Mth1114 Induction Andrecursion MINE

MTH1114
Computer
Mathematics
Week10
Mathematical Induction &
Recursion
Mathematical Induction
2
Induction
The principle of mathematical induction is a
useful tool for proving that a certain predicate is
true for all natural numbers.
It cannot be used to discover theorems, but only to

prove them.
3
Induction
If we have a propositional function P(n), and we
want to prove that P(n) is true for any natural
number n, we do the following:
• Show that P(0) is true.

(basis step)
• Show that if P(n) then P(n + 1) for any nN.
(inductive step)
• Then P(n) must be true for any nN.
(conclusion)
4
Induction
Example:
Show that n < 2n for all positive integers n.
Let P(n) be the proposition “n < 2n.”
1. Show that P(1) is true.

(basis step)
P(1) is true, because 1 < 21 = 2.
5
Induction
2. Show that if P(n) is true, then P(n + 1) is true.
(inductive step)
Assume that n < 2n is true.

We need to show that P(n + 1) is true, i.e.
n + 1 < 2n+1
We start from n < 2n:

n + 1 < 2n + 1  2n + 2n = 2n+1
Therefore, if n < 2n then n + 1 < 2n+1
6
Induction
3. Then P(n) must be true for any positive
integer.
(conclusion)
n < 2n is true for any positive integer.
End of proof.
7
Induction
Another Example (“Gauss”):
1 + 2 + … + n = n (n + 1)/2
1. Show that P(0) is true.

(basis step)
For n = 0 we get 0 = 0. True.
8
Induction
2. Show that if P(n) then P(n + 1) for any nN.
(inductive step)
1 + 2 + … + n = n (n + 1)/2
1 + 2 + … + n + (n + 1) = n (n + 1)/2 + (n + 1)
= (n + 1) (n/2 + 1)
= (n + 1) (n + 2)/2
= (n + 1) ((n + 1) + 1)/2
9
Induction
3. Then P(n) must be true for any nN.

(conclusion)
1 + 2 + … + n = n (n + 1)/2 is true for all nN.
End of proof.
10
Induction
There is another proof technique that is very similar
to the principle of mathematical induction.
It is called the second principle of mathematical

induction.
It can be used to prove that a propositional function

P(n) is true for any natural number n.
11
Induction
The second principle of mathematical induction:

(basis step)
• Show that if P(0) and P(1) and … and P(n),
then P(n + 1) for any nN.
(inductive step)
(conclusion)
12
Induction
Example:
Show that every integer greater than 1 can be
written as the product of primes.

(basis step)
2 is the product of one prime: itself.
13
Induction
• Show that if P(2) and P(3) and … and P(n),
then P(n + 1) for any nN. (inductive step)
Two possible cases:
• If (n + 1) is prime, then obviously P(n + 1) is true.
• If (n + 1) is composite, it can be written as the
product of two integers a and b such that
2  a  b < n + 1.
By the induction hypothesis, both a and b can be
written as the product of primes.
Therefore, n + 1 = ab can be written as the product
of primes.
14
Induction

(conclusion)
End of proof.
We have shown that every integer greater than 1

can be written as the product of primes.
15
Another Induction Example
Show that the sum of the first n odd integers is n2
– Example: If n = 5, 1+3+5+7+9 = 25 = 52
– Formally, Show  n P(n) where P(n) = ni=1(2i -1) = n2
Basis step : Show that P(1) is true

– P(1) = 1
Inductive hypothesis : assume true for k
– Note: we don’t yet know if this is true or not!
– Thus, we assume that P(k) is true, or that P(k) = ki=1(2i-1)= k2
Inductive step: show true for k+1
–We want to show that : P(k+1) = k+1i=1(2i-1)= (k+1)2
16
Another Induction Example
Induction Hypothesis
– P(k) = ki=1(2i-1)= k2
Inductive Steps
– P(k+1) = k+1i=1(2i-1)
= ki=1 (2i-1) + (2(k+1) - 1)
= k2 + (2k +1)
= k2 + 2k +1
= (k+1)2
17
What did we show
Base case: P(1)
If P(k) was true, then P(k+1) is true
– i.e., P(k) → P(k+1)
We know it’s true for P(1)

Because of P(k) → P(k+1), if it’s true for P(1), then it’s true for P(2)
And onwards to infinity
Thus, it is true for all possible values of n
In other words, we showed that:

– [P(1)   k (P(k) → P(k+1))] →  n P(n)
18
More examples
Prove : 3 divides n 3 + 2n for n  0
Basis step : 3 divides 03 + 2  0 = 0, so the

required property is true when n = 0.
Inductive step : We want to prove

3 divides k 3 + k
 3 divides (k + 1) 3 + 2(k + 1)
Well,
(k + 1) 3 + 2(k + 1) = k 3 + 3k 2 + 3k + 1 + 2k + 2
= k 3 + 2k + 3k 2 + 3k + 3
= k 3 + 2k + 3(k 2 + k + 1) 19
Therefore,
3 divides k + 2k
3
 3 divides k 3 + 2k + 3(k 2 + k + 1)
 3 divides (k + 1) + 2(k + 1)
3
as required. This completes the inductive step,

and hence completes the proof.
20
Recursive Definitions
Recursion is a principle closely related to
mathematical induction.
In a recursive definition, an object is defined in

terms of itself.
We can recursively define sequences, functions

and sets.
21
Recursively Defined Sequences
Example:
The sequence {an} of powers of 2 is given by

an = 2n for n = 0, 1, 2, … .
The same sequence can also be defined

recursively:
a0 = 1
an+1 = 2an for n = 0, 1, 2, …
Obviously, induction and recursion are similar

principles.
22
Recursively Defined Functions
We can use the following method to define a
function with the natural numbers as its domain:
1. Specify the value of the function at zero.

2. Give a rule for finding its value at any integer
from its values at smaller integers.
Such a definition is called recursive or inductive

definition.
23
Example:
f(0) = 3
f(n + 1) = 2f(n) + 3
f(0) = 3
f(1) = 2f(0) + 3 = 23 + 3 = 9
f(2) = 2f(1) + 3 = 29 + 3 = 21
f(3) = 2f(2) + 3 = 221 + 3 = 45
f(4) = 2f(3) + 3 = 245 + 3 = 93
24
How can we recursively define the factorial
function f(n) = n! ?
f(0) = 1
f(n + 1) = (n + 1)f(n)
f(0) = 1
f(1) = 1f(0) = 11 = 1
f(2) = 2f(1) = 21 = 2
f(3) = 3f(2) = 32 = 6
f(4) = 4f(3) = 46 = 24
25
A famous example: The Fibonacci numbers
f(0) = 0, f(1) = 1
f(n) = f(n – 1) + f(n - 2)
f(0) = 0
f(1) = 1
f(2) = f(1) + f(0) = 1 + 0 = 1
f(3) = f(2) + f(1) = 1 + 1 = 2
f(4) = f(3) + f(2) = 2 + 1 = 3
f(5) = f(4) + f(3) = 3 + 2 = 5
f(6) = f(5) + f(4) = 5 + 3 = 8
26
Recursive Algorithms
An algorithm is called recursive if it solves a problem
by reducing it to an instance of the same problem with
smaller input.
Example I: Recursive Euclidean Algorithm
procedure gcd(a, b: nonnegative integers with a < b)

if a = 0 then gcd(a, b) := b
else gcd(a, b) := gcd(b mod a, a)
27
Example II: Recursive Fibonacci Algorithm
procedure fibo(n: nonnegative integer)

if n = 0 then fibo(0) := 0
else if n = 1 then fibo(1) := 1
else fibo(n) := fibo(n – 1) + fibo(n – 2)
March 2, 2010 Applied Discrete Mathematics 28

Week 6: Counting
procedure iterative_fibo(n: nonnegative integer)
if n = 0 then y := 0
else
begin
x := 0
y := 1
for i := 1 to n-1
begin
z := x + y
x:=y
y := z
end
end {y is the n-th Fibonacci number}
29
For every recursive algorithm, there is an equivalent

iterative algorithm.
Recursive algorithms are often shorter, more

elegant, and easier to understand than their
iterative counterparts.
However, iterative algorithms are usually more

efficient in their use of space and time.
30

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MTH1114

It cannot be used to discover theorems, but only to

• Show that P(0) is true.

Show that n < 2n for all positive integers n.

Let P(n) be the proposition “n < 2n.”

1. Show that P(1) is true.

P(1) is true, because 1 < 21 = 2.

Assume that n < 2n is true.

We start from n < 2n:

n < 2n is true for any positive integer.

1. Show that P(0) is true.

For n = 0 we get 0 = 0. True.

3. Then P(n) must be true for any nN.

1 + 2 + … + n = n (n + 1)/2 is true for all nN.

It is called the second principle of mathematical

It can be used to prove that a propositional function

• Show that P(0) is true.

• Show that P(2) is true.

2 is the product of one prime: itself.

• Then P(n) must be true for any nN.

We have shown that every integer greater than 1

Basis step : Show that P(1) is true

We know it’s true for P(1)

Thus, it is true for all possible values of n

In other words, we showed that:

Basis step : 3 divides 03 + 2  0 = 0, so the

Inductive step : We want to prove

as required. This completes the inductive step,

In a recursive definition, an object is defined in

We can recursively define sequences, functions

The sequence {an} of powers of 2 is given by

The same sequence can also be defined

Obviously, induction and recursion are similar

1. Specify the value of the function at zero.

Such a definition is called recursive or inductive

Example I: Recursive Euclidean Algorithm

procedure gcd(a, b: nonnegative integers with a < b)

procedure fibo(n: nonnegative integer)

March 2, 2010 Applied Discrete Mathematics 28

For every recursive algorithm, there is an equivalent

Recursive algorithms are often shorter, more

However, iterative algorithms are usually more

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