NORTHERN TECHNICAL COLLEGE

DISTANCE LEARNING

Programme: ELECTRICAL DIPLOMA

Subject : ENGINEERING SCIENCE

Module Title: ENGINEERING SCIENCE I

Module No : II

Copyright : No part of this module can be used or reproduced without

permission of
NORTEC

Prepared By:
Saviour Muma

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Table of Contents
FOREWORD........................................................................................................ 2
OBJECTIVES....................................................................................................3

MOMENTS..............................................................................................................................................4

LINEAR MOTION.....................................................................................................................................8

PROJECTILES..........................................................................................................................................14

ANGULAR MOTION...............................................................................................................................20

NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION..............................................................................................................35

FRICTION ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..42

LINEAR MOMENTUM ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………51

WORK , ENERGY AND POWER …………………………………………………………………………………………………………56

STRAIN AND STRESS ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..62

HEAT AND TEMPERATURE ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………65

GAS LAWS ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………72

RADIOACTIVITY……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….75

OXIDATION AND REDUCTION …………………………………………………………………………………………………………78

ACIDS AND BASES …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..79

ELECTROLYSIS………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….81

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FOREWORD
Subject introduction
Dear student,
Welcome to this module in advanced technician in mechanical engineering.
The contents of the module will impart you with skills needed to understand the
motion of machines, behaviour of fluids and most importantly you be ready to
deal with advanced courses like fluid mechanics and thermodynamics in second
year.
The contents of this module will take you through the understanding of
moments, linear motion, projectiles, angular and rotational motion involving
friction, work energy and power, strain and stress, heat, gas laws, electrolysis,
radioactivity and determination of acidity and basicity of solutions.

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OBJECTIVES: At the end of this module, the trainee willbe able to:

1. Define a moment
2. Determine unknown quantities using the principle of moments
3. Determine velocity and acceleration for an object moving in a straight
line
4. Calculate range, height and time of flight for a projectile
5. Determine speed and acceleration for angular motion
6. Calculate centripetal force for an object undergoing circular motion
7. Define force
8. Explain the difference between motion and inertia
9. Explain the first, second and third laws of Newton’s law of
10.Determine acceleration and friction on an inclined plane.
11.Explain the concept of heat transfer.
12.Explain behavior of gases under different conditions.
13.Determine the activity and number of particles in radioactive substances.
14.Calculate the acidity and basicity of solutions.
15.Determine the quantity of electricity needed in electrolytic calculations.

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UNIT1: MOMENTS

This unit will enable you learn one of the effects of a force.
A force when applied at a point may cause an object to:
i.) Move in the direction of the force.
ii.) Get deformed (change original shape).
iii.) Turn about a point.etc

Well, in this unit we will specifically be looking at the turning effect of a

force.
Definition: A moment is the measure of the turning effect of a force.
A moment is calculated by multiplying the perpendicular distance from the line
of action of the force to the pivot.
Lets us look at the two diagrams below.

(a) (b)

In diagram (b) above the distance to consider when finding the moment is d1
and not d2. This is because d2 is not perpendicular to the line of action of the
force
 A moment has units of measurement in Newton-metres (NM)
 A force which has the tendency of turning the beam in a clockwise
direction causes a clockwise moment.
 A force that tends to rotate the beam in an anticlockwise direction causes
an anticlockwise moment.

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PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS

The principle of moments states that for an object in rotational equilibrium the
sum of clockwise moments must be equal to the sum of anticlockwise moments
about the pivot.

EXAMPLES
1. Calculate the reaction force R and the distance x if the beam shown
below is in equilibrium.

SOLUTION

Taking moments at R
Sum of anticlockwise moments = sum of clockwise moments
10x = 22( 7 – x)
10x = 154 – 22x
32x = 154

X = 4.81m

Sum of upward force = sum of downward forces

2. Determine the magnitudes of R1 and R2 for the beam shown below for it
to remain at rest.

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 SOLUTION

the 2kg mass should be converted to weight

W = mg
W = 2 x 9.81 = 19.6N

Taking moments at R1

Sum of anticlockwise moments = sum of clockwise moments

5R2 = 15 x 1 + 19.6 x 3
R2 = 14.76N

Sum of upward forces = sum of downward forces

R1 + R2 = 15 + 19.6
R1 = 34.6 -14.76

R1 = 19.8N

Evaluation Exercise

1. The beam shown in the diagram below is loaded such that the system is
in equilibrium. Determine the magnitudes of the reactions R1 and R2 if the
beam is 6m long
2.

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2.Ametre rule is found to balance at the 49cm mark when a mass of 50kg is
suspended at the 10cm mark. The point of the pivot is found to be at the
36cmmark. Calculate the mass of the rule.

3. Below is a diagram that is in equilibrium. Determine the magnitude of R

and L.

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UNIT 1.1:LINEAR MOTION
Linear motion refers to the movement of an object in a straight line.

IMPORTANT TERM AND DEFINITIONS

The following terms, which will be frequently used in this chapter, should be
clearly understood.

i.)Displacement – is the distance moved in a specific direction.

ii.)Speed – is the rate of change of distance.
iii.)Velocity – is the rate of change of displacement.
iv.)Acceleration- is the rate of change of velocity.

MOTION UNDER UNIFORM ACCELERATION

For a particle moving under uniform acceleration, the following equations

apply;
1. v = u +at
2. V2 = u2 + 2as
1
3. s = ut + 2 at2

4. s = ( u+2 v )2
Where u = Initial velocity
v = final velocity,
a = acceleration,
s = displacement,
t = time taken.

EXAMPLES
1.A car starting from rest is accelerated at the rate of 0.4m/s2. Find the
distanced covered by the car in 10 seconds?
Before any calculation is done it is important to extract data from the the given
question.

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In starting from rest it means u = 0m/s. So have
U = 0m/s, a = 0.4m/s2, t = 10s,S = ?
1
Using the equation S = ut + 2 at2
1
= 0x10 + 2 x0.4x (10)2

= 20m

2. A motor bike initially travelling with a velocity of 40m/s is slowed down by

applying brakes. If the retardation is 8m/s2, Determine;
(i) The velocity after covering 50m,
(ii) How long it takes to cover 50m.
SOLUTION
u = 40m/s,
retardation is negative acceleration.
a = -8m/s2
s = 50m
using the equation
V2 = u2 + 2as
V2 = (40)2 +2 x (50)2
= 800
V = √ 800
= 28.3m/s
From the equation V = u +at, we make t the subject of the formula.
v−u 28.3−40
t= a = −8
t = 1.46seconds.
Graphs can be used to represent motion of objects moving in a straight line.
And problems can be solved using graphs.

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 Examples
1.A train accelerates uniformly from rest to reach a velocity of 54km/h in 200
Seconds, after which the velocity remained constant for 300 seconds. At the
End of this time, the train decelerates to rest in 150 seconds.
Sketch the velocity – time graph and find the total distance travelled.
SOLUTION
We can tabulate the data given in the question.
5
54km/h = 54 x 18 = 15m/s

Velocity 0 15 15 0
Time 0 200 500 650

The sketch of the tabulated data is as shown below.

For freely falling objects, the same equations of motion apply except:
a g
s h
Examples
(i)A ball is thrown vertically upwards at 40m/s,calculate:

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a.)The greatest height reached
b.)The time taken to return to the ground.

Solution
Data
(a)u = 40m/s
v = 0m/s. Anything thrown upwards has a velocity equal to zero at maximum
Height
g = - 9.81m/s2.

Using the equation v2 = u2 + 2gh

2 2
v −u
h=
2g
2 2
(0) −(40)
=
2 x −9.81
= 81.55m
(b)Using the equation
V = u +at and making t the subject of the formula, we have
v−u
T= g

0−40
= −9.81

= 4.08sec.This the time taken to go up

The time taken to go up is equal to time taken to come down
Thus total time taken for all journey
t = 4.08x 2
= 8.16sec

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(ii)A stone is thrown upwards with a velocity of 4.9m/s from the top of the
bridge. If it falls down in water after 2 seconds, find the height of the bridge.

Solution
Data
u = 4.9m/s
v= 0m/s
g = -9.81
t = 2sec
Using the equation
1
h = ut + 2 gt2
1
= 4.9 x 2 + 2 x (-9.81) x (2)2

= -9.82m
The height of the bridge is 9.82m
The negative sign is an indication that the height is below the throwing point

Self evaluation exercise

1. A car starts from rest and attains a speed of 40m/s in 20 seconds.
It maintains this speed for 30 seconds and it is then brought to rest
at a uniform rate in 540m. For the motion of this car;l
(i)Draw the velocity – time
(ii)Determine the uniform acceleration
(iii)Determine the uniform retardation
(iv)Calculate the total displacement for the whole journey
2. A ball is thrown vertically upwards at a velocity of 80m/s from the
top of a 90m high building. Calculate;
(i)maximum height reached by the ball above the building
(ii)time taken to reach the maximum height
(iii)velocity of the ball just before hitting the ground
(iv)duration of the whole motion

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 UNIT 1.3:PROJECTILE MOTION

Definition:A projectile is an object propelled into air at an angle to the

horizontal and moves under the influence of its own weight.
Examples of projectiles
a.)A golf ball in flight
b.)A tennis in flight
c.)A bullet in flight
Consider a ball that is thrown with an initial velocity u at an angle θ to the
horizontal

The path taken by a projectile is called the trajectory.

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 The angle θ the projectile makes with the horizontal is called the angle of
projection.
The distance the projectile covers along the horizontal direction is called
the Range.
As the projectile moves upwards, it covers both horizontal as well as
vertical distances.
We now look at the horizontal distance.

HORIZONTAL COMPONENTS
There is no horizontal component of acceleration in the horizontal
direction.
The velocity in the horizontal direction is constant,i.e.
From Vx =Ux + at
Since ax = 0
and Ux = Ucosθ, then
Vx = Ucosθ…………………………………………………..(i)
The distance moved in the x-direction is given by
X = Vxt, where t is the time of flight
Thus x = Utcosθ
OR
R = Utcosθ………………………………………….(ii)
Where R is called the range.

VERTICAL COMPONENTS
At maximum height, B, Vy = 0
From V = U + at
when U = Usinθ and
a = -g
We have
0 = Usinθ - gt
USinθ
tm = g
………………………………(iii)
tm is the time taken to reach maximum height

TIME OF FLIGHT
This is the time taken to complete the whole journey of flight from point A
to point C.
USinθ
Since tm = g
from A to B
But time taken to move from A to B is equal to time taken to move
from B to C

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 Therefore total time of flight is 2tm

2USinθ
t = g
………………………………………(iv)

MAXIMUM HEIGHT REACHED

1
From S=H = Uxtm + 2 a(tm)2
And when Ux =sinθ
USinθ
t = g

We have H =UxUsinθ X g
USinθ 1
- 2g ( USinθ
g )
2

2 2
U sin θ
H= ………………………………………………(v)
2g

USinθ
Using t = g in the equation R = Utcosθ

2
U sin 2 θ
We have R = …………………………………………..(vi)
g

Examples
1.A particle is propelled from O with speed of 30m/s at an angle of 30 0 to
the horizontal.

Find:
a.) The time of flight
b.) Range of flight
c.) The maximum height reached

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 Solution
2USinθ
a.) t = g
2 x 30 xsin 30
= 9.81
t =3.06s
2
U sin 2 θ
b.) R =
g
2
30 sin ( 2 x 30 )
=
9.81
=79.53m
2 2
U sin θ
d.) H =
2g
2 2
30 sin 30
=
2 x 9.81

H =11.48m

2.From the edge of the cliff 60m high, a stone is thrown into air with speed
of 10m/s at an angle of 30o to the horizontal as shown below.

Find;
a.)The time of flight
b.)How far from the foot of the cliff does it strike the sea
c.)the velocity with which it strikes the sea.

Solution

Taking the upward position above the throwing point as positive and

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 g(acceleration due to gravity) when stone is going up as negative
1
a.)Using H = Ut + 2 gt2
1
We have -60 =Usin30 - 2 x9.81xt2
-60 = 10x0.5t -4.9t2

4.9t2 -5t – 60 = 0 This is a quadratic equation

−b ± √ b 2−4 ac
Using the formula x =
2a

t = 5 ± √52 −4 (4.9)¿ ¿ ¿
t = 4.05sec OR t = -3.03 this is invalid
Thus t=4.05sec
b.) R =Utcosθ
R = 10x 4.05 x cos300
R = 35.07m

c.)Vy = usin30 – gt from the equation v = u +at

Vy = 10sin30 -9.8 x 4.05
Vy = -34.69m/s
Vx = Ucos30
10x cos30
=8.66m/s

VR = √ 8.662 +34.692

VR = 35.75m/s This is the velocity with which the stone hits the ground.

3.An arrow is short with a velocity of 30m/s at an angle of 37 o above the

horizontal. The arrow is initially 2.0m above the ground and 15.0m from
the wall as shown below.

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 a.)At what height above the ground does it hit the wall?
b.)Is it going up just before it hits the wall or is it already on its way down?

Solution
When the arrow is going up the quantities velocity, acceleration due to
gravity and height are given the following signs
Velocity = +Ve
Gravitational acceleration = -Ve
Height = +ve
When the arrow is going down the quantities velocity, acceleration due to
gravity and height are given the following signs
Velocity = -Ve
Gravitational acceleration = +Ve
Height = -ve
Using the Trajectory equation

Y = xtanθ - ( 2
g
2
2u cos θ )
x
2

X= 15m, u= 30m/s, θ = 37o

Y = xtanθ - ( 2
g
2
2u cos θ )
x
2

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 = 15 tan370 - ( 2
9.8
2 X 30 X (cos 37))
2 (15)
2

= 9.38m
b.)Since Y = +ve, the arrow is going up.

Self Evaluation Exercise

1.A particle is propelled with a speed of 20m/s and reaches its

greatest height above the point of projection 1 second later. Find;
(i)the angle of projection
(ii)the greatest height

2.A golfer drives a ball horizontally at 60m/s from the top of a cliff
45m above the sea.
a.)How long does it take the ball to hit the water?
b.)How far from the cliff foot does the ball hit the water?
c.)Calculate the velocity of the ball just before it hits the water

UNIT 1.4:ANGULAR (ROTATIONAL) MOTION

To describe the motion of an object along a line, we need a coordinate

along the line, which we often take to be the x or y coordinates.
To describe the motion of an object on a circular path or rotation of a
wheel on an axis, we need a coordinate system to measure angles.
They are three common ways in which angles are measured. These are:
(i)Degrees
(ii)Radians
(iii)Revolutions
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 (iv)Steradians
Consider a wheel rotating about an axis O

In moving from position A to B, the wheel has turned through the angle θ.
The value of θ I radians (rad) is just a ratio of S to the wheels radius.

S
θ= r
S = rθ , where S = arc length
r = radius of circle or wheel
Θ = angle (radians)

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE DEGREES & THE RADIANS

1rev = 360o
1rev = 2 π rad

NOTE: Degrees, revolutions and radians are dimensionless

πrad=¿ 180o
1 rad = 57.3o

Examples

1.Convert 70o to radians and revolutions

π rads = 180o

70 xπ
70o = 180

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 = 1.22rads

1rev = 360o

1revx 70
70o = 360

= 0.194rev

2.A vehicles wheel of diameter 0.56m turns through an angle of 180 o.

Calculate the
distance moved by a point on the tyre thread of the wheel.

s = rθ

d 0.56
r= 2 = 2
= 0.28m

θ = 180o = π rads

s = rθ = 0.28 x π 0.8796rads
s ≈ 0.88rads

ANGULAR VELOCITY

Angular velocity is defined as the rate of change of angular displacement .

Angleturned
Angular velocity = TimeTaken

θ
ω =
t

Typical units for ω are radians per second (rad/s),degrees per sec (θ/s)
and revolutions per min (rev/min).

Example

A wheel turns through 1800rev in 1.0min. Find ;

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 a.)Its average angular velocity in rad/s.
b.)Through how many radians does the wheel turn in 15 seconds.

Solution

2 πrad
Θ = 180rev = 1 rev x1800rev = 3600 π

t = 1min = 60sec

θ 3600 π
ω = = 60
t

ω = 188.495rads/s

ω = 188.50rad/s

b.) θ = ω t
=188.495 x 15
=2827.425rad

ANGULAR ACCELERATION

Angular acceleration is defined as the rate of change of angular velocity

If the angle of a point moving in a particular circular path changes
uniformly from ω i to ω f, then

ω f −ω
α = i

ωf = ωi + α t
Where

ω i = initial angular velocity

ω f = final angular velocity
α = angular acceleration

If angular acceleration is uniform, we know that, as with linear motion, the

average angular velocity is given by;

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 1
ω= (ω + ω i )
2 f
Use the above equation only when acceleration is uniform.

Example

A wheel starts from rest and attains a rotational velocity of 240rev/s in

2.0minutes. Determine;
a.)Its angular acceleration
b.)The wheels’ angular speed (in radians per second) 130 seconds after
starting from
rest.

Solution

a.)ωi =0m/s, ωf = 240rev/s, t = 2.0m = 120sec

ω f −ω
α = i

240−0
= 120

=2rev/s2

2rev X 2 π
= 1 rev

=12.566rad/s2
≈ 12.57rad/s2

ωf = ωi + α t
=0 +12.566 X 130
=1633.58rad/s

ANGULAR MOTION EQUATIONS

There is a lot of similarities between linear and angular motion equations

The θ in angular motion corresponds S in linear motion, ω corresponds to
V and α corresponds to a (linear acceleration).
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 Equations for angular motion are derived in the same manner as those for
linear motion. Simply replace linear motion variables with their
corresponding counter parts.

LINEAR ANGULAR

S = vt θ = ωt
V = u + at ωf = ωi + α t
1 1
V = (u + v) ω = 2 (ωf + ω i)
2
V2 = u2 + 2as ω 2f = ω 2i + 2αθ
1 1
S = ut + 2 at2θ = ω it + 2 α t2
Example
A roulette wheel turning at 3rev/s coasts to rest uniformly in
18sec.Determine;
a.)its deceleration
b.)the number of revolutions made in while coasting to rest

solution
ω i = 3rev/s
ω f =0
t = 18s

ω f −ω
a.) α = i

0−3
= 18

=-0.16666rev/s
α =-0.1667rev/s2

1
b.) θ = ωit + 2 α t2
1
= 3 x18 + 2 x (-0.1667) (18)2
= 54 – 27.0054
= 26.9946rev

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 θ =26.995rev

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LINEAR AND ANGULAR MOTION

There are many cases, such as a ball rolling on the ground, where both
rotational and linear motion occurs.
To investigate this relationship, examine the wheel of radius r that has
rolled a distance s as shown below.

A reference point (A) on to the rim of the wheel has been identified.
We first observe that the arc length traced out by our reference point is
equal to the distance s that the arc wheel moves. This distance is called
the tangential distance. The relation between s and θ has already been
used in our definition of radian measure.
We will now use the s = rθ equation and the defining equation of angular
velocity to determine a relationship between linear and rotational velocity.

s = rθ

Displacement
Linear velocity is given by v = time
S
V = t , but s = rθ

rθ θ θ
We have v = t = t x r, since t = ω

rθ
v = t becomes

v = ωr

Similarly, linear acceleration is given by

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 v−u
a= t

and angular acceleration is given

ω f −ω
α = i

v
But, ω = r

v ω f −ω
Substituting ω = r into α = i

v u
−
We have α = r r
t

v−u v−u 1 v−u

= rt = t X r but t
=a

v u
− v−u 1
Therefore α = r r =
t
X r becomes
t

1
α = ax
r

a
α =
r

Hence a = αr

Examples

1.A flywheel has a speed of 300 r.p.m

a.)What is its angular velocity?
b.)what angle will be generated in 0.2seconds?
c.)How much time is required for the wheel to rotate through 628 radians?

Solution

θ 300 rev
a.) ω = t = 1 min

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 300 rev
= 60 sec =5rev/sec

5 rev 2π
= 1 sec X 1rev
ω = 5rev/sec OR

ω = 10 π =31.42rad/s

b.) θ = ωt

=31.42 X0.2
=6.28rads

θ
c.)From ω=
t

θ
We have, t = ω

628
t = 31.42

= 19.987sec
≈ 19.99sec

2.A car accelerates uniformly from rest to 17.5m/s in 23.6 seconds.

If the radius of the car wheel is 0.4m, Find;
a.)the angular acceleration of one of its wheels
b.)the number of revolutions turned by the wheel in the process.

Solution

a.) U =0, v = 17.5m/s, t =23.6sec

v−u
a= t

17.5−0
a = 23.6 = 0.74m/s2

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 a = αr

a 0.74
α= = 0.4
r

α = 1.86rad/s2

1
b.)θ = ωit + 2 α t2
1
= 0 x 23.6 + 2 1.86 x(23.6)2

θ = 517.973rad
Or

1rev
θ = 517.973rad x
2π

= 82.437rev
≈ 82.44rev

3.A belt runs on a wheel of radius 0.44m. During the time the wheel takes
to coast to
Uniform rest from an initial speed of 1.8rev/s, 29.5m of belt length
passes over the
Wheel. Find;
a.)the deceleration of the wheel
b.)the number of revolutions the wheel turns while stopping

solution

ω i = 1.8rev/s
ω f = 0rev/s
s = 29.5m
r = 0.44m
from s = rθ

s 29.5
θ= =
r 0.44

=67.05rad

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 1rev
= 67.05rad x 2 π

= 10.671rev
From the equation ω 2f = ω 2i + 2αθ
2 2
ω f −ω i
α =
2θ

= - 0.152rev/s2

EXERCISE

1.A motor turning at 1600rev/s coasts uniformly to rest in 16

seconds.Determine;
a.)Its angular deceleration
b.)the number of revolutions made before stopping
c.)The length of belt the wheel will wind in 16 seconds if the motor has a
wheel
of radius 6.25m attached to its shaft.

2.A fan blade makes 25 complete revolutions in 12 seconds.

a.)what is the rotating speed in rev/min and in rad/s
b.)what is the angle turned through in radians by a point on the top of the
fan bladein 5 seconds

3.A bicycle with 62.5cm diameter wheels is coasting at 6.6m/s. It

decelerates uniformly
And stops in 38 seconds.
a.)How far does it go in this time
b.)through how many revolutions does each wheel turn as the bicycle
comes to stop.

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 CENTRIPETAL FORCE AND ACCELERATION

An object moving with constant speed v along a circular path of radius r is

undergoing an acceleration directed towards the centre of the circle.
This acceleration is called centripetal acceleration.
The magnitude of centripetal acceleration is given by ;
2
V
ac =
r
OR
a c = ω 2r

Even if the object is moving with constant speed, it is still accelerating

because at every point along the circle its direction is changing.
Therefore, an object travelling on a circular path must have have a net
force deflecting it from its straight line path. This force is called centripetal
force.
Centripetal force is also directed towards the centre of the circle.
The magnitude of the centripetal force is given by;
2
mV
fc = mac =
r

or

fc = mω2r

Example
A ball tied to end of a string is swung in a vertical circle of radius r as
shown below.

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 Determine;
a.)the tension in the string when the ball is at point A if the speed of the
ball is v at this
point
b.)the tension in the string at the bottom of the circle when the ball was
going at speed
v.

solution

a.)At the top of the circle, both the tension in the string and the weight of
the ball contribute to the provision of the centripetal force.
2
mV
fc =
r

2
mV
T+W=
r

2
mV
T = -W
r

2
mV
b.)T – W =
r

2
mV
T= +W
r

VEHICLE MOTION ON AN INCLINED PLANE

Roads are banked at curves so as to avoid skidding due to excessive speed.

The banking helps the horizontal component of the normal force to supply
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 the required centripetal force
When roads are banked at curves, the dependence on friction to avoid
skidding is done away with.
Example
A curve on the road has a 60 metre radius. It is to be banked so that no
friction is required for the car going at 25m/s to safely make the curve. At
what angle should the road be banked?

Solution

From the diagram above, centripetal force is provided by F Nsinθ

2
mV
fc =
r

2
mV
FNsinθ = …………………………………..(i)
r
The weight (mg) of the car us balanced by the FNcosθ

FNcosθ = mg………………………………………….(ii)

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 Dividing eq (i) by (ii)
We have
2
F N sin θ mV
F N cos θ
= ÷ mg
r

2
sin θ V
cos θ
=
rg

2
V
tanθ =
rg

( )
2
V
θ = tan −1
rg

( )
2
25
= tan−1
9.8 X 60

θ = 46.80

Example on a conical pendulum

An object of mass 10kg is whirled round a horizontal circle of radius 4m by

a revolving string inclined to the vertical. If the uniform speed of the object
is 5m/s, calculate
a.)the tension in the string
b.)the angle of inclination to the vertical.

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 Solution

Horizontally
2
mV
Tsinθ = ………………………………(i)
r

Vertically

Tcosθ = mg …………………………………….(ii)

Dividing (ii) by (ii)

2
Tsin θ mV
We have Tcosθ
= ÷ mg
r

2
V
tanθ =
rg

( rg )
2
V
θ = tan−1

( )
2
5
θ = tan−1
9.81 X 4

θ =32.50

Using eq (ii) Tcosθ = mg

mg 10 X 9.81
T = cos θ = cos 32.5

T = 116.24N

EXERCISE

1.An object of mass 4kg moves round a circle of radius 6m with a constant
speed of 12m/s, calculate;
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 a.)the angular speed
b.)the force towards the centre

2.An object of mass 8kg is whirled round in a vertical circle of radius 2m

with constant
Speed of 6m/s. Calculate the maximum and the minimum tensions in the
string.

3.What force is necessary to keep a mass of 0.3kg revolving in a horizontal

circle of
Radius 0.7m with a periodic time of 0.5 seconds.

2π
[Hint: ω = T , where T is the periodic time]
UNIT 1.5: NEWTONS LAWS OF MOTION

APPLICATION OF NEWTONS LAWS

Newtons laws can be used to solve many types of problems

The procedure is as follows;

(i)Draw a free body diagram. All action and reaction forces must be
included and
Masses must be converted into weights.
(ii)List the quantities and those to be found in terms of their symboys.
(iii)Use Newtons laws and kinematic equations to find the unknown
quantities

Example

A particle of mass 4kg is suspended from a spring balance in a lift. What

does the balance read if the lift is
a.)moving upwards with uniform speed?
b.)accelerating upwards at 0.5m/s2?
c.)accelerating downwards at 0.5m/s2?

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Solution

a.)

When an object is moving at constant speed, then the opposing forces are
equal.
T = W = mg
T = 4 x 9.81
= 39.24N
b.)

Using the equation F = ma

T – mg = ma
T = ma + mg
=4x0.5 + 4 x 9.81
T = 41.24N

c.)

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From F = ma
mg – T = ma
mg – ma = T
T = mg – ma
= 4x9.81 – 4 x 0.5
T = 37.24N

CONNECTED PARTICLES
Consider two masses shown below.

If M1 pulls mass M2, the pull of M1 is transmitted through the tie not to M2 but
M2 equally pulls M1 backwards.
The two pulls are the same size (T) but opposite in direction according to
newtons third law.
If we consider M2, we include the forward pull. If we consider M1 we include
the backward pull.

Example
A string passes over a smooth light pulley. To the ends of the string are
attached masses of 3kg (A) and 2kg(B) and both parts of the string are vertical.
With what
Acceleration does the system move.

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 Solution

Consider mass A, because it is heavier than mass B, it will start moving

downwards once the system is free to move.

Using F = ma
mg – T = ma
3x9.81 – T = 3a, Wherea is the acceleration of the system
T = 29.43 – 3a …………………….(i)
Now we consider mass B

Using F= ma
T – mg =ma
T – 2x9.81 = 2a
T – 19.62 = 2a……………………….(ii)
Sub (i) into (ii)

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We have
29.43 -3a -19.62 = 2a
9.81 =5a
9.81
a= 5
a = 1.962m/s2 acceleration of the system.
θ
MOTION ON AN INCLINED PLANE

An important type of one –dimensional motion is one on an inclined plane or

ramp.
The ramp makes an angle θ to the horizontal
The component of the weight (mgsinθ) acts along the incline.

Example

In the figure below, the particles of mass 2.4kg is held at rest on a smooth
surface AB. It is connected by a light string passing over a smooth pulley at B to
a particle of mass 3.6kg. The slopping face BC is smooth and makes an angle of
300 with the horizontal
Find;
a.)the acceleration of the particles when they are released.
b.)the tension in the string.

Solution

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Consider the 2.4kg mass

Since the motion of the object is horizontal, the weight (W) does not have any
influence in this direction.
F =ma
T = ma
T =2.4a…………………………(i)

Now consider the 3.6kg mass

F = ma
mgsinθ - T = ma
mgsinθ - T = 3.6a

3.6x9.81 x sin300 – T =3.6a

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17.658 - T = 3.6a…………………………(ii)

sub (i) into (ii)

17.658 - T = 3.6a becomes

17.658 – 2.4a = 3.6a

6a = 17.658

17.658
a = 6

a = 2.943m/s2

fromeq (i) T = 2.4a

T = 2.4 x 2.943

T = 7.0632N
T ≈ 7.1N

Self Evaluation Exercise

1.State Newton’s 2nd law of motion.

A cord passing over an easily turned pulley has a 7kg mass hanging from one end and a 9kg
Hanging from the other as shown. Find the acceleration of the masses and the tension in
the cord.

2. A body of weight 100N rests on a plane which is inclined at 300 to the horizontal.

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 Calculate the components of the weight parallel and perpendicular to the plane.

UNIT 1.6:FRICTION

Friction is defined as a force that opposes relative motion between two

surfaces that are in sliding contact.
Friction acts tangential to the two sliding surfaces.

LAWS OF DRY FRICTION (applicable without lubricants).

The following are some of the laws of friction;

i.)Friction force always opposes motion, i.e. it acts in the opposite direction to
that of
motion of an object.
ii.)Friction depends on the nature of the surfaces involved (smooth or rough
surfaces).
iii.)Friction is proportional to the normal reaction force. A normal reaction
force is a
perpendicular force that a resting surface exerts on any object resting on it.
iv.)Friction is independent of the area of the surfaces in contact.
v.)At lower speeds, friction depends on the sliding speed. At higher speeds
friction
decreases.

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STATIC FRICTION (fs)

The magnitude of frictional force (f) increases from zero as the tendency of an
object to move increases up to a limiting value (maximum). The value of this
friction is called the
Limiting friction.
When the pushing or pulling force increases, friction also starts to act in the
opposite direction. As f increases further, an instant is reached when the body
just starts to slide. At this point, the value of this friction is called the limiting
static friction.
Kinetic friction (fk) is the frictionexperienced by a moving object
Static or kinetic friction are related to the normal reaction in the following way;

fs∝ FN
fs = µsFN this is for an object at rest.

For an object in motion

fk = µk FN
Where fs = static friction
fk = kinetic friction
µs = coefficient of static friction
µk =coefficient of kinetic friction.

For a particular material which is sliding over another (e.g metal on wood) the
coefficient of static friction is a constant value.
Coefficient of static friction is always greater than the coefficient of kinetic
friction

SOME ADVANTAGES OF FRICTION

1.friction enable walking. Without friction between the soles of one’s shoes
and the floor, a person would have great difficulty in moving about.
2.Frction facilitates gripping of objects
-Jaws of a vice grip work pieces because of friction
-belt clings to pulleys and drive machinery
3.Screws and nails stay in place in objects into which they are driven by means
of
Friction.
4.Friction enable the breaking of machinery and vehicles

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 SOME DISADVANTAGES OF FRICTION

1.External effort is required to produce motion. Friction always tends to

prevent
Movement of one part over another.
2.Friction causes wear and tear
3.Heat generation. Friction often causes heat to be generated in moving parts.

REDUCTION OF FRICTION (EFFECTS OF LUBRICATION)

1.A lubricant separates the moving parts so that they are not in direct contact.
2.Using lubricants such as carbon, graphite dust, grease and oil between
moving
Parts reduces friction by separating the surfaces in sliding contact.
3.Lubricants also reduce friction by filling in the cavities on the surfaces
thereby making
Them smoother than they really are.
4.Friction may also be reduced by;
-Using bearings
-Polishing surfaces in sliding contact
-Using chrome-plate surfaces in sliding contact.

Examples involving friction

1.A woman pushes a box weighing 500N with a force F directed at 30 0 below
the
Horizontal as shown below

a.)What must F be in order that she can make the box start to move?
b.)If she maintains this same force once the box start to slide, what will its
acceleration
be? [µs for wood on wood = 0.7. and µk for wood on wood = 0.4]

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 Solution

a.)F cos300 = fs because the object is not moving

but fs = µsFN

FN = Fsin30 + 500

fs = µsFN becomes

=0.7(0.5F +500)
From F cos300 = fs

F cos300 = 0.7(0.5F +500)

0.866025F = 0.35F +350

0.516025F =350

50
F = 0.516025

F = 678.25N

b.)f =ma

Fcos30 - fk = ma

F k = µk F N
Fk = 0.4(Fsin30 +500)
= 0.4(678.262xsin30 +500)
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 =335.6524

The weight of block is 500N, hence its mass =

W 500
M = g = 9.81 =51.02kg

Fcos30 – fk = ma becomes

587.392 – 335.6524 = 51.02a

251.7396
a = 51.02

a =4.93m/s2

FRICTION ON AN INCLINED PLANE

Consider a block of mass (mkg) at the point of slipping down a plane inclined at
an angle θ to the horizontal.
The friction force acts up the incline

If the block is not moving then

mgsinθ = f

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But, f =µFN

FN = mgcosθ

There f =µFN
Becomes

f = µmgcosθ

the equation mgsinθ = f become

mgsinθ = µmgcosθ

Sinθ
µ = Cosθ

tanθ = µ

θ = tan−1(µ)

This particular angle(θ) of inclination is known as the angle of repose.

If the plane is inclined at an angle greater than the angle of repose, the mass
will slide down. If the inclination is less than the angle of repose, the mass will
remain at reat
The above gives us the method of obtaining the coefficient of static friction µ,
by experiment. This would be done by raising the incline until the mass just
begins to slide down.
The tangent of the angle at which this happens is the value of the coefficient of
static friction for the materials in contact.

Examples

1.A 1500kg piece of machinery on a wooden slide is lowered at constant

velocity down a 350 concrete ramp by means of a cable that is attached to the
machinery and is parallel to the incline. If the coefficient of friction between
wood and concrete is 0.35, Find the tension in the cable.

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 Solution

For an object moving at constant velocity, forces in the direction of motion are
equal to forces in the opposite direction.

mgsinθ =T +f

f = µFN = µmgcosθ

mgsinθ = T + µmgcosθ

T = mgsinθ - µmgcosθ

T = 1500 x9.81 x sin35 – 0.35 x1500 x9.81 x cos35

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T = 4217.04N

2.A force of 540N acting parallel a plane inclined at 200 to the horizontal is
required to just move a body of mass 60kg up the plane

a.)Find the coefficient of friction between the surfaces.

b.)Find the force parallel to the plane required to drag the body down the
plane at a
steady speed.

Solution

a.)To just move the object (5400) must be equal or slightly bigger than the
downward
forces.

mgsinθ + f = 540

mgsin20 + µmgcos20 = 540

540−mgsin 20
µ = mgcos 20

540−60 Xsin 20
= 60 xcos 20

µ = 0.613

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b.)To drag the object at steady speed the forces in the direction of motion
should be
equal to forces in the opposite direction.

mgsinθ + T = f

T = f – mgsinθ

T = µFN – mgsin20

T =µmgcos200 – mgsin200

T = 0.613x 60x9.81x0.9397 – 60x9.81x0.34202

= 339.055 – 201.313

T = 137.74N

EXERCISE

1.What force acting at 600 to the horizontal is necessary (a) to push (b) to pull a
box of
Box of mass 20kg with a constant velocity along a horizontal surface. The
coefficient
Of friction being 0.2

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2.In the figure below, the particle of mass 2.4kg is held at rest on the rough
horizontal
surface AB (the coefficient of friction is 0.5). It is connected by a light string
passing
over a smooth pulley at B to a particle of mass 3.6kg. The slopping face is
smooth
and makes an angle of 300 with the horizontal. Find the acceleration of the
particles when they are released.

UNIT 1.7:LINEAR MOMENTUM

DEFINITION- Linear momentum is the product of mass of an object and its

velocity.

P = mv

 From Newton’s second law of motion, the rate of change of momentum is

proportional to the applied force and takes place in the direction of the
force.i.e.

∆P mv−mu
F= t
= t
 ft = mv – mu ………………………… (i)
 ft is called the impulse of the force. It is the product of the force ( assumed
constant) and the time for which it acts.
 The unit of measurement for impulse is Newton- meters (Ns).

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 From equation (i) mv – mu is the change in momentum which is equal to
impulse of an object. Since the units of impulse is Ns, it follows that the
units of measurement for momentum must also be Ns.
 To determine momentum in Ns, mass must be expressed in Kilograms ( kg)
and velocity in m/s.
 Since momentum is the product of a scalar ( mass) and a vector (velocity),
momentum is it self a vector quantity.

EXAMPLES
1. A constant force of F Newtons acts on a body of mass 2kg travelling at 4m/s
for 0.3 seconds in the direction of its motion. If its final velocity is 7m/s,
what is the value of the force (F)?

Solution
Ft = mv – mu
F x 0.3 = 2 ( 7 – 4 )

6
F = 0.3
F = 20N
2. A 0.25kg ball is thrown with an initial velocity of 2om/s to a batter who hits
it back along its original path with a velocity of 30m/s. If the duration of the
impact iswas 10ms ( milliseconds), what was the magnitude of the average
force on the ball?

U = 20m/s
V = - 30m/s

Ft = m( v – u )
m(v−u)
F =
t
0.25[0.25 (−30−20 ) ]
F=
0.01
F = - 12.50N

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 PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM: The principle states that
the sum of momentum before impact is equal the sum of momentum after
impact.

Σ momentum before impact = Σ momentum after impact

m1u1 + m2u2 = m 1v 1 + m 2v 2

where m1 = mass of the first object

m2 = mass of the second object
u1 = initial velocity of first object
u2 = initial velocity of second object
v1 = final velocity of first object
v2 = final velocity of second object
 When particles collide, the law of conservation of momentum and
conservation of energy both apply.
 The principle of conservation of energy states that energy is neither
created nor destroyed but is only converted from one form to another.
 It follows that kinetic energy is never maintained as a small (negligible)
quantity is lost to the surrounding environment through other forms of
energy such as heat and sound. Thus,
 Σ K.E before impact ≥ Σ K.E after impact
1 1 1 1
 2 m1(u1)2 + 2 m2( u2)2≥ 2 m1(v1)2 + 2 m2( v2)2

TYPES OF COLLISIONS

The three major types of collisions include:

1. PERFECTLY INELASTIC COLLISION

Collision in which objects stick together e.g a bullet fired into a block of
wood and becomes embedded in it.
2. PERFECTLY ELASTIC COLLISION:
Collision in which both kinetic energy and momentum are conserved.E.g
collision between atomic nuclei, atoms and electrons are perfectly
elastic.

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 3. PARTIALLY ELASTIC COLLISION:
Collision in which some energy is lost and bodies separate. This is the
commonest of the collisions and it falls between the two extreme cases
of 1 and 2.

INELASTIC COLLISION
 Only the principle of conservation of momentum is needed for
calculations involving inelastic collisions.

Example:

A particle of mass 2kg moving at 8m/s collides with a stationary particle

of mass 3kg and they stick together. Find their common speed/

U1 = 8m/s U2 = 0m/s M = 3 +2 = 5kg

Let Common mass after Collision = M

Let Common velocity after Collision = V

m1u1 + m2u2 = MV

2x8 + 0 x3 = 5V
16
V = 5

V = 3.2m/s

PERFECTLY ELASTIC COLLISION

Perfectly elastic collision is one in which kinetic energy is conserved and the
particles separate after collision.

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The type of collision can be determined by the quantity called coefficient of
restitution (e), which is given by the formula;

V 1−V
e=- U
2

1−U 2

If e = 1 → perfectly elastic collision

If e = 0 → perfectly inelastic collision

If e 0¿ e <¿ 1 partially elastic collision

Examples

1. A 40g ball travelling to the right at 30cm/s collides head on with an 80g ball
that is at rest. If the collision is perfectly elastic, what is the velocity of each
ball after collision?

SOLUTION
m1 = 40g = 0.04kg, m2 = 80g = 0.08kg, u1 = 30cm/s = 0.3m/s, u2 = 0m/s
v1= ?, v2 = ?.
Using the following equations.
e=1
V 1−V
e=- U → v2 – v1 = e ( u1 – u2)
2

1−U 2

v2 = 0.3 + v1

m1( u1 –v1) = m2 ( v2 – u2)

0.04( 0.03 – v1) = 0.08 ( v2 – 0)
0.012 – 0.04v1 = 0.08( 0.3 +v1)
0.012 – 0.024 = 0.08v1 + 0.04v1
0.012
V1 = - 0.12
V1= - 0.1m/s
V2 = 0.3 – 0.2

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 V2 = 0.2m/s
This means that m1 is moving to left at 0.1m/s and m2 is moving to the right
at 0.2m/s after collision.

EXERCISE
1. A body of mass 0.2kg travelling at 2m/s due east collides with another body
of mass 0.5kg travelling at 3m/s due west. If the two bodies remain locked
after impact, calculate the velocity with which the two bodies move away
and the direction in which they move?
2. A 0.01 kg particle travelling to the right with a speed of 0.5m/s strikes a
0.02kg particle travelling to the left with a speed of 0.15m/s. Find the final
velocities of the particles if the coefficient of restitution for the collision is
0.5?

UNIT 1.8: WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

POWER

Power is the rate at which work is done

workdone
i.e power = Timetaken

W FXs s
= t = t =Fх t

s
But t = v

P=Fхv or P = Fvcosθ

Example

A motor is lifting a 200Kg object at constant speed of 0.03m/s. What power is

being developed by the motor?

Solution

P = F х v, F = mg = 200 х 9.81 = 1962

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P = 1962 х 0.03 = 58.86W

ENERGY

Energy is defined as the ability to do work

 Every kind of energy falls into one of the three general categories;
(i)Kinetic energy
(ii)Potential energy
(iii)Rest energy

POTENTIAL ENERGY

Potential energy (P.E) is the energy possessed by a body by reason of its

position or configuration ( shape).

 There are many forms of potential energy.

 These include:

(i)Gravitational

(ii)Elastic

(iii)Chemical

GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY

 This is the energy possessed by an object due to its position in the

gravitational field.
 It is given by the equation;
P.E = mgh

KINETIC ENERGY

 This is the energy possessed by an object by reason of its motion

 K.E is given by the formula;
1
K.E = 2 mv2

REST ENERGY

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  This is the energy possessed by an object by reason of its mass alone
 It is given by the formula;

E = mc2
Where E = rest energy
m= mass of object
C= speed of light

EXAMPLE

Consider the pendulum shown below. If it is released at rest from a point A,

How fast is the ball moving

(a) At B

(b)At C

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H = 1.5Cos40o

= 1.15

h = 1.5 -1.15 = 0.35

P.E at A = m g h = m x 9.81 x 0.35

= 3.4335m

In moving from A to B P.E at A is converted to K.E at B

P.E (at A) = K.E (at B)

1
3.4335m = 2 mv2

V =√ 6.867

V = 2.62m/s

At C V= 0m/s because at B it momentarily stops and starts moving back

EXERCISE

An object is released from rest at the top of a tower of height 47m and falls to
the ground,Calculate;

(i)The time it takes to fall to the ground

(ii)Its speed just before it hits the ground.

WORK DONE BY A CONSTANT TORQUE

A torque or a moment of force is the product of the force and the

perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to the force.

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If F is the tangential force acting on a point A,

W = F x s ………………………………………….(i)

But Torque T = Fr……………………………(ii)

S = rθ…………………………………………………..(iii)

Sub (iii) into (i)

W = F x rθ. Fr = T

W = Tθ

EXAMPLE

An electric motor has to lift an object hanging a mass of 50kg by means of a

rope wound round a drum having a diameter of 1.2m. Calculate;

(i)The torque to be exerted

(ii)The work done when the drum makes 20 revolutions

Solution
1.2
D = 1.2 , r = 2 = 0.6m

(i)T = F x r, F = mg 50 x 9.81= 490.5N

T = 490.5 x 0.6 = 294.3Nm

(ii)W = T x θ = 294.3 x 20 x 2π

= 36 982.83J

POWER REQUIRED FOR ROTATION

workdone
Power = time

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 Tθ
= t

θ θ
T x t but t = ω

Power = T x ω

 If ω is in rads/s then use the above formula

 If ω is in rev/min then use

2 πNT
P = 60

EXAMPLE

A rotor transmits a torque of 1400Nm at a speed of 660 r.p.m,

Calculate;

(i)The angular velocity of the shaft

(ii)The power transmitted

Solution
660 rev
ω = 660rev/min = = 11rev/s = 11 x 2π = 69.12 rads/s
60 s

2 πNT 2 πx 660 x 1400

(ii) P = 60 = 60
= 96 761.054W

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UNIT 1.9: STRAIN AND STRESS
STRESS:(or Pressure) is define as force per unit cross-section area
Force F
Stress(σ) = Cross−sectionArea = A

 The units of measurement for stress are N/m2 or Pa.

Example
A tier- bar has a cross-sectional area of 125m2 and is subjected to a pull of
10KN. Calculate the stress in meganewtons per square metre.
Solution

A = 125m2, 1000mm2 = 1m2

1
125m2 x -6 2
2 = 125 x 10 m
1000000 m
F 1000
σ= A = −6
125 x 10

= 80 x 106N/m2 = 80MN
STRAIN: This is the ratio of the change in dimension to the original dimension.
C h angeindimension ΔL
Strain (ε)= Originaldimension = L
0

Where 𝚫L = change in length

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L0 = Original length

Example
Calculate the tensile strain in a member of a strut 2m long, which extends by
0.03cm when under a load.
Solution
ΔL
Strain (ε) = L
0

𝚫L = 0.03cm
L0 = 2m x 100 200cm

ΔL 0.03 cm
ε = L = 200 cm = 1.5x10-4
0

THERMAL STRAIN
 Change in temperature in a material gives rise to a thermal strain. The
extension in a bar of length L is given by;
 𝚫L = α L0𝚫θ
Where = α = Coefficient of linear expansion
L0 = original length

𝚫θ = change in temperature

ΔL α L0 Δθ
ε= L = L0
= α𝚫θ
0

ε = α𝚫θ

HOOKE’S LAW
 Many objects such as a coiled spring or a metal rod exhibit a
property called elasticity.

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  When stretched or compressed by an applied force, they tend to
return to their original length when a force is removed provided
the elastic limit is not exceeded.
 Beyond the elastic limit, they material loses its elasticity.
 HOOKE’S LAW states that when an object is distorted, the amount
of distortion is linearly proportional to the distortion provided the
elastic limit is not exceeded.
 From hooke’s law
 Stress ∞ Strain
 Stress = E x Strain
STRESS
 E = STRAIN

Where E = Young’s Modulus

Example
A 2.6kg mass is attached to the end of a vertical wire of length 2m and
diameter 2mm. If the wire extended by 0.08mm, Calculate ;

Solution
F = W = mg = 2.6x9.81 = 2.506N
L0 = 2m = 2000mm

𝚫L = 0.08mm
d 2 1m
r = 2 = 2 1mm = 1mmx 1000 mm = 1.0 x 10-3

A = πr2 = π(1.0 x 10-3)2 = 3.142 x 10-6m2

F 2.506 6 2
(a)σ = A = −6 = 8.11x10 N/m
3.142 x 10

ΔL 0.08 mm
(b)ε = L = 2000 mm = 4.0 x 10-5
0

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 6
σ 8.11 x 10 11 2
(c)E = ε = −5 = 2.027 x 10 N/m
4.0 x 10

ULTIMATE TENSILE STRESS ( U.T.S)

This is the ratio if the maximum load to the original cross-sectional area

Maximum load
( U.T.S) = original cross−sectinal area

FACTOR OF SAFETY

This is the ratio of the ultimate tensile stress to the working stress

Example
An aluminium wire with an initial length L= 25m and diameter d = 2m is used to
lift a 10kg load. Determine
(i)The length of the wire
(ii)working stress in the wire
(iii)Strain in the wire
(iv)The factor of safety
(v)The maximum load that the wire can support
[Young’s modulus for aluminium ε = 7.0 x 1010N/m2, ultimate tensile strength
(U.T.S) for aluminium is 1.4 x 108Pa].

UNIT 2.0:HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

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  Heat is a form of energy which is transmitted between two bodies at
different temperatures.
 Temperature is the degree of hotness and coldness of an object.

INSTRUMENTS USED FOR MEASURING TEMPERATURE

 A thermometer is a device used for measuring temperature

 The principle of operation of the thermometer is based on some of
effects such as;
i. Expansion
ii. Increase in pressure
iii. Electrical changes
i. The following are some of the common types of thermometers.

LIQUID IN GLASS THERMOMETER

ii. These depend on the expansion of the liquid (mercury or alcohol) used.

CONSTANT VOLUME GAS THERMOMETER

iii. These depend on the gas is kept constant, its pressure depends on the
temperature and increase steadily with rising temperature.
iv. The constant volume gas thermometer uses the pressure at constant
volume as the thermometric property.

THERMO-ELETRIC THERMOMETER (PYROMETER)

The depend on the EMF (Electromotive force) developed in a circuit consisting

of two different metals where the junctions are at different temperatures. One
junction is maintained at 0oC while the other one acts as a thermometric
probe.

HEAT TRANSFER
 Heat is transferred from one point to another in three ways. Namely-
Conduction, Radiation and Convection.

CONDUCTION
This occurs in one material when heat moves from one point to another or
between two bodies in contact.

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CONVECTION
This takes place when heat is transmitted by the actual movement of a hot
fluid (liquid or gas) causing convection currents.

RADIATION
This is a form of heat transfer in which heat moves from one point to another
in empty space (vacuum).

EFFECTS OF HEAT
i. Increase in temperature
ii. Change in dimensions (expansion)
iii. Chemical change
iv. Pressure change
v. Change of physical state
vi. Change of color

HEAT CAPACITY
This is the amount of heat required to change the temperature of a substance
by 10C or 1K
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
This is the amount of heat required to change the temperature of a unit mass
(1kg) of a substance by 10C or 1K.
The quantity of heat that should flow into or out of a substance is given by;
Φ = mC𝚫θ
Where Φ = quantity of heat
m = mass of substance
C = specific heat capacity
𝚫θ = change in temperaure

Examples

(i)How much heat is required to change the temperature of:

(a)400g of water from 180C to 230C
(b)400g of copper from 180C to 230C.
(ii)Determine the final temperature of 700g of copper originally at 16 0C to
which
400J of heat energy is added. [ specific heat capacity of water is 4184 J/kg 0C
and that of copper is 390J/kg 0C]
Solution

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(i)(a)m = 400g = 0.4kg
θ2 = 230C , θ1 = 180C
C = 4184J/kg0C
Φ = mC𝚫θ = 0.4 x 4184 x (θ2- θ1) = 0.4 x 4184(23 – 18) =
= 8368J

(b)m = 0.4kg, θ2 = 230C , θ1 = 180C

Φ = mC𝚫θ = 0.4 x 390(23 – 18)
= 780J

(ii) Φ = mC𝚫θ
700 = 0.7 x 390 x (θ2- θ1)
700 = 0.7 x 390 x (θ2- 16)
4768
θ2= 273 = 17.470C

HEAT EXCHANGE (MIXTURES)

When two substances of different temperatures are brought in contact, heat is

transferred from a hot substance to a cold substance until both have the same
Temperature
Using the law of conservation of energy
Heat energy Lost = Heat Energy Gained

Examples
A steel tank of mass 50kg contains 200kg of water at 150C. A further 100kg of
water is poured into the tank at 950C. If the specific heat capacity of steel is
0.45KJ/kg K and that of water is 4184J/kg K. calculate the final temperature in
the tank
SOLUTION

HEAT GAINED = HEAT LOST

mtCt𝚫θ +mcCw𝚫θ = mhCw𝚫θ

22 500(θ- 15) + 836 800 (θ – 15) = 100x 4184

1277700θ = 52637500
52637500
θ= 1277700

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θ= 41.200
LATENT HEAT AND CHANGE OF STATE

Latent heat is the heat energy required to change the state of a substance
without changing its temperature.
Sensible heat is the heat energy that produces a rise and fall in the
temperature of a substance.
There are two kinds of latent heat:
(i)Latent heat of fusion
(ii)Latent heat of vaporization
Specific latent heat of fusion is the amount of heat required to change a unit
mass of a substance from solid to liquid without change of temperature.
Specific latent heat of vaporization is the amount of heat required to change a
unit mass of a substance from liquid to gas without change of temperature.

Latent heat is given by;

Φ = mLf
OR
Φ = mLv
Where Lf = Specific latent heat of fusion
Lv = Specific latent heat of vaporization
EXAMPLES

A 26g ice cube at -100 is dropped into a plastic containing 375g of water at
370C.
What is the final temperature of the mixiture?
[specific latent heat of fusion of ice is 33500J/kg, specific heat capacity of
water is 4184J/kg0C ]

solution

HEAT GAINED = HEAT LOST

miC𝚫θ + miLf + miC𝚫θ = mhC𝚫θ

0.026x4184[0-(-10)] + 0.026x33500 + 0.026x4184(θ) = 0.375x4184(37 0 –
θ)

56094.16
θ= 1677.78

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 θ= 33.430C

Determine the temperature θ that results when 180g of ice at 0 0C is mixed

with 300g water at 500C.

THERMAL EXPANSION

There are three types of thermal expansion:

Linear; change in length.
Superficial; change in area
Cubical; change in volume
Different materials expand by different amounts over the same temperature
change range. A number which denotes the degree of expansion of the
material is called the coefficient of expansion.
Linear, Superficial and cubical expansion are given as follows:
Linear; 𝚫L = αL𝚫θ
Area; 𝚫A =2 αL𝚫θ
Volume; 𝚫V = 3αL𝚫θ
Where α = coefficient of linear expansion
𝚫L = change in length
𝚫A = change in area
𝚫θ = change in temperature
𝚫V = change in volume
L = original length
A = Original area
V = Original volume
Coefficient of linear expansion is the degree of expansion of a material per unit
length for every 10C rise in temperature.

EXAMPLE
Suppose Slabs of concrete 20m long are laid end to end to form a road. How
long a gap should be allowed between adjacent slabs at -200C so that they
don’t buckle
When the temperature reaches +500C. [α = 10 x 10-6/ 0C]

𝚫L = αL𝚫θ = 10 x 10-6/ 0C x 20 x[50 – (-20)]

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 = 0.014m = 1.4m
Each slab has to expand half the gap on each end. Therefore, the total
expansion of each slab will be equal to the gap.

THERMAL STRAIN
ΔL
By definition Strain (ε) = L
0

But if the material is expanded by heat;

𝚫L = αL𝚫θ
ΔL αLΔθ
ε= L = L
0

ε = α𝚫T thermal strain

CALCULATIONS INVOLVING HEAT TRANSFER BY CONDUCTION

If the two ends of a bar are maintained at different temperatures by heating

on end at temperature T1 and the other at temperature T2, then heat flows
continuously by a conductive process from hotter to cooler areas.
The rate of heat flow (conductance) is given by;

ϕ kAΔθ
t
= ι where

Φ= heat energy
t = time in seconds
𝑘 = thermal conductivity
𝚫θ= change in temperature
A = cross sectional area
𝜄 = thickness of the material
Example
An 8mm glass window of a house 2m wide and 1.5m high. If the outside
temperature is -200C and the inside temperature is 230C, how much hest does
it conduct in one hour. [ thermal conductivity of the glass is 0.65W/mK]

solution

ϕ kAΔθ
t
= ι
𝑘 = 0.65W/mK
A = 2 x 1.5 = 3.0m2

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𝚫θ = 23 – (-20) = 430C
𝜄 = 8mm = 0 008m
T = 3600sec

kAΔθ 0.65 x 3 x 43
Φ= xt = X 3600 = 3773.25J
ι 0.008

Exercise
(i)The control rod in a thermometer is a thin metal bar 150mm long held at one
End and free to expand at the other end. The thermostat is assembled at
180C with a gap 6mm between the free end of the rod and the mechanism
operating a shut off valve. Calculate the temperature at which the valve acts.
[Coefficient of linear expansion of the metal is 20x10-6/K]
(ii)Calculate the heat loss per second through a rectangular 8mm glass pane of
dimensions 1.2m x 0.4m for a temperature difference of 15K. [The thermal
conductivity of glass is 0.65W/K}

UNIT 2.1: GAS LAWS

Gases are relatively compressive and pressure, volume and temperature can
change substantially.
The pressure, volume and temperature of a fixed mass of a gas can be linked
by simple laws and reduced to simple equation of state

BOYLE’S LAW
States that for a fixed mass of a gas at constant temperature, pressure is
inversely proportional to volume.

1
If T is constant, then P ∞ V

PV = K (constant)
P 1V 1 = P 2V 2

CHARLE’S LAW: States that, for a fixed mass of a gas at constant pressure,
volume is directly proportional absolute temperature.

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 V∞T

V
=K
T
V1 V2
i.e. T = T
1 2

THE IDEAL GAS EQUATION

The ideal gas equation is obtained by combining Boyle’s law and Charles’s laws.
P1V1 = KT1P2V2 = KT2

P1V 1 P 2V
K = = T 2

T 1

K is usually denoted by R
PV = RT for one more of a gas
PV = nRTfor n moles of a gas
Where R = Universal Gas constant for 1 mole of a gas
One mole of any gas occupies 22.4 liters at STP
R = 8.31Jmol-1K-1

At STP P = 1.013 x 105Pa

V = 22.4 x 10-2m3
T = 273.15K

In all the problems involving gas laws it is the absolute pressure and not the
gauge pressure that is used
Absolute pressure = gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure.

EXAMPLES

1. When heated in a garage at room temperature of 240C, a motor tyre is

found to have a pressure of 120KN/m2. If the volume of the air inside
remains constant, what is the pressure after the tyre has been allowed
to stand in the sun at 400C (take atmospheric pressure to be 100KN/m2)

P1V 1 P 2V
= T 2
but V1 = V2
T 1

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P1 = 120 KN/m2
T2 = 40+ 273 = 313K
T1 = 24 + 273= 297K

P1 P2 P 1T 220 000 x 313

= ,P2 = 2
= 297
T1 T 2 T1

= 231 850
Gauge pressure = 231 850 - 100 000
= 131 850N = 131.850KN

2.A given gas of mass of an ideal gas occupies 38ml at 200C. If its pressure is
held constant, what volume does it occupy at a temperature of 45 0C?

3.After 1.5 litres of gas at STP is subjected to a chemical experiment, the

temperature of the gas rises to 200C and the pressure rises to 1.2 x 105Pa. How
many moles of gas were evolved?

At STP
V1 = 1.5lt
P1 = 1.013 x 105Pa
T1 = 273K
P2 = 1.2 x 105Pa
T2 = 20 + 273 = 293K

P1V 1 P 2V
= 2

T1 T2

P 1V 1.5 X 1.013 X 10 X 293

5
V2 = P = = 1.35 litres
1T 2

5
2T 1
1.2 X 10 X 273

22.4 litres = 1 mol

1.65litres = x

1.65 x 1
X = 22.4
= 7.4 x 10-2 moles
1.65litres has 7.4 x 10-2 mole

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3.A cylinder of nitrogen gas has an initial gauge pressure of 800Kpa. If the
gauge pressure drops to 150Kpa after some nitrogen has been used, what
fraction of the gas remains in the tank?

Assuming temperature remains constant T 1=T 2

P1V 1 P 2V
= 2
, T 1=T 2 cancels out
T1 T2

V1 P 3
= 2 = 16 this fraction remained
V2 P1

UNIT 2.2:RADIOACTIVITY

 Some atoms of certain substances are very unstable that they release
particles (α, β and γ) without any external influence. These elements are
referred to as radioactive isotopes.
 Radioactivity is the spontaneous disintegration of heavy unstable
isotopes.
 Decay of isotopes without external influence is called Natural
Radioactivity.
 The decay of isotopes after being exposed to certain conditions is called
Artificial Radioactivity.
 The decay process is unpredictable, the number of unstable nuclei that
decay each second is proportional to the number of unstable present.
The rate of decay therefore slows down because the number of unstable
nuclei decreases with time.

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  ACTIVITY: is the number of particles emitted per unit time from the
sample.
 HALF –LIFE: is the time taken for the activity of the isotope to decrease
to half of its initial activity.

 Half life is given by

0.693
T⅟₂ = γ
Where T⅟₂ = Half life
γ = decay constant
 The activity and number of particles remaining are given as:
Ao = γN
 A =A0e-γt
N = N0e-γt

Where A= activity an any time

N0 = Initial number of particles
N = number of particles after a particular time
A0= Initial activity

t = Time in seconds
EXAMPLE
1.A certain material has a decay constant of 4.2 x 103s-1 and starts with 3.0 x
107 atoms.
(a)What is the half-life of the material?
(b)What is the initial activity of the material?
(c)How many atoms remain after a time of 12 x 10-3s?
(d)What is the activity of the sample after 1.2 x 10-3s?

γ = 4.2 x 103s-1

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 N0 = 3.0 x 107 atoms
0.693
(a) T⅟₂ = γ

0.693 -4
3 = 1.6 x 10 s
4.2 X 10

(b) A = γN
= 4.2 x 103 x 3 x 107
= 1.26 x 1011Bq

(c) N = N0e-γt

γt = 4.2 x 103 x 12 x 10-3 = 5.04

N = 3.0 x 107 x e-5.04
N = 1.94 x 105 atoms
(d A = A0e-γt

γt = 4.2 x 103 x 12 x 10-3 = 5.04

A = 1.26 x 1011 x e-5.04
= 8.157 x 108Bq

2.A lead storage packet holds 1g of 60Co, where half-life is 5.26years. What is
the activity of the sample (a) Initially (b) After the sample has been in storage
for 21 years?

(a) 1 mole 60kg

1
Available mass = 1000 = 0.001kg

1 mole 6.02 x 1023atoms

60kg 6.02 x 1023atoms
1.01 N
23
0.001 X 6.02 X 10
N=
60
N = 0.10037 x 1023

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 = 1.0 x 1019 atoms, initial particles

T⅟₂ = 5.26 x 24 x 365 x 3600

= 1.66 x 108s

0.693 0.693
γ= T ⅟ ₂ = 8
1.66 X 10

γ= 4.175 x 10-9s-1

So initial activity
A = γN
= 4.175 x 10-9 x 10 x 10-19
A = 4.175 x1010Bq

b)A = A0e-γt

A0 = 4.175 x 1010
γ=4.175 x 10-9
t = 21 x 24 x 365 x 3600
= 662 x 108s
γt=4.175x10-9x 662 x 108 = 2.764

A = A0e-γt
= 4.175 x1010 x e-2.764
= 2.63 x 109Bq
EXERCISE
Strontium 90 has a half-life of 28 years and is a dangerous product of nuclear
explosions. What is the activity 1g of strontium 90?

UNIT 2.3:OXIDATION & REDUCTION

 They are patterns in the way chemicals react. One of the many
patterns is the way elements combine with oxygen and hydrogen.
OXIDATION is defined as:
(i)The gain of oxygen
(ii)The loss of hydrogen
(iii)The loss of electrons

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 REDUCTION is defined as:
(i)Loss of oxygen
(ii)Gain of hydrogen
(iii)Gain of electrons

Example

2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)

2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2Mg2+O2-(s)

 Magnesium is oxdised,loss of electrons, gains oxygen

 Oxygen is reduced, gains electrons.

OXIDATION NUMBERS
Oxidation number of an element is the combining power of an element with
oxygen in a compound.
 Here are some rules for calculating oxidation numbers
(i)An unreacted element has an oxidation number of 0.
(ii)An ion has an oxidation number equal to its charge (valence)
(iii)The sum of oxidation numbers of the elements in a compound is
zero.
(iii)The sum of oxidation numbers on a charged compound is equal to
the total charge on the ion.

Examples
1.What is the oxidation number of sulphur in SO2?

S + 2(-2) = 0
S = +4

2.What is the oxidation number of phosphorous in PO43-

P + 4(-2) = -3
P = +5

Exercise

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 1.Given that the oxidation number of hydrogen is +1, of oxygen is -2 and
fluorine is -1. Determine the oxidation numbers of the other elements in
(i)PH3 (ii)H2S (iii) Crf3 (iv) H2SO4 (v) NO3-

UNIT 2.4:ACIDS AND BASES

 According to the Bronsted-lowry concept;

(i)An acid is a proton donor
(ii)A base is a proton acceptor
 The substance that remains when an acid has lost a proton is known as a
conjugate base. Such a grouping of an acid and a conjugate base is
known as a conjugate-base pair.

Example1

HA +B A- + BH+

 In the above equation, HA A- and B BH- constitute conjugate acid –

base pair

Example2
Write the formula for the conjugate base of the following acids
(a)HCN (b)HCO3- (c)HNO3

Solutions

(a)CN- (b)CO32- (c) NO3-

Example3

Write the formula for the conjugate acids of the following

(a)OH- (b)HCO3- (c)C2H5N

Solution

(a)H2O (b) H2CO3 (c) C2H5NH+

WATER DISSOCIATION (SPLITTING)

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  Not only acids and bases dissociate, water dissociates too. The oxygen
atom tends to have more control on the electrons in a water molecule,
so hydrogen atoms are only loosely held to the water molecule.
 At every moment 2 molecules of water molecules out of 1 billion split
into positively charged H+ (hydrogen ion) and negatively charged OH-
(hydroxide ion)

H 2O H+ + OH-

 When a compound like HCL dissolves in water, it separates into H + and

CL- ions. The positively charged H+ ions combine with water thus
increasing H+ ions and the solution becomes acidic
 Similarly when a base is dissolved in water, it contributes OH - ions and
the solution becomes basic.
 The basicity or alkalinity of a solution is measured using the PH scale.
 The concentration of a substance or ion is denoted by [ X ]
 For pure water [ H+ ] and [ OH- ]are equal to (1.0 X10-7)

[ H+ ] X [ OH- ] = 1.0 X 10-14

FINDING PH

 PH = -log10 [ H+ ]
 A strong base completely dissolves in water, the number of moles of
base added gives the number of moles of OH- present in the solution

 POH = -log [ OH- ]

Examples

1.If you have a solution of 0.1M lithium hydroxide (LiOH). What is its PH

Solution

[ LiOH ] = 0.1M
[ OH- ] = 0.1M

Using the dissociation constant

[ H+ ] X [ OH- ] = 1.0 X 10-14
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[ H+ ] X 0.1 = 1.0 X 10-14

1.0 X 10−14
[ H+ ] = 0.1

[ H+ ] = 1.0 X 10-13

PH = -log[ H+ ]

=-log [ 1.0 X 10-13]

PH = 13

2. Determine the PH of 1.0M of Potassium hydroxide (KOH)

KOH K+ + OH-

[ OH- ] = 1.0M
[ H+ ] X [ OH- ] = 1.0 X 10-14
[ H+ ] X 1.0 = 1.0 X 10-14
[ H+ ] = 1.0 X 10-14

PH = -log[ H+ ]
= -log [ 1.0 X 10-14 ]
= 14

3. Find the PH of 0.001M Ba (OH) 2

This means [OH- ] is twice that of [ Ba(OH)2]
[OH- ] = 2 X 0.001M
= 0.002M

1.0 X 10−14
[ H+ ] = 0.002

= 5.0 X 10-12
PH= -log [ 5.0 X 10-12 ]

PH = 11.3

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Exercise
A solution of NaOH, sodium hydroxide has a PH of 1.0M
Determine
(i)The hydroxide ion concentration
(ii)The hydrogen ion concentration

UNIT 2.5: ELECTROLYSIS

 Electrolysis is the decomposition of an electrolyte by the passage of

electricity through it.
 An electrolyte is a substance that allows electric current to pass through
it and by decomposed by current.
 Fused or molten salts such as lead bromide, potassium iodide and
sodium chloride undergo electrolysis to produce a metal at the cathode
and a non-metal at the anode.
 In the electrolysis of copper sulphate solution, electrodes are made of
copper. At the cathode copper ions gain electrons and is deposited as
copper atoms. At the anode copper atoms lose electrons and pass into
the solution as copper

At the cathode Cu2+(aq) +2e- Cu(s)

At the anode Cu(s) Cu2+ + 2e-

ORDER OF DISCHARGE OF IONS

 Several different ions may be attracted to the electrolyte during

electrolysis. Some ions discharge more easily than others.
 The easy of discharge of an ion depends upon several factors
including;
(i)The nature of the ion
(ii)The nature of the electrolyte (fused or aqueous) concentrated or
dilute.
(iii)The nature of the electrodes.

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  The following general rules apply to the discharge of ions at the
electrodes
(a)Cations (metals and hydrogen ions) discharge at the cathode.
(b)Anions (non-metals)discharge at the the anode.
(c)The ions of more reactive metals such as sodium are more difficult to
discharge than those of less reactive metals suc as copper.
(d)The chloride ion is dischared in preference to the hydrogen ion.
(e)The sulphate ion is never discharged.

ELECTROLYTIC CALCULATIONS

 Quantity of electricity = current X time

Q=IXt

Where
Q = Quantity of electricity(Coulombs)
I = Current (amperes)
t = time in seconds
 Quantity of electricity is measured in coulombs
 A coulomb is the quantity of electricity that passes a given point when
one ampere of electricity flows for one second.
 In electricity, quantity of electricity are often measured in farady

faraday = 96 000 Coulombs

= 6.02 X 1023 electrons
= 1 mole of electrons

FARADAY’S FIRST LAW OF ELECTROLYSIS

States that the mass of a substance produced at the electrode during

electrolysis is proportional to the quantity of electricity used.
 In the electrolysis of potassium iodide

K+ + e-K(l)
1mole 1 mole 1 mole

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FARADAY’S SECOND LAW: States that the number of faradays required to
discharge one mole of an ion at an electrode equals the number of charges on
the ion.

Example 1
1.K+ + e K
Single charge on potassium requires one faraday
2.Cu2+ + 2e Cu

1 mole of copper requires 2 faradays

3.Al3+ + 3e Al
1 mole of all ions requires 3 faraday
4.2CL- CL2 + 2e
2 moles of chlorine ion requires 2 faraday

Example 2
What mass of copper is produced at the cathode by a current of 2 amps
flowing for 10min
(Cu = 64)

Q=IXt
I = 2A
t = 10 X 60 = 600s
Q=IXt
= 2 x 600= 1200C

Cu2+ + 2e Cu
i.e. 2C 1 mole of Cu (64g)

2 x 96 000 64g
1200C х

1200 x 64
X = 2 x 96 000 = 0.4g of Cu

2.What quantity of electricity:

(i)In faraday (ii) In Coulombs is required to produce 3.2g of copper from Cu 2+
ions [ Cu = 64]
(i) Cu2+ + 2e Cu

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 1 mole 64g
X 3.2g

3.2
X = 64 = 0.05moles
3.2g = 0.05moles

2F 1 mol
x 0.05mol

x = 2 x 0.05 = 0.1F
(a) From 3.2g we need 0.1F

(b)1F 96 000C
0.1F x

X = 0.1 x 96 000 = 9600C

3.2g requires 9600C

Exercise

What thickness of Zinc Valence = 2, density = 7150 kg/m3 will be

deposited on an
iron sheet with a total surface area = 25.0cm2 in 2.00Hrs if the sheet is
the cathode in a Zinc sulphate electrolyte where the average current is
5.00A? [Faraday constant F =
96 500C/mol, relative atomic mass of Zinc = 65.38kg/mol].

Zn2+ + 2e Zn

Q=Ixt
= 5 x (2 x 3600)
= 36 000C
2F (2 x 96 500) 1 mol (65.38kg)
36 000 x

36 000 x 65.38
X = 2 x 96 500
= 0.0122kg

Prepared By: Saviour MumaPage 86

 mass
Density = volume

mass 0.0122
Volume = density = 7150 = 1.7063 x 10-6m3

Volume = surface area x thickness

V = s xL
−6
V 1.7063 x 10
L = s = = 6.825 x 10-4m
0.0025

Prepared By: Saviour MumaPage 87