, peas, ipil ipil, ch estnuts, thornapples (Dhaturo ), rosary peas

142 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


Fig 5.35

(Laal gedi) etc are dispersed by bursting their pods.


Activity 5.10
Observe any ten different types of seeds and prepare a table as shown
below to exhibit in your class for discussion.
Name of seed Method of dispersal Tentative distance of
dispersion
(a) ................... ......................... ......................
(b) ................... ......................... ......................
... ...................... ......................... ......................
Structure of seed
Let's discuss the following questions :
(a) vVhat would be seen inside if we open the legumes soaked well
in water for making curry?
(b) Is the structure of all legumes similar?
A seed is composed of nlainly three parts :
(a) seed coat (b) embryo (c) endosperm
(a) Seed coat
It is the outermost covering of a seed. It is composed of multiple layers
of cells and the seed coat has two layers. The outer thick layer is called
Testa and the inner thin layer is Tegmen. Some seeds like coconut
and litchi have tough seed coats. The seed coat protects seeds from
the external environment and inhibits the gern1ination of the seeds
for a long time during unfavourable conditions.

Science and Technology, Grade 8 143


(b) Embryo
The embryo is the main part of a seed. It is the fertile part as it
turns into a plant w hen the seed germinates. The embryo has mainly
three parts: cotyledon, radicle and plumule. During germination, the
radicle develops into the root system, the plumule into the shoot
system and the cotyledon turns into green embryonic leaves which
initiates photosynthesis for the first time in the life of the plant.
Besides turning into embryonic leaves, cotyledon also protects the
radicle and plumule as well as preserves protein and starch for
germinating embryos. Monocot seed has a single cotyledon, dicot has
two or some pairs of cotyledons and gymnosperm has many such pairs in
their seed. The first leaf in a monocot plant is developed from coleoptile.
(c) Endosperm

Embryo

Cotyledon
Fig 5.36

Part of the seed just under the seed coat is called endosperm. It
occupies the largest volume of seed and preserves plant nutrients in
the form of starch and proteins, which are used by embryo during
the germination period until the new plant initiates nlaking the food
itself. Except for some, most of the dicot seeds do not have endosperm
and they store such nutrients in cotyledons. All monocot seeds have
endosperm to preserve nutrients and their cotyledon just protects
the embryo.
Activity 5.11

Objective: To study the internal structure of soya seeds


Materials required: Some soya seeds, water, hand lens, forceps, beaker,
watch-glass
144 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
Procedu1·e :
(a) Soak soya or any dicot seeds in water for a few days.
(b) Keep some soaked seed in a watchglass and carefully remove the
seed coat with forceps.
(c) Open cotyledons of peeled-off seeds carefully and observe their
internal parts with a hand lens.
Observation and Conclusion
Draw the internal structure of the observed seed and label its different
parts . Write a conclusion about the structure of the dicot seed after
discussing the topic.
Germination of seed
The development of a new root and shoot systen1 of a new plant
from a seed is called germination. Different seeds have different
germination capacities. If preserved well, some seeds can maintain
their germination capacity for years. The state in w hich the seed
remains unchanged without any process of germination is called
dormancy. If a seed is provided plenty of moisture, oxygen and
suitable temperature, it absorbs moisture and due to starting of a bio-
chemical reaction inside the seedcells, the embryo becomes active.
The Radicle of the seed first starts to germinate into the root syste1n
which is followed by the germination of plumule into the shoot system
and cotyledons turn into embryonic leaves.
Foliage leaves- -_,...
Cotyledon
\
Hypocotyt

~oty~ Coty1:a'J
Hypoco~ f 1-l

Radicie
..LJ:~,~~\
Fig 5.37

This whole state of a seed is called the germination of the seed.


Germination of seed is followed by seedling. Seedling is the entire

Science and Technology, Grade 8 145


process of converting a germinating seed into a sapling ready to
be transplanted on the desired site. For seedling, germinating seed
prepares plenty of nutrients in the form of starch, protein minerals
etc. Therefore, consuming germinating seeds is more beneficial than
non-germinating grains .
Activity 5.12
Objective: To study the germination of seeds
Materials required: Some mustardseeds, a petri
dish, absorbent cotton or a few circles of filter
paper, water, a beaker
Fig 5.38
Procedu1·e :
(a) Soak the seeds in water for a day.
(b) Keep soaked cotton or folded filter paper in the peu-i dish and
sprinkle the soaked seed on the moist cotton.
(c) Leave the seed for a few days. Observe the seeds every day.
Observation and Conclusion
Observe the seeds every day and note the changes until they become
plantlets. Present your conclusion on the germination of seeds in
your class.
Factors affecting on germination of seeds
Many factors have an important role in the germination of seeds.
Germination is affected by different internal and external factors .
Moisture, temperature, air and light have a prime role in germination.
(a) Water
Seeds are stored only after drying enough in the sun. There is no
n1etabolic activity in dry seeds. When they are soaked in water, the
cells of the seed absorb plenty of water they break their dormancy,
become active and start metabolism which initiates germination.
Because of this, rnost of the seeds are soaked in water 24 hours before
their sowing.

146 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


(b) Air
For the germination of seed, oxygen is essential. Oxygen generates
energy in mitochondria which is necessary for their germination.
During dormancy, cells of the seed are not breathing, not consuming
nutrients and not generating any energy.
(c) Temperature
Seeds cannot germinate at too high or too lowtemperature. 16-24oC
is the ideal temperature for most of the seeds to germinate. Suitable
te1nperature helps to break up the dormancy of seed. When we bury
seeds in the soil, they slowly get the geothermal or preserved heat
along with oxygen and moisture and germinate.
(cl) Light
Light is required just before and after sprouting their shoot system to
begin photosynthesis for the production of nutrients. Light is a must
for the seedling. Due to the lack of light in dense forests , dispersed
seeds may not germinate for years at there.
Activity: 5.13

Objective: To study the effect of water on germination

Materials required: Three grains of the san1e seed, beaker, glass or


plastic spatula, thread, water.
Procedure :
(a) Tie three same seeds with thread on a
plastic or glass spatula two at two ends
and one inthe middle as shown in the
figure alongside.
(b) Fill half a beaker with water and place the
spatula in the beaker in such a way that
the middle seed should be half immersed
in water. Fig 5.39

(c) Keep the beaker with seeds in the lab for


a few days.

Science and Technology, Grade 8 147


Discussion and Conclusion :
Observe the seeds after 2-3 days, note down the changes seen in the
seeds and write your conclusion about the factors of germination.
hnportance of germination of seed
(a) As germination of seed results in the production of a new
generation of plants, it is very necessary for the continuation of
their race.
(b) Proper germination of seeds in farming increases productivity
which is beneficial for farmers, consumers and the nation.
(c) Genninating seeds contain more nutrients than normal seeds, so
it is better to let the seeds germinate before they are consumed.
(d) Proper germination of seeds of grass and trees in forests and
pastures assists to conserve biodiversity.

148 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


Exercise
1. Choose the best alternative from the given options :
(a) Which method does thatch-grass (Khar) adopt to disperse
their seeds?
i) through air ii) through water
iii) by bursting pods iv) by birds
(b) What is the main function of a seed?
i) to determine fruit ii) to produce a new plant
iii) to continue their race iv) to preserve nutrients
(c) Which of the following event occurs during germination?
i) Plumule and radicle become active and make cotyledon.
ii) Endosperm is turned into the root syste1n.
iii) Stem is grown from the seedcoat.
iv) Cotyledons turn into embryonic leaves.
(d) Which of the following figure indicates seedling?

i) A ii) B iii) c iv) D


(e) Why are seeds not stored in moist or wet places?
i) to prevent the decaying of seeds
ii) to store seeds for a long time
iii) to prevent seeds from fungal attack
iv) to prevent germination

Science and Technology, Grade 8 149


(f) Which statement regarding the 'dormancy' is correct?
i) it preserves the life and germination potential of seeds.
ii) it preserves nutrients in seeds.
iii) it protects seeds from air and water.
iv) it conducts biochemical reactions during the
germination of seeds.
(f) Seeds of red silk cotton trees, Aak trees, Kans, maple etc
which are dispersed through wind have either air sacs or
wing-like structures. How do these structures help them to
be dispersed?
i) these structures protect the seed from a strong current
of air and are dispersed.
ii) these structures help seeds to burst when they are fully
ripened.
iii) these structures help seeds to be exposed to fruits and
then dispersed.
iv) theses structures decrease the density of seeds and
help them float in the air while dispersing.
2. Differentiate :
(a) Dispersal of seeds and Germination of seeds
(b) Plurnule and Radicle
(c) Dispersal of mustard seeds and Dispersal of myrica seeds
3. Give reason:
(a) Seeds start germinating if soaked in water.
(b) Seeds of red silk cotton are dispersed over a long distance.
(c) Seeds continue the race of generation.
4. Answer the following questions :
(a) What is a seed? Give examples.
(b) Write the methods of dispersal of seeds and explain any
one of them with a figure and example.
150 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
(c) What is meant by seed dormancy? How does it help seeds?
(d) Explain the germination process of seeds with a suitable
diagram.
(e) What is the role of air in the germination of seeds?
(f) Mention the importance of the germination of seeds in
points.
(g) Read the given passage and answer the following questions :
Suryanaraya dug his field well with a tractor to sow wheat and put
compost manure. The next day he sowed wheat and dug the field once
again which helped to bury all seeds in the soil. After a few days,
he went to the field to observe the condition. At the inoistened part,
the seedling was good but at the dry part, germination and seedling
were not uniform
i) Why did Suryanarayan again dig the field after sowing
wheat?
ii) What may be the reason for seeds not germinating inthe
dry part of the field?
iii) What should be done for proper seedlings at every
corner of the field?
(h) Name the method of dispersal for the given seeds :
Mango, chestnut, maple, gram, cobblers pegs (Kura), sesaine
seed (Teel), pumpkin, coconut, pear.
(i) Study the given figure and answer the following questions:

(j) 'Consuming germination seeds


is more beneficial than normal dry seeds'. Clarify this
statem.ent with logic.
Science and Technology, Grade 8 151
Force and Motion

Obser ve these pictures and discuss the questions given below:

REST

~
I

Fig 6. 1 Different condition of motion and rest


Questions:
(a) Which objects in the pictures are at rest and which are in motion?
(b) Do all objects have the same types of motion?
(e) What should be done to move the object'?
All objects in the universe are either at rest or in motion. To know
whether an object is at rest or in motion, it must be c01npared with
a point, place or surrounding environ111ent.A reference point is a
point. place or object used to determine w hether something is at rest
or in motion. Flying birds, moving buses, walking people etc. are in
motion compared to the surrounding environment. If an object at
rest changes position when a force is applied to it, it is saids to be
in motion. Force is required to change the position of an object from
rest to motion or motion to rest.

152 Science nnd Technology. Grade 8


6.1 Motion
The objects which are moving, flying, rolling and flowing around us
are said tobe in motion. The buildings and trees in our surroundings
are said to be at rest because they do not change their position
relative to the surrounding objects. Objects in inotion are changing
their position relative to surrounding objects. The same object can
be considered being at rest or in motion relative to a different point,
place or surrounding environment. For example, wh ile travelling on a
moving bus, the passengers inside the bus are at rest relative to the bus
but they are in motion relative to the surrounding. Therefore,rest and
motion are relative tern1s. In this unit, we will discuss rest and motion,
speed, average speed, velocity, relative velocity and acceleration.
Motion: An object is said to be in motion if it changes its position
with respect to the reference point or surrounding environment. For
example, flying aeroplanes, moving vehicles, walking people, rolling
balls etc. are in motion with respect to the surrounding.The motion
of objects is categorized as uniform and non-uniform motion. If an
object covers equal distances in equal intervals of tilne then its motion is
said to be il1 uniforrn motion but if it covers unequal distances in equal
intervals of time, then its motion is said to be in non-m1iform motion.
Rest: An object is said to be at rest if it does not change its position
with respect to a reference point or surrounding environment. For
example houses, trees, vehicles in parking areas etc. are at rest relative
to the surrounding environment.
Speed and Velocity:
Between a deer and a cheetah, which can run faster? Some objects
move faster while others move slowly. If a car moves at 20 mis means
the car moves 20 meters distance in every second. The speed of sound
in air is 332 m/s means that sound travels 332 meters distance in one
second. Distance travelled by the body in a unit time is called speed.
Speed is measured in meters per second (m/s) in S.I. unit.

distance travelled (d)


Speed(S) =
time taken (t)
Science and Teclmology, Grade 8 153
A fast-moving object has a higher speed than the one that moves slowly.
Speed is a scalar quantity because it has magnitude but no direction.
Velocity is defined as the distance travelled by the body in a unit
time in the particular direction or the rate of change of displacement.
Its S.I. unit is meter per second (m/s) . For con1plete description,
velocity requires both magnitude and direction. So, velocity is a
vector quantity. Velocity can be expressed in the form ofthe following
rnathematical equation;
distance travelled in particular direction (s)
Velocity (V) =
time taken (t)
Speed and velocity rnay be used synoy111ously in daily life but, in
physics, they represent different physical quantities.
6 .1 .1 Relative velocity
Discuss the following questions:

velocity V8

velocity VA

Fig 6.2 Relative Velocity

I. Passengers in a moving bus are at rest or in motion, why?

11. Why do we feel that our bus is moving slowly when another bus
overtakes our bus moving in the same direction?

HI. Why do we feel that the bus is moving faster if another bus passes
nearby in opposite direction?

154 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


Passengers in a moving bus do not change their position so they
are at rest with respect to the bus. These passengers are changing
their position with respect to the surrounding place or environment.
Therefore,they are in motion with respect to the surrounding. Rest
and motion are relative terms.
M
Any fixed point, line or place from
which we compare the motion of an
object is a reference point. In Fig 6.3, A
the line MN is the reference line and +---------------- B
'P' is the reference point for the car
'A' and 'B'. Car 'A' is moving at the Fig 6.3 Objects moving with different
speed of 10 mfs in the west direction speeds in the opposite direction
and car 'B' is moving at the speed of 15 m/s in the east direction. The
velocity of a body relative to the reference point or another body is
called relative velocity.
Finding the relative velocity of a body in different cases:
(a) Both objects are moving atthe same speed in the same direction.
Let us suppose that bus 'A' and bus 'B' are moving in the same direction
from the reference line PQ in a parallel road. The velocity of both
buses is 22 m/s. Both buses cover 22 meters distance in every second
so they lie at an equal distance fro1n the reference line after 1 second.
The condition of the buses after 1 second is shown in Fig 6.4. Bus
'A' is at rest relative to the position of bus 'B' and vice-versa.So, the
passengers in both buses experience the condition that they are at
rest. This is because both the buses are moving with the same speed
in the same direction.
p P'
Initial state after 1 second

22m/s A r; 22m/s

22m/s B 22m/s

Q Q'
Fig 6.4 Buses moving in the same direction at the same speed

Science and Teclm ology, Grade 8 155


The relative velocity of the bus 1A1 with respect to bus 1B1 is expressed as,
Relative velocity (vBA) =Velocity of B (vB) - Velocity of B (vA)
VAB = V B - VA = (22 - 22) m/s =0
(a) Both objects are moving in the same direction at different
speeds.
Let us suppose that bus 'A' and bus 'B 1 are moving in the same direction
from the reference frame MN in a parallel road. The velocity of bus
'A' is 10 rn)s and bus 'B1 is 15 m/s. The position of both buses after 1
second is shown on the right side of the given picture where bus 'A'
covers 10 m and bus 'B' covers 15 m of distance in 1 second. These
buses are 5 meters apart after 1 second. So, the relative velocity of
the bus 1A 1 with respect to bus 'B' is 5 m/s.

Alie
M

,..,
A

B
,..,
10m/s 10m
. .

15m/s 15In 5m I~
N N
Fig 6.5 Buses moving in the same direction with different speed

20m/s p 20m/s

l 1

A Q B

Fig 6,6 buses are moving in opposite direction

156 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


(c) Objects moving in a different direction at the same or different
speed
The cars 'A' and 'B' moving in the opposite direction from the reference
line PQ in Fig 6.6. The cars 'A' and 'B' are moving at the same speed
20 m/s in opposite directions. Therefore, the relative velocity of car
'A' with respect to car 'B' is expressed as,
Relative velocity (VAB) =Velocity of A (VA) - Velocity of B (VB)
or, VAB =VA- V8
or, VAB = VA- (-VB)
orVAB =VA+ VB
The passengers in both cars experience that they are travelling faster
than the speed of their car due to relative velocity in this situation.
Exa1nple -1
Two buses 'A' and 'B' are moving in the same direction with the velocity
15 m/s and 10 mis respectively. Find the relative velocity of the bus
'A' with respect to bus 'B'. What would be their relative velocity if they
are moving in the opposite direction? Here,
velocity of bus 'A' (VA) = 15 m/s
velocity of bus 'B' (V8 ) = 10 m/s
relative velocity ofthe bus 'A' w ith respect to bus 'B' (VAB) = ?
We know that, (VAB) =VA- VB
or, VAB = 15 m/s -10 m/s
:. VAB = 5 m/s
If they are moving in the opposite direction,(VAB) = VA+ VB
or, (VAB) = 15 m/s + 10 m/s
:. (VAB) = 25 m/s
Therefore, the relative velocity of the bus 'A' w ith respect to bus 'B' is
5 m/s if they move in the same direction and 25 m/s if they move in
the opposite direction.
Science and Teclmology, Grade 8 157
6 .1.2 Average velocity
Any object in uniform motion has a fixed velocity whereas the
velocity of the object in non-uniform motion increases or decreases.
In the case of non-uniform 111.otion, the velocity of the body increases
or decreases so we need to calculate its average velocity. The total
distance travelled by the body in unit time in a particular direction
is called average velocity.
total distance travelled in particular direction (S)
Average velocity (v -) = - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
total time taken (t)
:. v = s/t
Here, v = average velocity
s = total displacement (total distance travelled in a particular
direction) t = total time taken
Exan1ple - 2
Find the average velocity if an object covers 10 meters of distance in 3
seconds in a particular direction and another object covers 17 meters
of distance in 6 seconds in the same direction.
total distance travelled in particular direction (s)
Average velocity =
total time taken (t)
s (10m +1 7m)
or, Average velocity(v) = - =3rn/s
t (3 + 6)
If an object has different velocities at different times, then its average
velocity is calculated by the formulae given below by assuming its
initial velocity (u) at the beginning and final velocity (v) at the end;
Initial velocity(u) + Final velocity (v)
Average velocity =
2

v- u+ v
2

158 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


Activity 6.1
Gathered all the students of your grade in one place. Find the distance
between your home and school by asking your parents or using google
maps. Note down the average time required for you to come to the
school in the table given below. Find the average velocity based on data.
S.N. Name of the student's Total time taken to come to
school
Distance between school and
ho111e
1.

2.

. .. . .

Average distance = Average distance =

total distance travelled in particular direction (s)


Average distance = --------------------
total time taken (t)
6.1.3 Acceleration
Questions to think about:
Things to know:
(a) What would be the change If an object moves .from i:es l 1·h en its
in velocity of an object if it initial velocity (u) is 0 mis and if an
is released from a certain object is stopped suddenly then i ts
height or thrown vertically final velocity (v) is O m/s.
upwards?
Generally, a car, motorcycle or bus in motion has non-uniform
velocity.Their velocity sometimes increases and s0111etimes decreases.
The velocity of the bicycle increases on a sloppy road. Similarly, if
an object is released from a height then its velocity continuously
increases. The rate of increase in velocity is called acceleration. The
change in velocity of a body in a unit time is called acceleration. It is
denoted by 'a' and its S.I. unit is m/s2 •
Let us consider the bicycle is moving with the uniform velocity 'u'
Science and Teclmology, Grade 8 159
and it is accelerated to its final velocity 'v' in time 't', then the change
in velocity of the bicycle is (v-u) so, its acceleration is given by,
Change in velocity
Acceleration =
time taken
Final Velocity - Initial velocity
or, Acceleration = - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Time taken
v-u
a=--
t
If any object is moving with uniform velocity then the acceleration of
the body is zero because there is no change in velocity. If the brake is
applied to the nioving vehicle then its final velocity is less than the
initial velocity so its velocity is decreased. In the case of retardation,
the final velocity of a body is less than the initial velocity (v<u) , so
it has negative acceleration (-a) .The rate of decrease in velocity of the
body is called retardation. Negative acceleration is called retardation
of a body.
Example - 3
Calculate the acceleration of the bus starting to move from rest and
its velocity becomes 25 m/s in 10 seconds.
Solution:
Here,

Initial velocity (u) =0


Final velocity (v) = 25 rn!s
tinie taken (t) = 1 O s
acceleration (a) =?
By using formulae,
(v-u)
a= t = 2.5 m/s2

160 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


25-0
10
The acceleration of this bus is 2.5 m/s 2 •
Example-4
Calculate the retardation of the bus which is moving at the speed of
20 mis and comes to rest in 4 seconds.
Solution:
Here,
Initial velocity (u) = 20 mis
Final velocity (v) = 0
tinrn taken (t) = 4 s

retardation (-a) = ?
(v-u)
By using formulae, a=
t
0 -20
or, a =
4

or, a =- 5 m/s 2
:. retardation (-a) = 5m/s 2

The retardation of this bus is 5m/s2

Project work:
Mark two points at a distance of 200 m on a road or playground. Mark
another point exactly in the middle between these two points. Call
two of your friends and request them to run in the opposite direction
from the mid point. Note down the time required for them to cover
100 m of distance. Calculate the velocity and relative velocity of one
person with respect to others.

Science and Teclmology, Grade 8 161


Exercise

1. Choose the best alternative:


(a) What is the condition of an object called if doesn't change its
position with respect to the reference frame or surrounding?
(i) motion (ii) velocity
(iii) rest (iv) speed
(b) What is the formula to calculate the relative velocity of two
bodies moving in the opposite direction?
(i) V AB =VA I V B (ii) V AB =VA-VB
(iii) V AB = V AX V B (iv) VAB = VA+ VB
(c) What is the shortest distance between any two points in a
partcular direction?
(i) speed (ii) displacement
(iii) average velocity (iv) relative velocity
(d) In which condition the average velocity of an object is
calculated?
(i)non-unifonn niotion (ii) uniform motion
(iii) zero acceleration (iv) object at rest
(e) What is the S.I. unit of acceleration?
(i)m/s (ii)rn/s 2 (iii)Nm2/kg 2 (iv)rn2
(f) Which one of the given statements is true?
(i) negative acceleration is produced if an object moves
with uniform motion.
(ii) acceleration is not produced if an object is moving with
non-uniform motion.
(iii) positive acceleration is called retardation.
(iv) rate of change in the velocity of a body is called
acceleration.
162 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
2. Differentiate between:
(a) distance and displace1nent
(b) average velocity and relative velocity
(c) acceleration and retardation
3. Answer the following questions:
(a) Define the reference point.
(b) What is acceleration?
(c) What do you understand by retardation?
(d) What is meant by relative velocity?
(e) Write down the formula to calculate the relative velocity
of a body moving in the same and opposite directions with
examples.
(f) What is average velocity?
(g) What is the condition in which the average velocity of a body is
calculated? Write down formulae to calculate average velocity.
4. Solve these numerical problems.
(a) If a bus covers 4.2 km of distance in 7 minutes, then
calculate its average velocity. (Ans: 10 m/s)
(b) If a car starts to inove from rest and its velocity becomes 30
mis in 12 seconds then find its acceleration. (Ans: 2.5 m/s2)
(c) Find the final velocity of the car if it starts to inove from
rest with the acceleration of 5 in/s 2 in 6 seconds. Calculate
the average velocity of the car. (Ans: 15 m/s and 7 .5 m/s)
(d) If the brake is applied in a car moving with uniform velocity
then the retardation of 2 m/s 2 is produced and the car stops
after 4 seconds. Calculate the initial velocity of the car.
(Ans: 8 m/s)
(e) If two motorcycles are moving at the speed of 50 kin/hr
and 60 km/hr in the same direction. Calculate the relative
velocity between these motorcycles. If they were moving
in opposite directions what would be the relative velocity
between the1n? (Ans: 10 km/hr and 110 km/hr)
Science and Teclmology, Grade 8 163
6.2 Lever
Observe these pictures and discuss the questions given below.

Fig 6.8 Different machines used in daily life

Questions:

i. What are the uses of these tools shown in the picture?


11. Is it possible to lift a heavy load by using less effort with these
tools?

iii. What are the other similar tools used in daily life?

You might hav e seen beam Things to know:


balance, dhiki, scissors, tongs , "If you give me a lever and a place
wheelbarrows and crowbars used to stand, I can move the world"
to turn a heavy load. These tools This i.s the famous proverb said by
rotate through a fixed point to lift Archimedes. He was invented a
lever in 240 BC.
a load and they are called lever.
Lever is a rigid bar which can turn
through a fixed point called the
fulcrum.

Load
effort
l
Fulcrum ~
l__:_oad dista_n_c_
e _ __ Effort distance
t.- - - -
Fig 6.9 lever

164 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


The fixed point through which the lever rotates is called fulcrum. The
force applied in the lever is called effort (E) and the object which must
be lifted by using the lever is called load (L). The distance between the
fulcrum and load is called load distance (L.d.) whereas the distance
between effort and fulcrum is called effort distance (E.d.). So, any lever
has fulcrum, load, effort, load distance and effort distance. The part
of the lever between the fulcrum and the load is called the load arm
and the part between the fulcrum and effort is called the effort arm.
Types of lever
Levers are classified into three types based onthe position of fulcrum,
load and effort.
(a) First-Class Lever:
The lever in which the fulcrum lies between load and effmi is called
the first-class lever. Effortlies at one end and load at the another end
in first-class lever. Bea1n balance, scissors, dhiki, crowbar etc. are
examples of the first-class lever.
Fulcrum Load
Fulcrum

Effort
load
scissors
beam balance
Fig 6. 10 First.class lever

(b) Second Class Lever:


The lever in which load lies between the fulcrum and effort is called
the second class lever.Fulcrum lies at one end and effort at the another
endin second-class lever. Nut-cracker, lemon squeezers, one-wheel
barrows etc. are examples of the second-class lever.

g -, load Effort E/f firt .

loa~
d ,
1
. ~~:::;;;;~
Fulcrum nut cracker Fulcrum - ~
lemon squeezer
Fig 6.11 Third Class Lever Fulcrum

Science and Teclmology, Grade 8 165


(c) Third Class Lever:
The lever in which effort lies between the fulcru111 and load is called
the third-class lever. Fulcrum lies at one end and load at the another
end in third-class lever. Fire tongs, Shovels and hammers etc. are
examples of the third-class lever.
Fulcrum load
load

Fulcrum
Shovel Hammer

Fig 6.12 Second Class Lever

Activity 6.2
Write down the name of the levers shown in the picture and classify
them as a first, second or third-class lever.

S.N. Name of the lever Types of lever


1.
2.
3.
4.

166 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


Project work:
Collect the levers used in your daily life or found in surroundings
and classify them as a first-class, second-class or third-class lever.
Fulcrum
Working principle of lever

Activity 6.3
Take a 1 m long thick plastic scale . Effort
Make a hole exactly in the middle (at a
distance of 50cm from the left). Balance
the scale by inserting a piece of wire
into the hole as shown in the picture.
Fig 6.13 Tools based on the Prin-
Balance the various inasses hanging to ciple of a Lever
the right and left of the scale. Convert
n1ass to the effort. 1 kg inass equals 1 O
N effort on the earth's surface. Consider the mass on the right as load
and the mass on the left as effort. Balance the load by placing mass
at different distances from the hole. Measures the load and effort
distance from the hole by considering the hole as a reference point.
Fill the result obtained frmn this experiment in the table given below.

Left side Right side


S.N Effort Load
E.d.(cm) E x E.d. L.d. (cm) Lx L.d.
(N) (N)
1. BN 5 40 4 10 40
2.
From the above activity we can conclude that;
If the lever is in balanced condition,

Or, Effort x Effort Distance = Load x Load Distance


E x E. D . = L x L. D.

More effort is required if the effort distance is less and if the load
distance is less we need less effort to lift the load. In equilibrium
condition, all the levers work on the principle i.e.E x E.D. = L x L.D.

Science and Teclmology, Grade 8 167


Exan1ple 1
The load of 800 N is lifted by using the
crowbar in the given picture. Calculate
the effort required to lift the load if the
distance between the fulcrun1 and the
load is 5 0 cm and the distance from the
fulcrum to the effort is 1.5 in.

Here,

Load (L) = 800 N


Load distance (L.D.) = 50 cm = 50/100 m = 0.5 m

Effort distance (E.D.) = 1.5 m , Effort (E) = ?

According to the principle of the lever,


E x E.D . = L x L.D.
or, E x 1.5 = 800 x 0.5

800 x 0.5m
:. Effort = = 266.66N
1.5m

Mechanical Advantage-MA

Less effort is required to lift the heavy load by using the lever. For a
lever, the ratio of load to the effort is called mechanical advantage.
Mechanical advantage is calculated to give the number of times to
which the applied effort is multiplied while lifting the load.
Load (L)
Mechanical advantage (MA) =
Effort (E)
Or,MA = _L
_
E
Mechanical advantage is the ratio of two similar physical quantities
of force so it has no units.
168 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
For example, if a person requires 150 N of effort to lift a load of 600
N by using alever, thenmechanical advantage of the lever is;
( MA) = L / E
600N
MA=
50N =4
The mechanical advantage of any
sim.ple machine is 4 , which means that
the machine can lift a load which is 4
times heavier than the applied effort.
Mechanical advantage is the ratio of two
forces so it is affected by friction. Frie- -;g;r;J~t'.i~
tional force reduces the mechanical ad- Fig 6. 14 use of the Lever
vantage. If the mechanical advantage of a
machine is more than 1 , then such a machine multiplies the applied
effort but if the mechanical advantage of a machine is less than one;
then nlore effortis required than the load to lift.
Velocity Ratio:
Both load and effort cover a certain distance w hen the load is lifted
by using a lever. The distances covered by load and effort are not
equal in simple machines. When the heavy load is lifted by using
less effort, then the effort covers more distance than the distance
covered by the load. So, the velocity of effort is more than the veloc-
ity of the load. The ratio of the velocity of effort to the velocity of the
load is called the velocity ratio.
Both load and effort cover a certain distance in equal time so,
distance travelled by effort(E.D.) time(t)
Velocity ratio (VR) = - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
distance travelled by load(L.D.) time(t)
(distance travelled by effort(E.D.))
(distance travelled by load(L.D.)

(effort distance(E.D.)
(load distance (L.D.)
Science and Teclmology, Grade 8 169
The velocity ratio of a simple machine is not affected by friction.
Mechanical advantage is affected by friction but not the velocity ratio
so, the mechanical advantage is always less than the velocity ratio.
Efficiency
Work done by effort in a simple machine is called input work
Input work (WJ =Effort (E) x Effort distance (E.D.)
Work done by the machine when the effort is applied to it is called
output work. Input work (Wo) =Load (L) x Load distance (L.D.)
The ratio of output work to the input work expressed in percentage is
called the efficiency of a machine. It is denoted by the Greek alphabet
eta (YJ) .

input work
Efficiency(ri) x 100%
output work

Load (L) x Load distance(L.D)


- - - - - - - - - - - - - - x 100%
Effort (E) x Effort distance (E.D.)

Load (L) x Load distance(L.D)


Efficiency(ri) x 100%
Effort (E) x Effort distance (E.D.)

mechanical advantage(MA)
Efficiency(ri) = - - - - - - - - - - - - x 100%
Velocity ratio(VR)

Mechanical advantage is always less than the velocity ratio due to


friction. Therefore, the efficiency of any machine is always less than
100 % . The imaginary machine having 100 % efficiency is called ideal
or perfect machine.

170 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


Example-2
An effort of 150 N is required to lift a load of 600 Nin the lever. If
theeffort covers 7.5 m distance and the load covers 1.5 m distance,
then calculate the mechanical advantage, velocity ratio and efficiency
of the lever.
Here,
load (L) = 600 N
effort (E) = 150 N
effort distance (E.D.) = 7.5 n1
load distance (L.D .) = 1.5 m
mechanical advantage (MA) = '?
velocity ratio (VR) =?
efficiency (11) =?
By using formulae,
Load (L) 600 N
Mechanical Advantage(M.A) 4
Effort (E) 150 N

Effort distance (E.D.) 7.5m


Velocity Ratio (V.R. ) = - - - - - - - - - 5
Load distance (L.D.) 1.5m

inechanical advantage(MA) 4
Efficiency(ri) = x 100% = x 100%
Velocity ratio(VR) 5

Efficiency(11) = 80%
Therefore, inechanical advantage (MA) = 4, velocity ratio (V.R.) = 5
and efficiency = 80%.

Science and Teclmology, Grade 8 171


Exercise
1. Choose the best alternative:
(a) Which one of the following siinple machines is a second-
class lever?
(i) shovel (ii)dhiki
(iii) nut-cracker (iv) hammer
(b) What is the principle of the lever in a balanced condition?
(i) Effort x Effort distance = Load x Load distance
(ii) Effort = Load
(iii) Effort distance = Load distance
(iv) Mechanical advantage =Efficiency
(c) What is the work done by effort called?
(i) input work (ii) output work
(iii) friction (iv) gravitational work
(d) Which one of the following is not affected by friction?
(i) mechanical advantage (ii)velocity ratio
(iii) efficiency (iv)input work
(e) Which of the following given statements is true?
(i) The product ofload and effort in the balanced condition
of the lever is velocity ratio.
(ii) Effort covers less distance than load while lifting a load
heavier than effort.
(iii) Both the mechanical advantage and velocity ratio have
their units.
(iv) The ratio of output work to the input work expressed
in percentage is called efficiency.
2. Differentiate between:
mechanical advantage and velocity ratio input work and output
work
172 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
3. Give reasons:
(i) The efficiency of the lever is never 100 %.
(ii) It is easier to push the load in a wheelbarrow while shifting
(iii) the load towards its wheel.
Mechanical advantage is always less than the velocity ratio.
4. Answer the following questions:
(i) How can we lift the heavy load by using a lever?
(ii) Which class lever is a scissor?
(iii) What can be done with a lever whose mechanical advantage
is more than 1?
(iv) What are the other advantages of lever besides inaking our
work easier?
(v) What is called the work done by effort in a machine?

5. Solve these numerical problems:


(i) An effort of 75 N is required to lift the load of 300 N.
Calculate the effort distance if the distance of the load from
the fulcrum is 25 cm. (Ans: 100 cm)
(ii) The weight of Sarad is 550 N and Nirmal is 300 N. Sarad
and Nirmal are playing see-saw. How far does the Nirmal sit
from the centre to balance the Sarad who sits at a distance
of 1.5 m from the center. (Ans: 2.75 in)
(iii) If 3 00 N effort is applied to lift a load of 900 N by
using 2 nleters long lever. Calculate the mechanical
advantage, velocity ratio and efficiency of the lever if
the load lies at a distance of 50 cm from the fulcrum.
(Ans: MA= 3, VR=3,11= 100%)

Science and Teclmology, Grade 8 173


6.3 Pressure
Activity 6.4
Take a ball pen without refill. Try to apply gentle force on the wrist
from the pointed end of the ball pen. Repeat the same with the back
side of the ball pen as before. What difference can be experienced
between these two activities?
Activity 6.5
Take a brick and a piece of foam.
Place the foam on a plank or table
and place the brick on it w ith
a wide surface as show n in the
figure. Observe how much the
foam is compressed. Again, place Fig 6. 15 Pressure exerted by bri ck
indifferent orientations.
the brick on the foam with a narrow
surface of the brick in contact with the foam. How much is the foam
compressed? Observe the difference in compression of the form while
keeping the brick in a different orientation. What conclusions can be
drawn from this activity? In activity 6 .4, applying force on the wrist
from the tip of the non-refillable ball pen hurts more, while it hurts
less from the back part of the ball pen, wh y? Similarly, in the second
activity 6.5, the depression in the foam will be more when the narrow
surface of the brick is in contact with it.
When we apply force to any object and if the area over which the force
is applied is larger, thenthe effect of force will be less . However, if
the area is less, the impact of the force will be more. The impact of
force on an area is called pressure. Thus, the pressure is defined as
the force acting perpendicularly per unit area.
Measurement of Pressure
The pressure exerted by an object at any point depends on the force
applied to it. Pressure increases with the increase in force. Similarly,
the lesserthe area of the surface of the body the more will be the
pressure. Pressure depends on the inagnitude of force applied on the
surface and thearea ofthe surface over which the force is applied. If
'F' be the force applied at any point on the surface whose surface area
is 'A' and 'P' be the pressure exerted on the surface then,

174 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


Force
Pressure = - - --
Area
or, P =FIA
In the S.I. system, force is measured in Newton (N) and the area is
measured in square meter(m2 ).Therefore, newton per square meter
(N/m 2) is the S.I. unit of pressure . It is also called Pascal (Pa).
1 Pascal pressure: The pressure exerted by the force of lN acting
perpendicularly on an area of 1 m 2 is called 1 Pascal pressure.
:. 1 Pa = 1 Nlm 2

Exan1ple: 1
If 1.5 m2 of anarea is covered by the cupboard of weight 1800 N,
calculate the pressure exerted by the cupboai·d. What would be the
pressure exerted by the cupboard if itcovers an area of 3 m2?
Here,
Weight of the cupboard or force (F) = 1800 N
Area covered by cupboai·d (A) = 1.5 m2
Pressure (P) =?
Pressure (P) = FIA = 1800Nll.5m2 = 1200 pa
force (F) = 1800 N
area (A) = 3 m 2
Pressure (P) = FIA = (1800 N)l3m2 = 600 Pa
Here, more pressure is exerted by the cupboard if it covers less area.
Pressure will be reduced to half if its ai·ea is doubled.
Applications of Pressure in daily life
Pressure has an important role in different work that we do in our
daily life. Shai·p plough share made of iron is used to plough the field
to make it easier to ploughbecause more pressure will be exerted
even while applying less force due to less ai·ea of the ploughshare.
Similarly, one end of the sickles and knife are made sharper to cut
or chop the wood easily.The tip of the iron nail is made shai·per to
Science and Teclmology, Grade 8 175
drive the nails easily on the wall.
In some cases, nlore pressure inay make it difficult to work in daily
life. In such situations, pressure has to be reduced. For example, the
back wheel of a tractor is made big and wide to esure that it does not
sink on the eround while digging a field. Similarly, pair of tyres are
'I

~:-··· "~J •~\- ,. T

..:....•::..... , ~ \ ~·
' ( IJJ.. ') ,, .'::. a.6-:-..-.
A~ . .-_

Fig 6.16 Application of Pressure


used in the back side of the buses and multiple wheels are used in
the back side of heavy trucksso less pressure is exerted on the road.
Questions to think:
(a) Why is the foundation of the house made wider than its walls?
(b) How do the broad feet of the camel help them to walk in the desert?
(c) Why do pencil-hill shoes make a deeper impression than the flat
heel shoes on the soft ground?
Pressure of liquid
Activity 6. 6
Take a polythene container or a mineral water
bottle or a tin can. Make three holes in it at
different heights. Fit a short piece of fine pipe in
those holes with multipurpose sealant (M-seal)
and seal their mouths temporarily with tape and
fill the water in the vessel. Fig 6. 17 Variation of
Now remove the tape simultaneously and Liquid pressure with
depth
observe what happens. In this experiment, the
pressure of the water coming out from the bottomhole is the inaximum.
After that, pressure gradually decreaseson the upper holes.
\!\Thy does this happen? Discuss with teachers and friends and present
the findings in the class.

176 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


Liquid also exerts pressure on the surface of an object like a solid due
to its weight. But unlike solids, liquid exerts pressure in all directions.
The pressure exerted by the liquid in a unit area of the container is
called liquid pressure.
Measm·e1nent of prersure of liquid
Let us consider the liquid of density 'd' is filled
in the container of height 'h' having cross-section
area 'A'. The acceleration due to gravity at this
place is 'g'. The volume of liquid in the container
is given by, V= Axh.
The force exerted by the liquid at the bottom of Fi
6 18
AP
·
t h e container is · h t of t l1at l'iqu1'd .
· ca11 ed t h e we1g g · ressure
exerted by a liquid

The pressure exerted by the liquid column at its bottom is the force
acting normally per unit area of the body.
Therefore ,
weight of liquid column(W)
Pressure (P) -
cross section area (A)
W mass (m) x accelera tion due to gravity(g)
or, P = - - = (:.w =mg)
A A
density (d) x (volume (V)x acceleration due to gravity(g)
m= dxV
A
dxVxg
A
d x Ax hx g
(V =Ax h)
A
:.p = hdg

From the above relation, the pressure exerted by a liquid depends on the
depth of the liquid cohnnn (h), density of the liquid (d) and acceleration
due to gravity (g). The pressure exerted by liquid increases with the
increase in depth of the liquid column and density of the liquid.

Science and Teclmology, Grade 8 177


Exan1ple: 2
Calculate the pressure exerted by the water tank of a height 2 1n at
its bottom if it is completely filled with water. (density of water =
1000 kg/m 3 )
depth of the water tank (h) = 2 m
density of liquid (d) = 1000 kg/m3 , acceleration due to gravity (g) =
9.8 m/s 2 , liquid pressure (P) =?
Liquid pressure (P) = h x d x g
=2 x 1000 x 9.8 = 19600 Pa.
Exan1ple: 3
Calculate the density of liquid if 800N/In2 of pressure is exerted at
the bottom of the tank of height 3 m which is filled with that liquid.
(g = 9.8 m/s 2 )

depth of the liquid column (h) = 3 111


liquid pressure (P) = 800 N/m 2

acceleration due to gravity (g) = 9.8 m/s 2


density of liquid (d) =?
We know that, P = h x d xg
p 800
or d = = 27.21 kg/1113
hg 3 x 9.8
:. d = 27.21 kg/m 3
The density of the liquid in the container is 27 .21 kg/1113 •
Questions to think:
(a) Why is the blood pressure in our body more towards the feet
than towards the head?
(b) Why is itmore difficult for the fish that lives in a river to survive
in the ocean?

178 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


Application of Liquid Pressure in daily life:
Liquid has weight and it exerts pressure. The pressure exerted by
liquid increases with the increase in depth of the liquid column so it
has various applications in our daily life. Some applications of liquid
pressure in daily life are given below;
(a) The bottom of the dam is made thicker than its walls and the
botton1 of the water tank is made thicker.
(b) Deep sea driver wears special custume to go deep into the sea.
(c) A water tank is kept at the maximum height in the house.
(d) The bottom of the bottle used for holding mercm·y is made thicker
than the bottles made for holding other liquids.
Air Pressure
Have you filled the air in the ball with an air pump? Have you seen
the air filled in the tubes of bicycles, motorcycles and other vehicles?
You must have seen that the oxygen cylinder is filled with oxygen gas.
Air can be con1pressed while filling in balls, tubes, cylinders, etc. The
pressure of compressed air is greater than the atmospheric pressure.
The volume of air is reduced with the help of a compressor. When
the air is compressed, heat is produced due to con1pression and the
. .
all' pressure increases.
Compressed air is considered an iinportant
medium for the transfer of energy in industrial
processes. It is used in pow er-generating
equipnrnnt like air ham1ners, drills, wrenches
etc. It isused to operate automatic air cylinders
and drive vehicles. The braking syste1n due
to compressed air in large trains helps to stop
them safely. Con1pressed air brakes are used Fig6. 19 Pressure gauge
in large vehicles running on highways. use of
compressed air is increasing in high-level cleaning equipment and air
rifles. The pressure exerted by compressed air is measured withthe
pressure gauge. It is nrnasured in millibar units. The unit of standard
atmospheric pressurein mmHg.
Science and Teclmology, Grade 8 179
Atmospheric pressure

Activity 6.7
Take a glass and fill it with water. Cover the top
of the glass tightly with cardboard or a piece of
thick paper so that it becomes air tight. Now
keep the glass in inverted position by keeping tf ttf
your. palm of one hand on the cardboard a1~d Fig 6 .20 Demonstration
holding the glass by another hand as shown in of Atmospheric Pressure
the figure. Now remove the hand holding the
cardboardslowly. Observe what will happen.

Activity 6.8
}
Take a small tin can with its lids. Open
the lid of the can and fill some water in it
and boil the water. When the water boils
j Jt~
<=>
and starts to evaporate, close the lid of Fig 6.20 Demonstration of the
the cantightly. Cut off the source of heat effect of atmospheric pressure
and keep the can under tap water. What
happens when the cold water is circulated on the outer surface of the
heated can? Observe it.
Caution: Use thick cotton clothes or tongs to hold the heated can and
keep your hands away from steam.
The cardboard placed in the mouth of the glass in Activity 6.7 does
not fall. How can it hold the water? Discuss with friends. In activity
6.8, the tin can starts to be crushed. Why does this happen?
In Activity 6 . 7, the air pressure exerted frmn the bottom keeps the
cardboard from falling. Similarly, in activity 6.8, the air pressure
inside and outside the can is different and the can is crushed. Before
the canis heated, the pressure inside and outside was equal therefore
there was no impact on the surface of the tin can. When the can is
filled with water and heated, then the air was pushed up by the steam
produced inside it and the air pressure inside the can is reduced on
cooling therefore can is crushed.

180 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


The earth is surrounded by atmospheric air. The area around the
earth covered by air is called the atmosphere. Air also has weight.
Due to the weight of the air, it exerts pressure on the ground. The
pressure exerted by atmospheric air is called atmospheric pressure.
Atmospheric pressure is the air pressure exerted per unit area of the
earth's surface. The air pressure is maximum at the sea level and as
you go higher the atmospheric pressure decreases. The atmospheric
pressure at sea level is 760 mmHg. It is also called atmospheric
pressure w hich is equivalentto 105 Pascals. Barometer is used to
n1easure atmospheric pressure. Air flows from one place to another
due to changes in the atmospheric pressure on the earth's surface.
Air pressure is controlled in aeroplanes that fly at very high altitudes.
Due to controlled conditions, the pressure inside the aeroplanes is just
equal to the appropriate pressure required for the human body. So,
we can breathe easilyduring a flight. Atmospheric pressm'e influences
all objects and living beings on Earth.
Questions to think about:
Why does a balloon burst if nlore air is filled inside it?
Manometer or pressure gauge >

3
The pressure exerted by fluids (liquid and gas) is 2

measured by a manometer or pressure gauge. Out 0 Th


of various types, U- shaped manometer is used to _!_
measure the pressure exerted by liquid. The level
of liquid in both limbs of the U-shaped manometer
is equal. When the pressure is applied in one limb
by liquid or gas, the level of liquid in another lhnb Fig 6.22 Manometer
increases. The pressure exerted by a liquid in the
i11ano1neter is measured by the difference in height of the liquid
column in the two limbs.

Activity 6. 9
Measure the pressure of the lungs ofall students by blowing air in the
nrnnon1eter one b y one. Compare the pressure exerted by theirlungs
while blowing air into the manometer to your friends.

Science and Teclmology, Grade 8 181


Activity 6.10
Take a funnel, balloon, level pipe, plywood
or plank of wood, scale, pins or small iron
nails and a glue stick. Connect one end
of the levelpipe to the narrow end of the
funnel. Covers the larger end of the funnel
by stretching the balloon over it. Fix the Fig. 6.23
level pipe in the U-shaped on the plywood
by using pins or iron nails as shown in the figure. Fill the U-shaped
level pipe by using water horizontally and mix some colour in it. Fix
the scale or measuring tape parallel to the right side of the U-shaped
tube by using glue sticks or pins. Now dip the funnel in water or push
it with your thumb and observe the change in the level of water in
the U-shaped tube.
Application of Atmosph eric Pressure
We cando various activities like; filling ink in fountain pens, filling
injections in a syringe and filling the air in the tube of a bicycle
etc. due to atmospheric pressure. All these instruments are based
on atmospheric pressure. When the piston is pulled out in these
instruments then the pressure inside the piston decreases and liquid
and gas can be pushed inside the piston due to atmospheric pressure.
We cannot use these instruments without atmospheric pressure.
Therefore, atmospheric pressure has great importance in our daily life.

Fig 6.24 Instruments Based on Atmospheric Pressure

Project work
Make a list of instruments that make use of the atmospheric pressure.
Write down the function of these instruments in our daily life.

182 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


Exercise
1. Choose the best alternative:
(a) What is the S.I. unit of pressure?
(i) Nin (ii) N/m 2 (iii) m/s 2 (iv) Nm2/kg 2
(b) Which of the following statement is true?
(i) More pressure is exerted if the area is less.
(ii) Pressure of an object is not affected by area.
(iii) Pressure increases with the increase in the area of the
body.
(iv) Pressure remains the same although the force varies.
(c) What is the value of atmospheric pressure at sea level?
(i) 760 nlmHg (ii) 700 mmHg
(iii) 1000 mmHg (iv) 750 mmHg
(d) What is the pressure exerted by the water at the depth of
60 m where the value of acceleration due to gravity is 9.8
m/s2 ? (density of water is 1000 kg/n13 )
(i) 588 Pa. (ii) 5880 Pa.
(iii) 58800 Pa. (iv) 588000 Pa.
(e) What is the name of the instrument used to measure
atmospheric pressure?
(i) thermometer (ii) barometer
(iii) manometer (iv)lactometer
(f) Which of the following given instrument is used to measure
the pressure exerted by compressed air?
(i) pressure gauge (ii) rain gauge
(iii) mano1neter (iv)bar01neter
Science and Teclmology, Grade 8 183
(g) What is the principle on which the air braking system is based?
(i) atmospheric pressure (ii) compressed air
(iii) liquid pressure (iv) pressure
2. Give reasons:
a) Football shoes have studs on their soles.
b) Ploughshare is made sharper to plough the field.
c) The bottom of the dam is made wider than its walls.
d) The bucket is filled faster on the ground floor than on the
upstairs
3. Answer the following questions:
(a) What is pressure? Write down any three applications of
pressure in daily life.
(b) How can we tell that liquid exerts pressure?
(c) Write down any two applications of liquid pressure in daily
life?
(d) What is atmospheric pressure? Mention it's any two
importance.
(e) Prove that the pressure exerted by the liquid is P = h d g.
Where the symbols have their usual meaning.
(f) Draw a neat and labelled diagram of a manometer.
(g) What is atmospheric pressure? Explains with examples.

184 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


Energy in Daily Life

Observe the pictures and discuss the questions given below:

Fig 7. 1 Source ofa different form of energy

i. What types of energy do you see in the picture?


11. Is it possible to use the same type of energy to do all the work?
11i. What are the sources of different types of energy?
We do various activities in our daily lifesuch as; reading, writing,
carrying heavy loads, working in the fields, etc. We cannot do such
work without having food for a long time. Similarly, vehicles cannot be
operated without burning fuel. Electrical equipn1ent does not operate
without access to electricity. We get energy from food. Vehicles are
powered by diesel, petrol or other fuels, whereas electrical appliances
are powered by electricity. It is the energy that makes all the above-
mentioned equipment of appliances run accordingly. Therefore, the
capacity of doing work is called energy. Energy is measured in Joule
(J) in the S.I unit. A calorie is widely used to measure energy which
is a C.G.S unit of energy. One calorie is equal to 4.2 joules.
Different types of energy are required to do different work in daily
life. Mechanical energy. heat energy, light energy, sound energy,
magnetic energy, electric energy, chemical energy, nuclear energy,
etc. are different forms of energy. Those sourcesfrom which we get
these different forms of energy are called sources of energy.
Science ond Tcch nolo~_v, Grade 6 185
The energy which cannot be immediately replaced once they are
depleted is called non-renewable energy. Examples of non-renewable
energy include coal, petroleum product and nuclear energy. The energy
which cannot be exhausted even after continuous consumptionis
termed renewable energy. Examples of renewable energy are solar
energy, wind energy and tidal energy.

7.1 Heat
Observe the picture ancl discuss the questions given below:

:- "·~

K~ . ~. .
'#" ---11---
'

Fig 7.2 Transmission of heat on different objects


Questions:
i. How is the heat transmitted in the given picture?
11. Is the mode of transmission of heat similar in all objects?
Heat is a form of energy that gives us warmth. We can feel the heat.
We can identify hot and cold objects by touching them. When we
touch any object hotter than our body, heat transfers from the hot
object to our skin whereas touching an object cooler than our body,
heat transfers from the skin to the cold object.
While cooking, we burn fire at the bottom of the pot. Why does the
pot's handle or exterior surface heat up during cooking? Why does
the glass tumbler heat up when you pour hot water into it? Why does
touching hot water make us feel hot and touching ice make us feel cold?

186 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


Heat transfers from the hotter body to the colder body. Heat flows from
the body at a higher temperature to the body at a lower temperature.
When we touch hot objects, heat is transferred from these objects
to our skin, causing us to feel heated. Similarly, we feel cold while
touching cold objects because heat transfersfrom our bodies to the
colder objects. The process of transfer of heat energy from one object
to another is called transmission of heat. The introduction of the
conduction, convection, and radiation processes of heat transfer, as
well as their use in daily life, will be covered in this chapter.
7 .1 .1 Transfer of heat by the rnethocl of conduction

Activity 7 .1
I
Take a small metal plate or rod about 20
c1n long. Put a drop of wax on it and stick TI
the pin as shown in the figure. To make the T
pin turn downward, fasten the metal rod or
Fig 7.3 Transmission of heat
plate to one side of the table as indicated in in solid
the illustration. Use a heat source such as a
spirit lamp to heat one end of the rod. What did you seeafter a while?
Observe it. Are these pins stick to the rod or start to fall on heating?
Did all these pins fall at once or did they fall in sequence one after
another? Note down the learning from this activity in copy.
In the above activity, when the metal rod is heated, the pin on the
heated side starts to fall. Then the pins on the other side of the rod
fall in sequence. This proves that the heat is transmitted from one
end of the rod to anotherend. Heat is transferred by conduction in
a solid. When a solid object is heated, molecules vibrate from their
mean position without changing their actual position.Molecules do
not move from one place to another during the transmission of heat
but they are vibrating about their positions. When a metal rod is
heated, a nearby molecule heats the adjacent molecules . It warms a
subsequent molecule in the chain once the neighbouring molecule
has already been heated. In this way heat transfers fr01n one end to
the other end of the rod. The process of heat transmission of heat in a
solid without actual movement of the molecules is called conduction.

Science an d Technology, Grade 6 187


Project work 7.1
Make a group of friends and stand at an equal distance from each
other in a line. Provide a stone or brick to the students standing at one
end of the line and tell them to hand over it to the person standing
by him/her and the process continues till the stone or book reaches
another end. In this activity, all the students ren1ainin their position
without moving but the stone reaches from one end to another end
of the line. Do solids transmit heat similarly? Discuss it with your
teacher in class.
Conductor and Insulator
Take a candle and a matchstick box. Light
J: ~.
..___J?...._ ~ - ·
the candle and heat the objects including D
a pencil, wooden piece, plastic pipe, etc.
one at a time in the lamp. When one end is Fig 7.4 Conduction of heat in
kept on the flame of a lamp, does the other metals
end become hot? Under the supervision of
your teacher, handle these things with caution and safety first. Record
your findings in the table below.

Objects Conduct or doesn't conduct heat Conclusion

In the above activity, steel spoons, aluminium ladles and iron nail
conduct heat but a pencil, wooden piece, and plastic pipe do not
conduct heat and rather start to burn then1selves. Generally, heat
flows in metals but not in non-metals.
Materials that allow heat to pass through them easily are called good
conductors of heat. For example; iron, copper, aluminium, gold, etc.
are good conductors of heat. Materials that do not allow heat to pass
through them are called insulators of heat. For exan1ple; wood and
plastic are insulators of heat.
Questionto think:
Why non-stick vessels and pressure cooker handles are made of
plastic-like materials?
188 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
The Conductivity of Various Objects
Conductivityis an intrinsic property of an object that conducts heat.
Thermal conductivity refers to how quickly or slowly a material
conducts heat. Objects with high conductivity conduct heat faster than
objects with low conductivity. Most of the metals have high thermal
conductivity. Therefore, when inetals arebrought near the source of
heat theyare heated very quickly. Due to this property of metal, they
are used for making cooking utensils. On the other hand, inaterials
like plastic, cotton and rubber have very low thermal conductivity.
However, low conductivity of heat can also have several advantages.
For example; warm clothing made of cotton/wool prevents escaping
of heat into the atmosphere.
The conductivity of different metals is not uniform. The thennal
conductivity of a material depends on the n1olecular properties of the
material and its temperature. Even though diamond is a non-metalit
hashigher thermal conductivity than metals . Graphite is a conductive
non-metal.
Application of Conductionin daily life
Why the cooking utensils made of copper, steel, iron or aluminium
metals but their handles are n1ade of wood or thermosetting plastic?
Why is it warm when you wear a jacket? Why is the house made up
of n1ud cool in summer and warm in winter? Why do birds seem fat
on very cold days? The answers to these questions are related to the
transmission of heat. Some applications of the conduction of heat in
daily life can be mentioned as follows:
1. Metals are used to inake cooking utensils like pans and kettles
because it easily transfers heat from the source to food.
2. The handle of the tea kettle is made of plastic because plastic is a
poor conductor of heat, so it does not allow heat to reach the hands.
3. Woolen clothes or blankets are used to keep our bodies warm
in winter because wool prevents body heat from escaping. The
air that lies between the layer of heavy wool clothing, acts as a
heat insulator. So, woolen clothes and blankets keep the body
warm in a inore efficient inanner.
Science an d Technology, Grade 6 189
4. Teacupsand coffee mugs are made of porcelain because porcelain
is an insulator of heat.

Project work 7.2


Make a list of the inaterials you use daily that depend on heat
conduction. Write down the applications of these materials based on
your observation.
Transfer of Heat by Convection method
Activity 7.3 , ./
Take two beakers and fill two-thirds of the J-=--=---=
water in both beakers. Put a few drops of red
ink in both beakers.Consider heating a beaker
by placing it on a tripod stand and keeping
the other beaker at room ten1perature. Write
the differences you notice in these two Fig 7.5 Convection of /Jea t in
liquids
beakers after close observation of them.
It can be observed that the coloured water kept in the hot beaker
steadily heats up and rises, while the cold water at the top descends
to occupy the space. This process of transmission of heat due to the
movement of water molecules inside the beaker is called convection.
After some time,water in the beaker is heated due to convection.
However, there is no heat transfer by convection in the next beaker
at room te1nperature, so the colour disperses slowly in the water.
Convection also occurs in air molecules just as in water. Heat is
transferred in the atmosphere by moving hot air molecules from one
place to another. The hot air molecules go up and cold air molecules
fall which causes the movement of air molecules(wind) in the
atmosphere. The process of transmission of heat in liquid and gas due
to the actual movement of inoleculesis called convection.
During the day time,the earth's surface is heated due to solar radiation.
When the air close to the earth's surface is heated, hot air beco1nes
lighter and rises, leaving a vacuum or an empty space in its place.
Cold air comes from nearby regionsto fill this space. In this way, the
movement of air takes place due to convection and it is called wind.
Convection is th e main cause of wind.
190 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
~ ,armair
cool air~

Fig 7.6 Convection of heat in a day and night

Examples of convection
Convection is the process of transfer of heat in liquid and gas due to
the actual movement of the inolecules. The density of the heated layer
of a liquid or gas decreases as the liquid or gas is heated. A less dense
heated layer goes up and creates an empty space that is filled by the
downward displacement of the denser cold layer at its bottom. This
process continues until the whole liquid or gas is heated. Therefore,
the transmission of heat in liquid and gas takes place by convection.
Sea breeze
Sea breeze occurs during
the daytime. During
the day, solar· radiation
heats both the surface of
COOi briloli:O .........
the water and the land. moving iowards
lnnd

Due to the significantly


. ::.::. --- ._.._ _,
higher specific heat Sea breeze
capacity, the water in
the sea is heated more
slowly than the land.
Because of this, the
temperature above the
ground surface rises,
L and b reeze
which causes the air
molecules around the Fig 7. 7 Sea Breeze and Land Breeze
earth's surface to be
heated. Less dense warm air expands, resulting in a low-pressure
region over the ground. At the same time, a high-pressure region

Science an d Technology, Grade 6 191


develops over the sea's surface. Due to thepressure difference, air
flows from the high pressure over the sea to the low pressure over
the land. The name "sea breeze" refers to the flow of cold air from the
ocean to the landduring the daytime.
Land breeze
The above-mentioned process of the sea breeze is then reversed and
continues throughout the night. As soon as the sun sets, both the
land and the water begin to cool down. The land cools down quickly
because it has a less specific heat capacity than the water. Because the
sea is warmer than the land at night, there is a low-pressure condition
over the sea. As a result, the cold air flows from the land to the sea
at night which is termed the land breeze.
Types of convection
Natural and external convection are the types of convection and are
explained below:
I. Free or natural convection: Heat transfers from a hotter body to
a colder body. The temperature of the air molecules adjacent to
the hot object is higher, thus its density is less. As a result, the
hot air rises. The natural convection current is used to describe
this air movement. The cyclic move1nent of boiling water in a
pot is an example of natural convection. Warm water from the
botton1 rises to the top, expands, cools, and then falls to the
bottom again. Sea breeze, land breeze and rainfall occur due to
the natural convection of heat.
II. Forced convection:When heat is transferred through liquids and
gases because of external energy such as heat, chemical energy,
electricity, etc. is called forced convection. Rotating electric
fans, electric water heaters or gas geysers, etc. are examples of
forced convection.

Activity 7.4
How does rainfall occur due to the natural convection of heat?
Discussed with your friends and present the result in your classroom.

192 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


Questions to think:
a) Why do we feel n1ore warmth directly above the burning fire or
lamp but less at its side?
b) Why does the flame of the burning candle go upward?
Convectional Current and Weather
The convection process is used to explain the weather phenomenon
in meteorology.
It helps to forecast the weather. In general, heat transfers from a hotter
region to a colder region due to convection.The convection process
starts after solar radiation heats the ground in the morning. As the
temperature of the earth's surface rises, the air layer above the ground
is directly heated. Barren surfaces on the ground such as sand, rocks,
and pave1nents heat up faster than water or vegetated ground.So,
the air above the surface of the earth and the surrounding are heated
unevenly. The air around the barren surfaces like the desert is less
dense than the cold air and it begins to rise. Currents set up due to
rising hot airis called "thermal current". As the wind rises, heat and
nloisture move vertically upward in the atmosphere . The higher
the ground temperature, the more convection of air takes place in
the atn1osphere. Therefore, convection is likely to occur on veryhot
days. As the heated air moves upwards, the air begins to cool at a
high altitude. If there is too much moisture in the air, it forms clouds.
The flash of lightning, thunder and heavy rain are also related to
convection. In addition to the weather phenomena mentioned above,
convection removes excess heat from the surface of the earth. The
average air temperature on the Earth's surface would be roughly 125°F
if convection did not exist in nature, which is significantly higher
than the current average global temperature of 59°F.
Applications of Convection of Heat in daily life:
Have you ever seen a hot air balloon rising into the air? Have y ou
ever seen the steam coming from a cup of tea or coffee? Convection
refers to the process of transmission of heat from a body at a higher
temperature to a body at a lower temperature through a liquid or gas

Science an d Technology, Grade 6 193


medium. When the temperature of the molecules in a liquid or gas
increases, the vibration of the molecules increases and the molecules
move farapart from each other. If we look at the surrounding, we can
see that convection plays an important role in our daily life. Some of
these uses are as follows:
1. Convection occurs while boiling water and other liquids.
2. In warm-blooded nlammals, the circulation of blood is carried
by convection.
3. Electric fans and air conditioners (AC)used in summer arebased
on the principle of convection.
4. Convection is also used in radiators, refrigerators, etc.
5. Convection also plays an important role in rainfall, thunderstorm.s,
cloud formation and lightning.

Project work 7. 3
Make a group of friends in your class. Take a balloon by each
memberof a group.Inflate the balloon by blowing air into and tie its
mouth with thread. Hot air is filled in one of the balloons.Release this
balloon in the surroundings and observe whether it goes up or not in
the atmosphere.Is the balloon propelled into the air by the convection
principle? Discuss with your friends and present the finding of this
activity in your class.

7.1.3 Transfer of Heat by Radiation


Why do we feel wannth or hot when we sit in the sun or by a
heater?How does the heat transmit to Earth from the sun although
there is a space between the sun and the Earth? There is no solid
material medium between the sun and earth beyond the earth's
atmosphere so the heat cannot transmit by conduction. If it is assumed
that the heat transmits by convection, then the heated air molecule
goes upwards. Therefore, heat does not transmit from the sun to Earth
by the process of conduction or convection. In the above-mentioned
process, heat transmits without any material medium. Transmission of
heat without any medium is called radiation. So, we feel the warmth
from the sun or heater through the process of radiation
194 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
Heat and light energy are emitted by the sun. Heat and light energy
are transn1itted in the form of w aves. These waves do not require any
material medium so the heat from the sun reaches the earth's surface
without any material medium. The process of transmission of heat
without any material medium is called radiation. In a vacuum, heat
is transmitted by radiation.
Sun $ p a<e Earth

Fig 7.8 Transmission of Heat by Radiation

7.1.4 Waves
Activity 7.5
What would happen if you were to throw a stone into a pond, frozen
lake, or the ice and stagnant water in your surroundings? Observe it.
Ripples of water are formed while throwing stones into the surface
of the lake and these ripples move towards the edge of the pond. It
is called a water wave.
These waves are formed when the molecules of water raise up
and down regularly and spread in all directions from the point of
disturbance. Water waves spread from the point of disturbance
to the extremities of the pond but the water n1olecules remain in
their position. Like in water, a wave is produced in a rope when we
jerkits one end. Therefore,waves are produced due to the vibration
of molecules.

Fig 7.9 Waves Produced in water and rope

Science and Technology, Grade 6 195


Mechanical and Electromagnetic Wave
Some waves require a medium for transmission, while others do not.
Those waves which require a material medimn for propagation are
called mechanical waves, and waves that do not require a medium
for propagation are called electromagnetic waves. A sound wave is an
example of a mechanical wave and propagation of energy takes place
through the vibration of molecules. The material which vibrates dtll'ing
the propagation of the wave is called the medium. The mechanical
wave's energy decreases throughout wave propagation as part of it is
absorbed by the medium. Therefore, the transmission of niechanical
waves is limited to a certain range depending on the nature of the
medium. The speed of mechanical waves is different in different
mediums. The speed of sound in air, water and iron is 332m/s, 1481m/s
and 5120m/s respectively in normal conditions.
The light coming from the sun and other stars reaches the earth
through a vacuu1n. The infrared radiation that carries heat cannot be
seen by our eyes. Radiation is the process of transmission of energy
in the form of electromagnetic waves without any materials medium.
When these waves are transmitted without a material medium, energy
in the wave is conserved.
Electromagnetic waves can travel at the speed of light up to large
distances without any loss of energy. For example, heat and light
energy emitted by the sun travel in the form of a wave at the speed
of light 3x108 mis and it takes around 8 ininutes and 20 seconds to
reach the Earth.
Transmission of Heat and ElectromagneticWaves by Radiation
Thern1al radiation is the process of transmission of heat in the forn1
of electromagnetic radiation. Infrared radiation in the electromagnetic
spectrum transmits heat throughradiation. Heat energy is received by
the earth from the sun by radiation and it doesn't require any material
medium because it can travel even through a vacumn at the speed oflight.
Effects of the Colour of an object in theracliation of heat
Activity 7.6
Take three equal-sized boxes with lids in white, black, and golden

196 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


colours as indicated in the illustration.
Make a ho le in them the same size as
the thermometer's probe, then insert the
thermometer in the holes. Keep these
containers in the sun for an equal duration
of time. Which colour box has the highest
temperature recorded on the thermometer?
Observe and record it.
Fig 7.10 Radiation of Heat in
White or pale-coloured things have poor different colour materials
heat-absorbing and heat-emitting capabilities
compared to black-coloured items. Therefore, dark-coloured hot
objects emitmore radiation, whereas white or pale-coloured objects
e1nit and absorb less radiation. White-coloured clothes are usually
preferred and worn in sununer and hot places, whereas black or dark-
coloured clothes are suitable in winter and cold places. Therefore,
the inner surface of the solar heater is painted with black colour to
absorb more radiation coming from the sun. In order to absorb more
heat, cook food more quickly, and conserve fuel, the exterior surface
of cooking tools is frequently coated with black materials.
Question to think:
Why are buildings in the Terai region or other hot regions painted
white on the exterior walls?
Applications of Radiation of Heat in daily life
Why do hot drinks like tea and prepared foods eventually become
colder? When the temperature of an object is higher than the
temperature of its surroundings, it gives off heat by the process of
radiation. As a result, its temperature decreases until the condition
of thennal equilibrium is achieved. If the ten1perature of an object
is lower than its surroundings ,it absorbs heat radiation fro1n its
surrounding so its temperature increases. Some applicationsof
radiation of heat in daily life are given below.
1. When we sit near the fire , our body receives heat from the fire
by the process of radiation.
2. The heat radiations fro1n the sun heat the surface of the planet.
Science an d Technology, Grade 6 197
3. The radiator at the back of the refrigerator throws heat into the
surrounding by the process of radiation.
4. White or light-colored clothes are worn in the summer season
because they absorb less heat.
7.1.5 Structure and Function of Thermos Flask
Activity 7.7
Take the thermos at your home and observe its interior by opening its
lid. What is the inner part of the thermos made up of? Is its surface
thick or thin? Does it transfer heat or not? How does it work? Answer
these above questions by looking at the structure of the thennos
and find the information related to the thermos with the help of
the internet.Collect thenecessary information fr01n the internet and
present it in class.
Thermos flasks keep hot liquids hot and cold liquids cold for a long
time. It consists of a glass vessel with double walls. The glass vessel
is enclosed by a metal or plastic cover for protection against damage.
The space between the walls is a vacuum which reduces the loss of
heat due to conduction and convection. The outer surface of the inner
wall and the inner surface of the outer wall are silvered (shining). The
shining surfaces reduce the loss of heat due to radiation. An insulating
stopper (cork) is used to close the inouth of the vessel. The vessel is
kept over an insulating (cork) pad. It is therefore thermally insulated.
Heat does not escape or enter easily in the thermos, so, hot liquids
remain hot and cold liquids remain cold inside the flask.

cup
Cap

-~ Silvered
surfaces

Insulated
support

Fig 7. 11 Thermos Flask

198 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


4.1.6 Greenhouse
Have you heard about artificial
greenhouses? What is the
importance of the greenhouse in
our daily life? What would happen
if greenhouse gases were absent
from the atmosphere of the earth?
Discuss.
Fig 7.12Artificial Greenhouse
A greenhouse is a house made of
glass or plastic on a metallic frame.
It is mainly used to grow off-seasonal plants and vegetables. In the
greenhouse, the glass and plastic allow short waves from the sun
to come in but do not let the longer waves radiated by the soil and
plants go out.The heat trapped inside can't escape and warms the
greenhouse which is essential for the growth of the plants. Favourable
condition like te1nperature, light, moisture, etc.for the growth of the
plant ismaintained inside the greenhouse. The roof of the greenhouse
is made slanted so that maximum solar energy enters through it.
The same is the case in the
earth's atmosphere.During
the day, the sun warms
the Earth's surface and its
atmosphere. The heat is
reflected into the space as
the sun sets. In this process,
some of the heat is absorbed Fig 7.13Natural Greenhouse
and radiated towards the surface by the greenhouse gases present in
the earth's atmosphere. Because of this, the earth's surface remains
son1ewhat warmer, which enables life to exist on the planet. Carbon
dioxide , chlorofluoro carbons , methane, water vapour, nitrous
oxide, etc. are greenhouse gases. They are emitted mainly by factories,
automobiles and deforestation are the major enutters of greenhouse gases.
The mechanism through which solar radiation is absorbed by
greenhouse gases rather than being transmitted into space is known
as the greenhouse effect. This insulates the surface of the earth and
Science an d Technology, Grade 6 199
prevents it from freezing. The increased number of factories and
automobiles increases the amount of these gases in the atmosphere.
The increased greenhouse gases trap more heat and increase the surface
temperature of the earth. This leads to global warming.However, due
to the increased levels of greenhouse gases, the temperature of the
earth has increased considerably. This has led to several disasters.

Activity 7.8
Making a model of an artificial greenhouse

Objective: To show that temperature is increased inside the artificial


greenhouse.

Materials 1·equired: Transparent glass or plastic pieces (four pieces


of glass or plastic in A4 size), small pins or nails, small wooden
or ba1nboo sticks for frame-work, a square-shaped plank of wood,
laboratory thermometer)

Procedure:
1. Take a square-shaped plank of wood and fix the wooden or
bamboo stick vertically around its all sides as per necessity. Fix
these sticks with glue or s1nall iron pins.
2. Fix three sticks in a row in the centre of the plywood which is
longer than that used at its sides. Fixed one wooden stick at the
top of these sticks with iron pins. Now make a slanting surface
by keeping sticks horizontally fron-i the centre position to the
sides of the plywood.
3. The slanting surface and its vertical walls are covered by sheets
of transparent glass or plastic materials. The prepared model of
the greenhouse looks similar toa tunnel inade for off-seasonal
vegetable farming or the nursery bed.
4. Take a laboratory thennometer and note down the te1nperature
of the surroundings. Make a small hole in the slanting roof of the
artificial greenhouse to fix the thermometer in it and keep the
bulb of the thermometer inside the greenhouse. Keep the model
of the greenhouse outside on a sunny day for some time. What
200 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
is the difference in temperature between the inside and outside
of the greenhouse?Observe it and note down the difference in
the temperature.
Observation and conclusion:Short-wave radiationof the sun can
enter the greenhouse from its transparent roof and walls. These
radiations are partly absorbed, partly reflected and the remaining
transmitted to the inside of the greenhouse. Some portion of reflected
radiation changes into long-wave radiation and istrapped inside the
greenhouse. This is responsible for increasing the temperature inside
the greenhouse. The roof of the greenhouse is made slanted to enter
more solar radiation.
Question to think:
Why do we feel wanner on a cloudy day/night rather than on a clear
day/night?
hnpacts of the Greenhouse Effect
a) It increases the average global temperature.
b) It changesthe pattern of the water cycle.
c) It brings negative impacts on human health.
d) It decreases the agricultural production and productivity of the
land.
e) Melting of snow in the mountain causes the risk of glacier lakes
outburst flood (GLOF).
f) Due to the increase in the level of water in the ocean nearby
lowland areas are at high risk ofbeing subn1erged underwater.
g) It reduces biodiversity.
h) It causes desertification.
i) It causes an imbalance in the ecosystem.
Applications of Greenhouse Effects
It is essential to have a natural greenhouse effect on the Earth.
Greenhouse effects are crucial to keeping our planet's te1nperature
suitable for the survival of life. Without the natural greenhouse
Science an d Technology, Grade 6 201
effect, the heat radiated by the Earth's surface would simply escape
into space, resulting in an average te1nperature of -20°C. Due to this,
the existence of life on Earth will be merely impossible. Off-season
vegetables can be grown inside the greenhouse due to the increase
in temperature inside it. Farmers can make a good source of income
from off-season vegetables. Son1e plants that have lost their existence
in cold temperatures can be saved in an artificial greenhouse. In
addition, plants growing in hot places can be protected even in very
cold countries. If the greenhouse effect is more, it would have many
negative effects on the environment.
Project work 7.4
Go to the agricultural farm near your home or school and observe the
tunnels (artificial greenhouses) built there. Build a small greenhouse
in your school premisesin a group by using materials like those used
in the tunnel.

Exercise
1. Choose the best alternatives:
(a) What is the process of transmission of heat due to the actual
movement of molecules?
(i) conduction (ii) convection
(iii) radiation (iv) temperature
(b) What is the name of the process of transmission of heat in
liquid and gas?
(i) conduction (ii) convection
(iii) radiation (iv) evaporation
(c) How does the heat transmit in a vacuum?
(i) by conduction (ii) by convection
(iii)by radiation (iv) by transpiration
(d) In which of the following activities is heat transmitted by
the radiation process?

202 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


(i) spoon kept in sunlight is heated
(ii) spoon immersed in a cup of tea is heated
(iii) spoon kept above the spirit lamp is heated
(iv) water gets heated when the hot iron rod is kept in cold
water
(e) What is the average global temperature on the surface of
the earth?
(i) 70oF (ii) 59oF (iii) 40oF (iv) 125oF
(f) Which one of the following is an example of a mechanical
wave?
(i) radio wave (ii) gamma-ray
(iii) sound wave (iv) X-ray
2. Differentiate between
a) conductor and insulator of heat
b) conduction and insulation
c) mechanical waves and electromagnetic wave
d) sea breeze and land breeze
3 . Give reasons:
a) The mud houses are cooler in summer and warmer in winter.
b) A teacup is usually made of porcelain.
c) We prefer light-coloured clothing in summer.
d) Ventilation is kept at the upper part of the wall or door.
e) Transparent plastic is used to cover the roof and walls of
an artificial greenhouse.
4. Answer the following questions:
a) What is the transmission of heat?
b) What is meant by the conduction of heat?

Science an d Technology, Grade 6 203


c) How does the wind blow? Explain the process.
d) What is the convection process? Write down the applications
of convection in daily life.
e) What is the radiation process? Write down the applications
of radiation in daily life.
f) What is an electromagnetic wave? Give any three examples
of electron1agnetic waves.
g) Draw the neat and labeled diagram of athermos flask and
label its parts .
h) What is the greenhouse effect? Write down the applications
of greenhouse effects.

204 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


7.2 Light
Look at the picture below and discuss the question:

Fig7. 14 Different Sources of Light and Reflection

(a) What type of sources of light are shown in the picture?


(b) What is the reflection of light? Do all objects reflect light in the
sameway?
(e) What types of mirrors do you see in the picture?
We can see the objects around us with the help of the light coming
from the sunduring the day. We are unable to view the surroundings
at night. We can see everything around us at night if we switch on
the light. Light is a forn1 of energy that
gives the sensation of vision or enable
us to see objects around us. When the Front Side
rays of light fall on any object then ConcoveSide~
the part of the light is absorbed, some
part is reflected and the re1naining
istrans1nitted (passed) through it.
The phenomenon of returning light Fig 7.15 Concave and Convex surface
after striking a surface is called the
reflection of light. The object appears shiny if they reflect alarge
amount of light falling on them. An object that scatters light falling
on it looks dull. Flat and smooth surfaces glow when the reflection
occurs on them, w hile rough surfaces do not.

Science an d Technology, Grade 6 205


When an object is placed in front of the mirror, then the image of that
object is formed due to the reflection of light fromthe mirror.
A mirror is a device that reflects the rays of light coming from an object
and fonns the image of that object at the point of intersection of two
reflected rays. Mirrors are mainly of two types i.e. plane mirrors and
spherical mirrors. In this lesson, we will discuss the nature of concave
and convex (spherical) mirrors, the reflection of light from the mand
the differences between real hnages and virtual images.
5.2.1 Introduction of Concave and Convex Mirror
Take a steel spoon. What can you see if you look at the front side of the
spoon? Again, look at the back surface of the spoon. The middle part
of the spoon is depressed while looking at the front side and raised
while looking at its back surface. Identify the difference between the
middle part and the edge of the spoon while looking from the front
and back and discuss it with your friends in the classroom.
While observing the front surface of the spoon, the middle part of
the spoon is depressed and its edge is raised. So, the surface which
is depressed in the middle and raised at its edge is called a concave
surface. Similarly, when the spoon is looked at its back surface the
middle part of the spoon is raised and its edge is depressed. The
surface which is raised in the middle and depressed at its edge is
called a convex surface.Spherical mirrors are of two types: concave
and convex.
1. Concave Mirror:
The mirror in which the middle part is depressed and its edge is
continuously raised is called a concave mirror. When the rays of light

Reflective surface

Fig 7.36 Concave mirror

206 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


parallel to the principal axis fall on the concave mirror, they meet at
a point on the principal axis after reflection. The point is called the
principal focus of the mirror. A concave mirror converges the rays of
light falling on it to the principal axis, so it is also called a converging
mirror. Generally,a concave mirror forms an enlarged image of the
object if it is kept very close (within focal range) to the concave mirror.
Questions to think:
Why the bulb is placed at the centre of the concave mirror in a torch
light?
Activities7.10
Take a flash light or search light and switch it on. How far does the
light travel due to the concave mirror used in it? Observe it.
2. Convex mirror

Reflective surface
Fig 7.17 Convex mirror

A inirrorin which the outer surface is polished and bulgedout is


called a convex mirror.In this mirror, Edge is compressed and the
iniddle part is raised. A Convex mirror diverges the rays of light after
reflection, soit is also calleda diverging mirror. In general, a convex
mirror forms an erect and diminished (smaller) image of an object.
The convex mirror forms a diminished image of the larger object lying
far from the mirror, so it has a wide field of view.
Question to think about:
\!\Thy does a driver use a convex mirror as a side mirror to observe the
traffic behind the vehicle?
Project work 7. 5
Observe the street lights in the evening and find out which mirrors
are used to scatter street lights into wide regions.
Science an d Technology, Grade 6 207
Spherical mirror
Some important terms related to the sphel'ical mirror
a. Pole of the mirror: The geometrical centre of the reflecting
surface of the spherical mirror is called the pole of the mirror.
It is denoted by the symbol 'P'. All distances are measured from
the pole of the mirror.
b. Centre of curvature : Spherical mirrors can be considered as
part of the spherical glass sphere. The centre of the sphere from
which the mirror is made is called the centre of curvature. It is
denoted by the symbol 'C' .
c. Radius of curvature: The radius of the sphere from which the
spherical mirror is made is called the radius of curvature. It is
the distance between the centre of curvature and the pole of the
mirror. It is denoted by the symbol 'R'.
concave mirror convex mirror

Fig 7.18 Various terms in spherical mirror

d. Principal axis:The imaginary straight line of infinite length that


passes through the pole of the mirror (P) and centre of curvature
(C) is called the Principal axis.
e. Principal focus: When the rays of light parallel to the principal
axis fall on the concave or convex mirror then after reflection they
pass or appear to pass through the fixed point on the principal
axis, which is called focus or principal focus. The focus of the
concave mirror lies in front of the mirror and that of the convex
mirror lies behind the mirror. So , the focus of the concave mirror
is real and the convex mirror is virtual. It is denoted by the
symbol 'F '. The focus lies exactly between the pole of the mirror
(P) and the centre of curvature (C).
208 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
f. Focal length: The distance between the pole of the mirror (P) and
the principal focus (F) is called the focal length of the mirror. Its
SI unit is meter (m) and is represented by the symbol 'f'.
Reflection from Concave and Convex Mirror
When the rays of light parallel to the principal axis fall on the concave
mirror it converges at a fixed point called principal focus(F). In a
convex mirror the rays of light appear to diverge through the fixed
point (principal focus) behind the mirror. Therefore, the focusof the
concave mirror lies infront of the mirror and the focus of the convex
mirror lies behind the mirror. The reflection of light through a concave
and convex mirroris shown in the figure below:

Prlnclpal axis

C F: c
'
---- p ...············ F

Fig 7.19 Reflection through Concave and Convex Mirror

Rules of reflection for concave mirror

Fig 7.20 Reflection of light through aconcave mirror

1. Rays of light parallel to the principal axis, pass through the


principal focus after reflection.
2. The rays of light coming frmn the principal focus passes parallel
to the principal axis after reflection.
3. The ray of light coming from the centre of curvature returns
through the same path.

Science an d Technology, Grade 6 209


Rules of reflection for convex mirror

p
... ../
,,. ~
f c ·-
F C

Fig 7.20 Reflection of Light through a Convex Mirror

1. Rays of light parallel to the principal axis, after reflection from a


convex mirror, appear to diverge through the fixed point called
the focus.
2. Rays of light coming through the principal focus reflect parallel
to the principal axis
3. The rays of light coming from the centre of curvature of the mirror
reflect along the same path.
Real and Virtual images
Activity 7 .11
Take a concave mirror and keep it facing towards the window. Put
a plain white sheet of thick paper in front of the mirror with in a
distance of 20 cm to 30 cm. Try to
make thelight rays reflected from s
the mirror fall on the plane of the
paper. Adjust the distance between
the mirror and the plane of paper
to produce asharp image on the
paper. The distance between the
mirror and the plane of paper
+---30 cm,___--+
when the sharp image is formed on
~ 7.21
the paper is called the focal length
of that concave mirror. The process of changing the distance between
the concave 111irror and the screen to producea clear image on the
paper is called focusing. The image formed by the concave mirror
can be obtained on the screen, so it is a real image.
Now replace the concave mirror with a convex mirror and aplane
210 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
mirror in turn, and repeat the above-mentioned steps. Can a convex
or plane mirror produce any image on the screen? Observe it.
If an image can be obtained on the screen, such images are called
real images. Real images are formed by the actual intersection of the
reflected rays fron1 the mirror. If the images cannot be obtained on
the screen, such images are called virtual images. The virtual image
is formed at the point where the reflected rays appear to meet. For
virtual images, the reflected rays do not meet actually at any point.
In general, a concave mirror forn1s a real image whereas a plane and
convex mirror forn1s a virtual hnage.
Difference between Real image and virtual image

Real Image Virtual Image


1. It is fanned in front of the 1. It is formed behind the mirror.
.
lllllTOr
2. It can be obtained on the 2. It cannot be obtained on the
screen. screen.
3 . It is formed at the point 3. It is formed when the reflected
where the reflected rays rays appear to meet at the back
meet. of the mirror.
4. The real image is inverted. 4. The virtual image is erect.
Procedure to draw a Ray Diagran1 for a Concave mirror
Activities 7.12
1. Draw a circular arc XY with the
help of a compass.
2. Mark 'C' at the point w here the
compass needle remains while
drawing an arc.
y
3. Mark the midpoint of arc XY at Fig 7.22Drawing Ray Diagram
point 'P'. in a Concave Mirror

4. Drawa straight line to pass through the point P and C.


5. Shade on the exterior surface of XY by pencil.
6. Find the middle point of the line CP and mark it'F'.
Science an d Technology, Grade 6 211
7. Place an object at a point on the principal axis. For example,
place an object AB beyond 'C' on the principal axis and draw the
image A'B' fonned by the mirror following the 'rules of the ray
diagram' as shown in the picture.
Now use the essential rules to ch-aw the ray diagran1 for the concave n:rinor:
1. Draw line AM parallel to the principal axis fron1 point 'A'.
2 . Join these points 'M' and 'F' and draw another straight-line MD.
3. Draw line ANpassing from 'A' to 'C' which meets the mirror at
N.Line AN is the incident ray passing through the centre of
curvature (C). These rays again reflect in the same path from 'N'
to 'A' through 'C'.
4. Now, these two reflected rays MD and NA intersect at point A'.
5. Draw the perpendicular A'B' to the principal axis from the point
of intersection A'. Now,A'B' is the image of the object AB. Note
the position and measure the size of image A'B'.
The image is diminished, inverted and real. This image lies between
'F' and 'C'.
An image formed by a concave mirror:
The image formed by a concave mirror depends on the size, location
and distance of the object from the mirror. So, the images formed by
the concave mirror when the object is kept at different position sare
given in the picture drawn along side. We can find the nature of the
image concerning the object by comparing the image formed to the
object. M

1 . Objectis at infinity : When the 1A...........


p
object is kept at infinity(too far) from the At --~c~---?i!:---<-t
concave mirror, then the image is formed infinity 8-··-·--_.;;_-+----'¥
at the principal focus (F). The nature of
N
this image is real, inverted and highly Fig 7.23
diminished (extremely small).
2. Objectis kept beyond 'C' : When the


object is kept beyond 'C' of the concave
mirror, the image is formed between 'F' A'
and 'C' . The image is real, inverted and D N

diminished. Fig 7.24

212 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


3. Object is kept at 'C': When the object M
is kept at 'C' of the concave mirror,
the image is formed exactly at 'C'.
p
The image is real, inverted and the
same size as that of the object.

4. Objectis kept between 'F' and 'C': Fig 7.25 N

When the object is kept between M


'F' and 'C' of the concave mirror,
the image is formed beyond 'C'.
The image is real, inverted and
magnified.
N
5. An object is kept at 'F': When the
Fig 7.26
object is kept at 'F' of the concave
mirror, the image is formed at
infinity. The image is real, inverted
and highly magnified.

6. Object is kept between 'F' and 'P':


When the object is kept between Fig 7.27
'F' and 'P' of the concave mirror,
the image is formed behind the
mirror. The image is virtual, erect
and magnified.
y B'
p
The in1age formed by convex mirror:
When an object is kept at any position Fig 7.28
in front of the convex mirror,the virtual
image is formed behind the mirror. The convex mirror always forms
a virtual, erect and diminished image of the object.
1. An object is at infinity: When the object
is kept at infinity (too far away) from the
convex mirror, a point image is formed at P
.....·...·· F C
the principal focus (F) behind the mirror.
The nature of this image is virtual, erect
and highly diminished (extren1ely small) . Fig 7.29

Science an d Technology, Grade 6 213


2. An object is kept between infinity and
'P': When the object is kept between A

infinity and 'P' of the convex mirror, a


virtual, erect and diminished irnage is B p F
--- C
formed behind the mirror within the
principal focus (F) .
Fig 7.30
Uses of the spherical mirror:
(A) Usesof a concave mirror
1. Concave mirrors are used in the torchlight, searchlight and
headlight of the vehicle to reflect the light nearly parallel upto a
long distance.
2. It is used by medical doctors to obtain an enlarged view of the
organ in the nose, ear, mouth, neck, etc.
3. It is used as a savings or make-up mirror to see the enlarged face
of the person.
4. It is used in an astronomical telescope to reflect light.
5. Since it is a converging mirror, it is used in a solar cooker to
converge solaT radiation to cook food.
(B) Uses of a convex mirror
1. It is used as a looking mirror to get the rearview, i .e. to look at
the traffic behind the vehicle.
2. Since it is diverging mirror, it is used to scatter the light into a
wide region in the street light.
Project work 7. 6
Make a list of devices having concave or convex mirrors in and around
your house or school. What is the application of these devices? Make
a list and discuss it in the classroom.

214 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


Exercise

1. Choose the best alternative:


(a) Which type of mirror is used to look at our faces in daily life?
(i) plane mirror (ii) concave mirror
(iii) convex mirror (iv) spherical mirror
(b) Which mirror can make a real image of an object'?
(i) plane mirror (ii) concave mirror
(iii) convex mirror (iv) spherical mirror
(c) What type of image is called a real image?
(i) image that cannot be obtained on the screen
(ii) image that can be obtained on the screen
(iii) an erect image
(iv) an inverted image
(d) What kind of mirror is called a concave mirror?
(i) plane mirror (ii) diverging mirror
(iii) converging mirror (iv) simple mirror
(e) The ray of light coming from the centre of curvature in the
concave nurror
(i) passes through the focus.
(ii) reflect along the same path.
(iii) passes parallel to the principal axis.
(iv) diverges from the mirror.
2. Differentiate between:
(a) Concave mirror and convex mirror
(b) Real and Virtual images.
Science an d Technology, Grade 6 215
3. Define the following vocabulary:
a) Principal axis b) Focus
c) Centre of curvature d) Focal length
4. Give reason:
(a) Concave mirror is also called a converging mirror.
(b) Concave mirror is used in solar stoves.
(c) Convex mirrors are used as looking glass in vehicles.
(d) Convex mirrors and plane mirrors cannot producethe real
image.
5. Answer the following questions given below:
(a) What is meant by the reflection of light?
(b) Which mirror is called a spherical mirror?
(c) Write down the factors on which the ilnage formed by the
concave mirror depends.
(d) Which mirror is suitable to use w hile shaving a beard and
doing make-up, and why?
(e) What could be the reason for using a convex mirror in street
lamps?
(f) Draw the ray diagram of the image formed by a concave
mirror w hen the object is kept
i. beyond 'C' 11. at infinity
111. between 'C' and 'F'

216 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


Sound

Fig 7.31 Different Sources of Sound and Waves

We hear sounds from people, birds, bells, different instruments, cars,


television, radio, etc. These objects which produce sound are called
the sources of sound.Sound produces the sensation of hearing in our
ears. A sound is a form of energy that is produced due to the vibration
of objects. The sound produced from different objects propagates
through material mediums such as solid, liquid or gaseous mediums.
Sound waves cannot travel through the vacuum or in the absence of
a material medium.
The sound produced by a guitar is sharper than that produced by
a drum set.Some sounds are louder and sonrn are fainter; some are
sharper and some are flat. This lesson will cover the introduction of
sound waves, measurement of sound intensity, calculation srelated
to the speed of sound, audible sound, infrasound, ultrasound, and
causes of sound pollution and the strategies for reducing it.
Production of Sound Waves
Activity 7:13
Take a tuning fork and strike its prong
onarub ber pad. Do you hear the sound
while bringing its prong nearer to your ear
or not? Touch the tuning fork and feel the
vibrations produced by the tuning fork.
How do you feel? Share your experience Fig 7.32
with your friends in the class.
Science an d Technology, Grade 6 217
When an object is struck, the molecules of that object vibrate back
and forth, creating sound. Sound waves originate from a vibrating
object and propagate through the molecules in the medium. Sound
waves require a material medium fo r their propagation so it is a
mechanical wave. The molecules of a material medium vibrate in to
and fro motion while propagating sound waves. The wave in which
in olecules in a medium vibrate in the direction of propagation of the
wave is called a longitudinal wave. Sound waves are mechanical wave
because it requires a material medium (like solid, liquid or gas) for
their propagation and they cannot travel through a vacuum.
Characteristics of Sound Wave
Frequency:
The total number of waves generated or produced in a unit of time
is called frequency. It is denoted by 'f' and measured in Hertz (Hz) in
the S.I. unit. Kilohertz (kHz) , megahertz (MHz) and gigahertz (GHz)
are the bigger units of frequency of sound.
wave length

6 D ---I Amplitude

i\J7I
- .
~
Figure 7.33 Characteristics of Waves
Period:
The rune taken by the body to makeone complete wave is called the period.
It is denoted by 'T' and its S.I. unit is second (s). If 'f'' complete waves are
fanned in 1 second thenl c01nplete wave is fanned in 1/f seconds.

1 T
: . time period = - - - - - or 1
frequency F
Wavelength:
The distance h'avelled by a sound wave in one complete vibration is
called wavelength. It is also defined as the distance between any two
consecutive crests or troughs or c01npressions or rarefactions in the wave.
ILis denoted by the Greek Letter Lambda 'A,' and its S.I. unit is meter (m).
218 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
Amplitude:
The maximu1n displacement of particles of the niedium above or
below the mean position in a wave is called the amplitude of the
wave. It is denoted by 'A' and its S.I. unit is rneter (m).
Speed of Sound Wave
The speed of sound is different in different media but it is constant
in a particular medium. For example, the speed of sound in the air is
332 m/s. The distance travelled by the sound in a unit time (or ls) is
called the speed of the sound wave.
Mathematically,
Speed of sound wave (v) =Frequency (f) xWave length (A)
Wavelength is measured in ineters and frequency is measured in
hertz (per second), therefore speed of sound is measured in m/s. In
any medium, the speed of a sound wave remains constant even if the
wavelength and frequency of sound vary. Wavelength and frequency
are in the form of product, so if the wavelength is increased then
thefrequency decreases and vice-versa.
Example 1
Find the speed of a sound wave whose frequency is 66 Hz and
wavelength is 5m.
Solution:
Here,
Frequency of sound (f) = 66 Hz
Wavelength (A) = 5 111
Speed of sound (v) =?
We know that,
Speed of sound wave (v) =Frequency (f) xWave length (A)
or, v = 66 x 5
or, v = 330 m/s
Therefore, the speed of sound in air is 330 m/s.

Science an d Technology, Grad e 6 219


Example2:
If the speed of sound at 0°C is 332 in/sand its frequency is 40 Hz then
calculate its wavelength.
Solution:
Here,
Speed of sound (v) = 332 m/s
Frequency of sound (f) = 40 Hz
Wavelength (A) = ?
We know that,
= XFrequency (f)
Frequency (£) 332
Speed of sound wave (v) - - 8.3m
Frequency(£) 40

Therefore, the wavelength of sound is 8.3 m.


Different types of sound
The frequency of sound varies according to the source of the sound.
Even within the same medium, the frequency of the sound produced
by different sources varies. The frequency of sound waves ranges
from 1 Hz to 108 Hz. Since the frequency of the voice of children
and girls is higher, so their voice is heard sharper. After reaching
physical maturity, the sharp sound of boys changes to flat (dhodro).
A male voice has a frequency of about 60-180 Hz, whereas a fe1nale
has a frequency of about 160-300 Hz. We cannot hearall frequencies
of sound. Humans can only hear frequency ranges from 20 Hz to 20
kHz (20,000 Hz). Based on frequency, sounds are classified into three
types,i.e. infrasonic, audible and ultrasound.
(a) InfrasonicSound
Sound with a frequency less than 20 Hz is called infrasound or
subsonic sound. This sound cannot be heard by humans but can be felt
by the sensation of touch. Infrasound is produced during Earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, etc. Animals like ca1nels and elephants can
produce infrasound. Rhinos can also produce infrasound with a
frequency of less than 5 Hz.

220 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


(b) Audible Sound:
The sound whose frequency lies within the range of 20 Hz to 20
kHz. This sound can be perceived by the human ears. The sound
produced while tuning a guitar, singing a song, tuning a radio, etc.is
an exampleof audible sound.
(c) Ultrasonic Sound:
The sound w hich has a frequency of inore than 20000 Hz (20 kHz)
is called ultrasonic sound. It is also called ultrasound. This sound
cannot be heard by htnnan ears. Some animals like; bats, rats, birds
and insects can produce and hear ultrasound. Due to its higher
frequency, ultrasound has a large amount of energy. In the medical
field, ultrasound is used to scan and evaluate the interior organs of
the human body.
Application of Ultrasound:
Sound which has a frequency of more than 20 kHz is called ultrasound.
The wavelength of ultrasound is minimum so this sound wave can
propagate from one place to another without bending or losing energy.
Ultrasound is used in USG (Ultrasonography) to find the growth
conditionof the baby inside the mother's womb, to perform bloodless
operations, to kill bacteria, to find out the position oftumors and
identify diseases in the internal parts of the human body.
SONAR is used to measure the depth of the sea. In SONAR, the
ultrasound wave is sent from the surface of the sea to its bottom and
the receiver receives the wave reflected from the bottom of the sea.
Additionally, the time it takes for ultrasound waves to travel to the
surface and return is also noted, and the depth is determined using
the formulas of the speed of the sound,
P1·oject w01* 7. 7
Go to the nearest hospital or health institution to observe the
ultrasonography (USG) machine. Ask the medical staff in the hospital
for a list of diseases that can be detected by an ultrasound scan.
Intensity of Sound
Sound waves carry sound energy. The amount of energy emitted by

Science an d Technology, Grade 6 221


the sound wave from the source per second per unit area is called
the intensity of the sound. The louder sound has more intensity.
The loudness of sound is measured in decibel( dB) units. If anyone
cannothear theintensity of soundbetween 45dB and 60 dB, he or she
has lost the sensation of hearing partially. The state of not hearing even
sound up to 80 dB is called deafness. The high-intensity sound inay
damagethe sensation of hearing. The intensities of sounds produced
during different activities are given below:
Activities of producing sound The intensity of sound (dB)
Whispering 0- 20 dB
Environment in library 20- 40 dB
Normal conversation 40- 60 dB
busy traffic 60- 70 dB
Machinesin press 70- 80 dB
Railway station 85 - 110 dB
The sound produced by vehicles 110 - 120 dB
Threshold of pain 120 -140 dB
Mechnical Problem 140 - 160 dB
Measurement of intensity of sound
The intensity of sound at any point is the rate at which sound energy
is passing through the unit area perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of the sound wave. It is denoted by 'I' and its S.I. unit is
W/m2 (Watt I square meter). The intensity of sound is measured by
using the formula given below,
p
I
A
Here,
P = Power of sound (P)
A= Area (A)
Examples: 3
Calculate the intensity of sound in an area of 5 m 2 whistling by the
children of power 2 x 10-4 W,

222 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


Solution:
Here, Power of sound(P) =2 x 10·4 W, Area (A) = 5 m2
p 2 x 10-4 w
The intensity of sound(!) = - - - - - = 0.4 x 10-4 W /m 2
A 51112

Factors affecting the intensity of sound


Ainplitude:
The intensity of sound is directly proportional to the square of its
amplitude. (I ex: a2)
Distance of the listener from the source: The intensity of the sound
is higher near the source of sound and decreases as the listener moves
away from the source. When sound is transn1itted in the air, some of
the energy is absorbed by the air molecules, s01ne energy is reflected
and the remaining energy is transmitted. Thus, as the distance of the
listener from the source increases, the intensity of the sound decreases.
The density of medium: The intensity of sound in the gaseous
medium is directly proportional to the density of that medium. Since
the density of cold air is nlore than the density of hot air, the intensity
of sound is more in cold air than in hot air.
Area of vibrating body: The greater the area of the vibrating
surfacethe greater will be the intensity of the sound. For exan1ple,
the large temple bell or a big drum produces a more intense sound.
Frequency: The intensity of sound is directly proportional to the
frequency of sound. A sharper or shriller sound has more intensity
than a flat sound.
Activity 7.8
Determine whether an aniinal's sound intensity is higher or lower by
listening to or recording the sounds of several animals. Give proper
justification for your observation. If you are blind folded and placed
in a room, how would you distinguish whether the room is fully
furnished or empty'?
Sound Pollution:
Sound pollution is unwanted or excessive sound that has negative

Science an d Technology, Grade 6 223


effects on human health, wildlife, and environmental quality.The
unnecessary sound produced due to various activities is considered
sound pollution. Noise is an unwanted sound that is considered
unpleasant, loud or disruptive to hearing. Noise causes sound
pollution in the environment.
Cause of Sound Pollution:
Louder or unnecessary sounds are produced in the market, densely
populated regions, heavy traffic, machinery, etc.
The sound produced at the site of construction causes sound pollution.
Watching television, tuning the radio or other niusical instrument in
a loud voice cause sound pollution.
Sound pollution occurs in factories when unwanted noise is generated
by running machinery.
Sound pollution is caused by the noise of people in the market and
broadcasting through speakers loudly etc.
Effects of Sound Pollution:
Several effects on human health may arise due to sound pollution.
Some of the major effects of sound pollution are listed below:
The weakening ofsensation of hearing.
The blood pressure of a person increases.
Loud noise can cause eardrum rupture and deafness.
Health problems like difficultyin hearing, and a problem in the
digestive system may arise due to noise pollution.
Difficult to concentrate on reading, writing or doing any other work.
Ways of Reducing Noise Pollution:
Afforestation along the side of the road and near industrial zones can
reduce noise pollution.
Noise pollution can be minimized by using silencers in vehicles.
Do not disturb other people, while tuning an instrument, w atching
television, or listening to music.
We can minimize the effects of sound pollution by running public
awareness programmes in the cmnmunity.

224 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


Project work 7. 9
What is the condition of noise pollution in your place? If there is
noise pollution, what are its causes? What can you contribute to
niinin1izing the noise pollution there? Make a list of things you can
do to minimize sound pollution.

Exercise
1. Choose the best alternatives:
(a) Which is the time the number of sound waves produced is
called wave?
(i) 1 second (ii) 2 seconds
(iii) 3 seconds (iv) 4 seconds
(b) What is the range of frequency of audible sound?
(i) 2 Hz to 20 Hz (ii) 2 Hz to 20 kHz
(iii) 2 Hz to 200 kHz (iv) 2 Hz to 200 Hz
(c) What is the range of intensity of audible sound?
(i) 2 Hz to 20 dB (ii) 2 Hz to 40 dB
(iii) 2 Hz to 200 dB (iv) 2 Hz to 200 dB
(d) What is the intensity of sound having a higher amplitude?
(i) more (ii) Less
(iii) re1nainsthe same (iv) more or less
(e) What is the threshold of hearing for deafness?
(i)90 dB (ii)80 dB
(iii)60 dB (iv)55 dB
(f) Which of the following animal can produce and hear
ultrasound?
(i) elephant (ii) bat
(iii) crocodile (iv) whale

Science an d Technology, Grade 6 225


2 . Differentiate between:
(a) wavelength and amplitude (c) infrasound and ultrasound
(b) infrasound and audible sound
3. Answer the following questions given below:
a. The speed of sound remains the same on changing the
frequency or wavelength of sound, why?
b. Write the range of frequency of sound that can be heard by
hu1nan beings.
c. What is the relationship betweenthe wavelength, frequency
and speed of the sound wave?
d. Draw a neat and clean diagram of the sound wave.
e. What is an ultrasonic wave? Write down the name of any
two aniinals that can produce and hear ultrasound.
f. Write down any three applications of ultrasound.
g. The sound is heard fainter when the listener is moving away
from the source of the sound, why?
h. Write down any two effects of sound pollution and any two
ways to minimize its effect.
4. Solve these numerical problems:
a. Calculate the wavelength of the sound wave if the speed
of sound in air is 332 m/s and its frequency is 10 Hz.
(Ans: 33.3 m)
b. Calculate the speed of the sound wave if the wavelength is
22 m and its frequency is 10 Hz. (Ans: 330 m/s)
c. If the speed of sound in air is 332m/s then calculate the
wavelength of the shortest and longest wave that can be
heard by human beings. (Ans : 0.0166 in and 16.6 m)
d. If the 2x10-5 W/m 2 intensity of sound spreads out in an
area of 6 m2 in 1 second, then calculate the energy carried
by the sound wave. (Ans: 1.2x10-4 J)

226 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


Electricity and Magnetism

Read the given passage and discuss the questions given below.
Sumnima is doing experiments onthe properties of magnets in the
laboratory. She is surprised while seeing the attraction between the
N-pole of one and the S-poles of another magnet and the repulsion
between the N-N poles and S-S poles of two magnets. In the course of
the experiment, a bar magnet fell into the floor andbroke into pieces.
She carefully picked up the broken pieces of magnet and repeats
the above activity by using them. When the ends of these magnets
are brought close together, the attraction between some pieces and
repulsion between the other pieces occurred. On seeing this incident,
curiosity arose in her mind. Meanwhile,the electricity was cut off and
the laboratory became dark. Sumnima was about to come out of the
lab after closing the door, the science teacher came into the lab and
said "MCB trips. there may be some problem in the electric circuit."
(a) Why does a magnet attract another magnet or magnetic substance?
(b) Does the magnet retain its magnetic properties even if it is cn1shed
into small pieces?
(c) Why did the electrical line cut off in the laboratory?
(d) What is the function of MCB in an electric circuit'?
A magnet is a substance that attracts unlike poles, repels like poles,
and produces a magnetic field around it. Magnets are widely used
invarious equipment including generators that generate electricity.
Electricity is the one form of energy. Electricity has been used in most
modern appliances to run them. Therefore, various devices operated
by using electricity and magnets have inade our life easier.
8.1 Magnet
Read the given passage and discuss the questions given below.
It has been many days since the television doesn't function properly
Science ond Tech no l o~_v, Grade 6 227
in Samprit's house. One day, amechanic was called to his house for
repairing the televisions. The mechanic tried to find the problem by
opening its cover. There wasa lot of dust inside the television. He
started cleaning the dust by using a brush. When the screws were
kept on a round object inside the TVs they were pulled by that object.
While cleaning, them echanic found that a connecting wire was
broken inside the TV. As soon as it was reconnected, the television
started functioning properly and everyone was happy. Samprit who
was closely watching all those activities wondered why these screws
stuck onto the round device inside the TV.
(a) Why are these screws pulled by the round object inside the TV?
(b) What would happen if you put small pieces of wood instead of
screws in the round object inside the TV?
Magnet is a substance that attracts some metals like iron, cobalt and
nickel. Objects which are attracted by inagnets are called magnetic
materials. Iron, cobalt and nickel are examples of magnetic materials.
A magnet can attract only those magnetic materials kept inside the
magnetic field. A magnet has a north pole (N-pole) and a south pole
(S-pole) . The property of attracting opposite poles and repelling similar
poles of the magnet is called nlagnetic property.
Activity 8.1 Study the properties of magnets (By using bar magnets).
Objective: To study the magnetic properties of magnets.
Materials required: Two bar magnets.pins or small iron nails and
cotton thread.
Procedure
(a) Tie the bar magnet with the cotton threadin the middle and
suspend it onthe stand.
(b) Bring the north and south poles of another magnet alternately
to any pole of the suspended magnet.
(c) Bring pins or iron nails near the suspended magnet.

228 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


Observation and discussion
Fill in the observed properties of the magnetin the given table and
discuss tben1 with your friends.
Activities Response in the magnet
In which direction are the poles of the
magnet pointing when the bar magnet is
at rest after suspending freely?
What happens when the pins are brought
closer to the magnet?
What happens when the north pole of the
bar magnet is brought closer to the north
pole of the suspended magnet?
What happens when the south pole of the
bar magnet is brought closer to the north
pole of the suspended magnet or vice-versa?
What are the conclusions that can be
drawn from the above activities?
Natural and artificial magnet
Natural Magnet
T hose objects which contain
magnetic properties naturally are
called natural magnets. They are Fig 8. 1 Loadstone
found on the surface of the earth's
crust. Loadstone is an example of a
natural magnet. Loadstone is a magnetite mineral that contains an
excessive a1nount of iron in them. Loadstone possesses rnagnetic
properties naturally. Two poles (N and S)existin a natural magnet too.
The magnetic strength possessed by the loadstone cannot be altered.
Project work 8.1
Collect various metals and non-metals found in your surroundings.
Classify them based on whether they are attracted by a rnagnet or not.
Write down the name of the objects attracted by the magnet and the
ones not attracted by the magnet in separate columns on chart paper
and present itin your class.
Science an d Technology, Grade 6 229
B. Artificial magnet
Magnetic substances in which magnetic properties are developed as
per need are called artificial magnets. The artificial magnets may be
temporary or permanent. The strength of the artificial magnets can be
easily altered as required. Artificial magnets can be made by passing
electricity or by various other methods. The artificial magnet formed by
passing electricity through magnetic material is called an electromagnet.

Fig 8.2 Different Types of Artificial Magnet


Activity 8.2
Objective: To make an electr01nagnet.
Required materials:1.5-volt Iron Nail
cell, enamel-coated insulated Wire

copper wire, switch, pliers,

+
pins and small iron nails.
Procedure
Cut 50 cm long insulated Switch
Cell
copper wire with the help of '] 017.b
pliers. Fig 8.3 Making an Electromagnet

Make a spiral formation of insulated copper wire around the iron


nail as shown in the picture. The spiral formation of wire is called a
solenoid.
Connect the two ends of the wire to the opposite terminals of the cell.
Keep the switch in the path of electrical circuits.
Observation and discussion
Bring the pins or iron nails near the electromagnet and observe
the difference in activity while turning the switch ON and OFF
continuously. Demonstrate this electromagnet in your class.

230 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


Uses of magnet
a. Magnets are used in radio, television, fan, refrigerator, induction
cooker, electric bells, generators, etc.

b. It is also used in computers, sensors, headphones, hard disks,


tape recorders, etc.

c. Magnet are used in medical imaging equip1nent like MRis


(Magnetic Resonance Imagers).

d. In factories and ports, huge iron plates and rods are loaded and
unloaded using electromagnets.

e. The magnetic compass is used for navigation purposes.

f. Electromagnets are used in the lock of doors and windows.

8.1.2 Molecular Theory of Magnetis1n


The molecular theory of magnetism was first discovered by the German
scientist Weber. It was later modified by James Alfred Ewing. The
principles of the molecular theory of magnetism. are explained below:

a. Magnet and magnetic substances are made up of magnetic


nlolecules. Each magnetic molecule has North and South poles.

b. In magnets and magnetic materials, molecular magnets are


organised as open or closed chains, as shown in Figure 8.4.
As a result, magnet and magnetic materials exhibit magnetic
behaviour.

c. When the magnetic molecules are lined up or arranged in a


certain pattern, magnetic material becomes magnetised.

d. The intensity of magnetization in magnetic materials is maxin1um


when all the molecular magnet gets aligned or arranged in an
open chain. This condition is called nrngnetic saturation. The
north and south poles of all the molecular magnets are arranged
at the extremities of the bar magnet in magnetic saturation.

Science and Technology, Grade 6 231


LJ NU UIS
S_ll )1N sl=: =:=:=: IN
}\J
~----'->
N r--
S ----~
sl
[ \N
t\s NSNS l JN'-. /Si: sl=:=: II =:=: IN
N
- - S rs N
SN
1=: 11 =: 11 =: 11 =: 1 N
SNS NS NS N

Fig 8.4 (i) molecular magnet in magnetic substance (ii) magnetic molecules in magnet.

Project work 8.2


Make a picture illustrating the principle of molecular magnets on chart
paper. Briefly explain the principle of molecular magnet on the chart
and present it in your class in the presence of your subject teacher.
8.1.3 Demagnetization
The process of losing the magnetic properties or behaviour of a inagnet
is called demagnetization. Magnets lose their magnetic properties
when molecular magnets aligned in a particular direction are oriented
in a random direction or closed chains.The causes of demagnetization
are given below:
Heating the nlagnet
Hammering the magnet
Passing alternating current ina magnet
Keeping like poles together forcefully for a long time
Natural loss
a. Heating the magnet h
If the pennanent nlagnet is heated,
the magnetic molecules in the magnet
..... ~~
vibrate and their patternis disturbed.
Magnet gets demagnetized when the
parallel alignment of the molecular
nlagnet in the magnet is d isturbed Fig8.5Demagnetizationbyheating.
and its open chains of the molecular
magnets are changed into closed chains.

232 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


b. Hammering the magnet
If the permanent magnet is ham1nered or
struck on a hard surface, the configuration
of the molecular inagnets and their parallel ....-----'
alignment gets disturbed and scattered in ----
random directions. If this process continues - - - - - - - - -
then the magnet loses its magnetic behaviour, Fig 8·6 Demagnetization
by heating
i.e. gets demagnetized.
lns uloted copper wire

c. Passing electricity in a magnet


If the alternating current (a.c.) is passed through
a nlagnet it gets demagnetized. The negative
and positive terminals (polarity) of alternating acr99Ulat0<

current change continuously which produces Fig 8.7 Demagnetization by


vibration in molecular magnets . Due to the passingalternatingcurrent
vibration in molecular magnets, the alignment
of the magnetic molecules is disturbed and the

inagnet is demagnetized.
Keeping like poles together
Like poles repel each other. If like poles of two magnets are kept
together forcefully for a long time then the repulsion disturbs the
parallel arrangement of the molecular nlagnets and the magnets get
demagnetized.
d. .Naturalloss
If the pennanent or bar magnet is kept in an open place or without a
keeper for a long time, it gets demagnetized. The magnetic intensity
of anold magnet slowly decreases. If this process would be continuing
for a long time, the magnet may lose its magnetic properties.
Activity 8.3
Objective: To study the demagnetization of the permanent magnet
Materials 1·equfred: Bar magnet, insulated copper wire, low voltage
A.C. current, switch, pins or iron nails and pliers.

Science an d Technology, Grade 6 233


Procedure
a. Cut lm long insulated copper
wire by using the pliers. Make
the spiral adjustment of this
insul ated wire around the Fig 8.8 Demagnetization of the magnet
cylindrical object to make a
solenoid.
b. Join the two ends of the solenoid wire to the source of low voltage
alternating current and keep the switch in the wire to turn the
circuit ON or OFF.
c. Keep the bar magnet inside the solenoid and switched it ON.
d. Hold the bar magnet by pliers and move itinward and outward
continuously.
Observation and discussion
Turn OFF the switch and remove the bar magnet from the solenoid
with the pliers. Bring some pins or tiny iron nails close to the bar
magnet now and observe what happens.
Conservation of 1naguetic prope1·ty
a. Do not heat the magnet.
b.

c.
Do not hanuner or drop the magnet
on the hard floor. ?1
Kccpcr
Do not keep a current-canying wire Fig 8.9 Bar Magnet in its keeper
near the magnet.
d. Keep the bar magnet always in its keeper if it is not in use.
Geomagnetism
Earth also possesses a magnetic property and it is considered a huge
magnet. Magnetic properties associated with the earth are called
gemnagnetism or terrestrial magnetism. The geomagnetic North Pole
and South Pole exist in terrestrial magnets too. Terrestrial magnetism
is generated by convection currents of molten iron and nickel in
the earth's outer coreover the inner core. The poles of the terrestrial
rnagnet are located opposite to the geographic poles and they are
gradually changing their position very slowly.
234 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
Fig 8.10 Terrestrial magnetic field and structure of the earth's core due to terrestrial
magnetism.

Evidence for the existence of terrestrial magnetism.


a. If the iron rod is buried under the earth's crust in the north-south
direction, it shows magnetic properties due to the influence of
terrestrial magnetism.
b. A freely suspended niagnet always rests in a geographical north-
south direction.
c. The existence of a neutral point is the combined effects of
terrestrial and other magnetic fields.
d. The occurrence of natural magnets on Earth is due to terrestrial
magnetism.
Applications of terrestrial magnetism
a. Charged particles in the solar wind are reflected by the earth's
magnetic field towards the north and south poles to be discharged
safely. In this way, terrestrial magnetism has saved the Earth
fro111 the direct hit of harmful charged particles from the sun.
b. The age of the rocks is estimated by the magnetic materials found
in the igneous rock. It helps to identify the new ores of nrntal.
c. A magnetic compass is based on terrestrial magnetism w hich is
used to show the directions in submarines, ships and aeroplanes.
Elements of Terrestrial Magnetism
Magnetic Declination
The plane which connects the geographical North Pole and the South
Science an d Technology, Grade 6 235
Fig 8. 11 Angle of declination
Pole is called the geographical meridian. The plane which connects
the North Pole and the South Pole of a terrestrial magnet is called the
geomagnetic meridian.
The angle between the geographical meridian and geomagnetic
1
meridian at any place on the earth s surface is called magnetic
1
declination. In the above figure , BAB' is the angle of declination
and it is measured in degrees. The value of the angle of declination
varies from o0 to goo. The value of the angle of declination at the
geomagnetic poles is go 0 w hereas its value is o0 at the ge0111agnetic
equator. The value of the angle of declination is determined by using
a declinometer, declination calculator or declination chart table.
Nowadays the angle of declination is also calculated by aeronautical
maps or computer software.The angle of declination is inainly used
in aeroplanes, ships or submarines for navigation purposes.
Activity 8.4
Objective: Navigating by using the magnetic compass
Materials required: Magnetic compass 0
Procedure: Place the magnetic compass on
the table or a horizontal surface.
Observation and discussion
Observe the direction shown by the needle
of the compass and co111pare it to the known Fig B.12 Magnetic Compass

236 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


geographical direction of your place. Identify the geographic direction
indicated by the compass needle, and then locate others' directions
by using this direction as a reference.
Project work 8.3
Use the compass in a mobile application or other software to find the
directions of various locations. Complete the data in the table below,
then present it to the class.
Place Name of the Object pointing in the Remarks
instrument north direction
Playground Compass in
in school mobile phone
Magnetic inclination or angle of dip
The magnetic inclination is
also calledthe angle of dip . The
angle made by the needle of the
freely suspended magnet with
the horizonat any place is called
the angle of dip.The magnetic
inclination is measured by the
dip needle of the dip circle. Its Fig 8.13 Magnetic Inclination and Dip Circle
value varies from place to place
on the earth. The angle of dip at the magnetic equator is 0° because
the needle of the dip circle rests horizontally on the n1agnetic equator
but the angle of dip at the magnetic poles is 90°. The angle of dip in
the capital of Nepal (i.e. Kathmandu) is 42°. The angle of the dip is
used for geographical and geological mapping.
8. 2 Electricity
8.2.1 Household Electrification
The use of electronic devices has made our life easier to perform
various activities. Electrical devices require electricity to operate
them. The process of bringing the electricity generated from the
powerhouse to the people's houses through the transmission line is
called household electrification. High-voltage electricity sent from

Science an d Technology, Grade 6 237


the powerhouse in the transmission line or national grid is reduced
to the appropriate 220 Vin the substation transformer before sending
for domestic purposes. To run the various electrical equipment in
the house, an electrical cable made up of copper is used to provide
electricity access everywhere in the house. Wiring done in domestic
premises (houses), for providing electrical power for the lan1ps, fans
and domestic appliances with all the safety precautions followed
is called do111estic wiring. Various electrical equipn18ntor loads are
connected in series, parallel or mixed combinations .

Fig 8. 14 Transmission line and domestic electrification

Devices used in Domestic Wiring


Main switch
The inain switch is kept between the
main meter box and the distribution
board in household electrification. The
current coming from the transmission
line reaches the electrical loads
through the main switchboard and
distribution box. The main switch Fig B.15 Main switch
controls the current supplied by the
transmission line to 15 A or 30 A which is appropriate for domestic
wiring. The main switch is also known as the master switch. It is
always connected in series in combination with the electrical loads.

Electric Meter
The electric meter is the device that measures the energy consumed
238 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
by the electrical equipment or loads. The electric
ineter is kept inside a plastic or wooden box which
is called an electric meter box. It is kept in a series
combination with the main switch. The electrical
energy consumption is recorded in digital form on
an electric meter. The comn1ercial unit of electrical
energy consumption is a kilowatt hour (kWh) or
unit. One unit of electrical energy consumption Fig 8.16 Electric meter
is equivalent to a 1-kilowatt hour. One unit of
electricity is consumed while using any electrical device of power
1000 W for 1 h our. Based on this inforn1ation, monthly energy
consumption is recorded in the form of units and we can calculate
the monthly charge for electricity. For example, if the electric meter
shows 40 units of electrical energy consumed in a month and the cost
of electricity consumption is Rs. 8 per unit. We should pay Rs 320 to
the electricity authority for the consumption of electricity in that month.
We can use the following formulae to calculate the electricity bill.
Let us consider,
Energy consumed = E.C. (kWh or unit)
Power of electrical device = P (kW)
Tin1e = t (hr)
Number of devices = N
Then the formula to calculate the energy consumption is given below,
E.C. = P x N x t
By using the above formula, we can calcu late the electrical energy
consumed by total electrical equipment and the bill amount that must
be paid to the electricity authority.
Numerical proble1n
If there are 4 electric bulbs each of power 60 W in a house used for
3.5 hrs in a day. Calculate the electricity bill for the month if the cost
of a unit of electricity is Rs 8 .50

Science an d Technology, Grade 6 239


Solution:
Here,
Power of the bulb (P) = 60 W = 60/lOOOkW = 0.06 kW
Number of the bulb (N) = 4
Time (t) = 3.5 hrs.
Electricity consumption per day (E.C.) =?
By using the formula,
E.C. = P x N x t
or, E.C. = 0.06 x 4 x 3.5
or, E.C. = 0.84 kWh
Total electricity consumed in a month (E.C.') = 0.84 x 30
= 25.2 kWh = 25.2 units.
Rate of electricity (R) = Rs. 8.50
Now,
Electricity bill for a month= total energy consumption (E.C.') x Rate
(R) = 25.2 x 8.50
=Rs. 214.20
Therefore, the total electricity bill for the month of that house is Rs. 214.20.
Distribution Board
The distribution board sends the current coming
from the transmission line to the domestic
electrification.It does so by distributing electrical
current to different electrical equipment.
Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)
,,,
MCB is connected near the electric n1eter in Fig 8. 17 Distribution
the distribution board. It is kept inside a plastic board
box. It is also called the main fuse. MCB is an
automatic switch that opens when excessive
current flows through the circuit. It can be closed
again without replacing any part. MCB trips and
shuts down the system when anelectrical load
draws more current than the maximu1n current Fig 8.18 MCB.

240 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


allowed in the domestic wiring.It avoids accidents caused due to
short circuits.
Fuse
A fuse is a safety device used in domestic wiring. It
is a thin wire 1nade up of tin and lead which is kept
in a small ceramic box. It has high resistance and a
low melting point. It is connected in a series with Fig 8. 19 fuse
loads in the domestic circuit. When more than the
required current flows in the electric circuit due to
some disturbance, the fuse 1nelts and protects the other electrical
equipment from being damaged. In general, 5 A to 30 A capacity fuses
are used in domestic wiring.
Switch
The switch is a device that is used to flow or cut off
the current in an electric circuit. It is connected in
series with the electrical load in domestic wiring. The
switch is always connected in phase or live wire. The
switch is turned ON to operate the electrical equipn1ent
whenever needed. Usually, different switches are used
to control different devices separately although we can
run various devices at a tilne by using a single switch. Fig 8.20switch

Plug ancl socket


Plugs and sockets are used to distribute the
electric current from one place to another place

--
in domestic electrification. Plug and socket I
are fixed on the wall and electrical devices are
connected tothe plug and socket to operate them.
In the same socket, we can insert one or manyFig 8.21 Plug and socket
plugs. The sockets are either 2-pin or 3-pin
sockets. Plug and socket are used to distribute the electric current
safely and to minimize the risk of electric shock in domestic wiring.
Electric Bulb
An electric bulb converts electrical energy into light energy. Bulbs are
connected in parallel combination in domestic wiring but they are
connected in series combination in disco lights. The bulb is made of
Science an d Technology, Grade 6 241
transparent glass. A tungsten filament is kept inside the bulb to convert
electrical energy into light energy. Filament lan1ps, fluorescent lamps,
compact fluorescent lamp (CFL) bulbs and light emitting diode (LED)
are some common types of bulbs. We should be very careful while
disposingof the broken bulb because the broken pieces of glass are
sharp and harmful chemicals may have been used inside the bulb .
Project work 8.4
Identify the various electrical devices used in your school premises.
Make a report by including the condition of these devices and their
application. Present your reportin the classroom.
8.2.2 Electric \Vire
Conducting wire is used to distribute the electric current in domestic
electrification. We cannot make an electric circuit without conducting
wires. Electric current flows through the path provided by the wire.
Three types of wires are used in domestic electrification; i.e. Phase
or live wire,neutral wire and earth wire.
Phase or Live Wire
The wire containing a higher potential current is called phase wire
or live wire . It gives the electric shock while touching because a high
potential current flows through our body. So, we should be very
careful. Switches and fuses are used in phase or live wire so that
the high potential current doesn't flow through the circuit when the
switch is OFF. Generally, red or dark-red coloured wires are used for
rnaking phase or live wire.
Neutral Wire
An electric current of zero potential flows in a neutral wire. Electric
current flows through the electric
equipment due to th e difference Earth / -
in potential between a phase and Red ,,,,,,,,,,,

a neutral wire. Generally, blue or Live -----

black coloured wires are used for


making neutral wire. Although it :--:--
"
~
Neutral ""' •

has zero potential, we must not


Fig 8.22 Three types of coloured wire
touch it.
242 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8
Earth Wire
In domestic wiring, an earth wire is connected to each appliance and is
buried in the ground through the distribution box and electTic meter.
Earthing is the process of instantaneous discharge of electrical energy
by transferring charges directly to the earth through low resistance
wire. In a three-pin socket, the pin for connecting the earthwire is
at the top. Earthing protects the electrical equipment from leakage
currents by sending itto the ground and hence preventing electrical
fires. Generally, green or yellow coloured wire is used for making the
earth wire. By using different coloured wires for phase, neutral and
earth, the damaged wire and its location can be identified easily if
there is any problem in the electric circuit. This helps in maintenance.
Project work 8.5
Observe the wiring in each room of your house or your classroom in
the school and identify the live, neutral and earth wires. Prepare a
report on whether the wires of the appropriate colour are used and
whether the appliances in the room are earthed or not and show it
to the teacher.
8.2.3 Wiring in Plug and Socket
Plugs and sockets are the most commonly used devices in household
circuits. Sometimes the wires inside them become loose and need
to be repaired. In the same way, new plugs and sockets should be
wired and connected to the circuit. The plug and socket should be
wired in the following manner:
a. Open the cover of the plug or socket with a screwdriver.
b. Using a knife or pliers, cut off about 1.5 inches of the insulation
around the electrical cable and take out the three s1naller cables
inside it.
c. Identify the live, neutral and earth wires and remove the insulation
around them by using pliers as mentioned in previous steps.
d. Twist the naked wires inside each cable and bend the upper end
of the twisted wire slightly.
e. Loosen the screw on the right-hand pin (usually it has a fuse

Science an d Technology, Grade 6 243


connected in this pin) with the screwdriver and insert the twisted
bare tip of the live (red or dark-red coloured) wire into the pinhole
and tighten the screw.
f. Unscrew the pin on the left and insert the twisted bare tip of the
neutral (black or blue wire) into the hole and tighten the screw.
g. Now unscrew the upper pin in the socket and put the twisted
bare end of the earth wire in the hole and tighten the screw.
h. Clamp the cord with several grippers and tighten the screws so
that the power cord does not come out of the plug even with a
slight pull.
i. Finally, put the cover of the plug and tighten the screw.
J· Wires can be connected to sockets in the same way.

Fig 8.23 Wiring in the plug

Caution: Electric shock may kill a person, so turn OFF the main switch
before performing any electTical activities with the real domestic
electric circuit. You must carry out such activities only in the presence
of parents or teachers.
Activity 8.5
Objective: To connect the wire to a plug
Materials required: Screwdriver, tester, pliers, knife and conducting
wires.
Procedure
a. Take a plug and unscrew its cover witha screwdriver.
b. Take a cable connected to a piece of electric equipment at one end.
c. Identify the live, neutral and earth wires at the free end of the
cable and remove about 1 . 5 cm of insulation from the tip of each

244 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


of these wireswith the help of pliers or a knife.
d. Twist the naked wires in each cable with the help of pliers and
bend them slightly.
e. Connect the live, neutral and earth wires to their respective pins.
f. Put the cover of the plug back and tighten the screw. Check the
current in the socket by the tester and insert the plug into the
socket.
Observation and conclusion
When the plug is inserted into the socket, observe the condition of
electrical equipment when switched ON and switched OFF.
8.2.4 Electric Circuit of light bulbs
Electric light bulbs are connected in parallel combination in household
electrification. We can use a separate switch to control each bulb
when they are connected in such a combination. Every light bulb
gives equal brightness (for the san1e power) in a parallel connection.
Light bulbs are installed in every room inthe house. We should use
a separate switch for each bulb.

Fig 8.24 Connection of the bulbs in household electrification

Activity 8.6
Objective: To construct the electric circuit of lamps
Materials required: Wooden electric board, holder, cable, wire,
switch, multiplug, screwdriver, screws, pliers, knife, insulation tape,
and a tester.

Science an d Technology, Grade 6 245


Procedure
a. Sketch the graph of the parallel connection of three lamps on
the electric board with the help of the teacher,
b. Tighten the holder of the bulb with its screw at the marked place
on the sketch.
c. In the same way, connect the
switch and wire to the specified
place of the electric board.
Cover all the naked wires using
insulated (PVC) tape.
d. Fix the lamp to the holder,and
connect the wiring board to the
multi plug. Fig 8.25 Connecting bulb to the
e. Check the access of electricity electric circuit
in the socket by the tester and
connect the multiplug to the socket.
f. Turn ON the switch of the socket board.
Observations and conclusions
Observe whetherthe bulb glows or notwhen the switch is switched
ON and OFF.
Glossary
Crust The outer layer of the earth
Imaging equipment Advanced medical equipment is used to inake
a three-dimensional image of a human organ
using electro magnetic radiation.
Transformer a device used to increase or decrease the
voltage of alternating current.

246 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


Exercise
1. Choose the correct alternatives:
(a) Whichof the following is a natural magnet?
(i) limestone (ii) nickel
(iii) loadstone (iv) electro1nagnet
(b) To which wire in a home's electrification system is the
switch connected?
(i) neutral wire (ii) earth wire
(iii) fuse wire (iv) live wire
(c) Which one of the following figures gives evidence of
geomagnetism?
(I) (II) (III) (IV)

(i) I (ii) II (iii) III (iv) IV


(d) "Earthing prevents the electrical equipment from being
damaged or destroy ed. " How is the earthing done in
household wiring?
(i) A wire is buried in the earth.
(ii) A green-coloured wire is buried in the earth.
(iii) A wire is taken from the plug and connected to the
earth.
(iv) Earth wire is taken frmn every electrical equipment
and buried in the earth.
2. Differentiate between:
a. natural magnet and artificial n1agnet
Science an d Technology, Grade 6 247
b. plug and socket
c. live w ire and neutral wire
3. Give reasons:
a. The magnet gets demagnetized while harmnering.
b. The angle of inclination or the angle of dip at the geomagnetic
poles is 90°.
c. Different coloured wires are used in domestic wiring.
d. The fuse is always connected in phase or live wire in
domestic wiring.
4. Answer the following questions:
a. What are the conditions for the demagnetization of a
magnet? Explain any one of them in brief.
b. Explain, with a diagram, the molecular theory of magnetism.
c. Write down any three applications of the magnet.
d. What is terrestrial magnetism?
e. Write any three applications of terrestrial magnetism.
f. What is household electrification? Write down the
characteristics of neutral and phase wires used in household
electrification.
g. "Magnetization of magnetic materials in nature is the
effect of terrestrial rnagnetism." Justify this statement with
examples.
h. Write down the steps of wiring a plug.
L What is earthing? \/\Thy is earthing necessary in domestic wiring?
J. "The orientation of magnetic molecules determines the
condition of magnet and magnetic substance ." Are the
magnetic and non-magnetic propertiesof a substance
interch angeable according to the above statement? Justify.
k. Is there a connection between magnets and electricity?
Explain their connection with any activity.

24 8 Science and Techn ology, Grade 8


5. Solve the following numerical problems:
a. The electric nrnter in Bhawana's house records 15 units of
consumption of electricity in 15 days. Calculate the average
monthly electricity bill of Bhawana's house if the cost of
electricity is Rs. 9.5 per unit. (Ans: Rs 1425)
b. If 8 bulbs each of power 25 Ware installed in a house used
for 4 hours 40 minutes daily, calculate the total electricity
consumption, in units, in a day. (Ans: 0.0932 units)
c. The sub-1neter in Sharmila's room records 8.5 units of
electricity in a month. If there is only one electric bulb of
power 65 Win her room, calculate the average duration for
which theelectric bulb is used in a day. (Ans: 4.353 hrs.)
d. In a certain place, the municipality installed 14 street lights
each rated 1500 W. These street lights are used for 6.5
hours daily on average. If the municipality has to pay the
electricity bill at the rate of Rs 12.50, calculate the monthly
bill paid by the municipality to the electricity authority for
using these street lights. (Ans: Rs 51187.50)

Science an d Technology, Grade 6 249

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