Automobile Engines

Engine (power plant): An Engine is a mechanical machine that converts the chemical energy of the fuel into heat energy and then
to mechanical energy. It is usually called a Heat Engine.

Basically there are two types of heat engines external and internal combustion engines.

A. In an external combustion engines combustion (burning of a fuel) is taking place outside of the engine. Eg. Steam
engines
B. In an internal combustion (IC) engines combustion is taking place within the engine itself. Eg. Spark Ignition (SI)
engines

Engine

External combustion Internal combustion (IC)

Reciprocating Rotary

Gasoline Diesel

Internal combustion (IC) engines are thermal engines. They

convert the chemical energy contained in the fuel into mechanical
energy. The mechanical energy then becomes available as the
rotating movement of a shaft (the crankshaft).

In the case of piston engines, the combustion process takes place

only during certain operating cycles, defined by the oscillating
movement of the pistons. The engines used on motor vehicles are
almost without exception reciprocating engines. Such engines
convert the up and-down movement of the pistons into a rotating
movement via the crank drive

Physical principle
When air trapped inside a sealed container is compressed, it
becomes hotter: its pressure and temperature rise. The
combustion process is induced by injecting the fuel (diesel) or
generating an ignition spark (spark-ignition engine). The abrupt
temperature increase causes the volume to increase. The thermal energy released in the combustion process (and therefore the
resulting pressure energy) forces the piston downwards, and is thus converted into mechanical energy. The crankshaft generates a
rotating movement from the downwards movement of the piston. The torque of this movement is now available for propelling a
vehicle or driving any other item of machinery.

Page 1 of 19
 ENGINE TERMINOLOGIES

Cylinder: It is a cylindrical block having cylindrical space inside for piston to make reciprocating motion. Upper portion of
cylinder which covers from the top is called cylinder head. This is manufactured by casting process and materials used
are cast iron or alloy steel.
Engine block

The engine block comprises the cylinder block and the crankcase. The
cylinder block surrounds the cylinder barrels and creates a coolant chamber
which is oil-tight and water-tight.

The crankcase actually acts like a sump housing crank, crankshaft,

connecting rod and is attached to cylinder. These are made of
aluminium alloy, steel, cast iron, etc. by casting process.
The bearing seats for the crankshaft are located in the upper section of the
crankcase. The oil sump is bolted on to the base of the crankcase.

The engine block has a ribbed structure and walls of sufficient thickness to
impart dimensional rigidity and keep noise emissions to a minimum.

The cylinders in the cylinder block perform the following tasks:

 Guiding the pistons,
 Containing the combustion pressure,
 Rapidly transferring the combustion heat to the coolant
They must also meet certain requirements:
 Sufficient resistance to high combustion pressures and temperatures,
 High resistance to large, rapid changes in temperature,
 High resistance to frictional wear of the cylinder liner surface

Piston and Piston rings

Piston is a cylindrical part which reciprocates inside the cylinder and is used for doing work and getting
work. Piston has piston rings tightly fitted in groove around piston and provides a tight seal as to prevent
leakage across piston and cylinder wall during piston reciprocating motion. Pistons are manufactured by
casting or forging process and are made of cast iron, aluminium alloy. Piston rings are made of silicon,
cast iron, steel alloy by casting process.

Pistons perform the following tasks in the conversion of energy in the internal combustion engine:
 Establishing a movable seal between the combustion chamber and the crankcase
 Receiving the gas pressure and transmitting it via the connecting rods to the crankshaft as a
rotary force.
 Transmitting the heat given off by the combustion gases to the cylinder wall and engine oil as
rapidly as possible
 Steering the gas exchange process on two-stroke engines

Piston rings form a seal between the combustion chamber and the crankcase. Two upper rings are normally fitted to prevent gas
from leaking through, and at least one further ring (oil scraper ring) prevents too much oil from clinging to the cylinder wall and
becoming burned. If there are three piston rings, the central ring often acts as a combined sealing and oil scraper ring.

Page 2 of 19
Connecting rod

The connecting rod transmits the up-and down movement of the piston to the crankshaft,
which translates it into a rotating movement.
It must withstand high mechanical loads:
 High pressures as a result of the gas pressure acting on the piston crown.
 High acceleration forces as a result of continuously changing piston speeds and
changes of direction (inertia forces).
 High bending forces due to the oscillating movement around the axis of the
connecting-rod eye.

The connecting rod connects the piston to the crankshaft. The piston is secured by means
of a gudgeon pin at the connecting-rod (small-end) eye. The gudgeon pin is inserted
through the connecting-rod eye. Bushings are sometimes pressed in, to assure a lengthy
operating life if very high loads are encountered.

The connecting-rod shaft joins the connecting-rod eye to the big end. The shaft
has a double T or I cross section, for added buckling resistance. It is usually made
by forging process.

The big end, together with the connecting rod bearing cap, encloses the crank pin. There are two plain bearing shells between the
crank pin and the big end/bearing cap. The bearings are permanently lubricated with engine oil entering through the bores between
the shaft journal and crank pin.
 Gudgeon pin or piston pin: It is the pin joining the small end of the connecting rod and piston. This is made of steel
by forging process.

 Bore: Bore d refers to the diameter of the cylinder. It is

nominal inner diameter of the cylinder.
 TDC (top dead centre): is the farthest position of
piston from crankshaft.
 BDC (Bottom Dead Centre): refers to the closest
position of piston from crankshaft.
 Stroke: It is the nominal distance travelled by the
piston between two extreme positions in the cylinder.
The stroke s is the distance travelled by the piston from
its top dead center (TDC) to its bottom dead center
(BDC).

 Piston area: It is the area of a circle equal to bore.

Swept volume (Vs): Swept volume: It is the volume
swept by piston while travelling from one dead centre
to the other. It may also be called stroke volume or
displacement volume. The swept volume refers to the
volume or the capacity of the cylinder between the
TDC and BDC of the piston surface
Mathematically, Swept volume = Piston area x Stroke.

Page 3 of 19
 Clearance volume (Vc): The space remaining above the piston crown when the piston is at the top dead center is referred to as
the clearance volume (Vc). It is delimited by the piston at the moment of ignition and is also referred to as the combustion
chamber.
 Combustion chamber: It is the space available between the cylinder and top of piston when piston is at farthest
position from crankshaft (TDC)
 Compression ratio: The compression ratio indicates to what degree the fuel/air mixture is compressed in the cylinder. It
describes the relationship between the volume of the cylinder and the compression space. The volume of the cylinder is the sum
of the displacement and compression space. It is the ratio of the total cylinder volume when piston is at BDC to the clearance
volume. The compression ratio is always larger on diesel engines than on spark-ignition engines.

sweptvolume  clearancev olume

Compressionratio 
clearancev olume
 Engine displacement: The capacity of all cylinders in an engine is referred to as the engine displacement. It is usually referred
to simply as the displacement in data sheets and technical documents.
 Stroke/bore ratio: The stroke/bore ratio is the relationship between the piston stroke and the cylinder bore. If the stroke is
greater than the bore, the descriptive term long-stroke engine is used. A short-stroke engine is one where the bore is greater
than the stroke. The stroke is usually the greater of the two on diesel engines

 Crankshaft

It is the shaft at which useful positive work is available

from the piston-cylinder arrangement.
The crankshaft is rotated by the up-and down movement of the
pistons via the connecting rods. The rotating movement is
transmitted primarily from the crankshaft to the clutch. Part of
this rotating movement is used to drive the valve gear, the
alternator and the oil, coolant, injection and fuel pumps.

The piston and connecting rod transmit acceleration and

torsional forces to the crankshaft. These forces subject the
crankshaft to twisting, bending and torsional vibration forces.
The crankshaft is in addition exposed to slight wear at the
bearing points.

The crankshaft’s angle of rotation is referred to as the crank or crankshaft angle and is quoted in °CS. It is an exact indication of
the position of the piston and therefore also defines a given time in the diesel or spark-ignition engine’s operating process (e.g.
20° CS before TDC in the compression stroke).

The crankshaft is mounted on the shaft journals in the crankcase. The connecting rods are secured to the crank pins. The shaft
journals and crank pins are connected by the crank webs, which have boreholes through which the oil flows from the shaft
journals to the crank pins.

The crankshafts must be dynamically balanced. Counterweights are used for the balancing of masses. The flywheel is mounted
on the output end of the crankshaft. It serves as the mounting for the clutch, helps the pistons to overcome idle strokes and the
dead centers, and thus helps the engine to run more smoothly. At the crankshaft’s opposite end, engines have (spur) gears
which have the function of driving auxiliary assemblies.

Page 4 of 19
 Cylinder head and cylinder-head gasket
The cylinder head accommodates the spark plugs or injectors and valves. It delimits the combustion chamber and contains part
of the compression space. The cylinder head is secured to the cylinder block by means of the cylinder-head bolts.

The cylinder-head gasket, clamped between the cylinder block and cylinder head, provides the sealing effect. The cylinder head
must contain the combustion pressure and is subjected to very high thermal loads from the combustion gases. It therefore needs
to be cooled effectively. Air-cooled cylinder heads have cooling fins in order to enlarge the cooled surface. Cylinder heads on
passenger-car engines are usually made of light alloy. Special cast iron must be used for commercial- vehicle engines.

Most passenger-car engines and almost all commercial-vehicle engines are liquid cooled. The coolant flows from the cylinder
block into the cylinder-head ports through connecting passages. Liquid-cooled cylinder heads are of light alloy or cast iron.

The cylinder-head gasket is located between the cylinder head and the crankcase. It forms a gas-tight seal for the combustion
chamber, and acts as a seal between the water and oil ducts. The contact surfaces of the cylinder head and cylinder block must
therefore be completely level. If the cylinder-head gasket is damaged or worn, the engine’s compression will be reduced and the
engine’s power will be reduced as a result.

 Valves: Engine has both intake and exhaust type of valves which are operated by valve operating mechanism
comprising of cam, camshaft, follower/tappet, valve rod/push rod, rocker arm, valve spring etc. Valves are generally
of spring loaded type and made out of special alloy steels by forging process.

 Valve gear
The valve gear refers to the assembly which controls the gas exchange process of
internal combustion engines. The inflow of fresh air and the outflow of exhaust gas
is controlled by means of valves which are actuated at specific moments.

On the pushrod system often used on commercial-vehicle engines, the valve gear
comprises the following: Camshaft, Tappets, Valve pushrods, Rocker arm, Rocker
arm shaft, Valve springs, Valves.

On four-stroke engines, the camshaft rotates at only half the speed of the
crankshaft. The arrangement and shape of the cams determine when and for how
long the inlet and exhaust valves are open

 Cams and camshaft: cams are mounted upon camshaft for opening and
closing the valves at right timings and for correct durations. Camshaft gets
motion from crankshaft through timing gears/belt/chain.
The camshaft’s cams exert pressure on the
valve stem by means of the tappets and
valve pushrods, via the rocker arms.
Depending on the cam position, the valves
have to overcome spring pressure to be
opened.

The camshaft is driven from the crankshaft

via gears, roller chains, toothed belts or
vertical shafts. Camshafts on heavy
commercial- vehicle diesel engines are
generally driven by gears.

Page 5 of 19
  Intake manifold: It is the passage/duct connecting intake system to the inlet valve upon cylinder. Through intake
manifold the air/air-fuel mixture goes into cylinder.
 Exhaust manifold: It is the passage/duct connecting exhaust system to the exhaust valve upon cylinder. Through
exhaust manifold burnt gases go out of cylinder.
 Bearing: Bearings are required to support crank shaft. Bearings are made of white metal leaded bronze.

Automobile Engine Cycles

SPARK IGNITION ENGINE
In a spark ignition (SI) or a gasoline engine, a mixture of air and fuel is drawn into the cylinder and is compressed by the rising
motion of the piston. When the air-fuel mixture is ignited by the spark plug, very hot and highly pressurized gas pushes the piston
down. The piston can move freely up and down inside the cylinder. The reciprocating movement of the piston is converted into a
rotary movement by the connecting rod and the crankshaft.

DIESEL ENGINE
The actual construction of a Diesel engine is very similar to that of a petrol engine, except that the Diesel does not have a carburetor
or sparking plugs. The sparking plugs are replaced by an injector through which a pump forces a very fine spray of fuel. As this type
of engine makes practical use of the heat of compression to effect ignition of the fuel, it is frequently referred to as a compression
ignition (CI) engine.

Four stroke gasoline engine operation

The four-stroke cycle of operation is generally referred to as the “Otto cycle” after Dr N.A. Otto who first applied it in practice. A
certain series of actions have to be completed to admit the fuel to the engine cylinder, to compress the mixture of air and fuel, to
allow the gases to expand during the power stroke, and finally to expel the burnt exhaust gas from the cylinder. These various
actions constitute what is known as the “Cycle of operation”.
Intake Stroke
Induction stroke: - In the first half turn of the crankshaft the piston is
moving down the cylinder. At the same time the inlet valve is opened Intake valve: open
and a mixture of air and fuel is drawn into the cylinder due to the partial Exhaust valve closed
vacuum (-0.1 to –0.3bar) created by the descending piston. Just after the Piston travel: Downward
piston has reached the end of the induction stroke the inlet valve is
closed. At this point the mixture of air and fuel is sealed in the cylinder. The downward movement
of the piston draws air-
fuel mixture into the
cylinder through the
2. Compression stroke intake valve on the intake
Intake valve: closed stroke.
Exhaust valve: closed
Compression stroke: - On the next half turn of the crankshaft both inlet
Piston travel: upward
and exhaust valves remain closed. The piston moves upward,
On the compression stroke, compressing the mixture of air and fuel into the small space above the
the mixture is compressed piston which is called the combustion chamber. When the piston has
by the upward movement of reached the top of its stroke a large quantity of gas is tightly packed into a
the piston with both valves small space. Cylinder pressure and temperature may increase up to
closed. 18bar and 400°C to 500°C. At the end of the compression stroke a high
voltage is made to jump across the gap of the sparking plug, causing the
compressed mixture of air and fuel to ignite and burn.

Page 6 of 19
Power stroke: - Once the compression stroke is completed the mixture in 3. Power stroke
the cylinder is ignited by the sparking plug. Cylinder temperature and
pressure may increase up to 2500°C and 30-60bar. The burning and Intake valve: closed
Exhaust valve closed
expansion of the gases is so rapid that the piston is forced down the
Piston travel: Downward
cylinder. It is this stroke, which gives the engine its power. The power with
which the piston is forced down the cylinder during this stroke must cause Ignition occurs at the
the flywheel to travel with at least sufficient speed and force to enable the beginning of the power
piston to move up and down the cylinder until the next power stroke is stroke, and combustion
performed. Obviously, the more gasoline vapor and air which is allowed into drives the piston
the cylinder, the greater will be the burning and expansion, and downward to produce
power.
consequently the power of the stroke and the speed of the vehicle. When
the piston is approaching the bottom of the power stroke, the exhaust valve
is opened, thereby allowing the burnt gas to escape from the cylinder.

4. Exhaust stroke
Exhaust stroke: - With the exhaust valve already well open, the piston moves
up the cylinder, sweeping the burnt gases out of the cylinder. Cylinder pressure
Intake valve: closed
Exhaust valve: open and temperature may increase up to 3-5bar and 900°C. However, it is
Piston travel: upward impossible to expel all the burnt gas. When the piston reaches the top of its
stroke, the contents of the combustion chamber still remain. When the piston
On the exhaust stroke, reaches this position, it will be ready to descend on another induction stroke.
the upward-moving
piston forces the burned The complete sequence of events has now been described; induction,
gases out the open compression, power, and exhaust, making up two crankshaft revolution or one
exhaust valve. complete cycle of operation.

Power outout regulation

The power output of a gasoline engine is controlled by regulating the amount of air fuel mixture admitted into the cylinder. In diesel
engine the power output of the engine is controlled by regulating the amount of fuel injected into the cylinder. In diesel engine the
amount of air entering the cylinder is not regulated combustion happens at excess air.

The 720° Cycle

Each stroke requires 1800 crankshaft rotation to complete. A total of 720° crankshaft rotation is required to complete one
cycle in a four stroke engine. A single four stroke engine therefore will have one power every two revolutions. Each cycle
of events requires that the engine crankshaft make two complete revolutions. For a multiple cylinder engine to find the
angle between each power stroke divide 7200 by the number of cylinders. Example: 4 cylinders = 720°/4 = 180°. 6
cylinders = 720°/6 = 120°. 8 cylinders = 720°/8 = 90°

Page 7 of 19
 Two-stroke gasoline engine
The two stroke engine has one firing impulse for every revolution.

Cycle of operation
The conventional three-port two-stroke engine does not employ mechanically operated valves.
Instead, ports are formed in the cylinder walls which are covered and uncovered by the
movement of the piston. In this type of engine there are only three moving parts: the piston,
connecting rod, and crankshaft.

The cycle of operation is completed in two strokes of the piston or one revolution of the
crankshaft

Upward stroke: When the piston is at the bottom of its stroke the inlet port is closed, but the
exhaust and transfer ports are open. On one side of the cylinder exhaust gases are
leaving and at the opposite side of the cylinder a fresh charge of mixture is entering
from the crankcase. The piston is provided with a deflector head or crown which directs
the fresh charge of mixture to the top of the cylinder and the exhaust gases towards
the exhaust port. As the piston moves up the cylinder, it cuts off or closes both the
transfer and exhaust ports. The continued upward movement of the piston creates a
depression in the crankcase and as the inlet port is uncovered an air and petrol mixture
from the carburetor flows into the crankcase. At the same time the mixture above the
piston is being compressed. As the piston nears the end of its upward stroke, a spark
occurs at the spark plug, which ignites the compressed mixture of air and fuel in the
combustion chamber.

The downward stroke:-

The high temperature produced by the burning mixture causes an increase in

pressure followed by expansion, which forces the piston down the cylinder on its
effective power stroke. Fresh mixture is still flowing into the crankcase via the
inlet port but as the piston descends this port is closed and the mixture in the
airtight crankcase is compressed. At the same time the exhaust port above the
piston is beginning to open allowing the burnt gases to escape to the exhaust
system. As the piston has also uncovered the transfer port, the compressed
mixture from the crankcase can flow through the transfer passage into the cylinder. The crown of the piston deflects the mixture
towards the top of the cylinder, scavenging the exhaust gases. Again the piston moves up the cylinder, closes transfer and exhausts
ports and compresses the new charge of mixture in the combustion chamber. The cycle of operation is continuously repeated while
the engine is running, there by completing the cycle of events in 360o of crankshaft rotation.

Page 8 of 19
A disadvantage of the simple two-stroke petrol engine is the low thermal efficiency. This is due to: the incomplete scavenging of
the exhaust gases and the unburnt mixture flowing out of the combustion chamber with the exhaust gases.

Two strokes of the piston take place for every one revolution of the crankshaft, thus one stroke of the piston equals half a revolution
of the crankshaft. The complete cycle of operation in a four-stroke gasoline engine occupies two complete revolutions of the
crankshaft.

Theoretical strokes of Otto-engines

intake - intake valve opens (theoretical stroke: at TDC)

- exhaust valve is closed (theoretically: since TDC)

- piston moves downward

- distance TDC to BDC = 180° crank angle

- suction occurs / partial vacuum (-0.1 to -0.3 bar)

- air-fuel mixture (14.7 : 1) is drawn into the cylinder

compression - intake valve closes (theoretical: at BDC)

- exhaust valve still closed

- piston moves upward (BDC  TDC = 180°)

- air-fuel mixture gets compressed to (1/7 to 1/12)

- air-fuel mixture is heated up (molecular motion)

- increasing heat causes higher pressure (18 bar)

- higher heat improves mixing of the gases

power - both valves are still closed (theoretically: till BDC)

- combustion is initiated by the spark from the spark plug

- time from start of combustion till complete combustion about 1/1000 sec (!)

- combustion speed up to 20 m/s

- highest combustion pressure about 30 - 60 bar at around 4° - 10° after TDC

- expansion of hot gases (up to 2500°C) forces the piston downward (TDC  BDC = 180°)

- heat energy is transferred into mechanical energy

Page 9 of 19
 Exhaust - exhaust valve opens (theoretically: at BDC)

- intake valves remains closed (theoretically: till TDC)

- due to residual pressure of 3-5 bar exhaust gases leave the cylinder with sonic sound

- exhaust gas temperature still be around 900° C

- piston moves upward (BDC  TDC = 180°)

- rest of exhaust gases pushed out with around 0.2 bar

Summary: - 4 strokes = 720° crank angle = 360° camshaft angle

- 4 strokes = 2 crankshaft rotations = 1 camshaft rotation

- each theoretical stroke is 180° crank angle

- spark ignition takes place at or before TDC

Difference between theoretical and actual stroke:

There are two factors for the actual valve timing to be different from the theoretical valve timing.

a). Mechanical factor – the poppet valves of the reciprocating engines are opened and closed by cam mechanisms. The clearance
between cam, tappet and valve must slowly taken up and valve slowly lifted, at first, if the noise and wear is to be avoided. For the
same reason the valve cannot be closed abruptly, else it will bounce on its seat. Thus the valve opening and closing periods are
spread over a considerable number of crankshaft degrees. As a result the opening of the valve must commence a head of the time at
which it is fully opened and closed.

b). Dynamic factor – Besides mechanical factor of opening and closing of valves, the actual valve timing is set taking in to
consideration the dynamic effects of the gas flow.

- High power output requires good input of (fuel-) power = good filling with air-fuel mixture

- To get a good filling with fresh gases the discharge of burned gases has to be maximized.

- In order to improve the filling (to get a good charge) of the engine,

 intake valve opens already before TDC (45°-0° b. TDC) and closes after BDC (35° - 90° a. BDC)

 exhaust valve opens before BDC (90° - 30° b. BDC) and closes after TDC (0°-30° a. TDC).

 Since intake opens already before TDC meanwhile exhaust closes after TDC we get a VALVE OVERLAP, a short period
of time during both valves are open, from I.O. till E.C.

Page 10 of 19
- These valve timings allow a better filling of the engine due to the fact that we receive a streaming effect of the gases; they help to
overcome the inertia of the gases.

- Valve timings can be shown in a VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM. Most common are representations in form of a coil.

- The real / actual strokes therefore are not always expressed as exactly from TDC to BDC to TDC to BDC. The valve timings and
the ignition timing also can determine the strokes.

- The valve timings can be measured by using a dial gage on top of the valve spring in combination with a degree disc on the
crankshaft pulley.

Importance of valve overlap (advantages):

Valve overlap takes place between exhaust and intake stroke - Being aware of the course of valve motions during valve overlap

 The direction of rotation of an engine can be determined

 The firing order of a given engine can be determined again by using the valve overlap

 It is used to set every engine to the correct position for VALVE ADJUSTMENT

To use the later, a deep understanding of the four strokes is required.

Page 11 of 19
One must be aware those 1st and 4th cylinders as well as 2nd and 3rd cylinder are running parallel. This implies that if e.g. cylinder No.
4 is at overlap (= beginning of intake stroke) No. 1 will be at beginning of power stroke.

Four stroke Diesel engine operation

In the compression ignition (CI) engine the degree of compression is much higher than in the gasoline engine, so that the heat
produced by the compression is sufficient to ignite the fuel without the need for a spark. The fuel employed in this type of engine is
less volatile than gasoline, although of a similar chemical nature.
1. Intake (induction) stroke
Induction stroke: - the inlet valve opens and the piston moves Intake valve: open
downward, a depression is created in the cylinder. Atmospheric Exhaust valve closed
pressure outside the cylinder forces air through the open inlet port Piston travel: Downward
into the cylinder. Once the piston has reached the end of the
induction stroke the inlet valve is closed. Only air is drawn into the The downward movement of the
CI engine as there is no carburetor and the air intake is not piston draws air into the cylinder
through the intake valve on the
throttled or obstructed in any way.
intake stroke

2. Compression stroke

Intake valve: closed

Exhaust valve: closed
Piston travel: upward Compression stroke: - The piston moves upward, both inlet and
exhaust valves remain closed, and the air trapped in the cylinder is
On the compression stroke, compressed to approximately one-sixteenth of its original volume. The
the air is compressed to a actual compression ratio used varies from engine to engine from
higher temperature and
approximately 12:1 to 23:1 or in some applications even higher. As a
pressure by the upward
movement of the piston with result of the high pressure the air temperature within the cylinder will be
both valves closed about 800oC. A measured quantity of atomized fuel is injected into the
cylinder just before the piston reaches the top of its stroke.

3. Power stroke
Power stroke:- The fuel injected has a self-ignition temperature Intake valve: closed
in the region of 400oC , therefore, being introduced into a Exhaust valve closed
temperature of 800oC, it ignites and begins to burn. The Piston travel: Downward
expansion of the burning gases forces the piston down..
At the beginning of the power stroke
a pressurized diesel fuel is injected
on the compressed air. The fuel is
then ignited by the compression
pressure and temperature. The piston
Page 12 of 19 is forced down by the expanding
gases
 4. Exhaust stroke
Intake valve: closed
Exhaust valve: open
Exhaust stroke:- As the piston nears the end of its downward stroke, the Piston travel: upward
exhaust valve opens. The spent exhaust gases are forced out of the
cylinder as the piston moves upward on its exhaust stroke. When the piston On the exhaust stroke, the
reaches the top of its travel, the exhaust valve is closed and the inlet valve upward-moving piston
opens and another cycle of operations begins. forces the burned gases out
via the open exhaust valve
.

SUMMARY OF THE OPERATING PRINCIPLE OF THE DIESEL ENGINE

The “Diesel” engine is referred to as a compression ignition engine (CI). In general terms the design of the CI engine follows that of a
gasoline engine, i.e., the arrangement and cooling of the cylinders is the same, and the timing gear, connecting rods, crankshaft,
pistons, and valves are similar, though usually of a far more robust design than those of the gasoline engine. Where the CI engine
differs from the gasoline engine is in the design of the combustion chamber and in the method employed of introducing and igniting
the fuel. It has a much higher compression ratio and so a special pump and a set of nozzles are required for injecting the fuel into
the combustion chamber. Compression ignition engines do not require a carburetor or an electrical ignition system. Ignition is
achieved by raising the air temperature higher than the self-ignition point of the fuel used, so that when the fuel is injected into the
combustion camber, it will start to burn. The high air temperature is created by quickly compressing the air to a very high pressure
using a compression ratio of between 12:1 and 23:1 or more.

Two-stroke diesel engine

In the operation of a two-stroke petrol engine, crankcase compression

is relied upon to charge the cylinder with air fuel mixture. But in the CI
engine the fuel is injected into the cylinder at the end of the
compression stroke. Furthermore, it is possible to employ a blower
supercharger to force air into the cylinder at a pressure slightly greater
than atmospheric pressure. This provides more positive charging of the
cylinder and also assists in expelling the burnt exhaust gases.

Construction: An air chest surrounds the cylinder or box, which is

kept charged with air under pressure by an engine-driven blower. Ports
lead from the air chest into the cylinder. Movements of the piston
control the flow of air from the chest into the cylinder. Poppet type
exhaust valves are located in the cylinder head and these are operated
by conventional cams, push rods, rocker arms, etc., and are closed by
springs. As the piston uncovers the ports the incoming air, as well as
filling the cylinder, assists in disposing of the gases past the open
exhaust valves at the top of the cylinder.

Page 13 of 19
Operation:
The upward stroke: - Only air is allowed to pass into the cylinder while the
inlet ports are uncovered, at the same time the exhaust valves are open. This
combination of uncovered inlet ports and open exhaust valves permits air to be
blown through the cylinder, thereby removing exhaust gas and filling the cylinder
with a fresh charge of air. As the piston advances up the cylinder the inlet ports
are covered, the exhaust valves are closed and the air is compressed into the
lesser volume of the combustion chamber where the air temperature increases
to a point where self-ignition of fuel will occur. Just before the piston reaches the
top of its stroke, fuel is injected into the cylinder and combustion occurs. The
heat developed from the compression of air in the cylinder ignites the fuel and
the expanding gas forces the piston downward on its effective power stroke.

The downward stroke: - Before the piston reaches the end of its downward
or power stroke, the exhaust valves open, allowing the burnt exhaust gases to
escape. Shortly afterwards the piston uncovers the air inlet ports, allowing the
pressurized air in the air chest to remove the remaining exhaust gases and
charge the cylinder enabling the whole cycle to start all over again.

CLASSIFICATION OF IC-ENGINES

IC engines can be classified by:

Classification / group Indicator / value

1. Types of Ignition Spark Ignition (SI), Compression Ignition (CI)
2. Operation Cycle 2-stroke vs. 4-stroke
3. Arrangement of valve mechanism OHV, OHC,
4. Basic Design Reciprocating, Rotary
5. Number of cylinders 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 12
6. Cylinder arrangement Inline, v engine, opposed, etc.
7. Air Intake Process Naturally aspirated, turbocharged, etc
8. Method of Fuel Input for SI Engines Carbureted, multi-point injection etc.
9. Type of fuel used Gasoline, diesel, LPG, etc.
10. Application area Automobile, aircraft, marine, etc.
11. Type of cooling Air cooled, water cooled

1. Types of Ignition
(a) Spark Ignition (SI: An SI engine starts the combustion process in each cycle by use of a spark plug. The spark plug gives a
high-voltage electrical discharge between two electrodes which ignites the air-fuel mixture in the combustion chamber surrounding
the plug. In early engine development, before the invention of the electric spark plug, many forms of torch holes were used to initiate
combustion from an external flame.

Page 14 of 19
(b) Compression Ignition (CI): The combustion process in a CI engine starts when the air-fuel mixture self-ignites due to high
temperature in the combustion chamber caused by high compression.

2. Engine Cycle/operating cycle

(a) Four-Stroke Cycle: A four-stroke cycle experience four piston movements over two engine crankshaft revolutions per cycle.

(b) Two-Stroke Cycle: A two-stroke cycle has two piston movements over one revolution for each cycle.

3. Valve arrangement
(a) Valves in head (overhead valve), also called I Head engine. (Most in block camshaft or pushrod engines and overhead
camshaft engines are of this type)

(b) Valves in block (flat head), also called L Head engine. Some historic engines with valves in block had the intake valve on one
side of the cylinder and the exhaust valve on the other side. These were called T Head engines.

(c) One valve in head (usually intake) and one in block, also called F Head engine; this is much less common.

4. Basic Design
(a) Reciprocating: Engine has one or more cylinders in which pistons reciprocate back and forth. The combustion chamber is
located in the closed end of each cylinder. Power is delivered to a rotating output crankshaft by mechanical linkage with the pistons.

(b) Rotary: Engine is made of a block (stator) built around a large non-concentric rotor and crankshaft. The combustion chambers
are built into the nonrotating block.

5. Number of Cylinders of Reciprocating Engines: - An engine may have 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 12 Cylinder.

6. Cylinder arrangement (Layout)

There are various forms of engine, according to the pattern of the cylinders. The most common forms of commercial vehicle engines
are: Inline engine, and V-engine. Depending on application, engines with 4, 6, 8 and 10 cylinders are used. Cylinder 1 is usually
opposite the output end. An engine which rotates counterclockwise when seen from the output end is referred to as a right-hand-
running engine.
(a) In-Line: The cylinders are in a row. They are positioned in a straight line, one behind the other
along the length of the crankshaft. They can consist of 2 to 11 cylinders or possibly more. In-line four-
cylinder engines are very common for automobile and other applications. In-line six and eight cylinders
are historically common automobile engines. In-line engines are sometimes called straight (e.g.,
straight six or straight eight). The advantage of inline engines compared with V and horizontally
opposed engines is their compactness (in terms of width).

(b) V Engine: Two banks of cylinders at an angle with each other

along a single crankshaft. The cylinders are arranged in two banks
which are joined to form a V pattern, often at an angle of 90°. The angle between the banks of
cylinders can be anywhere from 15° to 120°, with 60°-90° being common. V engines have even
numbers of cylinders from 2 to 20 or more since this form of engine is shorter. V6s and V8s are
common automobile engines, with V12s and V16s (historic) found in some luxury and high-
performance vehicles. V-engines tend to be short and flat, but wide. The auxiliary assemblies are

Page 15 of 19
less readily accessible than on inline engines.

(c) Horizontally Opposed Cylinder Engine: The cylinders are arranged lying flat, opposite
each other. Horizontally opposed engines are very short and flat, but are consequently extremely
wide. The pistons move in opposite directions Two banks of cylinders opposite each other on a
single crankshaft (a V engine with a 180°V). These are common on small aircraft and some
automobiles with an even number of cylinders from two to eight or more. These engines are
often called flat engines (e.g., flat four.
.

(d) W Engine: Same as a V engine except with three banks of cylinders on the same
crankshaft. Not common, but some have been developed for racing automobiles, both modern
and historic. Usually 12 cylinders with about a 60° angle
between each bank.

(e) Opposed Piston Engine: Two pistons in each cylinder with the combustion chamber in
the center between the pistons. A single-combustion process causes two power strokes at
the same time, with each piston being pushed away from the center and delivering power to a
separate crankshaft at each end of the cylinder. Engine output is either on two rotating
crankshafts or on one crankshaft incorporating complex mechanical linkage.

(f) Radial Engine: Engine with pistons positioned in a circular plane around the central crankshaft. The
connecting rods of the pistons are connected to a master rod which, in turn, is connected to the
crankshaft. A bank of cylinders on a radial engine always has an odd number of cylinders ranging from
3 to 13 or more. Operating on a four-stroke cycle, every other cylinder fires and has a power stroke as
the crankshaft rotates, giving a smooth operation. Many medium- and large-size propeller-driven aircraft
use radial engines. For large aircraft, two or more banks of cylinders are mounted together, one behind
the other on a single crankshaft, making one powerful, smooth engine. Very large ship engines exist
with up to 54 cylinders, six banks of 9 cylinders each.

7. Air Intake Process

(a) Naturally Aspirated. No intake air pressure boost system.

(b) Supercharged. Intake air pressure increased with the compressor driven off of the engine crankshaft.

(c) Turbocharged. Intake air pressure increased with the turbine-compressor driven by the engine exhaust gases.

(d) Crankcase Compressed. Two-stroke cycle engines are good examples of this type. Limited development work has also been
done on design and construction of four-stroke cycle engines with crankcase compression.

Page 16 of 19
8. Method of Fuel Input for SI Engines
(a) Carbureted.

(b) Multipoint Port Fuel Injection: One or more injectors at each cylinder intake.

(c) Throttle Body Fuel Injection: Injectors upstream in intake manifold.

9. Fuel Used
(a) Gasoline.

(b) Diesel Oil or Fuel Oil.

(c) Gas, Natural Gas, Methane.

(d) LPG (Liquid petroleum gas).

(e) Alcohol-Ethyl, Methyl.

(f) Dual Fuel: There are a number of engines that use a combination of two or more fuels. Some, usually large, CI engines use a
combination of methane and diesel fuel. These are attractive in developing third-world countries because of the high cost of diesel
fuel. Combined gasoline-alcohol fuels are becoming more common as an alternative to straight gasoline automobile engine fuel.

(g) Gasohol: Common fuel consisting of 90% gasoline and 10% alcohol.

10. Application
(a) Automobile, Truck, Bus.

(b) Locomotive.

(c) Stationary.

(d) Marine.

(e) Aircraft.

(f) Small Portable, Chain Saw, Model Airplane.

11. Type of Cooling

(a) Air Cooled.

(b) Liquid Cooled, Water Cooled.

Several or all of these classifications can be used at the same time to identify a given engine. Thus, a modern engine might be called
a turbocharged, reciprocating, spark ignition, four-stroke cycle, overhead valve, water-cooled, gasoline, multipoint fuel-injected, V8
automobile engine.

Page 17 of 19
 Historical Development of IC Engines

History of Automotive History of Ethiopia

Year Event Year Event

Mr. LENOIR
1860
First Internal Combustion (IC) Engine, using coal gas as fuel
1855 - 1868 Emperor Tewodros
Dr. Nikolaus OTTO and Mr. Eugen LANGEN:
1867
Improved IC engine

OTTO invents the Emperor Johannes IV

1878
"4-stroke-operating-principle" for gasoline engines 1872 - 1889

Mr. Gottlieb DAIMLER and Mr. Wilhelm MAYBACH develop the first
1883
high-speed 4-stroke engine

1875 - 1876
1886 DAIMLER builds his first four-wheel car
Egypt Invasion

1889 Mr. DUNLOP produces the first pneumatic tires

1890 DAIMLER establishes "Daimler Motor Company"

Emperor Menelik
1891 First American made vehicle
1889 - 1913

Dr. Rudolf DIESEL invents the principle of a self-ignition engine

1893- 1997
("heavy oil" engine)

1893 MAYBACH invents carburetor with spray jets

1893 - 1896 Mr. Henry FORD produces his first vehicle (with petrol engine) 1896

Mr. Robert BOSCH establishes his workshop for mechanical & Battle of Adwa
1896
electrical engineering

1898 Mr. Adam OPEL starts production of Automotive Vehicles

1899 FIAT established in Italy

1917 Bavarian Motor Company (BMW) founded 1916 - 1974 Emperor Haile Selassie

Page 18 of 19
 History of Automotive History of Ethiopia

The enterprises BENZ and M.A.N. produce first truck with diesel-
1923 1916 - 1974 Emperor Haile Selassie
engine

1926 DAIMLER and BENZ merge together - Teferi Mekonnen School

1925
- Berhanena Selam Newspaper
DAIMLER-BENZ begins production of passenger cars with diesel-
1936
engines
1936 - 1941 Italian Occupation

1939 - 1945 2nd World War (1933 - 45 - Fascism in Germany)

Beginning of public Ethiopian Higher

1950 Education with the foundation of AAU
1958 Invention of rotary-piston engine (WANKEL) as "University College of Addis Ababa"

1955 New Constitution

~ Dergue /
Strict Emission Control (USA) 1974
1980 Death of Haile Selassie

Introduction of Catalytic Converters with Lambda-control and EFI New Government /

1985 1991
worldwide Downfall of Dergue

DAIMLER and CHRYSLER unite to the worlds biggest vehicle

199?
manufacturing enterprise

The purpose of internal combustion engines is the production of mechanical power from the chemical energy contained in the fuel.
In internal combustion engines, as distinct from external combustion engines, this energy is released by burning or oxidizing the fuel
inside the engine. The fuel-air mixture before combustion and the burned products after combustion are the actual working fluids.
The work transferred provides the desired power output. The most widely used internal combustion engines are spark-ignition
engines (sometimes called Otto engines, or gasoline or petrol engines, though other fuels can be used) and compression-ignition or
diesel engines. Because of the simplicity, raggedness and high power/weight ratio, these two types of engine have found wide
application in transportation (land, sea, and air) and power generation. It is the fact that combustion takes place inside the work
producing part of these engines that makes their design and operating characteristics fundamentally different from those of other
types of engine.

Page 19 of 19