Antenna Laboratory1

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ANTENNA LAB

Test Bench

USER MANUAL

Rev. 1.09
Table of Contents
1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................................... 2

2 OVERVIEW............................................................................................................................................................... 2
2.1 Functionality ....................................................................................................................................................... 2

3 SAFETY REQUIREMENTS .......................................................................................................................................... 3

4 HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE .................................................................................................................................. 4


4.1 Test bench hardware ........................................................................................................................................... 4
4.2 Additional hardware requirements ...................................................................................................................... 8
4.3 Software requirements ........................................................................................................................................ 8

5 SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE .......................................................................................................................................... 9

6 HARDWARE ASSEMBLY ......................................................................................................................................... 10


6.1 Preliminary instructions ..................................................................................................................................... 10
6.2 Test bench assembly.......................................................................................................................................... 10
6.3 Connecting the measurement and automation equipment ................................................................................. 11

7 SOFTWARE INSTALLATION AND SETUP ................................................................................................................. 15


7.1 Installing NI software ........................................................................................................................................ 15
7.2 Determining the USRP identifier......................................................................................................................... 15
7.3 Hands-on software installation .......................................................................................................................... 15

8 GETTING STARTED ................................................................................................................................................. 18


8.1 Required knowledge and skills ........................................................................................................................... 18
8.2 Launching the lab software................................................................................................................................ 18
8.2.1 Registration and login............................................................................................................................... 18
8.2.2 Menu elements ........................................................................................................................................ 20
8.2.3 Control panel ........................................................................................................................................... 20
8.2.4 Work field elements ................................................................................................................................. 21
8.3 Working with the Front Panel windows .............................................................................................................. 21
8.3.1 Front Panel windows ................................................................................................................................ 21
8.3.2 Controls common for all windows ............................................................................................................ 23
8.4 The angular sector and the first side lobe level determination ............................................................................ 24

9 HANDS-ON EXPERIMENTS ..................................................................................................................................... 26


9.1 Dipole Antenna.................................................................................................................................................. 26
9.2 Yagi or Wave Channel Antenna.......................................................................................................................... 34
9.3 Helical Antenna ................................................................................................................................................. 45
9.4 Horn Antenna .................................................................................................................................................... 53
9.5 Parabolic Antenna ............................................................................................................................................. 62
9.6 Cophasal Antenna Array .................................................................................................................................... 69

1
1 INTRODUCTION
The Antenna Laboratory has been developed for hands-on study of radiation patterns of antennas.
The test bench can be used for measurement of radiation patterns of antennas by the far field
measurements method.
The test bench hardware includes a turntable tripod used for mounting the antennas under test, a
tripod for the auxiliary antenna, a set of antennas, cables and other required components.
Course software has a simple and intuitive user interface developed in LabVIEW Graphical
Programming Environment. The test bench hardware is based on the National Instruments
programmable data acquisition and control platform.
Detailed instructions are available during the lab, providing objectives, theoretical materials on the
studied subjects, theoretical calculations that the student must perform as a preliminary homework
or classwork, procedures, detailed instructions for conducting the lab, saving results and data
processing.

2 OVERVIEW
2.1 Functionality
The Antenna Lab test bench has been developed as a tool for hands-on study of directional
parameters of antennas.
Each lab includes the following sections:
1. Calculating the characteristics of antennas for various input parameters (Theoretical
calculations)
2. Studying the simulated characteristics of antennas for various input parameters (Calculation
assignment)
3. Experimental study of antenna parameters
4. Comparison of theoretical and experimental results (not available for all labs)
5. Lab report
The Test Bench provides for:
1. Theoretical study of antennas, through simulation
2. Experimental study of real antenna characteristics
The test bench can be used for measurement of radiation patterns of antennas by the far field
measurements method using a quasi-monochromatic signal.
The turntable is controlled by National Instruments data acquisition system, which takes the encoder
data to determine the angular position of the antenna under test and measures the signal level of the
receiver. The test bench software normalizes the obtained data and builds the radiation patterns in
polar and Cartesian coordinates.

2
3 SAFETY REQUIREMENTS
Carefully read the safety instructions before working with the laboratory device. Follow the safety
arrangements when connecting the hardware, during hands-on operations, or when handling the test
bench. Students who didn’t receive the instructions are not allowed to use the test bench.
The test bench can only be operated in the absence of electrical shock risk factors, such as extreme
humidity, lack of grounding, etc. It is recommended to operate the test bench in an environment
protected against external electromagnetic fields, such as in proximity of high capacity electric
generators, cellular base stations, or other broadcasting stations. The ideal operating condition is the
availability of an echo-free room for the measurements, i.e. when signal reflections from the objects
around the test bench (walls, ceiling, floor, etc.) is practically reduced to zero.
The test bench can only be used indoors. Do not power the test bench in an atmosphere containing
flammable gases or in proximity of highly flammable liquids. There are no user serviceable parts in
the test bench, any technical maintenance shall be provided by qualified personnel only.
The test bench can only be powered-up and operated with the permission and in the presence of the
instructor.
The body of the test bench should be connected to a proper grounding network through a resistive
loop not exceeding 4 Ohm. Any maintenance operations can only be performed when the test bench
is disconnected from the mains.
In case of failure of the device or if a burning smell of wires or components is detected, immediately
turn off the test bench, disconnect the power cord from the mains socket, and seek a qualified
service from an appropriate agency.
The test bench has a low-voltage DC power supply.
To avoid the EHF radiation, do not stand closer to the transmitting antenna aperture.
No third-party power sources shall be connected to the test bench and no external power
connections should be made to it.

3
4 HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE
4.1 Test bench hardware
The standard bundle includes the following equipment:
1. User manual 1 pc.
2. Software CD 1 pc.
3. Components and instruments, as listed in the table below 1:
Table 4.1–1

# Name QTY Photo


1 Turntable tripod (TT) 1

2 Turntable 1

3 Auxiliary antenna tripod 1

1
Manufacturer reserves the right to modify the components of the test bench without affecting its performance
4
4 Parabolic antenna 1

5 Cophasal antenna 1

6 Horn antenna 1

7 Yagi antenna 1

a. Passive telescopic dipole 3


antennas (directors) (D1-D3)
b. Driven element with U-bend 1
matcher

c. 70 cm crossover 1
d. 40x40 cm grid 1

5
8 Helical antenna 1

9 Dipole antenna with SMA female - SMA 1


reverse male connector

10 Auxiliary dipole antenna with SMA 1


female - SMA reverse male connector
11 Auxiliary dipole antenna with U-bend 1
matcher

12 Auxiliary telescopic dipole antenna with 1


U-bend matcher

13 Control cable 1

14 SMA-2 (male)-SMA (male) cable, 2 m 1

15 SMA-4 (male)-SMA (male) cable, 4 m 1

16 SMA-0.5 (male)-SMA(male), 0.5 m 1

18 Control unit

19 Turntable control cable 1

6
20 Power supply cable 1

21 Hexagonal wrench 1

22 Allen screw (M5) 1

23 Clamping nut 1

24 Ruler 1

25 Bolts M3 2

The test bench assembly is shown in Fig 4.1-1:

Fig 4.1-1 Test bench assembly

7
4.2 Additional hardware requirements
The following equipment is required for the operation of the test bench (not included):
1 cDAQ-9174 CompactDAQ chassis (4 slot USB) 1 pc.
2 NI USRP-2932, 400 MHz to 4.4 GHz Software Radio Kit 1 pc.
3 NI 9401, 5V/TTL, Bidirectional Digital I/O, 8 Ch module 1 pc.
4 NI 9482, 30/60 VDC, 250 VAC, EM Form A, 4-Ch SPST Relay Module 1 pc.
5 NI 9927 Strain relief and Operator Protection for 10-Pos Module 1 pc.
6 POWER CORD, 240V, EUROCLASS 1 pc.

4.3 Software requirements


1. MS Windows 7 or Windows 8 operating system2
2. MS Excel 2003 or newer2
3. Adobe Acrobat Reader 9.0 or newer3
4. NI USRP-1500 driver
5. The Antenna Lab hands-on course software3

2
Not included
3
Included on the software CD
8
5 SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
The Antenna Lab test bench includes laboratory equipment and software required for the
measurement of antenna radiation patterns by the far field measurements method. The structural
diagram of the test bench is shown in Fig 4.3-1:
Tested Auxiliary
antenna antenna

Turntable Tripod
Tripod
DC Motor

Encoder
Control
Unit

PC
Controller NI 9401 NI 9482
USRP

cDAQ chassis

Fig 4.3-1 System architecture


The test bench consists of the turntable tripod with the attached antenna under test and auxiliary
antenna tripod with the attached auxiliary antenna.
The USRP is connected to the Personal Computer through LAN. The PC instructs the USRP to generate
the transmitted signal which, from the Tx1 output, is applied through the Control Unit to the auxiliary
antenna.
The signal received by the tested antenna is applied to the input RX2 of the USRP, which sends it to
the PC for processing and analysis.
The Personal computer controls the turntable motor through the NI 9482 relay module and the
Control Unit. The angular position of the receiving antenna is determined by the encoder on the
turntable and is sent, through the Control Unit, to the NI 9401 data acquisition module.

9
6 HARDWARE ASSEMBLY
6.1 Preliminary instructions
Unpack the test bench and examine it for external damages. If the test bench has been stored in
nonoperational conditions (temperature, humidity, etc.) for a long time, it should be stored in normal
operating conditions for at least four hours before operation.
The test bench should be operated in the absence of mechanical shock factors and vibration.
Before starting the work over the hands-on experiments, get acquainted with safety requirements
(see 3. SAFETY REQUIREMENTS in this manual).
It is recommended to operate the test bench in facilities protected against external electromagnetic
fields, such as high power electric generators, cellular base stations or other broadcasting equipment.
Ideally the test bench should be operated in a room with reduced signal reflection from walls, ceiling,
floor, etc.

6.2 Test bench assembly


1. Set the auxiliary antenna tripod and fix the required height using the tripod clamps.

Fig 6.2-1
2. Mount the auxiliary antenna with the clamping nut (23, Table 4.1–1).

Fig 6.2-2
3. Install the turntable (Fig 6.2-3a) on the tripod (Fig 6.2-3b), turn the shank to match the
mounting holes and fix with the screws (Fig 6.2-3c).

10
a b c
Fig 6.2-3
The complete assembly is shown in Fig 6.2-4.

Fig 6.2-4
4. Using the tripod clamps, fix the required height to match that of the auxiliary antenna.
5. Attach the receiver antenna, in accordance with the lab assignment, to the turntable with the
Allen screw (22 in Table 4.1–1), using the hexagonal wrench (21) (Table 4.1–1), Fig 6.2-5.

Fig 6.2-5

The recommended distances between the auxiliary and the tested antennas are provided for each
lab. The distance between the antennas is the distance between the antenna feeder connection
points to the antenna.

6.3 Connecting the measurement and automation equipment


The modular measurement and automation equipment is based on the NI cDAQ 9174 chassis.
Follow the instructions below for complete assembly:
1. Install the modules NI 9482 (Fig 6.3-1) and NI 9401 (Fig 6.3-2) into the slots #1 and #2 of NI cDAQ
9174 chassis, respectively:

11
Fig 6.3-1 Install NI 9482 Fig 6.3-2 Install NI 9401
2. Assemble the control cable (13, Table 4.1–1): insert the cable fan into the block terminal. Make
sure that the wires marked “2” and “8” on the cable fans are inserted into the matching sockets
marked “2” and “8” on the terminal block (Fig 6.3-3b), and fix the screws. Assemble the housing
(Fig 6.3-3c) and fix the screws. Fig 6.3-3d shows the complete assembly.

a) b) c) d)
Fig 6.3-3 Control cable assembly
Attach the connectors on the cable to the matching connectors on NI 9482 (Fig 6.3-4a) and NI
9401 (Fig 6.3-4b) and fix the screws.

a) b)
Fig 6.3-4 Connecting the cable to the modules
3. Connect the power cable (Fig 6.3-5a) to the NI cDAQ 9174 (Fig 6.3-5b) and fix the screws.

a) b)
Fig 6.3-5 Connecting power to NI cDAQ 9174
4. Connect NI cDAQ 9174 to a vacant USB connector on the personal computer (Fig 6.3-6).

12
Fig 6.3-6 USB connection to NI cDAQ 9174
5. Using the SMA-0.5 cable (16, Table 4.1–1), connect the TX1-RX1 connector on the NI USRP-2932
(Fig 6.3-7a) to the connector marked IN on the Control Unit (Fig 6.3-7b).

a) b)
Fig 6.3-7 Connecting the auxiliary antenna to NI USRP-2932
6. Using the SMA-4 cable (15, Table 4.1–1), connect the RX2 connector on the NI USRP-2932 (Fig
6.3-8a) to the tested antenna (Fig 6.3-8b).

a) b)
Fig 6.3-8 Connecting the tested antenna to NI USRP-2932
7. Connect the LAN cable to the NI USRP-2932 (Fig 6.3-9).

Fig 6.3-9 Connecting NI USRP 2932 to LAN


8. Connect power to NI USRP-2932 (Fig 6.3-10).

Fig 6.3-10 Connecting power to NI USRP 2932


9. Using the SMA-2 cable (14, Table 4.1–1), connect the connector marked OUT on the Control Unit
(Fig 6.3-11a) to the Auxiliary antenna (Fig 6.3-11b).

13
a) b)
Fig 6.3-11 Connecting the Auxiliary antenna to the Control Unit
10. Connect the turntable (2, Table 4.1–1) to the connector marked Turntable on the Control Unit
(18, Table 4.1–1) with the Turntable control cable (19 , Table 4.1–1).

a) b)
Fig 6.3-12 Connecting turntable power
11. Connect the control cable (Fig 6.3-3) to the connector marked Control on the Control Unit.

Fig 6.3-13
12. Connect the power cable to the matching socket on the power supply rare panel (Fig 6.3-14).

Fig 6.3-14 Connecting the power cable to the Control Unit


13. Connect the power cables to the mains outlet and turn ON the POWER switch on the Control
Unit.

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7 SOFTWARE INSTALLATION AND SETUP
Before using the test bench you need to install the software supporting the operation of the NI
hardware and the hands-on course software.
7.1 Installing NI software
For operation of the test bench the following NI device drivers need to be installed on the computer:
­ NI USRP
­ NI DAQmx
To install the software please follow the steps described below:
1. Log-in into the operating system as an administrator or a user with administrator’s rights.
2. Insert the NI USRP installation disc into the optical drive of your computer. If the installation
wizard does not open automatically, launch it by double clicking on setup.exe on the disc.
Follow the instructions of the wizard.
3. Upon completion of the installation click Finish to exit the installer.
4. Repeat the steps 2-3 above with the installation discs for the remaining device drivers without
rebooting the computer.
5. Upon completion of the NI software installation, please reboot the computer.

7.2 Determining the USRP identifier


NI USRP is connected to the Personal Computer through the Ethernet. It can be connected either
directly, using a LAN cable, or through an existing Local Area Network (IP addresses of both devices
must be in the same subnet). More detailed instructions on setting up the system’s network address
is available by clicking Start > Program Files > National Instruments > NI-USRP > documentation >
getting started > NI USRP-293x Getting Started Guide.
With connected and powered up USRP, open the configuration utility: Start > All Programs > National
Instruments > NI-USRP > NI-USRP Configuration Utility. The parameters of the found NI-USRP device
are available in the opened window (Fig 7.2-1). Note the identifier in the Device ID field (or Device IP),
you will need this ID or IP when setting up the lab software.

Fig 7.2-1
If two separate USRPs are used for the transmitter and the receiver, write down both IDs.
7.3 Hands-on software installation
To install the software please follow the steps described below:
1. Log-in as an administrator or a user with administrator’s rights.
2. Insert the Antenna Lab installation disc into your computer. If the installer wizard does not
open automatically, open it by double clicking on setup.exe and follow the instructions.
3. Select the installation directory for the lab software and for NI Device Drivers (by default,
C:\Program Files\Antenna Lab\ and C:\Program Files\National Instruments\). Click Next.

15
4. The Antenna Lab hands-on course software will be installed on the PC. Click Next.

5. Wait until all the required files are installed completely:

6. Click Finish to exit the software installation wizard. When finished, reboot the computer.

16
7. Double click on Antenna Lab USRP link on the desktop or launch the software through the
Windows start menu: Start -> Antenna Lab USRP. The Front Panel will open (Fig 7.3-1a),
click the Menu item in the top left corner of the screen to open the drop-down menu (Fig
7.3-1b), then choose USRP Configuration.

a) b)
Fig 7.3-1
The left part of the configuration window (Fig 7.3-2) is for the Transmitter (TX), the right –
for the Receiver (RX).
Enter the USRP ID (see 7.2 Determining the USRP identifier) or IP address into the field
USRP ID or IP. If the same USRP is used both for transmitter and receiver, enter the same
ID or IP in both fields. In the Active antenna field select the channels for the transmitter
and receiver. If the Enabled channel field is active, select the numbers of USRP connectors,
to which the antennas are connected.

Fig 7.3-2
8. When finished, click Save to store the USRP Configuration.

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8 GETTING STARTED
8.1 Required knowledge and skills
Before starting the labs the student must:
1. Get acquainted with safety requirements (refer to section 3. SAFETY REQUIREMENTS).
2. Get acquainted with the User Manuals of NI USRP.
3. Have basic understanding of RF antennas and equipment.
4. Get acquainted with the hands-on materials (refer to section 8.2. Launching the lab software).
8.2 Launching the lab software
Launch the lab software by double clicking on the Antenna Lab shortcut on the desktop or through
the Windows start menu: Start -> Programs -> Antenna Lab. A Front Panel with menu elements will
open (Fig 8.2-1).

1. Login
2. Registration
3. Help
4. Path to the student folder
5. Exit

Fig 8.2-1 Lab Software Start Screen


8.2.1 Registration and login
To access the labs the student shall register (Registration element in the menu and sign in).
The Registration menu element will open the registration window (Fig 8.2-2):

Fig 8.2-2 Fig 8.2-3


The required fields are marked with an asterisk. Fill in the fields, choose the path to your personal
work folder (a folder where your assignments and the reports with lab results will be stored), click on
the folder icon , choose the work folder and click Select Folder, Fig 8.2-3, then click on the
Registration button. Please only use Latin characters and numbers.

18
If the user is already registered, he/she must log in with the assigned username and password (Fig
8.2-4).

Fig 8.2-4
Lab reports, saved in MS Excel format, will also include the student’s registration data.
After signing in, a software menu with the list of labs will open (Fig 8.2-5). Selected lab will open by
double clicking on corresponding title in the menu.

Fig 8.2-5 List of labs


Lab interface
A sample Front Panel of a typical lab is shown in Fig 8.2-6. The window consists of the main menu (1),
the control panel (2), and work area (3).
1
2

Fig 8.2-6 A typical software panel of a hands-on experiment

19
8.2.2 Menu elements

Fig 8.2-7
The menu (Fig 8.2-7) is situated above the Control panel tools and consists of the following
elements:
1. File
- Home – return to the list of labs
2. Tools
- Cartesian coordinate system – opens a window in which you can plot the experimental
results in Cartesian coordinate system
- Polar coordinate system - opens a window in which you can plot the experimental results
in polar coordinate system
- Simulation – opens the simulation menu for all antenna types used in the labs.
A detailed description of the Cartesian coordinate system and Polar coordinate system windows is
given in section 8.3 Working with the Front Panel windows.
3. Measurement
- Start/Stop - starts/stops the lab by applying/disconnecting the power. The obtained
results and graphs in open diagram windows are maintained.
- Erase data – erases all measurement results for current lab in the MS Excel file and in the
open diagram windows.
- New session – allows repeating the experiment with new antennas and source
parameters.
4. Other
- MS Excel – opens the MS Excel file in which the experimental results are stored after each
click on the Motor button.
- Calculator – opens the standard Windows calculator.
5. Help
- User Manual – opens the User Manual in PDF format.
- About – displays software revision data and information about the developer.
8.2.3 Control panel

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Fig 8.2-8 Control panel
The Control panel consists of Main Menu elements represented as mnemonic icons (Fig 8.2-8). When
you aim the mouse pointer at the icons, a hint with function name will be displayed:
1. Start/Stop
The Start/Stop switch also acts as the USRP indicator:
- Red if the USRP is not active,
- Green if the USRP is active.
In case of failures or any changes to the parameters, stop the antenna by clicking the Home button,
manually turn the antenna to the initial state, make the required changes and start over the lab.
2. Erase data – erases all measurement results for current lab in the MS Excel file.
3. New session – creates a new table in the MS Excel file and starts plotting a new diagram in the
graph windows.

20
4. MS Excel – opens the MS Excel file in which the experimental results are stored after each
click on the Motor button.
5. Cartesian coordinate system – opens a window in which you can plot the experimental results
in Cartesian coordinate system.
6. Polar coordinate system – opens a window in which you can plot the experimental results in
polar coordinate system.
7. Simulation – opens the simulation menu for all antenna types used in the labs.
8. Calculator – opens the Calculator window.
9. User manual – opens the User manual in PDF format.
10. Home – returns control to the main menu with the list of labs.
8.2.4 Work field elements
The USRP window (Fig 8.2-9) on the left of the work field consists of the following elements:
- Transmission Frequency (GHz) – carrier frequency.
- Received power (dB) – received signal power indicator.

Fig 8.2-9 USRP window


The turntable control window (Fig 8.2-10) consists of the following elements:
- Motor – starts the motor rotation. After the start the motor will turn the antenna clockwise
up to the set angle, then will return it to the initial position and stop. When the motor is
running, the control buttons are inactive. The measurements are taken automatically in the
process of rotation (in both directions).
- End angle (degree) – antenna’s maximum turning angle. When the End step is reached, the
motor turns back to the initial angle (zero degrees) and stops.
- Angle step (degree) – the step at which the automatic measurements are recorded.
- Current angle (degree) – antenna’s current rotational position.
- Reset – resets to zero the Current angle value.

Fig 8.2-10 Turntable control window

8.3 Working with the Front Panel windows


8.3.1 Front Panel windows
Three window types can be launched from the Front Panel: Cartesian coordinate system, Polar
coordinate system, and Simulation.

21
Cartesian coordinate system
The Cartesian coordinate system window (Fig 8.3-1) is used for plotting radiation pattern graphs in
Cartesian coordinates.

1. Save: saves the diagram as a .png image


2. Erase graph: Suspends the display of the
graph in the diagram window (measurement
data are not erased)
3. Exit: Close the window

Fig 8.3-1 Cartesian coordinate system window


Polar coordinate system
The Polar coordinate system window (Fig 8.3-2) is used for plotting radiation pattern graphs in polar
coordinates.

1. Save: saves the diagram as a .png image


2. Erase graph: Suspends the display of the
graph in the diagram window (measurement
data are not erased)
3. Exit: Close the window

Fig 8.3-2 Polar coordinate system window


Simulation
Based on the entered parameters, antenna simulation results are displayed in the Simulator window
(Fig 8.3-3), including normalized radiation patterns both in Cartesian (relative units) and Polar (dB)
coordinates.
The antenna type is selected in the simulator by a mouse click on the corresponding button:

- Dipole antenna

- Yagi antenna

- Helical antenna

- Horn antenna

- Parabolic antenna

- Cophasal Antenna Array

22
Fig 8.3-3 Simulation window (on the example of Horn antenna)
Consider the simulation window in the example of the horn antenna (Fig 8.3-3). The left section of
the window (1) serves for the input of base data and the output of calculated parameters. The center
section (2) displays the normalized (in relative units) radiation pattern in Cartesian coordinates. The
right section (3) displays the normalized (in dB) radiation pattern polar coordinates.
The Cartesian diagram field may contain tabs Е and Н to display the radiation patterns in
corresponding planes. If the tabs are not present, the diagrams are displayed for the Е-plane.

8.3.2 Controls common for all windows4


Cursor coordinates
Cursors are horizontal and vertical lines crossing at the selected point and touching the coordinate
axes. Cursors are used for accurate measurements on graphs or diagrams. Two cursors are available.
A cursor is selected/canceled by mouse click on the cross hair
icon (selected cursor is marked yellow). Next to the cross hair
icon are displayed cursor’s coordinates. You can move the cursor
to a desired location by typing the coordinates in their respective
fields.
Mouse clicks on the squares moves the cursor in corresponding
direction by 0.1 division scale unit.
Scaling menu:

Lets you drag the selected cursor. This property is also accessible
through right-clicking on the graph window.
Opens the scale selection menu:
1. Scale an arbitrary square selection to the full graph.
2. Scale an arbitrary horizontal selection to the full graph.
3. Scale an arbitrary vertical selection to the full graph.
4. Autoscale (fit all the available data on the graph).
5. Zoom-in.
6. Zoom-out.
A mouse click on the button with a palm will let you drag the
chart on the graph to select the areas of most interest.

4
Not all options are available in all windows
23
8.4 The angular sector and the first side lobe level determination
In order to determine aperture angle, i.e. the angular sector 2q0.5 (2j0.5 ) between the directions
where the field intensity is reduced to 0.707 times the maximum value, we need to obtain the angles
q1 and q 2 for which the intensity reaches 0.707 times the maximum value. Then, the antenna beam
width will equal to 2q0.5 = q2 -q1 (Fig 8.4-1).
To determine the angles q1 and q2 of the normalized RP drag the Cursor 1 horizontal (yellow) line to
the level of 0.707 along the Y-axis or enter 0.707 into the “Y” column in the cursor coordinate table
under the Cartesian coordinate system window or choose the number closer to 0.707 in the cursor
table. Then sequentially drag the Cursor 1 vertical (yellow) line, then the Cursor 2 (blue) line along the
X-axis until intersection with the level 0.707 of the normalized RP. The values of angles q1 and q2 are
displayed in the “X” column in the cursor coordinate table.

Fig 8.4-1 An example of determining the beam width of the radiation pattern
In order to determine the first side lobe level of the radiation pattern relative to the maximum field
intensity, drag the Cursor 1 (yellow) line along the Y-axis to the level corresponding to the peak
(maximum peak, in the absence of symmetry in the radiation pattern) of the first side lobe of the
radiation pattern. The value corresponding to the first side lobe level will appear, in relative units, in
the “Y” column of the coordinate table under the Cartesian coordinate system window. Side lobe
levels are usually expressed in decibels. The signal level relative to the field intensity is calculated by
the equation: AdB = 20 lg Аru (in relative units). By sequentially dragging the Cursor 1 vertical (yellow)
line and the Cursor 2 (blue) line along the X-axis until intersection with the achieved first side lobe
level, we can obtain the directions of first side lobes of the radiation pattern to the left and right of
the main lobe. The angles, corresponding to the maximums of side lobes, are displayed in the “X”
column of the cursor coordinate table. These angles may vary in absolute value, if the radiation
pattern is non-symmetric. You can also use the radiation pattern in polar coordinates, where the
signal level is in decibels.

24
Fig 8.4-2 An example of determining the first side lobe level
The experimental data corresponding to the radiation patterns depicted in Fig 8.4-1 and Fig 8.4-2 are
given in the table below:
Table 8.4–1
Beam width, 2q0.5 = q2 -q1 , (in degrees) 39.65
First side lobe level, in relative units 0.1122
First side lobe direction at the left of the main beam, (in degrees) -75.31
First side lobe direction at the right of the main beam, (in degrees) 74.9

25
9 HANDS-ON EXPERIMENTS
9.1 Dipole Antenna
Lab objectives
1. Get acquainted with the theory and basic operating principles of symmetric and non-
symmetric dipole antennas.
2. Calculate and plot radiation patterns of antennas, determine the directional parameters of
dipole antennas.
3. Measure the radiation patterns of dipole antennas.
Background information
The radiation pattern is a graphical depiction of the antenna’s directional characteristic. A spatial
diagram f (j , q ) represents a three-dimensional surface. In practice, people are more commonly
using two-dimensional diagrams, which represent field intensity in one of the two main planes. For
antennas, which radiate linear polarized waves, the main planes are the planes in which oscillate the
r r
electric field vector E and the magnetic field vector H of the radiated electromagnetic field.

a) b)
Fig. 9.1-1 Radiation pattern of a half-wave dipole in Polar (a) and Cartesian (b) coordinate systems
The two-dimensional radiation pattern can be plotted in both polar and Cartesian coordinate systems
(Fig. 9.1-1). When plotting the radiation pattern in polar coordinate system (Fig. 9.1-1a) a vector is
plotted in the given direction from the central point of coordinates, its length proportional to field
intensity (or radiated power) under different axial angles q (for E -plane) or j ( H -plane). The
radiation pattern is the curve connecting the ends of these vectors. In Cartesian coordinate system
(Fig. 9.1-1b), the angles q or j characterizing the radiation direction in corresponding planes are
plotted along the X axis, and field density or radiated power - along the Y axis.
Radiation patterns in polar coordinates are better comprehended visually. In Cartesian coordinate
system, you can change the scale on both axes, which can help to magnify the details of a particular
section of the diagram. Usually, wide beam diagrams are plotted in polar coordinate system, and
narrow beams - in Cartesian coordinates.
To study the antenna’s directional characteristics, it is convenient to use normalized values of
radiated electromagnetic field parameters. Most commonly, field intensity or power are normalized
with respect to their maximum value: F (q , j ) = f (q , j ) / fmax (q , j ) . The maximum value of a
normalized parameter is always equal to 1 (Fig. 9.1-1, b).
The half-power beam width 2q 0.5 (2j 0.5 ) is the angle between the directions at which the field
2
intensity is » 0.707 times less than the maximum field density (Fig. 9.1-1). The beam width of the
2
power radiation pattern is determined similarly, at the directions of the half of maximum power.

26
For antennas located near the Earth’s surface, the terms “vertical” (relative to Earth’s surface) and
“horizontal” polarization are commonly used. Polarization characterizes the orientation of the vector
E in space through which the polarization surface passes. The so called vertical dipole radiates and
receives vertically polarized waves (VPW), and the horizontal dipole – horizontally polarized waves
(HPW) (Fig. 9.1-2).

Fig. 9.1-2 Linear polarization types: a) vertical polarization; b) horizontal polarization


Directivity (D) and gain (G) are among the most important characteristics of antennas.
Directivity D (q , j ) is defined as the ratio of power P(q , j ) radiated per unit solid angle in a certain
direction, to the average power PS radiated over all directions:
P(q ,j )
D (q ,j ) = (1)
PS
4p
Directivity can be determined from power radiation pattern:
4p P (q , j ) 4p f (q , j )
D (q , j ) = 2pp = 2pp (2)
∬00 P (q ,j ) sin q dq dj ∬00 f (q ,j ) sin q dq dj
As a rule, antennas are characterized by their maximum directivity:
4p
Dmax = 2pp (3)
∬00 f (q ,j ) sin q dq dj
Angular dependence of the directivity can be determined from the following equation:
D(q , j ) = Dmax ´ f (q , j )
Whereas it is practically impossible to determine the antenna radiation pattern across all directions,
sometimes antenna directivity is determined by the main lobe:
Dmain = 4p / ò f (q ,j ) dΩ (4)
Ωmain

where Ω is the angular sector covered by the main lobe.


Antenna directivities usually range from approximately 1.5 (elementary dipole), 1.64 (half-wave
dipole) to 108 (large mirror antennas for millimeter range).
Gain G (q , j ) considers antenna efficiency: h = Prad / Pin due to losses - the ratio of radiated power
Prad to the input power Pin applied to the antenna. The antenna gain describes how much more
input power is required to maintain the same flux density in a given direction, if the reference
directional antenna with losses is replaced with a non-directional antenna without losses.
The relationship between antenna directivity, gain and efficiency is described by eq. (5):
G (q , j ) = h ´ D (q , j ) (5)
Occasionally, antenna gain is characterized by the effective aperture Seff . The relationship between
the antenna’s effective aperture and the directivity is given by eq. (6):
S eff = l 2 / 4p * D (q ,j ) (6)

27
Symmetric dipoles are simplest type of antennas. They are commonly used as independent antennas,
or as a part of complicated antenna systems. Most commonly, they are used in short-wave (SW) and
ultra-short wave (USW) ranges.
Symmetric dipoles are comprised of two equal-length conductors connected with a feedline (feeder)
that connects the antenna to the transmitter. Also note that the receiving and transmitting
properties of an antenna are the same if the transmitter and the receiver are connected to the same
antenna input terminals through the feeder.
In the general case, a symmetric dipole’s input impedance has both active and reactive components.
The reactive component is equal to zero if the dipole length is equal to half of the wavelength, or its
multiple, called a dipole resonant length.

Fig. 9.1-3 Half-wave dipole: current and voltage distribution


A half wave of current and voltage are established along the half-wave dipole (Fig. 9.1-3).
The EMF at the output of the symmetric dipole changes with the change of received signal frequency.
This is due to the change of the reactive component of the antenna input impedance, and also due to
the change of the antenna’s directional characteristic. To determine the antenna’s amplitude-
frequency characteristic, the dependence of EMF on frequency is plotted while maintaining a
constant signal source power. From the shape of the frequency characteristic we can judge about the
antenna’s bandwidth and range.
The antenna’s resonant properties also depend on its impedance which in turn significantly depends
on the dipole diameter. The wave impedance decreases with the increase of the diameter, thus
increasing the antenna’s bandwidth.
The current distribution along the dipole is not even ( I ¹ const) and we need to determine the law
by which the current changes along the dipole.
We can plot the non-normalized RP of the symmetric dipole in open space using the equation for the
received signal ( E ):
æp × L ö æp × L ö
cos ç × cos(q ) ÷ - cos ç ÷
60× I è l ø è l ø
E (q ) = × (7)
r sin (q )

where
I - antenna peak current
r – test point distance
L – antenna geometrical length
l – wavelength
q – variable angle in vertical surface, in radians
To plot the normalized radiation pattern we must divide E (q ) by Emax (q ) :
E (q )
F (q ) = (8)
Emax (q )
The simplified expression for the dipole antenna normalized radiation pattern:
cos(kl cosq ) - cos kl
F (q ) = (9)
(1 - cos kl) sinq
where
28
2p
k= - wavelength constant,
l
l- dipole arm length,
q - alternate angle.
Non-symmetric dipole (dipole antenna) is an antenna which is located near the Earth’s surface or on
a conductive shield perpendicular to that surface. Considering that the surface of the Earth is an ideal
conductor and taking into account mirror imaging, the non-symmetric dipole can be considered as
the half of equivalent symmetric dipole (Fig. 9.1-4). The non-symmetric dipole’s main characteristics
are calculated proceeding from this assumption.

Fig. 9.1-4 Symmetric dipole equivalent to non-symmetric dipole


Radiation resistance of a non-symmetric dipole is half that of the equivalent symmetric dipole since,
in the case of equal currents, the radiation power of the first is half the power of the symmetric
dipole (no radiation into the lower half surface). The non-symmetric dipole input impedance is also
equal to the half of the equivalent symmetric dipole input impedance since, for equal supply
currents, the supply voltage of the first is equal to the half of the symmetric dipole supply voltage.
The directivity and gain of a non-symmetric dipole are twice as high as that of the equivalent
symmetric dipole since, for equal radiation powers, the first provides twice the power density of the
latter, as the power is radiated only into one half space.
Hands-on procedure
Calculate and plot the non-normalized and normalized radiation patterns for the two-wave-, wave-,
half-wave- and quarter-wave dipoles in Cartesian coordinate system (all the calculations are made in
the lab software). Graphically determine the aperture angle, the angle must vary from -90° to +90°.
Calculation assignment
1. Double click on the Dipole Antenna line in the labs menu. The lab Front Panel would open.

Click the icon on the Control panel, then click the icon to open the Dipole Antenna
simulation Front Panel.
2. Enter the data from Table 9.1–1, in accordance with the assigned option, into the software
Front Panel. The normalized RP at E plane in Cartesian and polar coordinate systems will
appear on the screen, Fig. 9.1-5.

Fig. 9.1-5 Simulation Front Panel


Table 9.1–1
29
Option 1 2 3 4 5
Antenna length L, m 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.7
3. Plot the normalized radiation pattern of the symmetric dipole with the length L , for the test
point distance r , and antenna current I for the wavelength l corresponding to the dipole
length L = l / 4 . Enter the data from Table 9.1–1 into the software Front Panel, Fig. 9.1-5. The
normalized radiation patterns in Cartesian (in relative units) and polar (in dB) coordinate
systems will be displayed on the graph.
4. Make similar calculations for half-wave- ( L = l / 2 ), full wave- ( L = l ) and two-wave ( L = 2l )
dipoles. Using the cursors, determine the main lobe width for each radiation pattern (see The
angular sector and the first side lobe level determination chapter). Enter the calculation results
into the Table 9.1–2.
Table 9.1–2
Option Antenna type q1 q2 2q 0.5 Number of main lobes
λ/4
λ/2
λ

5. Enter the calculated results of the normalized RP for the tested dipole antenna ( L = l / 4 ) into
the Table 9.1–3. For calculations use the value of L from the Table 9.1–3.
Table 9.1–3
Antenna under test q1 q2 2q 0.5 Number of main lobes
L = l / 4 = 0.0031m

6. Save the calculation results in Table 9.1–3 and the RP screenshot. Exit the simulation program.

Experimental part
Preparations
1. Mount the dipole antenna (10, Table 4.1-1) onto the auxiliary antenna tripod (see the Test
bench assembly chapter). The auxiliary dipole antenna should be in the horizontal position.

2. Mount the tested dipole antenna (9, Table 4.1-1) onto the turntable tripod (see the Test bench
assembly chapter). The tested antenna should be in the horizontal position.

3. Connect the tested and auxiliary antenna to the appropriate units (see the Connecting the
measurement and automation equipment chapter).
4. Position the tested and auxiliary antennas at the distance of 1.5m and align the antennas along
the same axis. Make sure that the feeder connection points of the tested and auxiliary
antennas are on the same height.

30
The distance between the antennas is the distance between feeder connection points
5. On the Front Panel:
­ in the Transmission Frequency field enter f = 2.4GHz
­ in the Angle step field enter the Angle step, in degrees (default value: 1)
­ in the End angle field enter the value, corresponding to the desired terminal position of
the antenna (default value: 3600).
6. Click the *Start/Stop* button on the lab Front Panel. The generated signal will be radiated by
the auxiliary antenna, and the antenna under test receives this signal. The received signal
power is measured and displayed, in decibels, in the Received power field on the Front Panel.

7. Click the buttons and on the Control panel to open the Cartesian and Polar
coordinate fields. Arrange the windows, making sure that Motor button is not covered.
RP measurement in E plane
1. Click Reset, then click the Motor button on the Front Panel to activate the turntable.
When the turntable is activated, the antenna will rotate from 00 to the End angle. The received
power is measured according to the Angle step, as defined in the Angle step field on the Front
Panel. The normalized measurement results are graphically depicted in both coordinate systems
simultaneously, and are saved in the MS Excel file. When the End angle is reached, the turntable
starts rotating in backwards direction and radiation power is measured again. The curves
obtained during reverse rotation are displayed on the same graph, in different color.
2. Save the measured graphs of the normalized radiation patterns in the student’s registration
folder.
3. Repeat the steps 1-2, clicking Erase graph in the diagram windows, then New Session in
the control panel before each measurement. The experimental results will be automatically
exported to MS Excel.

4. Open Excel clicking the MS Excel button on the Control Panel.


5. Save the measurement results for E plane.
RP measurement in H plane
1. Click Erase graph in the diagram windows and click New Session button on the Control
panel.
2. Turn the tested and auxiliary dipole antennas by 90°, aligning them vertically.

3. Click Reset, then click the Motor button on the Front Panel to activate the turntable.
4. Save the measured graphs of the normalized radiation patterns in the student’s registration
folder, and close the diagram windows.
5. Save the table with the measurement results in the H plane.
31
Processing the measurement results
1. Calculate mean values of four normalized RP measurements of dipole antennas at both planes
1 n
saved in the MS Excel template file ( f mean = å f i , n = 4 , where fi and f mean correspond to
n i =1
f Ei and f Emean at E plane, and to f Hi and f Hmean - at H plane). Save the calculated values in
the same file by filling in Table 9.1–4 and Table 9.1–5. When filling in the tables pay attention to
the values of functions and the argument q (during the reverse rotation the angles are
changing in descending order).
Table 9.1–4
q f E1 (q ) fE 2 (q ) fE3 (q ) fE 4 (q ) f Emean (q ) fE1(q ) - f E 2 (q ) - f E 3 (q ) - f E 4 (q ) - s
fEmean(q ) f Emean (q ) f Emean (q ) f Emean (q )

Table 9.1–5
j f (j ) f H 2 (j ) f Н 3 (j ) f Н 4 (j ) f Нmean (j ) f H 1 (j ) - f H 2 (j ) - f Н 3 (j ) - f Н 4 (j ) - s
H1

f Нmean (j ) f Нmean (j ) f Нmean (j ) f Нmean (j )

If required, you can add additional rows at the end of the tables depending on the number of recorded values.

2. Determine the measurement error at both planes by the following expression:


1 n
s= å
n i =1
( fi - f mean )2 , where fi and f m ea n correspond to f Ei and f Emean at E plane, and to

f Hi and f Hmean - at H plane ( n = 4 ). Estimate the measurement accuracy.


3. Plot the antenna RP at both planes by the mean function values (Table 9.1–4 and Table 9.1–5).
4. Compare the mean measurement graph parameters at E plane for the distance r = 1.5m with
the calculation results in Table 9.1–3.
5. Exit the lab by clicking File -> Home.

32
Radiation pattern examples:
1. For the E-plane:

2. For the H-plane:

Lab report
Lab report should include the file with the Calculation assignment and the MS Excel file containing
the graphs and calculations according to the Experimental part section requirements.
The report should contain:
· Calculation data (Table 9.1–3) and RP graphs.
· Experimental results, data processing (Table 9.1–4 and Table 9.1–5), and RP graphs.

33
9.2 Yagi or Wave Channel Antenna
Lab objectives
1. Get acquainted with the theory and basic operating principles of traveling-wave antennas.
2. Calculate and plot the radiation patterns, determine the directional parameters of Yagi
antennas.
3. Measure the radiation patterns of Yagi antennas (alter the number of dipoles, their size,
feeder-matching conditions, and the distance between the dipoles).
Background information
Traveling wave antennas (TWA) are systems in which the field distribution and current are described
by the traveling wave law. In these systems the axial radiation mode can be implemented. The phase
speed of the excitation field or current is just below the speed of light. Deceleration factor x :
c y
x= = >1
Vph kd
where
c - speed of light
V ph - phase speed
y - directivity
k - wavelength constant
d - the distance between the centers of two neighboring dipoles

The TWA are usually implemented using wave slowing structures in which
the surface wave is propagated.

Surface waves are characterized by exponential decrease of the field in


radial direction due to concentration of electromagnetic energy near the
axis of the directing system (Fig. 9.2-1).
Fig. 9.2-1
The directivity y á of axial radiation traveling-wave antennas depends on the phase shift between the
fields created by the antenna’s end elements at the point on the continuation of the antenna axis:
æ c ö
y t = kL ç - 1÷ ,
ç Vph ÷
è ø
where
2p
k= - wavelength constant
l
L - antenna length
c
The directivity of the traveling-wave antenna is the maximum when > 1 and y t » 1800 , i.e.
Vph
æ c ö
y n opt = kL ç - 1÷ » p (1)
çV ÷
è ph ø
æ c ö
From eq. (1) we can determine the optimum value ç for the given length L (for simplicity, we
ç V ph ÷÷
è øopt
æLö
shall consider the relative length of the antenna ç ÷ ) for the assigned phase speed V ph .
è l ø opt
It is evident that:
34
æ c ö l æ Lö 1
çç ÷÷ = 1 + ;ç ÷ = (2)
è Vph øopt 2L è l ø opt 2(x - 1)
In axial direction directivity can achieve:
L
D = (4 to 7.2) (3)
l
With that, the half-power beam width of the radiation pattern:
l
2q0.5 = (61 to 107)o (4)
L
The far-field side lobe level may vary as 0.2 to 0.35 of the main maximum.
The minimum values in eq. (3) and (4) apply to excitation with phase speed of light in the medium,
and maximum values – to excitation with optimum phase speed reduction.
TWA excitation is usually implemented from the one end, and the required traveling-wave support
mode is provided by proper selection of the wave slowing structures and, very occasionally, by
applying special matching loads at the opposite end. In TWA, the excitation self-propagates along the
radiating system from one end to another, therefore they are frequently called series-fed antennas.
The TWA are narrow-band as V ph of the wave slowing structures may dramatically change with the
frequency change. Moreover, it may cause changes in the efficiency and quality of matching the
exciter. The cross-sectional dimensions of the radiated section of TWAs is small, which allows us to
build flush antennas on the flat surfaces of flying objects, as well as lightweight fully rotatable
antennas. TWAs include director type-, dielectric-, helical antennas and many other structures.
The Yagi antenna, sometimes called a wave-channel antenna, has a simple design. It consists of
multiple parallel dipole elements, each is approximately half wavelength long. The dipoles are spaced
at approximately l / 4 distance from each other. One of the dipoles is connected to the power
supply and is called the active dipole. The remaining dipoles are excited by the active dipole
electromagnetic field and are called passive dipoles.
If the antenna is set up correctly, the maximum radiation is directed along the antenna axis.

Fig. 9.2-2 Yagi antenna


The Yagi antenna is comprised of the active fed dipole ( A ), passive reflector ( R ), and a set of passive
directors ( D1 , D 2 , D3 , D 4 ), Fig. 9.2-2. All passive directors are set so that the antenna’s maximum
radiation is directed along the axis of antenna, i.e. towards the directors. The backwards radiation is
minimized by using a single reflector, and there is no need to use several reflectors as their excitation
will be low, not affecting the antenna’s radiation pattern.
To achieve summing up of the radiations of all elements along the antenna axis (Fig. 9.2-2), the phase
of the current in the director D1 must lag behind the current in the feeder director by a certain
angle, depending on the length of the directors and the distance between them. Similarly, the current
in D 2 must lag behind D1 , etc.
It follows from the above that a system comprised of two dipoles (active and passive) requires phase
bias of the current in the reflector due to electromagnetic properties of its impedance, achieved by

35
corresponding elongation of the reflector. For the same reason, passive directors must have a
capacitive impedance, and consequently the length of the directors is smaller than the resonance
length. To set up the antenna correctly, we need to know the dependence of dipole length on its
diameter. The larger the diameter, the lower its wave impedance and the more adjustment of the
dipole length would be required. Theoretical determination of multi-dipole Yagi antenna parameters
is a very complicated task. For example, in order to calculate the dipole current, you need to solve a
set of as many equations, as the number of dipoles. In addition, dipole length required for correct
tuning is significantly different from half-wavelength. Subsequently, the calculation of the mutual
impedance between the dipoles is also a complicated task. Therefore, parameters of multi-dipole
Yagi antennas are mostly studied experimentally.

Fig. 9.2-3 Experimental radiation pattern of an antenna comprised of a feed dipole, reflector, 6
directors in H-plane /solid line/, and 6 directors in the plane of dipoles /dash line/
The experimentally obtained radiation pattern is shown in Fig. 9.2-3. The distance between the active
dipole and the reflector is equal to 0.17l , and the distance between the dipole and the first director
and between the directors is 0.25l . The side lobes of this radiation pattern are quite large. The side
lobes can be slightly reduced by increasing the beam width during the tuning.
2Θ 0.5

50

30

L/λ
10
2 4 6 a) b)
Fig. 9.2-4 a) Dependence of the beam width of the antenna vs. its relative length, b) graphical
determination of the directivity (D)
Fig. 9.2-4a shows the dependence of beam width vs. the antenna relative length L / l , solid line
refers to the plane perpendicular to the dipole axis, dotted line – to the dipole plane.
As follows from the figure above, beam width decreases very slowly with the increase of the antenna
length. This is because, the longer the antenna, the more difficult it is to tune the dipoles. The
amplitude of dipoles current is small, especially on the passive dipoles which are farthest from the
active dipole. The same antenna length can be achieved with different number of dipoles. For
construction simplicity, a smaller number of dipoles is desirable. If the total antenna length is close to
the wavelength, or slightly more, the maximum distance between the directors can be used
(approximately 0.34l ).
The antenna directivity for given length L / l can be estimated from the graph in Fig. 9.2-4 b. The
following expression can be used as a best fit curve:
D » 7 + 4L / l
The curves on Fig. 9.2-4 are plotted based on theoretical calculations and the experimentally
obtained data.
36
The input impedance of Yagi antenna decreases with the increase of the number of passive dipoles.
One passive dipole drops the impedance of the feed dipole to 50 Ohm. The use of several dipoles
further decreases the input impedance to 20-30 Ohms, thus making feeder matching complicated.
Therefore, Pistolcorsa loop is often used as the feed dipole, its input impedance is approximately four
times higher than the input impedance of the standard dipole.
By making the active dipole shorter, resonance is reached at length slightly smaller than 0.5l . The
reflector length should be approximately equal to 0.5l or slightly longer. The length of each director
should be in (0.4 - 0.48)l range. The optimum length of the directors decreases with the increase of
their number. The above dimensions depend on the distance between the dipoles and are more
accurately determined experimentally.
For tuning the Yagi antenna, a field strength indicator is used at the distance of at least a few
wavelengths. When selecting the distance between the dipoles, the length of each dipole is set by the
maximum field voltage along the antenna axis. When selecting an optimal length for each following
dipole, the settings of the previous dipoles may be affected. The overall tuning is performed by the
successive approximations method. Upon completion of tuning the antenna’s radiation pattern must
be measured.

Fig. 9.2-5 a) Yagi antenna excited by parallel fed dipole, b) short Yagi antenna mounted on the cross
beam, excited by the looped dipole
Possible designs of Yagi antennas are shown in Fig. 9.2-5. All passive dipoles are mounted on a
common metal core along the antenna axis. This is allowed because there is a voltage node (zero
potential) in the middle of the dipoles. The feeder element, in the form of a Corsa pistol dipole (Fig.
9.2-5 b), or a parallel fed dipole (Fig. 9.2-5 a), is also mounted on the core, thus simplifying the
antenna design. An exception is the case when an ordinary half-wave dipole mounted on the core
through insulator is used as the feeding element.
The main advantage of the Yagi antenna is the relative simplicity of the design. One of the
disadvantages is its limited bandwidth and the requirement of proper tuning (it maintains the
parameters in a narrow band of frequencies with a deviation of only a few percent from the tuned
frequency). The Yagi antenna cannot be used when narrow beams are required, with 15°-20° width of
the main lobe. Sometimes, in order to obtain narrow 2q0.5 radiation patterns, the cophasal antenna
arrays based on a number of identical Yagi antennas are used.
The Yagi antenna is fed through a coaxial cable connected to the active dipole. The coaxial cable is
connected to the antenna input by various matching units: U - elbow, symmetrizing tube, current
compensation on the cable bandage, slot excitation, etc.
Consider the U -elbow, which is used most frequently. It is, basically, a U - shaped piece of coaxial
cable (Fig. 9.2-6).

37
The coaxial cable from the generator is connected to the U - elbow
at the point c . The distance cde is equal to l / 2 (where l is the
wavelength in the cable). The phase of the current or voltage is
inversed every half wavelength, and therefore the current at points a
and b appears in antiphase.
The difference of potentials between these points is Vab = Va - Vb ,
where Vb = -Va , thus the dipole arms are excited by currents with the
same amplitude and phase. To avoid current branching on the inner
surface of the shield, the outer shell is shorted near the ends of the
U - elbow. Fig. 9.2-6 U -elbow
For a half wave symmetric dipole ( Rin = 50 Ohm), in order to achieve the traveling-wave (TW) mode
in the main cable, the cable connection point c should be at the l / 4 distance from one end of the
U - elbow. A l / 4 -long line will change the load impedance according to the equation below:
W2
Zin =
ZL
where
W – wave impedance,
Zin - input impedance,
ZL - load impedance.
In our case ZL = Ra-0 = Rb-0 = 25 Ohm, consequently W must be selected equal to 50 Ohm, and
502
Re = Rc = = 100 Ohm. Since the impedances at the point c are connected in parallel, the main
25
cable occurs to be loaded approximately by 50 Ohm.
Theoretical calculations
1. Calculate and plot the normalized radiation pattern of Yagi antenna in Cartesian coordinate
system:
ék æ L ö ù
sin ê ç ÷ (x - cos q ) ú
F (q ) = ë 2 è l øopt û (5)
k æLö
ç ÷ (x - cos q )
2 è l øopt
The deceleration factor is assumed x = 1.2 . The remaining data required for calculations are
taken from Table 9.2–1 according to the selected option.
Table 9.2–1
Option 1 2 3 4 5
Wavelength l , m 0.3 1 1.3 1.9 2.1
Number of directors n 5 3 2 4 8

Note: The radiation pattern is calculated in the following way: by choosing an arbitrary coefficient from the given range,
determine the angle 2q0.5 by eq. (4). Then, by eq. (5), calculate the points of the radiation pattern from q = 0 to the
0

end of the first side lobe, in 2q0.5 / 4 steps. Plot the graph f (q ) ; determine from the graph the values of 2q0.5 and the
first side lobe, in decibels.

2. Determine the optimum length of the Yagi antenna for the deceleration factor x = 1.2 .
3. Enter the theoretical and experimental results into the Table 9.2–2:

38
Table 9.2–2
Option l n 2q0.5 First side lobe level, relative units/dB
æLö
çl÷
è ø opt

Hands-on procedure
Calculate and plot the normalized RP in Cartesian coordinate system.
Graphically determine the beam width of the radiation pattern. The data required for calculation are
taken from the Table 9.2–2, the angle may vary from -180° to +180°. For simplicity, all the
calculations are made in the lab software.
Calculation assignment
1. Double click on the Yagi Antenna line in the labs menu. The lab Front Panel would open. Click

the icon on the Control Panel, then click the icon to open the Yagi Antenna
simulation Front Panel (Fig. 9.2-7).
2. Enter the data from Table 9.2–1, in accordance with the assigned option, into the software
Front Panel. The normalized RP at E plane in Cartesian and polar coordinate systems will
appear on the screen, Fig. 9.2-7.

Fig. 9.2-7 Simulation Front Panel


3. Determine the width of the main lobe, i.e. the angular sector 2q0.5 for the obtained radiation
pattern. Then determine the first side lobe level, in relative units and decibels (see The
angular sector and the first side lobe level determination chapter). Enter the results into the
Table 9.2–3.
Table 9.2–3
Option l n 2q0.5 First side lobe level, in relative units/dB

4. Enter the calculation results of the normalized RP of the tested antenna ( l = 0.6 m, n = 3 )
into the Table 9.2–4.
Table 9.2–4
Antenna under test l n 2q0.5 First side lobe level, in relative units/dB
0.6 m 3
5. Save the calculation results in Table 9.2–4 and the RP screenshot. Exit the simulation program.

39
Experimental part
Preparations
1. Mount the Auxiliary telescopic dipole antenna (12, Table 4.1–1) on the tripod of the auxiliary
antenna (see the Connecting the measurement and automation equipment chapter). Dipole
arms size is slightly larger than the minimum possible size, and the dipole length from one end
to the other end is 0.31 m.
It is recommended to provide the same width of the rod along its length during extension of the
telescopic arms of the dipole.

2. Connect the auxiliary antenna to the appropriate unit (see the Connecting the measurement
and automation equipment chapter). The U -elbow length corresponding to the dipole
operating frequency ( f = 500МHz , l / 2 = 0.3m ) is connected to the dipole. The auxiliary
antenna should be in the horizontal position.
3. Install the crossover (7c, Table 4.1–1), which holds the beam of the Yagi antenna, onto the
turntable tripod.
4. Mount the Driven element with U-bend matcher (7b, Table 4.1–1) onto the crossover closer
to the pole of the turntable tripod against the auxiliary antenna. The tested antenna should
be in the horizontal position. The dimension of the dipole arm is just over the minimum
possible size, and the dipole length from one end to the other end is 0.31 m.

5. Connect the tested antenna to the appropriate unit (see the Connecting the measurement and
automation equipment chapter).
6. Position the tested and auxiliary antennas at the distance of r = 1.5m and align the antennas
along the same axis. Make sure that the feeder connection points of the tested and auxiliary
antennas are on the same height.
The distance between the antennas is the distance between feeder connection points
7. On the lab Front Panel:
­ in the Transmission Frequency field enter f = 500 MHz
­ in the Angle step field enter the Angle step, in degrees (default value: 1)
­ in the End angle field enter the value, corresponding to the desired terminal position of
the antenna (default value: 3600).

40
8. Click the *Start/Stop* button on the lab Front Panel. The generated signal will be radiated by
the auxiliary antenna, and the antenna under test receives this signal. The received signal
power is measured and displayed, in decibels, in the Received power field on the Front Panel.

9. Open the Cartesian and polar coordinate system fields by clicking on and buttons
on the Control Panel, and arrange the windows conveniently not intercepting the Motor
button.
RP measurement in E plane
1. Click Reset, then click the Motor button on the Front Panel to activate the turntable.
When the turntable is activated, the antenna will rotate from 00 to the End angle. The received
power is measured according to the Angle step, as defined in the Angle step field on the Front
Panel. The normalized measurement results are graphically depicted in both coordinate systems
simultaneously, and are saved in the MS Excel file. When the End angle is reached, the turntable
starts rotating in backwards direction and radiation power is measured again. The curves
obtained during reverse rotation are displayed on the same graph, in different color.
2. Save the measured graphs of the normalized radiation patterns at E plane in the student’s
registration folder.
3. Install the grid (7d, Table 4.1–1), which serves also as a reflector, on the crossover behind the
active dipole at the distance of d R ( d R = 0.17l = 0.102m) .

4. Install the passive dipole antenna (7a, Table 4.1–1), which will serve as a first director, on the
crossover opposite to the reflector at a distance of d D = 0.25l = 0.15m ) by changing the
director arm length, i.e. symmetrically pulling out the telescopic construction from both sides,
respectively, so that the director length from one end to another equals to 0.3 m.
5. Install the third passive dipole antenna (7a, Table 4.1–1), which will serve as a second director,
on the crossover against the first director at a distance of d D1 ( d D1 = 0.25l = 0.15m ) by
changing the director arm length, i.e. symmetrically pulling out the telescopic construction
from both sides, respectively, so that the director length from one end to another end equals
to 0.3 m.
6. Install the fourth passive dipole antenna (7-1, Table 4.1–1) which will serve as a third director,
on the crossover against the second director at a distance of d D 2 ( d D 2 = 0.25l = 0.15m ) by
changing the director arm length, i.e. symmetrically pulling out the telescopic construction
from both sides, respectively, so that the director length from one end to another end equals
to 0.3 m.
All passive directors must be in the same plane with the active element

41
7. Click Erase graph in the diagram windows, then New Session in the control panel before
each measurement and measure the radiation pattern of the Yagi antenna at E plane in the
availability of a reflector and three dipoles, performing the operations described in steps 1-2.
8. Repeat the step 7. The experimental results will be automatically exported to MS Excel.

9. Open Excel clicking the MS Excel button on the Control Panel.


10. Save the measurement results for E plane.
RP measurement in H plane
1. Click Erase graph in the diagram windows and click New Session button on the Control
panel.
2. Prepare to RP measurements of the tested Yagi antenna at H plane by turning the auxiliary
dipole antenna and Yagi antenna by 90°.

3. Click Reset, then click the Motor button on the Front Panel to activate the turntable.
4. Save the measured graphs of the normalized radiation patterns in the student’s registration
folder, and close the diagram windows.
5. Save the table with the obtained measurement results at H plane.
Processing the measurement results
Calculate mean values of four RP measurements of five-element antenna at both planes saved in
1 n
Excel template file ( f mean = å fi , n = 4 , where fi and f m ea n correspond to f Ei and f Emean at E
n i=1
plane, and f Hi and f Hmean at H plane). Save the obtained results in the same file by filling in the
Table 9.2–5 and Table 9.2–6. Be careful when filling in the values of functions and the argument q
(during reverse rotation the angles are changed in descending order).

42
Table 9.2–5
q f E1 (q ) fE 2 (q ) fE3 (q ) fE 4 (q ) f Emean (q ) f E1(q ) - f E 2 (q ) - f E 3 (q ) - f E 4 (q ) - s
fEmean(q ) f Emean (q ) f Emean (q ) f Emean (q )

Table 9.2–6
j f (j ) f H 2 (j ) f Н 3 (j ) f Н 4 (j ) f Нmean (j ) f H 1 (j ) - f H 2 (j ) - f Н 3 (j ) - f Н 4 (j ) - s
H1

f Нmean (j ) f Нmean (j ) f Нmean (j ) f Нmean (j )

If required, you can add additional rows at the end of the tables depending on the number of recorded values.

1. Determine the measurement error at both planes by the following expression:


1 n
s= å
n i =1
( fi - f mean )2 , where fi and f mean correspond to f Ei and f Emean at E plane, and to

f Hi and f Hmean ( n = 4 ) - at H plane. Estimate the measurement accuracy.


2. Plot the antenna radiation pattern at both planes by mean function values (see Table 9.2–5
and Table 9.2–6).
3. Compare the graph parameters plotted by the measurement mean values of five-element
antenna at E -plane with calculation results in Table 9.2–4.
4. Exit the lab by clicking File -> Home.
Radiation pattern examples:
1. For the E-plane:

43
2. For the H-plane:

Lab report
Lab report should include the Calculation assignment file and the MS Excel file with the plots and
calculations according to the Experimental part section requirements.
All results should be in the form of graphs and tables.
Lab report should include:
· Calculation data (Table 9.2–2 and Table 9.2–4), and radiation patterns.
· Experimental results, processing of the results (Table 9.2–5 and Table 9.2–6) and RP graphs.

44
9.3 Helical Antenna
Lab objectives
1. Get acquainted with the theory and basic operating principles of helical antennas.
2. Calculate and plot the radiation patterns, determine the directional parameters of helical
antennas.
3. Measure the radiation patterns of helical antennas.
Background information
The helical antennas play an important role among the various types of wideband antennas. They are
weak and medium directional wideband antennas with elliptical or controlled polarization. Helical
antennas are used as independent antennas, feed elements for mirror and lens antennas, exciters of
guided-wave horn antennas with electrical or controlled polarization, and antenna array elements.
Helicals are surface wave antennas. Depending on the director type (wave slowing system) and
provision of bandwidth range, the helical antennas are divided into several groups:
1. Cylindrical regulation with constant geometrical parameters along the whole antenna length,
bandwidth is provided by phase speed dispersion (Fig. 9.3-1 a),
2. Equiangular and frequency-independent (conical Fig. 9.3-1 b and flat Fig. 9.3-1 c),
3. Irregular (all the remaining helical antenna types belong to this group): conical with fixed pitch
(Fig. 9.3-1 d), flat Archimedean (Fig. 9.3-1 e), etc.

Fig. 9.3-1 Helical antenna types


A helical antenna is a wire, the one end of which usually remains free and the second end is
connected to the inner wire of the coaxial cable. The external wire is connected to the flat metal or
grill screen (usually circular), which hinders the entry of the current from the internal surface of the
braided wire of the coaxial cable to the external surface, and also acts as a reflector, reducing the
radiation into the space behind the antenna.
Directional properties of a helical antenna depend on its dimensions. If the coil diameter is smaller
compared to the wavelength, each coil can be considered as an elementary flat frame, and the helical
antenna can be considered as a set of elementary electrical dipoles, the axes of which are arranged in
line with the antenna axis. The antenna radiates in the coil plane, i.e. perpendicular to the antenna
axis. The RP should look as it is shown in Fig. 9.3-2a. This mode of operation is called the circular
radiation mode (p D << l ) .
If pD » l , the radiation is unidirectional for certain pitch angles, with the maximum along the axis
(Fig. 9.3-2b). This mode of operation is called axial mode of radiation. With the increase of coil
diameter the radiation towards the axis stops, and two directions of maximum radiation appear (Fig.
9.3-2 c). The spatial radiation diagram takes conical form. This is called conical radiation mode.

45
j
q

Fig. 9.3-2 Helical antenna radiation patterns for different ranges


Characteristic features of the axial radiation mode, in which helical antennas are most commonly
used, are as follows:
a) The maximum radiation direction is along the antenna axis.
b) The current in the antenna changes according to the traveling-wave law.
c) The radiated electromagnetic field has a circular (or close) polarization along the antenna axis,
and elliptical – in other directions.
d) The antenna has purely resistive input impedance.
e) The antenna has wide bandwidth ( » ±30% ).
Theoretical studies show that in a helix with the coil length l there is only one type of traveling wave
with slower phase speed, which determines the axial radiation mode.
Based on the experimental data, empirical equations were deduced for calculation of helical antenna
properties. If a = 20 ¸150 , 2 £ n £ 20, the half-power beam width can be calculated using eq. (1):
520 l
2q0.5 = (1)
nS
L
l
where
L - length of one turn,
n - number of turns,
S – helix pitch distance, S = Lsina , where a is the gradient coil
If we unfold one spiral turn to represent it as a hypotenuse of a
right triangle with the leg S , the angle of ascent a of the spiral
will be the angle opposite to the leg S in the triangle. a

Directivity along the spiral axis:


2
æ L ö nS
D = 15 ç ÷ (2)
èl ø l
Input impedance:
L
Rin = 140 (3)
l
Helical antenna directional characteristic at a plane passing through the antenna axis, for the
components Ej and Eq , consists of two multipliers: the directional characteristic of one antenna
element (i.e. a flat coil) and a system multiplier comprised of omnidirectional elements excited by the
traveling wave current. The system multiplier is the main component, therefore the radiation pattern
can be considered equal for both components. Thus we can make calculations base on the equations
for the traveling wave antenna comprised of discrete omnidirectional elements.

46
é æ öù
ê p Sn ç 1 ÷ú
sin ê ç - cosq ÷ ú
lS
ê l ç1- ÷ú
ê
ë è 1.22 L2 ø ûú
F (q ) = (4)
é æ öù
êp S ç 1 ÷ú
nsin ê ç - cosq ÷ ú
lS
ê l ç 1- ÷ú
ëê è 1.22 L2 ø ûú
where q is an angle between the antenna axis and the test point direction.
Directional characteristics and circular polarization are maintained for a wide range of wavelengths –
from approximately (0.7 to 0.8)l0 to 1.4l0 , where l 0 – is the wavelength with optimum
c c
relationships between L, , n, S . V ph changes with the change of l (the relationship
Vф V ph
decreases with the decrease of l ), the change of the coil electrical length is small and hence the eq.
(2), (3) are slightly affected.
Conical helical antennas are best by the bandwidth properties compared with the circular cylindrical
antennas.
To improve the directional properties of helical antennas the elements can be connected into a grid.
In this lab we shall study the directional properties of helical antenna in three radiation modes.
Theoretical calculations
1. Manually calculate the optimum length of the helical antenna and the directivity:
æ l ö
çl + S + ÷ 2
2p ø æ Lö S
Lopt = è , D = 15ç ÷ × n , S = Lsina
x è lø l
where
S – helix pitch distance
n - number of coils
L - coil length
x = 1.22 - slowing factor.
2. Calculate and plot the normalized radiation pattern of helical antenna in Cartesian
coordinates according to (4).
3. The data required for the calculation are taken from the Table 9.3–1, in accordance with the
assigned option.
4. Enter theoretical and experimental results into the Table 9.3–2.
Note: The radiation pattern is calculated in the following way: the angle 2q0.5 is determined from (4) by choosing an
arbitrary coefficient from the given range. Then the points of the radiation pattern are calculated from q = 0 to the
0

end of the first side lobe, in 2q0.5 / 4 steps. The f (q ) graph is plotted, the values of 2q0.5 and the level of the first side
lobe, in decibels, are determined (from the graph).

47
Table 9.3–1
Option 1 2 3 4 5
Wavelength l , m 0.35 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
Number of coils, n 5 4 6 8 10
Pitch angle a , degree 10 10 12 5 5

Table 9.3–2
Option l n 2q0.5 First side lobe level, relative unit/dB Lopt D

Hands-on procedure
Calculate and plot the normalized radiation patterns in Cartesian coordinates. Graphically determine
the beam width of the radiation pattern. For calculations use the data from Table 9.3–2, the angle
may vary from -180° to +180°. For simplicity, all the calculations are made in the lab software.
Calculation assignment
1. Double click on the Helical Antenna line in the labs menu to open the lab Front Panel. Click on

the icon on the Control Panel, then click the icon to open the Helical Antenna
simulation Front Panel (Fig. 9.3-3).
2. Enter the data from Table 9.3–1, in accordance with the assigned option, into the software Front
Panel. The normalized RP at E plane in Cartesian and polar coordinate systems will appear on
the screen, Fig. 9.3-3.

Fig. 9.3-3 Simulation Front Panel


3. Enter the obtained results into the Table 9.3–3.
Table 9.3–3
Option l n 2q0.5 First side lobe level (relative unit/dB)

4. Enter the calculation results of the tested helical antenna for l = 0.2 m , n = 15 , a = 4 0 into the
Table 9.3–4. Use these data as a reference data.
Table 9.3–4
Antenna under test l n a 2q0.5 First side lobe level, relative unit/dB
Helical antenna 0.2m 15

5. Save the calculation results in Table 9.3–4 and the RP screenshot.

48
Experimental part
Preparations
1. Mount the dipole antenna with the matching device U-elbow (11, Table 4.1–1) onto the
auxiliary antenna tripod (see the Test bench assembly chapter). The dipole arm size is
0.104m. The auxiliary antenna should be in the horizontal position.

2. Install the helical antenna (8, Table 4.1–1) onto the turntable tripod (see the Connecting the
measurement and automation equipment chapter). The axial radiation of the helical antenna
will be studied first.

3. Connect the tested and auxiliary antenna to the appropriate units (see the Connecting the
measurement and automation equipment chapter).
4. Position the tested and auxiliary antennas at the distance of r = 2m and align the antennas
along the same axis. Make sure that the feeder connection points of the tested and auxiliary
antennas are on the same height.
The distance between the antennas is the distance between feeder connection points
5. On the lab Front panel:
­ in the Transmission Frequency field enter f = 1.5GHz
­ in the Angle step field enter the Angle step, in degrees (default value: 1)
­ in the End angle field enter the value, corresponding to the desired terminal position of
the antenna (default value: 3600).
6. Click the Start/Stop button on the lab Front Panel. The generated signal will be radiated by
the auxiliary antenna, and the antenna under test will receive the radiated signal. The
received signal power is measured and displayed in the Received power field on the Front
Panel.

7. On the Control panel open the Cartesian and polar coordinate fields by clicking on the
and buttons. Arrange the windows conveniently, making sure that Motor button is not
covered.
49
RP measurement in E plane
1. Click Reset, then click the Motor button on the Front Panel to activate the turntable.
When the turntable is activated, the antenna will rotate from 00 to the End angle. The received
power is measured according to the Angle step, as defined in the Angle step field on the Front
Panel. The normalized measurement results are graphically depicted in both coordinate systems
simultaneously, and are saved in the MS Excel file. When the End angle is reached, the turntable
starts rotating in backwards direction and radiation power is measured again. The curves
obtained during reverse rotation are displayed on the same graph, in different color.
2. Save the measured graphs of the normalized radiation patterns in the student’s registration
folder.
3. Repeat the steps 1-2, clicking Erase graph in the diagram windows, then New Session in
the control panel before each measurement. The experimental results will be automatically
exported to MS Excel.

4. Open Excel clicking the MS Excel button on the Control Panel.


5. Save the measurement results for E plane.
RP measurement in H plane
1. Click Erase graph in the diagram windows and click New Session button on the Control
panel.
2. Turn the auxiliary dipole antenna by 90°.

3. Click Reset, then click the Motor button on the Front Panel to activate the turntable.
4. Save the measured graphs of the normalized radiation patterns in the student’s registration
folder, and close the diagram windows.
5. Save the measurement results for H plane.
Processing the measurement results
1. Calculate mean results of four RP measurements of five-element helical antenna at both planes
1 n
saved in MS Excel template ( f mean = å f i , n = 4 , where fi and f mean correspond to f Ei and
n i =1
f Emean at E plane, and f Hi and f Hmean at H plane). Store the obtained values in the same file
by filling in Table 9.3–5 and Table 9.3–6. Be careful when filling the values of functions and the
argument q (during reverse rotation the angles are changing in descending order).

50
Table 9.3–5
q f E1 (q ) f E 2 (q ) f E 3 (q ) f E 4 (q ) f Emean (q ) f E1 (q ) - f E 2 (q ) - f E 3 (q ) - f E 4 (q ) - s
f Emean (q ) f Emean (q ) f Emean (q ) f Emean (q )

Table 9.3–6
j f H 1(j ) f H 2 (j ) f H 3 (j ) f H 4 (j ) f Hmean (j ) f H 1 (j ) - f H 2 (j ) - f Н 3 (j ) - f Н 4 (j ) -
s
f Нmean (j ) f Нmean (j ) f Нmean (j ) f Нmean (j )

If required, you can add additional rows at the end of the tables depending on the number of recorded values.
2. Determine the measurement error at both planes by the following equation:
1 n
s= å
n i =1
( f i - f mean ) 2 , n = 4 , where fi and fmean correspond to f Ei and f Emean at E plane,

and f Hi and f Hmean - at H plane. Estimate the measurement accuracy.


3. Plot the radiation pattern of helical antenna at both planes by the mean function values (see
Table 9.3–5 and Table 9.3–6).
4. Compare the mean measurement results graph parameters at E plane with the calculation
results of helical antenna in Table 9.3–4.
5. Exit the lab by clicking File > Home.
Radiation pattern examples:
1. For the E-plane:

51
2. For the H-plane:

Lab report
The Lab report should include the Calculation assignment file and the MS Excel file with the graphs
and calculations obtained during the lab according to the Experimental part section requirements.
Lab report should contain:
· Calculation data (Table 9.3–2, Table 9.3–3, Table 9.3–4, and RP graphs).
· Experimental results and data processing (Table 9.3–5 and Table 9.3–6, and RP graphs).

52
9.4 Horn Antenna
Lab objectives
1. Get acquainted with the theory and basic operating principles of horn antennas.
2. Calculate and plot radiation patterns, determine the directional parameters of horn antennas.
3. Measure the radiation patterns of horn antenna.
Background information
Horn antennas are widely used in centimeter and millimeter wave ranges. They are used as an
independent transmitting and receiving antennas for radiolocation, radio-relay communication,
measuring instrumentation, and as feeders for more complicated antennas (lens and mirror
antennas). In fact, the horn antenna is a waveguide with axially increasing cross-section.
Consider sectoral horn antenna and pyramidal horn antenna (Fig. 9.4-1):

a) E-plane sectoral b) Н-plane sectoral horn c) Pyramidal horn antenna


horn antenna antenna
Fig. 9.4-1 Horn antenna types
In sectoral horn one pair of opposite sides are parallel, while the other pair is flared. Depending on
the plane, in which the diversion takes place, the antenna behaves either as E -plane (Fig. 9.4-1a), or
H -plane (Fig. 9.4-1b) sectoral horn. If both pairs of sides are diverging, the horn is called pyramidal
(Fig. 9.4-1c).
When studying the directional characteristics of horn antennas it is considered that radiation only
takes place from the horn aperture. Directional properties of horn antennas are mainly determined
by the aperture size and the amplitude and phase distribution in the aperture.
If the flare angle is small, the amplitude of the electromagnetic field across the horn aperture both in
the horn aperture is the same as in the feeder waveguide. Square waveguides are usually excited
with H10 waves. The field amplitude distribution on the horn aperture is shown in Fig. 9.4-2. You can
see that the amplitude distribution both in the H ( xz ) plane and on the aperture are uniform,
æ px ö
whereas at the E ( yz ) plane the amplitude is distributed by the cosç ÷ law. For such amplitude
èaø
distribution, in the absence of phase distortions, the radiation patterns in planes E and H can be
described by eq. (1) and (2), respectively:
sin V
FE (V ) = (1)
V

cosV
FH (V ) = 2
(2)
æ 2V ö
1- ç ÷
èp ø

53
where
kl kl
U= sin q , V = sin j ,
2 2
q - the angle between the test point direction and the normal to the aperture,
j - surface angle,
l - horn aperture linear size ( l = bh at E plane and l = ah at H plane)
2p
k= - wavelength constant,
l
l - wavelength in open space

Fig. 9.4-2 Aperture amplitude distribution


In the case of cosine distribution the maximum side lobe level is 7 percent (minus 22 dB), and in the
case of uniform distribution - 22 percent (minus 12 dB).
Consider the phase distribution in the aperture. The wave front in the horn is either cylindrical (for
sectoral planes), or spherical (for pyramidal planes), hence the phase distribution at the edges of the
horn is not the same as in its center. The maximum phase error for sectoral horns is reached at the
a
aperture edges ( x = h ):
2
p l2
Djmax = (3)
4 lh R
where
lh - horn wavelength,
R - horn length
Phase distribution at the horn aperture can be determined from eq. (4):
p xh2
Dj = , (4)
4 lh R
Where xh is the coordinate of the point at the horn aperture, calculated along the H plane for H -
sectoral horn, and along the E plane for the E - sectoral horn.

Fig. 9.4-3 Horn antenna


In the pyramidal horn the maximum phase deviation of the field density is at the antenna aperture
corners, and can be described by eq. (5):
p æ ah2 bh2 ö
Djmax = ç + ÷ (5)
4lh è R R ø
54
Note that with the increase of the aperture size (with respect to the wavelength l ) the phase speed
of the electromagnetic wave in the horn is close to the speed of light in open space. Hence, in
relevant equations for calculation of Dj max , we can substitute the wavelength of light in open space
instead of lh .
Phase distortions at the radiating surface result in radiation pattern distortions and reduction of
directivity in the main direction.
The radiation patterns for different phase errors are shown in Fig. 9.4-4. You can see that the zeros
between lobes disappear, the level of side lobes increases, the main lobe becomes wider, and at high
values of Dy the side lobes fully merge with the widened main lobe. If y ³ p , the main lobe splits in
two, and the antenna radiates in two directions.

Fig. 9.4-4 Radiation patterns for different phase errors


55
The solid line refers to the uniform amplitude distribution at the aperture, and the dotted line - to
cosine distribution. In the case of uniform distribution, distortion of the radiation pattern at the E
plane is higher than with the cosine amplitude distribution at the H plane. Therefore, smaller phase
errors are allowed for horn antennas in the E plane, than in H plane. Usually, the permissible
p 3
phase error is equal to for E plane, and p for H plane.
2 4
The directivity of aperture type antennas (to which the horn antenna belong), can be described by
eq. (6):
4p
D=c 2 S (6)
l
where
S - antenna geometrical surface area,
c - aperture efficiency
For horn antennas aperture efficiency varies between 0.65 and 0.8. If R ® ¥ , the phase front at the
horn aperture becomes flat, the effective surface is equal to the geometric surface, and c = 1 . The
horn length is usually selected by considering the permissible phase errors at the aperture. The horn
length increases proportionally with the increase of ah2 (bh2 ) . Such rapid increase of length is one of
the main disadvantages of horn antennas and be eliminated by correction of phase distortions, by
mounting a lens at the horn aperture.
Theoretical calculations
1. Manually calculate and plot the normalized radiation pattern of the horn antenna at E plane by
the following equation:
sin U
FE (U) =
U
where
kl
U = sin q ,
2
q - is the angle between the normal to the aperture surface and the test point direction,
l - aperture linear size ( l = bh at E plane and l = ah at H plane),
2p
k= - wavelength constant,
l
l - wavelength in open space.
The calculation is performed for every 100 rise in - 90 0 £ q £ 90 0 range.
Determine the position of the first ( N = 1 ) and second ( N = 2 ) nulls of the radiation pattern (angle
q 0 ) by the following equation:
kl
sin q 0 = Np , ( N = 1; 2 )
2
For calculations use the data from Table 9.4–1, in accordance with the assigned option.
Table 9.4–1
Option 1 2 3 4 5
Aperture at H plane, ah (m)) 0.08 0.05 0.15 0.30 0.50

Aperture at E plane, bh (m) 0.06 0.07 0.15 0.30 0.40

Horn length R , cm 0.07 0,10 0.28 0.12 0.50


Wavelength l , cm 0.02 0.015 0.06 0.15 0.27

56
2. Calculate phase distribution law at the sectoral horn aperture by the following equation:
p xh2
Djmax = ,
4 lR
where xh - is the coordinate point at the horn aperture, counted along the H plane for the H -
sectoral horn, and along the E plane – for the E - sectoral horn.
The phase distribution law at the aperture is a function of xh , Df = f ( xh ) , where 0 £ xh £ ah and
0 £ xh £ bh , respectively, for H and E sectoral horn. Plot the curves for the following argument
values: xh = 0; 0.2(ah , bh ); 0.4(ah , bh ) ; 0.6(ah , bh ) ; 0.8(ah , bh ) ; 1(ah , bh ) . Enter the obtained values in
Table 9.4–2:
Table 9.4–2
First null position, Second null position, First side lobe level,
Option ah bh R l Djmax degrees degrees relative unit/dB

Hands-on procedure
Calculate and plot the normalized radiation patterns in Cartesian coordinates. Graphically determine
the beam width of the radiation pattern. For calculations use the data from Table 9.4–1, the angle
may vary from -90° to +90°. For simplicity, all the calculations are made in the lab software.
Calculation assignment
1. Double click on the Horn Antenna line in the labs menu to open the lab Front Panel. The lab

Front Panel would open. Click the icon on the Control Panel, then click the icon to
open the Horn Antenna simulation Front Panel (Fig. 9.4-5).
2. Enter the data from Table 9.4–3, in accordance with the assigned option, into the software
Front Panel. The normalized RP at E plane in Cartesian and polar coordinate systems will
appear on the screen, Fig. 9.4-5.

Fig. 9.4-5 Simulation Front Panel


Table 9.4–3
Option 1 2 3 4 5
2q0.5 , degree 30 30 28 36 25
2j0.5 , degree 27 20 25 30 25
Wavelength l ,m 0.03 0.05 0.06 0.04 0.08
3. Determine the horn size for the calculated normalized radiation pattern at E and H
planes. Then determine the first side lobe level in relative units and decibels (see The

57
angular sector and the first side lobe level determination chapter). Enter the results into
Table 9.4–4.
4. Save the results in Table 9.4–4
Table 9.4–4
Option 2q0.5 2j0.5 l a b ah bh RH RE First side lobe level,
relative units/dB

5. Save the calculation results in Table 9.4–4 and the RP screenshot. Exit the simulation
software.

Experimental part
Preparations
1. Mount the dipole antenna (10, Table 4.1–1) onto the auxiliary antenna tripod (see the Test
bench assembly chapter). The auxiliary antenna should be in the horizontal position.

2. Install the horn antenna (6, Table 4.1–1) onto the turntable tripod (see the Connecting the
measurement and automation equipment chapter). The vibrator inside the antenna should
be in the horizontal position.

3. Connect the tested and auxiliary antenna to the appropriate units (see the Connecting the
measurement and automation equipment chapter).
4. Position the tested and auxiliary antennas at the distance of r = 2m and align the antennas
along the same axis. Make sure that the feeder connection points of the tested and auxiliary
antennas are on the same height.
The distance between the antennas is the distance between feeder connection points

5. On the lab Front Panel:


­ in the Transmission Frequency field enter f = 2.4GHz
­ in the Angle step field enter the Angle step, in degrees (default value: 1)
­ in the End angle field enter the value, corresponding to the desired terminal position of
the antenna (default value: 3600).

58
6. Click the Start/Stop button on the lab Front Panel. The generated signal will be radiated by
the auxiliary antenna, and the antenna under test will receive this signal. The received signal
power is measured and displayed in the Received power field on the Front Panel.

7. Click the buttons and on the Control panel to open the Cartesian and Polar
coordinate fields. Arrange the windows, making sure that Motor button is not covered. RP
measurement in E plane.
RP measurement in E plane
1. Click the Motor button on the Front Panel to activate the turntable.
When the turntable is activated, the antenna will rotate from 00 to the End angle. The received
power is measured according to the Angle step, as defined in the Angle step field on the Front
Panel. The normalized measurement results are graphically depicted in both coordinate systems
simultaneously, and are saved in the MS Excel file. When the End angle is reached, the turntable
starts rotating in backwards direction and radiation power is measured again. The curves
obtained during reverse rotation are displayed on the same graph, in different color.
2. Save the measured graphs of the normalized radiation patterns in the student’s registration
folder.
3. Repeat the steps 1-2, clicking Erase graph in the diagram windows, then New Session in
the control panel before each measurement. The experimental results will be automatically
exported to MS Excel.

4. Open Excel clicking the MS Excel button on the Control Panel.


5. Save the measurement results for E plane.
RP measurements in H plane
1. Click Erase graph in the diagram windows and click New Session button on the Control
panel.
2. Turn the tested and auxiliary dipole antennas by 90°, aligning them vertically.

3. Click Reset, then click the Motor button on the Front Panel to activate the turntable.
4. Save the measured graphs of the normalized radiation patterns in the student’s registration
folder, and close the diagram windows.
5. Save the table with the measurement results in H plane.
Processing the measurement results
1. Calculate the mean measurement results of four radiation patterns of horn antenna at both planes
1 n
saved in Excel template ( f mean = å fi , n = 4 , where fi and f mean correspond to f Ei and f Emean at
n i=1
E plane, and f Hi and f Hmean at H plane). Save the obtained values in the same file by filling in
the tables Table 9.4–5 and Table 9.4–6. Pay attention to the values of functions and argument q
when filling in the tables (during the reverse rotation the angles are changing in descending
order).
59
Table 9.4–5
q f E1 (q ) f E 2 (q ) f E 3 (q ) f E 4 (q ) f Emean (q )f E1 (q ) - f E 2 (q ) - f E 3 (q ) - f E 4 (q ) - s
f Emean (q ) f Emean (q ) f Emean (q ) f Emean (q )

Table 9.4–6
j f H 1(j ) f H 2 (j ) f H 3 (j ) f H 4 (j ) f Hmean (jf)H 1 (j ) - f H 2 (j ) - f Н 3 (j ) - f Н 4 (j ) - s
f Нmean (j ) f Нmean (j ) f Нmean (j ) f Нmean (j )

If required, you can add additional rows at the end of the tables depending on the number of recorded values.

2. Determine the measurement error at both planes by the following equation:


n
1
s= å
n i =1
( f i - f mean ) 2 , n = 4 , where fi and f mean correspond to f Ei and f Emean at E plane, and

f Hi and f Hmean - at H plane. Estimate the measurement accuracy.


3. Plot the horn antenna radiation pattern at both planes by the mean function values (see Table
9.4–5 and Table 9.4–6).
4. Exit the lab by clicking File -> Home.
Radiation pattern examples:
1. For the E-plane:

60
2. For the H-plane:

Lab report
Lab report should include the Calculation assignment file and the MS Excel file with the graphs
obtained according to the requirements of the Experimental part section above.
Lab report should include:
1. Calculation data (Table 9.4–2 - Table 9.4–4) and the graphs of calculation patterns at both
planes and the phase distribution curves at both planes.
2. Experimental results and data processing (Table 9.4–5 and Table 9.4–6) and radiation pattern
graphs.

61
9.5 Parabolic Antenna
Lab objectives
1. Get acquainted with the theory and basic operating principles of parabolic-mirror antennas.
2. Calculate and plot the radiation patterns, determine the directional parameters of parabolic
mirror antennas.
3. Measure the radiation patterns of parabolic mirror antennas.
Background information
Mirror antennas are used in different wavelength ranges: from optical to ultrashort waves. They are
widely used due to simplicity of construction, the possibility of obtaining different radiation patterns,
high efficiency, low noise temperature and wide range, etc.
There are various types of mirror antennas: single-, double- and multimirror antennas with parabolic,
spherical or other shapes of main mirror.
Parabolic-mirror antennas can be implemented as a paraboloid of rotation, parabolic cylinder with
restricted parallel conducting planes, or parabolic by segment (Fig. 9.5-1).

Fig. 9.5-1 Parabolic mirror antenna types


The paraboloid of rotation is excited by a feed element with low directivity (i.e. horn, or a dipole with
reflector), installed in the focus, which transforms the feeder’s spherical wave front into a flat
wavefront. The paraboloid cylinder is excited by a linear antenna mounted on the focal line, which
transforms the cylindrical wavefront into a flat wavefront.
Any rays from the focus to the parabola surface are then reflected and become parallel to the
parabola axis. The path traveled from the focus to the parabola surface and then to the aperture
plane is the same for any angle a (Fig. 9.5-2).

Aperture
Vertex
R
a F z
D

2amax

Fig. 9.5-2 Parabolic mirror antenna aperture


Thus, a cophasal surface is formed at the paraboloid aperture and antenna’s radiation becomes
highly directional.
Antennas with low directivity are used as feed elements. The feed phase center is matched with the
mirror focus point. At the same time, the feeder should create a spherical or close to spherical wave
within the mirror’s aperture angle. A feeder with minimum possible size is recommended, to avoid
aperture obscuration. The feeder’s radiation pattern should provide the required amplitude
distribution at the aperture with minimum energy spill over the mirror’s edge, along with axial

62
symmetry and minimum side- and back lobes. The bandwidth properties of parabolic antennas
mainly depend on the feeder. The feeder and its feeding tract should be calculated and designed to
provide the transmission of power without breakdown of the dielectric. Besides dipole, slot-, spiral-
and open waveguide aperture feeders can also be used.
In this laboratory we shall use a dipole antenna as the feeder.
The accuracy of manufacturing also affects the radiation pattern of a mirror antenna. Phase errors
occur as a result of improper implementation of the antenna. The cophasal excitation of the aperture
p
is considered good enough if an accuracy of ± is achieved. In that case the antenna gain losses are
8
within a few percent.
By shifting the feeder across the focal axis (Δx in Fig. 9.5-3) we can change the direction of maximum
radiation and control the mirror antenna radiation pattern. The deviation of maximum radiation
direction is opposite to the direction of shifting, as it is shown in Fig. 9.5-3.

A
j (x)

Vmax

Fig. 9.5-3 Changing the parabolic antenna radiation direction


This beam deflection is called electromechanical scanning. The permissible angle of
electromechanical scanning is limited by cubic phase errors at the aperture.
During electromechanical scanning the main lobe widens and becomes asymmetrical with respect to
its maximum, the side lobes increase sharply at the side opposite to the radiation pattern shift (Fig.
9.5-3b). The capacity for electromechanical scanning is higher for long-focus antennas. Normally, it
does not exceed (100 - 200 )q0.5 . At higher angles of radiation it deteriorates quickly, and the
antenna’s directivity decreases.
Theoretical calculations
1. Calculate the half-power beam width of the parabolic antenna at E and H planes by the
following equations:
l
2q0.5
E
= 750
D
l
2j0.5
H
= 700
D
where D - is the antenna’s aperture diameter.
2. Calculate the field phase distribution law at the antenna aperture dragging the feeder along the
axis by the value of Df :
æ r S2 ö
Dy = k 2Df çç1 - ÷÷
è [
(2 f ) 2 + r S2 ] ø
where

63
f - the focal distance,
D D
r S - current z coordinate (which may vary from zero to r S = , in Dr S = steps),
2 10
2p
k= - wavelength constant,
l
Df - bias along the mirror axis (Df = 0.03m)
For calculations use the data from Table 9.5–1, in accordance with the assigned option.
Table 9.5–1
Option 1 2 3 4 5
Wavelength l , m 0.05 0.32 0.08 0.05 0.1
Mirror diameter D , m 1 5 4 7 12
Focal distance f , m 0.3 0.5 3 3 4
Pattern pitch a , degree 5
3. Calculate the feeder bias (D) when dragging it across the axis by the following equation:
D = f tga
where
f - focal distance
a - pattern pitch angle during electromechanical scanning
4. Calculate antenna gain by the following equation:
4p
G = 2 Seff h
l
where
p D2
Seff - antenna effective square: Seff = c ,
4
h - efficiency (h = 1) ,
c - aperture efficiency ( c = 0.5 ).
Enter the obtained results into the Table 9.5–2.

Table 9.5–2
Option l D f a 2q0.5 2j0.5 D G

Hands-on procedure
Calculate and plot the normalized RP in Cartesian coordinate system. Graphically determine the
beam width of the radiation pattern. For calculations use the data from Table 9.5–1, the angle may
vary from -180° to +180°. For simplicity, all the calculations are made in the lab software.
Calculation assignment
1. Double click on the Parabolic Antenna line in the labs menu. The lab Front Panel would open. Click

the icon on the Control Panel, then click the icon to open the Parabolic Antenna
simulation Front Panel (Fig. 9.5-4).
2. Enter the data from Table 9.5–3, in accordance with the assigned option, into the software Front
Panel. The normalized RP at E plane in Cartesian and polar coordinate systems will appear on the
screen, Fig. 9.5-4.

64
Fig. 9.5-4 Simulation Front Panel
Table 9.5–3
Option 1 2 3 4 5
2q0.5 , degree 15 25 24 18 10
Wavelength l , m 0.032 0.05 0.06 0.045 0.008
3. Determine the dimensions of the mirror antenna for the calculated normalized RP. Then
determine the first side lobe level, in relative units and decibels (see The angular sector and
the first side lobe level determination chapter).
4. Enter the obtained results in Table 9.5–4:
Table 9.5–4
l 2q0.5 R f First side lobe level in relative units

5. Save the calculation results in Table 9.5–4 and the RP screenshot. Exit the simulation program.

Experimental part
Preparations
1. Mount the dipole antenna (10, Table 4.1–1) onto the auxiliary antenna tripod (see the Test bench
assembly chapter). The auxiliary antenna should be in the horizontal position.

2. Install the antenna with the parabolic reflector onto the tested antenna tripod (see the Test bench
assembly chapter). Make sure that the feeder of the tested mirror antenna is in horizontal position
as shown in the figure below (depending on antenna revision).

or
3. Connect the tested and auxiliary antenna to the appropriate units (see the Connecting the
measurement and automation equipment chapter).

65
4. Position the tested and auxiliary antennas at the distance of r = 2m and align the antennas along
the same axis. Make sure that the feeder connection points of the tested and auxiliary antennas
are on the same height.
The distance between the antennas is the distance between feeder connection points

5. On the lab Front Panel:


­ in the Transmission Frequency field enter f = 2.4GHz
­ in the Angle step field enter the Angle step, in degrees (default value: 1)
­ in the End angle field enter the value, corresponding to the desired terminal position of
the antenna (default value: 3600).
6. Click the *Start/Stop* button on the lab Front Panel. The generated signal will be radiated by the
auxiliary antenna, and the antenna under test receives this signal. The received signal power is
measured and displayed, in decibels, in the Received power field on the Front Panel.

7. Click the buttons and on the Control panel to open the Cartesian and Polar coordinate
fields. Arrange the windows, making sure that Motor button is not covered.
RP measurement in E plane
8. Click Reset, then click the Motor button on the Front Panel to activate the turntable.
When the turntable is activated, the antenna will rotate from 00 to the End angle. The received
power is measured according to the Angle step, as defined in the Angle step field on the Front
Panel. The normalized measurement results are graphically depicted in both coordinate systems
simultaneously, and are saved in the MS Excel file. When the End angle is reached, the turntable
starts rotating in backwards direction and radiation power is measured again. The curves
obtained during reverse rotation are displayed on the same graph, in different color.
9. Save the measured graphs of the normalized radiation patterns in the student’s registration folder.
10. Repeat the steps 1-2, clicking Erase graph in the diagram windows, then New Session in the
control panel before each measurement. The experimental results will be automatically exported
to MS Excel.

11. Open Excel clicking the MS Excel button on the Control Panel.
12. Save the measurement results for E plane.

66
RP measurements in H plane
1. Click Erase graph in the diagram windows and click New Session button on the Control panel.
2. Turn the tested and auxiliary dipole antennas by 90°, aligning them vertically.

or

Make sure that the arrow on parabolic antenna feeder is looking upwards
3. Repeat the steps 3-13 of RP measurement in E plane section.
4. Save the measurement results for H plane.
Processing the measurement results
Calculate mean results of four RP measurements at both planes saved in the Excel file (
1 n
f mean = å fi , n = 4 , where fi and f mean correspond to f Ei and f Emean at E plane, and to f Hi and
n i=1
f Hmean - at H plane). Save the calculated values in the same file by filling in Table 9.5–5 (at E plane,
for zero-biased focus), Table 9.5–6 (at H plane for zero-biased focus). When filling in the tables pay
attention to the values of functions and the argument q (during the reverse rotation the angles are
changing in descending order).
Table 9.5–5
q f E1 (q ) f E 2 (q ) f E 3 (q ) f E 4 (q ) f Emean (q ) f E1 (q ) - f E 2 (q ) - f E 3 (q ) - f E 4 (q ) - s
f Emean (q ) f Emean (q ) f Emean (q ) f Emean (q )

Table 9.5–6
j f H 1 (j ) f H 2 (j ) f H 3 (j ) f H 4 (j ) f Hmean (j )f H 1 (j ) - f H 2 (j ) - f H 3 (j ) - f H 4 (j ) - s
-
f Hmean (j ) f Hmean (j ) f Hmean (j ) f Hmean (j )

If required, you can insert additional lines at the end of the tables Table 9.5–5, Table 9.5–6, depending on the number of
the variable fixed values.

67
1. Determine the measurement error at both planes by the following expression:

1 n
s= å ( fi - f mean ) 2 , n = 4 , where fi and fmean correspond to f Ei and f Emean at E plane
n i =1
and to f Hi and f Hmean - at H plane. Estimate the measurement accuracy.
Plot the antenna RP for all options by the mean function values (Table 9.5–5, Table 9.5–6).
2. Compare the graph parameters with the mean measurement results at E plane.
3. Exit the lab by clicking File -> Home.
Radiation pattern examples:
1. For the E-plane:

2. For the H-plane:

Lab report
Lab report should include the Excel file containing the plots and calculations according to the
Experimental part section requirements.
All the data obtained should be and graphs.
The report should include:
· Calculation data (Table 9.5–2 - Table 9.5–4) and the phase distribution curve at the
aperture of the antenna.
· Experimental results (Table 9.5–5, Table 9.5–6) and the radiation pattern graphs.

68
9.6 Cophasal Antenna Array
Lab objectives
1. Get acquainted with the theory and basic operating principles of interferometers and antenna
grid arrays. Study the influence of the amplitude and phase distribution of the field on the
antenna’s main parameters.
2. Calculate and plot the radiation patterns of antenna arrays, determine the conditions which
result in formation of side lobes.
3. Measure the radiation patterns of cophasal antenna arrays.
Background information
Multidipole Cophasal Arrays
Narrow beams are often required, for concentration of radiated electromagnetic waves. This can be
achieved by using several dipoles in a grid, which are excited cophasally and uniformly.
Suppose there are m symmetric dipole arrays. The distance between the centers of neighboring
dipoles is equal to d1 , and the distance between the neighboring dipole arrays is d2 . This system is
called a planar two-dimensional dipole array. Normally, such arrays may be comprised of any number
of identical feeders which are similarly oriented in the space. In this lab the antenna array is
comprised of patch-dipoles located at the distance l = 0.125m .
If the antenna is comprised of a linear dipole array positioned along a certain axis, the field density in
the far field, in the direction at angle q to the normal to the line of dipoles:
r r r r r
E = E1 + E2 + E3 + K En (1)
r r r r
where E1 , E 2 , E 3 K E n - field density vectors created by the independent dipoles

Fig. 9.6-1 Field density vectors created by linear dipoles


Since the distance to the point of field measurement exceeds several times the dipole chain length,
r r r r
E1 , E 2 , E 3 K E n are practically equal in size, and may vary only by the phase shift induced by the
difference of beam travel path, due to the different distances between the dipoles and the reception
point: d12 = d sin q , where d – is the distance between the centers of two neighboring dipoles.
The strength of the resulting electric field can be determined from eq. (2):
é nkd ù
r r sin êë 2 sin q úû i ( n-1) kd sin q
E = E1 e 2 (2)
é kd ù
sin ê sin q ú
ë 2 û
where
n - the number of dipoles,
k - wavelength constant,
d - distance between the centers of two neighboring dipoles
E 1 – field density of the first dipole.
For a symmetric dipole the field density can be determined from eq. (3):

69
60 Ibeam cos(kL sin q ) - cos kL
E1 = i × (3)
r cos q
i ( n - 1)
kd sin q
e 2
= e iy (q ) e - ikr (4)
where
y (q ) – directional phase characteristic,
I beam - loop current,
L - dipole length,
r - distance to the test point.
In the general cased, eq. (2) can be represented as follows:
E = Af1 (q ) f C (q )e iy (q ) e -ikr (5)
where
f1(q ) - directional characteristic of the antenna array element
fC (q ) - system multiplier, i.e. directional characteristic of a linear system comprised of non-
directional dipoles
A - a constant.
If the phase reference point is selected at the geometrical center of the antenna, the phase
characteristic y (q ) will be constant and the multiplier e iy (q ) in eq. (4) can be neglected, meaning
that the tested antenna emits a spherical wave front with phase center at its geometrical center. If
the number of dipoles is large, the directional characteristic of a strip dipoles is mainly determined by
the system multiplier:
é nkd ù
sin ê sin q ú
f C (q ) = ë 2 û (6)
é kd ù
sin ê sin q ú
ë 2 û
kd
or, by denoting x = sin q ,
2
sin nx
f C (q ) = (7)
sin x
Note that f c (q ) is maximal (and equal to n ) when q = 0 0 .
The normalized RP is determined as the ratio of E / Emax and it is denoted F (q ) .
The radiation pattern of cophasal antenna array (CAA) determined by the expression (7) is a
multilobe pattern (Fig. 9.6-2).
cos( kl cos q ) - cos kl sin nx
F (q ) = × (8)
sin q (1 - cos kl ) n sin x

Fig. 9.6-2 Radiation pattern of CAA


The field density of the antenna radiation field is maximized in the direction q = 0 0 . Separate dipole
fields in this direction are summarized arithmetically and are cophasal.

70
If the antenna is comprised of several arrays of linear cophasally excited dipoles arranged in the same
plane (Fig. 9.6-3), the system multiplier can be determined from eq. (9):
é n kd ù é n kd ù
sin ê 1 1 sin q cos j ú sin ê 2 2 sin q sin j ú
ë 2 û× ë 2 û
f C (q , j ) = (9)
é 1
kd ù é 2
kd ù
sin ê sin q cos j ú sin ê sin q sin j ú
ë 2 û ë 2 û

Fig. 9.6-3 Linear antenna array


If the currents of the dipole array are out of phase, and there is a constant phase shift y between
the neighboring dipoles, the system multiplier for the dipole array can be determined from eq. (10):
én ù
sin ê ( kd sin q - y ) ú
f C (q ) = ë2 û (10)
é1 ù
sin ê (kd sin q - y ) ú
ë2 û
The radiation is maximal at the angle q max and can be determined from eq. (11):
y yl
sin q max = = (11)
kd 2pd
Obviously, the direction of maximum radiation changes with the change of y .
Similarly, we can change the direction of maximum radiation of the antenna comprised of several
dipole arrays by changing the angles q 1 and j 1 , respectively.

Hands-on procedure
Calculate and plot the normalized radiation patterns of cophasal antenna array comprised of dipole,
horn, helical and mirror antennas by (5) and (9) in Cartesian coordinates. Graphically determine the
beam width of the radiation pattern. For simplicity, all the calculations are made in the lab software.
Calculation assignment
1. Double click on the Cophasal Antenna Array line in the labs menu. The lab Front Panel will

open. Click the icon on the Control Panel, then click the icon to open the Cophasal
Antenna Array simulation Front Panel (Fig. 9.6-4).
2. Enter the data from Table 9.6–1, in accordance with the assigned option, into the software
Front Panel. The normalized RP at E plane in Cartesian and polar coordinate systems will
appear on the screen, Fig. 9.6-4.
Other initial data required for calculations for the array elements used for dipole, horn, helical
and mirror antennas are provided by the Calculation assignment of the corresponding
antenna in hands-on experiments 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4, and 9.5.

71
Fig. 9.6-4 Simulation Front Panel
3. Graphically determine the beam width (angular sector 2q0.5 (2j0.5 ) ) for each obtained
normalized RP. Also determine the first side lobe level, in relative units and decibels (see The
angular sector and the first side lobe level determination chapter).
4. Enter the results into the Table 9.6–2.
5. Separately calculate the approximated half-power width of CAA RP (by dipole feeders) by
zeroes and at E plane by the following equations:
l
2q0.5 = 51
n1d1
and at H plane by the following expressions:
l
2j0.5 = 51
n2d2
6. Compare the obtained results with the experimentally obtained data from the computer
calculations of CAA of diploe antennas.
7. Save the calculation results in Table 9.6–2 and the RP screenshot. Exit the simulation
software.
Table 9.6–1
Option 1 2 3 4 5
Wavelength l , m 0.3 1 0.4 0.12 0.24
Number of elements along X axis, nx 10 5 7 100 70
Number of elements along Y axis, ny 10 2 10 100 60
Distance between the elements, d x , m 0.4 0.6 0.45 0.7 0.2
Distance between elements, dy , m 0.5 0.6 0.45 0.7 0.2

Table 9.6–2
CAA Feeder type 2q0.5 2j0.5 RP main lobes number First side lobe level, relative units/dB
Dipole feeders
Director-type feeders
Helical antennas
Horn antennas
Mirror antennas

72
Experimental part
Preparations
1. Mount the dipole antenna (10, Table 4.1–1) onto the auxiliary antenna tripod (see the Test
bench assembly chapter). The auxiliary antenna should be in the horizontal position.

2. Install the CAA (5, Table 4.1–1) onto the tested antenna tripod (see the Test bench assembly
chapter).
3. Connect the Horizontal polarized output of the tested antenna to the appropriate unit (see
the Connecting the measurement and automation equipment chapter).

or
4. Position the tested and auxiliary antennas at the distance of r = 1.5m and align the antennas
along the same axis. Make sure that the feeder connection points of the tested and auxiliary
antennas are on the same height
The distance between the antennas is the distance between feeder connection points

5. On the lab Front Panel:


­ in the Transmission Frequency field enter f = 2.4GHz
­ in the Angle step field enter the Angle step, in degrees (default value: 1)
­ in the End angle field enter the value, corresponding to the desired terminal position of
the antenna (default value: 3600).
6. Click the *Start/Stop* button on the lab Front Panel. The generated signal will be radiated by
the auxiliary antenna, and the antenna under test receives this signal. The received signal
power is measured and displayed, in decibels, in the Received power field on the Front Panel.

7. Click the buttons and on the Control panel to open the Cartesian and Polar
coordinate fields. Arrange the windows, making sure that Motor button is not covered.

73
RP measurement in E plane
1. Click Reset, then click the Motor button on the Front Panel to activate the turntable.
When the turntable is activated, the antenna will rotate from 00 to the End angle. The received
power is measured according to the Angle step, as defined in the Angle step field on the Front
Panel. The normalized measurement results are graphically depicted in both coordinate systems
simultaneously, and are saved in the MS Excel file. When the End angle is reached, the turntable
starts rotating in backwards direction and radiation power is measured again. The curves
obtained during reverse rotation are displayed on the same graph, in different color.
2. Save the measured graphs of the normalized radiation patterns in the student’s registration
folder.
3. Repeat the steps 1-2, clicking Erase graph in the diagram windows, then New Session in
the control panel before each measurement. The experimental results will be automatically
exported to MS Excel.

4. Open Excel clicking the MS Excel button on the Control Panel.


5. Save the measurement results for E plane.
RP measurement in H plane
1. Click Erase graph in the diagram windows and click New Session button on the Control
panel.
2. Turn the tested and auxiliary dipole antennas by 90°, aligning them vertically.
3. Connect Vertical polarized output of the tested antenna to the appropriate unit (see the
Connecting the measurement and automation equipment chapter).

3. Click Reset, then click the Motor button on the Front Panel to activate the turntable.
4. Save the measured graphs of the normalized radiation patterns in the student’s registration
folder, and close the diagram windows.
5. Save the obtained measurement results at H plane.
Processing the measurement results
Calculate mean measurement results of four RP measurements of the five-element director antenna
1 n
at both planes saved in Excel template file ( f mean = å fi , n = 4 , where fi and f mean correspond to
n i=1
f Ei and f Emean at E plane, and to f Hi and f Hmean - at H plane). Save the obtained values in the
same file by filling in the tables Table 9.6–3 and Table 9.6–4. Pay attention to the values of functions
and the argument q (during the reverse rotation the angles are changed in descending order).
Table 9.6–3
q f (q ) f (q ) f (q ) f (q ) f (q ) f (q ) - f (q ) - f (q ) - f (q ) - s
E1 E2 E3 E4 Emean E1 E2 E3 E4

f Emean (q ) f Emean (q ) f Emean (q ) f Emean (q )

74
Table 9.6–4
j f H 1 (j ) f H 2 (j ) f H 3 (j ) f H 4 (j ) f Hmean (j )f H 1 (j ) - f H 2 (j ) - f H 3 (j ) - f H 4 (j ) - s
f Hmean (j ) f Hmean (j ) f Hmean (j ) f Hmean (j )

You can add additional lines at the end of the tables Table 9.6–3 and Table 9.6–4 depending on the number of
variable fixed values.

1 n
1. Determine the measurement error at both planes by the equation s = å
n i =1
( f i - f mean ) 2 ,

where fi and f mean correspond to f Ei and f Emean at E plane, and to f Hi and f Hmean ( n = 4 ) -
at H plane. Estimate the measurement accuracy.
2. Plot the radiation pattern of CAA at both planes by the mean function values (Table 9.6–3 and
Table 9.6–4).
3. Exit the lab by clicking File -> Home.
Radiation pattern examples:
1. For the E-plane:

2. For the H-plane:

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Lab report
Lab report should include the Calculation assignment file and the Excel file containing the graphs and
calculations according to the Experimental part section requirements.
All the results should be and graphs.
The report should include:
· Calculation data (Table 9.6–2)
· The experimental results, processing the results (Table 9.6–3 and Table 9.6–4) and RP graphs.

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