Chapter 03 Cengel

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Chapter 3: Pressure and Fluid Statics

Fluid Mechanics-I
Pressure

Pressure is defined as a normal force


exerted by a fluid per unit area.
Units of pressure are N/m2, which is called
a pascal (Pa).
Since the unit Pa is too small for pressures
encountered in practice, kilopascal (1 kPa
= 103 Pa) and megapascal (1 MPa = 106
Pa) are commonly used.
Other units include bar, atm, kgf/cm2,
lbf/in2=psi.
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Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures

Actual pressure at a give point is called


the absolute pressure.
Most pressure-measuring devices are
calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere,
and therefore indicate gage pressure,
Pgage=Pabs - Patm.
Pressure below atmospheric pressure are
called vacuum pressure, Pvac=Patm - Pabs.

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Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures

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Pressure at a Point

Pressure at any point in a fluid is the same


in all directions.
Pressure has a magnitude, but not a
specific direction, and thus it is a scalar
quantity.

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Variation of Pressure with Depth

In the presence of a gravitational


field, pressure increases with
depth because more fluid rests
on deeper layers.
To obtain a relation for the
variation of pressure with depth,
consider rectangular element
Force balance in z-direction gives
∑=
F z ma
= z 0
P2 ∆x − P1∆x − ρ g ∆x∆z =0
Dividing by ∆x and rearranging
gives
∆P = P2 − P1 = ρ g ∆z = γ s ∆z
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Variation of Pressure with Depth

Pressure in a fluid at rest is independent of the


shape of the container.
Pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal
plane in a given fluid.

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Pascal’s Law

Pressure applied to a
confined fluid increases
the pressure throughout
by the same amount.
In picture, pistons are at
same height:

F1 F2 F2 A2
P1 = P2 → = → =
A1 A2 F1 A1

Ratio A2/A1 is called ideal


mechanical advantage

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The Manometer
An elevation change of
∆z in a fluid at rest
corresponds to ∆P/ρg.
A device based on this is
called a manometer.
A manometer consists of
a U-tube containing one
or more fluids such as
mercury, water, alcohol,
or oil.
Heavy fluids such as
mercury are used if large
P1 = P2 pressure differences are
anticipated.
P2 Patm + ρ gh
=

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The Manometer
Simple manometers:
Piezometer
U-tube manometer
Single column manometer
Differential manometers:
U-tube diff. manometer
Inverted U-tube diff. manometer
A simple manometer consists of
a glass tube containing one or
more fluids whose one end is
connected to a point where
pressure is to be measured and
the other end remains open to
atmosphere.
A differential manometer is used
to measure the difference in
pressures between two points in a
pipe or in two different pipes.

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Mutlifluid Manometer

For multi-fluid systems


Pressure change across a fluid
column of height h is ∆P = ρgh.
Pressure increases downward, and
decreases upward.
Two points at the same elevation in a
continuous fluid are at the same
pressure.
Pressure can be determined by
adding and subtracting ρgh terms.

Patm + ρ1 gh1 + ρ 2 gh2 + ρ 3 gh3 = P1

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Measuring Pressure Drops
Manometers are well--
suited to measure
pressure drops across
valves, pipes, heat
exchangers, etc.
Relation for pressure
drop P1-P2 is obtained by
starting at point 1 and
adding or subtracting ρgh
terms until we reach point
2.
If fluid in pipe is a gas,
ρ2>>ρ1 and P1-P2= ρgh

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The Barometer
Atmospheric pressure is
measured by a device called a
barometer; thus, atmospheric
pressure is often referred to as
the barometric pressure.
PC can be taken to be zero
since there is only Hg vapor
above point C, and it is very
low relative to Patm.
Change in atmospheric
pressure due to elevation has
many effects: Cooking, nose
bleeds, engine performance,
aircraft performance.
PC + ρ gh =
Patm
Patm = ρ gh
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Fluid Statics
Fluid Statics deals with problems associated
with fluids at rest.
In fluid statics, there is no relative motion
between adjacent fluid layers.
Therefore, there is no shear stress in the fluid
trying to deform it.
The only stress in fluid statics is normal stress
Normal stress is due to pressure
Variation of pressure is due only to the weight of the
fluid → fluid statics is only relevant in presence of
gravity fields.
Applications: Floating or submerged bodies,
water dams and gates, liquid storage tanks, etc.
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Hoover Dam

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Hoover Dam

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Hoover Dam

Example of elevation
head z converted to
velocity head V2/2g.
We'll discuss this in
more detail in Chapter
5 (Bernoulli equation).

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Hydrostatic Forces on Plane Surfaces
On a plane surface, the
hydrostatic forces form a
system of parallel forces
For many applications,
magnitude and location of
application, which is
called center of
pressure, must be
determined.
Atmospheric pressure
Patm can be neglected
when it acts on both sides
of the surface.

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Resultant Force

The magnitude of FR acting on a plane surface of a


completely submerged plate in a homogenous fluid
is equal to the product of the pressure PC at the
centroid of the surface and the area A of the
surface
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Center of Pressure
Line of action of resultant force
FR=PCA does not pass through
the centroid of the surface. In
general, it lies underneath
where the pressure is higher.
Vertical location of Center of
Pressure is determined by
equation the moment of the
resultant force to the moment
of the distributedIpressure
force.y= y + xx ,C
p C
yc A

$Ixx,C is tabulated for simple


geometries.

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Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Surfaces

FR on a curved surface is more involved since it


requires integration of the pressure forces that
change direction along the surface.
Easiest approach: determine horizontal and
vertical components FH and FV separately.
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Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Surfaces
Horizontal force component on curved surface:
FH=Fx. Line of action on vertical plane gives y
coordinate of center of pressure on curved
surface.
Vertical force component on curved surface:
FV=Fy+W, where W is the weight of the liquid in
the enclosed block W=ρgV. x coordinate of the
center of pressure is a combination of line of
action on horizontal plane (centroid of area) and
line of action through volume (centroid of
volume).
Magnitude of force FR=(FH2+FV2)1/2
Angle of force is α = tan-1(FV/FH)
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Buoyancy and Stability

Buoyancy is due to the fluid displaced by a


body. FB=ρfgV.
Archimedes principal : The buoyant
force acting on a body immersed in a fluid
is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced
by the body, and it acts upward through
the centroid of the displaced volume.

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Buoyancy and Stability

Buoyancy force FB is
equal only to the displaced
volume ρfgVdisplaced.
Three scenarios possible
1. ρbody<ρfluid: Floating body
2. ρbody=ρfluid: Neutrally buoyant
3. ρbody>ρfluid: Sinking body

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Example: Galilean Thermometer
Galileo's thermometer is made of a sealed
glass cylinder containing a clear liquid.
Suspended in the liquid are a number of
weights, which are sealed glass containers
with colored liquid for an attractive effect.
As the liquid changes temperature it changes
density and the suspended weights rise and
fall to stay at the position where their density is
equal to that of the surrounding liquid.
If the weights differ by a very small amount and
ordered such that the least dense is at the top
and most dense at the bottom they can form a
temperature scale.

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Example: Floating Drydock

Auxiliary Floating Dry Dock Resolute Submarine undergoing repair work on


(AFDM-10) partially submerged board the AFDM-10

Using buoyancy, a submarine with a displacement of 6,000 tons can be lifted!

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Example: Submarine Buoyancy and Ballast

Submarines use both static and dynamic depth


control. Static control uses ballast tanks
between the pressure hull and the outer hull.
Dynamic control uses the bow and stern planes
to generate trim forces.

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Example: Submarine Buoyancy and Ballast

Normal surface trim SSN 711 nose down after accident


which damaged fore ballast tanks

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Example: Submarine Buoyancy and Ballast

Damage to SSN 711


(USS San Francisco)
after running aground on
8 January 2005.

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Example: Submarine Buoyancy and Ballast

Ballast Control Panel: Important station for controlling depth of submarine

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Stability of Immersed Bodies

Rotational stability of immersed bodies depends upon


relative location of center of gravity G and center of
buoyancy B.
G below B: stable
G above B: unstable
G coincides with B: neutrally stable.

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Stability of Floating Bodies

If body is bottom heavy


(G lower than B), it is
always stable.
Floating bodies can be
stable when G is higher
than B due to shift in
location of center
buoyancy and creation of
restoring moment.
Measure of stability is the
metacentric height GM. If
GM>1, ship is stable.

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Analytical Method for Metacentric Height
Therefore the cylinder is in unstable equilibrium
Rigid-Body Motion
There are special cases where a body of fluid can undergo rigid-
body motion: linear acceleration, and rotation of a cylindrical
container.

In these cases, no shear is developed.


Newton's 2nd law of motion can be used to derive an equation of
motion for a fluid that acts as a rigid body
 
∇P + ρ gk =− ρ a

In Cartesian coordinates: ∂P ∂P ∂P
− ρ ax ,
= −ρ ay ,
= − ρ ( g + ax )
=
∂x ∂y ∂z

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(In scalar form)
Linear Acceleration
Container is moving on a straight path
ax ≠ 0, a y =az =0
∂P ∂P ∂P
= ρ ax , = 0, = −ρ g
∂x ∂y ∂z
Total differential of P

− ρ ax dx − ρ gdz
dP =

Pressure difference between 2 points

P2 − P1 =− ρ ax ( x2 − x1 ) − ρ g ( z2 − z1 )

Find the rise by selecting 2 points on


free surface P2 = P1
a
∆zs =zs 2 − zs1 =− x ( x2 − x1 )
g
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Rotation in a Cylindrical Container

Container is rotating about the z-axis


− rω 2 , aθ =
ar = 0
az =
∂P ∂P ∂P
= ρ rω 2 , = 0, = −ρ g
∂r ∂θ ∂z
Total differential of P

=dP ρ rω 2 dr − ρ gdz

On an isobar, dP = 0
dzisobar rω 2 ω2 2
= → zisobar = r + C1
dr g 2g

Equation of the free surface


2
ω
zs =
h0 −
4g
( R 2
− 2r 2 )

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Examples of Archimedes Principle
The Golden Crown of Hiero II, King of
Syracuse
Archimedes, 287-212 B.C.
Hiero, 306-215 B.C.
Hiero learned of a rumor where
the goldsmith replaced some of
the gold in his crown with silver.
Hiero asked Archimedes to
determine whether the crown was
pure gold.
Archimedes had to develop a
nondestructive testing method

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The Golden Crown of Hiero II, King of
Syracuse
The weight of the crown and
nugget are the same in air: Wc =
ρcVc = Wn = ρnVn.
If the crown is pure gold, ρc=ρn
which means that the volumes
must be the same, Vc=Vn.
In water, the buoyancy force is
B=ρH2OV.
If the scale becomes unbalanced,
this implies that the Vc ≠ Vn,
which in turn means that the ρc ≠
ρn
Goldsmith was shown to be a
fraud!

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Hydrostatic Bodyfat Testing
What is the best way to
measure body fat?
Hydrostatic Bodyfat Testing
using Archimedes Principle!
Process
Measure body weight
W=ρbodyV
Get in tank, expel all air, and
measure apparent weight Wa
Buoyancy force B = W-Wa =
ρH2OV. This permits
computation of body volume.
Body density can be
computed ρbody=W/V.
Body fat can be computed
from formulas.

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Hydrostatic Bodyfat Testing in Air?

Same methodology as
Hydrostatic testing in water.
What are the ramifications of
using air?
Density of air is 1/1000th of
water.
Temperature dependence of
air.
Measurement of small volumes.
Used by NCAA Wrestling (there
is a BodPod on PSU campus).

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