AMERICAN CIVIL WAR [ 1861 - 1865 ]

The American Civil war was fought during 1861- 1865 between the American
Union and confederation of states.This was the bloodiest conflict in the entire
history because more than 6 lakh people were killed and more than the double
of this were injured which continued for more than 4 years which shakes the
American Union to the core.

REASONS

1) Slavery issue : northern states were liberal and progressive where slavery
was considered to be evil whereas southern states slavery was highly
appreciated because of the social status of a family was dependent on the
number of slaves held by them .

2) Economic Activity: Northern economic activities were based on

mechanised industrial production whereas south was more kind of plantation
industries which required manual power.

3) Right of state to secede: North strongly believed in the unity whereas the
southern states believe that states can leave the union voluntarily.

4) Presidential elections: Lincoln strongly supported emancipation of slaves

which was strongly Opposed by the south hence had an immediate trigger to
the war .

APPROACH OF PRESIDENT LINCOLN

1) Emancipation of slavery not be done against any state will.

2) Safeguarding the unity and integrity of American Union

3) Repeated talks between the states of union

4) After failures decided for military action

IMPACT OF AMERICAN CIVIL WAR

1) Extremely devastating but made America really stronger than ever .

2) American parliament adopted a resolution where union was declared as

indissoluble.

3) America became supreme military power.

4) Emancipation of slavery got international level of appreciation.

5) Legal protection to every American citizen irrespective of race .

6) No racial discrimination on voting rights

7) Industrial developments were carried out in southern states .

 UNIFICATION OF GERMANY

BEFORE NAPOLEON : Germany was just a geographical existence in 1805

not at all a political entity .

NAPOLEON AND GERMAN UNIFICATION

1) Battle of Austerlitic : Rhine consideration was created on the basis of

“ Peace of Pressburg”.

2) Ideas of Revolution was spread by Napoleon and the despotic rule of

Napolean ignited German nationalism.

VIENNA CONGRESS of 1815

 Wanted to restore old regime ie pre Napoleon picture

 Holy Roman Empire was restored

 39 Rhine consideration were created

 Frank fruit parliament was restored

 Vienna order was Anti nationalism

APROACH OF BISMARK

 Blood and Iron = Violence + strength

 Ruthless suppression of opponents

 Raised army with the budget only from upper house

 Ensured neutrality of Russia and France during wars against Austria

 Ensured neutrality of Austria and Russia during war against France

BISMARKS VISION

 wanted to carry out the Prussianiation of Germany rather than

 Germanization of Prussia.

 No place for Austria in German unification

 Belief in military methods

 Germans prestige should be superior than that of Austrians and French

Role of Bismarck in state building in Germany:

1. Military reforms: Bismarck initiated many military reforms that allowed
successful wars in later time. In the 1850s, Bismarck wanted to build up
Prussia’s army to be ready if war broke out with the other German states or
Austria. To do this Bismarck collected money for military reforms through direct
taxation. These reforms included:
2. An increase in army conscription from two to three years.
3. The introduction of new battle tactics.
4. The introduction of weapons such as the needle gun.
5. Speeches: Bismarck made numerous speeches in public to rattle the
feeling of nationalism inside the German people. This was done in order to
arouse a sense of nation among people.
6. Isolation of countries: He successfully isolated other countries by
making them look like aggressors. He made following efforts for this:
7. 1st War of Unification (Schleswig-Holstein): The first diplomatic step
of Bismarck was the intervention of the Schleswig-Holstein. These two duchies
were under the Denmark in 1850 by the London Protocol. At this time the
combined army of Austria and Prussia under the leadership of Bismarck
attacked Denmark in 1864. This was the first diplomatic step of Bismarck
against Austria.
8. Elections: To counter Prussia’s growing influence, Austria tried to
strengthen its position in the German Federation. Bismarck thwarted Austria’s
plans by insisting on popular elections to the Diet (the Federation’s Parliament).
Bismarck had successfully ruined Austria’s plans.
9. 2nd War of Unification, 1866 (Austro-Prussian War): Bismarck knew
Austria was a major obstacle to unification. To succeed in his aims, Bismarck
declared war against Austria in 1866. This War led to the defeat of the
neighbouring States of Austria like Bavaria, Saxon etc. and then Austria. To
isolate Austria, Bismarck built up alliances with other major powers- Russia,
France and Italy.
10. The Treaty of Prague and formation of Germany: After the Austro-
Prussian War, the ‘Treaty of Prague’ was concluded between Austria and
Prussia in 1866. According to this treaty Austria was expelled from Germany.
After the treaty of Prague the formation of Germany was started.
11. With Austria weakened, Bismarck now turned his attention to the other
great stumbling block to unification- France. France had watched Prussia’s
growing power with alarm. France was heavily defeated in the Franco-Prussian
War. The circumstances leading to the war caused the southern German states
to support Prussia. This alliance led to the unification of Germany.
12. Annexation: The states of Schleswig, Holstein, Hanover, Nassaa and
Frankfort were annexed to Prussia. The States north to May River were
annexed to Prussia and the North German Confederation was formed.

WORLD WAR SECOND

How did the World War-II begin?

Germany’s attack on Poland

• It was started by Germany in an unprovoked attack on Poland.

• Shortly after the attack, Prime Minister of Britain, Neville Chamberlain,
declared war on
Germany.

What started the World War - II?

• On July 7, 1937, when the “Marco Polo Bridge Incident” led to a prolonged
war between Japan and China
• On September 1, 1939, when Germany invaded Poland, leading to Britain and
France declaring war on Hitler's Nazi state in retaliation

What were the 2 sides in World War - II?

The war was fought chiefly between - II major alliances:

• The Axis
• The Allies

What were the causes for the outburst of the Second World War?

Failure of the policy of appeasement.

• Appeasement means giving in to someone provided their demands are seen

as reasonable.
• Neville Chamberlain, Prime Minister of Britain, believed that the Treaty of
Versailles had treated Germany badly and Hitler’s demands were reasonable
Munich Agreement of September 1938

• The Munich Agreement, signed by the leaders of Germany, Britain, France

and Italy, agreed that the Sudetenland would be returned to Germany
• However, on a condition that no further territorial claims would be made by
Germany. Failure of the League of Nations

Failure of the League of Nations

• The League of Nations was an international organization set up in 1919 to

help keep world peace.
• In theory, the League of Nations was a good idea and did have some early
successes. But ultimately it was a failure.

Reasons for failure of League of Nations

Not all countries joined the League

• Apart from the United States, as a punishment for having started World War
One, Germany was not allowed to join and Russia was also excluded due to a
growing fear of Communism
• Other countries decided not to join and some joined but later left.

The League had no power.

• The main weapon of the League was to ask member countries to stop trading
with an aggressive country. However, this did not work because countries could
still trade with non- member countries.
• When the world was hit by depression in the late 1920s countries were
reluctant to lose trading partners to other non-member countries.

The League had no army

• Soldiers were to be supplied by member countries. However, countries were
reluctant to get involved and risk provoking an aggressive country into taking
direct action against them and failed to provide troops
• The Council of the League of Nations only met four times a year and decisions
had to be agreed by all nations.
• This process meant that the League could not act quickly to stop an act of
aggression.

Rise of Hitler
• Adolf Hitler became Chancellor of Germany in January 1933 and almost
immediately he started secretly building up Germany’s army and weapons.
• In 1936 Hitler ordered German troops to enter the Rhineland.
• Hitler also made - II important alliances during 1936. The first was called the
Rome-Berlin
Axis Pact and allied Hitler’s Germany with Mussolini’s Italy.
• The second was called the Anti-Comitern Pact and allied Germany with Japan.

Reunification of Germany
• Hitler’s next step was to begin taking back the land that had been taken away
from Germany.
• In March 1938, German troops marched into Austria.
• Six months later demanded that the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia
be handed over
to Germany.
• The Munich Agreement stated that Hitler could have the Sudetenland region
of Czechoslovakia
• In March 1939 invaded the rest of Czechoslovakia.
• Finally, German on 1st September 1939, troops invaded Poland leading to the
beginning of
the Second World War

Why did the axis powers lose the war?

Shortage of raw materials

• Both Italy and Japan had to import supplies including Germany which was
short of rubber, cotton, nickel and, after mid-1944 oil.

The allies learned from their mistakes

• By 1942 the allies understood the importance of air support and aircraft
carriers. Consequently, they built up air and naval superiority which helped
them dominate the warfare.
• The combined resources of the US, the USSR and the British Empire
• The resources of the combined nations were so great that the longer the war
lasted the less
chance Axis had of victory.

Serious Tactical mistakes

• The Japanese failed to learn the lesson about the importance of aircraft
carriers.
• Hitler should have defeated Britain before invading USSR, which lead
Germany facing a two-
front war.
• Both Hitler and Japan made a fatal mistake of attacking the US

Nazi racial policy

• Nazi treatment of Jews, gypsies and homosexuals in occupied territories of
USSR alienated many of the conquered people who would have otherwise
supported the Germans against the Stalinist regime.

The Final solution

• Over 5.7 million Jews were murdered including Socialists, communists, Poles,
prisoners from USSR, homosexuals and handicaps by Hitlerregime.
• There were at least 20 concentration camps to give away with what they called
‘the Jewish problem’.

How did the First World War lead to the Second World War?

• The main way in which the peace settlement after World War I led to World
War II was by making Germany feel a strong desire for revenge.
• After WWI, the Treaty of Versailles was imposed on Germany.
• The treaty was very harsh. It took away much of Germany’s territory, including
all of its
colonies.
• It made Germany admit the war was its fault and it made them pay reparations
to the French
and the British.
• When Hitler came to power, he promised to make them strong again. This led
people to
support him.
• The desire for revenge and greater power caused Hitler to do things like taking
Czechoslovakia and, eventually, invading Poland.
• The peace settlement after WWI made Germany want revenge and that desire
for revenge led to WWII.

How did the treaty of Versailles lead to the Second World War?

Unfair treaty of Versailles

• After World War one ended in 1918, Germany had to give up land and was
banned from having armed forces.

The main terms of the Treaty of Versailles were:

War Guilt
• The significance of this clause in the path to WWII is mainly that Germany
took on paying damages, but there is also the fact that this clause infuriated
many Germans.
• Germans remembered the humiliation that the Allies had put upon them
convincing them the need for more war.
Damages
• The Allies demanded 33 billion in damages from the Germans.
• The economic devastation drove Germany's government into the ground and
that is not the
fault of the government, it was the fault of the treaty.

Territorial Losses
• The loss of almost all of Germany's colonies angered many Germans. As
stated above, the damages paid out by Germany had destroyed the German
Economy.
• Many Germans realized that losing their territories had contributed to the crash
of the German economy and they resented the Allies for causing the collapse
of the economy.

Disarmament
• Germany was only allowed to have a small army and six naval ships. No tanks,
no air force and no submarines were allowed and the Rhineland area was to
be de-militarized.
• The military restrictions placed upon Germany caused unrest in Germany.
Wrapping Up
• The economy collapsed, the government lost power, the military was weak,
and the Germans were angry.
• All of these factors together combined to make a perfect storm in Germany.

Results and Aftermath of World War II

Division of Germany
• After the end of the war, a conference was held in Potsdam, Germany, to set
up peace treaties.
• The countries that fought with Hitler lost territory and had to pay reparations
to the Allies.
• Germany and its capital Berlin were divided into four parts. The zones were
to be controlled
by
 Great Britain
 The United States,
 France
 The Soviet Union.
• The three western Allies and the Soviet Union disagreed on many things and
as time went on Germany was divided into - II separate countries:
 East Germany (Communist)
 West Germany (democratic)
• Berlin was also divided into East and West Berlin.
• Austria was also occupied by the four Allies from 1945 to 1955.
• The division of Europe was the beginning of the Cold War, between the
democratic nations of the west and the Communist countries of Eastern Europe.
• After the war, many Nazi leaders were arrested and punished for what they
had done in the war. The most famous war trials were held at Nuremberg,
Germany.
• Those who were responsible for brutal crimes were sentenced to death.

City of Berlin
• One of them focused on the city of Berlin which was deep inside the Russian
zone.
• In June 1948, the Soviet Union tried to drive the western powers out of Berlin
by blocking
all routes to the city.
• In 1961 the Russians built a wall around Berlin to stop their citizens from
escaping to the west.
• In 1948 the United States set up the Marshall Plan to help Europe’s economy.

Assembly of the United Nations

• During World War II, four of the Allied powers agreed to create an organization
that should work for peace.
o The United States, Great Britain ,The Soviet Union ,China
• In April 1945 fifty countries signed a charter and gave birth to the United
Nations Enormous destruction .

There was no all-inclusive peace settlement

• The distrust between the USSR and the west made the agreement on various
points impossible
• However, several separate treaties were made

The war led to important social changes

• Millions of people were forced to leave homes
• Almost 10 million Germans were forced to leave their homes from East
Germany to the west
so that no one can claim the lands in the future.
• In countries such as USSR and Germany extensive rebuilding took place as
cities were ruined due to war.

The war led to the production of nuclear weapons

• The first ever use of nuclear weapons on Hiroshima and Nagasaki showcased
the horrifying powers of destruction.
• The four European countries which played a leading role in the world affairs
were all weaker than before. Germany was devastated and divided.
• France and Italy were both on verge of bankruptcy.
• Britain although seemed strong and victorious, the cost of war left her in ruins.
 Emergence of Super powers
• The USA and the USSR emerged as the world super powers as they were no
longer isolated.
• The US had suffered relatively lesser than the USSR and prospered from
supplying allies withfood and war materials.

The war encouraged decolonization

• The war ended the domination of the European powers and almost all the
nations colonized were gaining independence.
• These new emerging independent states were categorized as the third world
nations

What was the outcome of the Paris Peace Treaties of 1947?

• The Paris Peace Treaties was signed on 10 February 1947, as the outcome
of the Paris Peace Conference, held from 29 July to 15 October 1946.
• The victorious wartime Allied powers (principally the United Kingdom, Soviet
Union, United States, and France) negotiated the details of peace treaties with
Italy, the minor Axis powers (Romania, Hungary, Bulgaria), and Finland,
following the end of World War II in 1945.
• The treaties allowed Italy, Romania, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Finland to resume
their responsibilities as sovereign states in international affairs and to qualify for
membership in the United Nations.

What were the territorial changes made post World War- II?

Europe :

Italy
• Italy lost Italian Libya and Italian East Africa.
• In the peace treaty, Italy recognized the independence of Albania (in personal
union with the
Italian monarchy after the Italian invasion of Albania in April 1939).
• Italy also lost its concession in Tianjin, which was turned over to China.
• Finland was restored to the borders of 1 January 1941, except for the former
province of Petsamo, which was ceded to the Soviet Union.

Hungary
• Hungary was restored to its borders before 1938. Romania
• Romania was restored to the borders of 1 January 1941, with the exception
of the border with Hungary giving Northern Transylvania back to Romania.
Bulgaria
• Bulgaria was restored to the borders of 1 January 1941, returning Vardar
• Macedonia to Yugoslavia and Eastern Macedonia and Western Thrace to
Greece

USSR
• The USSR also took control of many of the countries in Eastern Europe where
they had fought the Germans. These included Poland, Romania, Bulgaria,
Albania, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia.

Japan and Eastern Asia

• The US and the Allies occupied Japan. They maintained control as Japan
recovered from the war. Japan became an independent nation again in 1952.
• In Korea, the Allies and the USSR (Russia) divided up the country into North
and South Korea.

Timeline of all important events

1939
• Hitler invades Poland on 1 September. Britain and France declare war on
Germany - II days later.

1940
• Rationing starts in the UK.
• German 'Blitzkrieg' overwhelms Belgium, Holland and France.
• British Expeditionary Force evacuated from Dunkirk.
• British victory in Battle of Britain forces Hitler to postpone invasion plans.

1941
• Hitler begins Operation Barbarossa - the invasion of Russia.
• The Blitz continues against Britain's major cities.
• Allies take Tobruk in North Africa, and resist German attacks.
• Japan attacks Pearl Harbor, and the US enters the war.

1942
• Germany suffers setbacks at Stalingrad and El Alamein.
• Singapore falls to the Japanese in February - around 25,000 prisoners taken.
• American naval victory at Battle of Midway, in June, marks turning point in
Pacific War.
1943
• Surrender at Stalingrad marks Germany's first major defeat.
• Allied victory in North Africa enables invasion of Italy to be launched.
• Italy surrenders, but Germany takes over the battle.
1944
• Soviet offensive gathers pace in Eastern Europe.
• D Day: The Allied invasion of France. Paris is liberated in August.
• Guam liberated by the US Okinawa, and Iwo Jima bombed.

1945
• Auschwitz liberated by Soviet troops.
• Russians reach Berlin: Hitler commits suicide and Germany surrenders on 7
May.
• After atomic bombs are dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan
surrenders on 14 August

COLD WAR

A state of military and political tension between the Western Bloc comprising of
the USA, its NATO allies and some others and the powers in the Eastern Bloc
comprising of the Soviet Union along with its allies from the Warsaw Pact post
World War II is known as the Cold War.

The term “cold” signifies absence of fighting on a large-scale directly between

the two opponents despite major regional wars, termed proxy wars, supported
by both the sides.

Underlying Reasons

 Competing Ideology: The United States and the Soviet Union represented
two opposing systems of government.

 Economic: The United States wanted to encourage free trade throughout

the world. The Soviets, however, wanted to close themselves off from the
world and international trade and solely benefit from its resources. These
differences led to resentment between the United States and the Soviet
Union.

 Power Rivalry: After the decline of Europe following the Second World War,
power was largely shared between the Soviet Union and the United States
as they were considered the newly formed superpowers. They wanted to
dominate each other and spread their ideologies

Causes of Cold War

1) Ideological confrontation

→ Communists vs capitalists

2) USSRs expansion into eastern Europe

→ Soviet tried to setup communist government in Czech , Bulgaria , Romania

→ The Iron Curtain specifically refers to the imaginary line dividing Europe
between Soviet influence and Western influence, and symbolizes efforts by the
Soviet Union to block itself and its satellite states from open contact with the
West and non-Soviet-controlled areas.

→ Yalta declaration by Churchill ,Roosevelt to create liberated Europe , setting

up democratic government through free and fair elections was despised by
Soviet Union
3) Mutual mistrust and threat among US and USSR

→ One of the main issues that strained relations between the Soviet Union and
the West was the threat of nuclear war.This was highlighted by the Cuban
Missile Crisis that involved a political and military standoff.

→ The Soviet Union was extremely concerned about its security after being
invaded twice in the twentieth century. In 1945, America created and used the
atomic bomb against Japan and the USSR was determined to create one of its
own. Both the USSR and the U.S.A. built up huge arsenals of Inter-Continental
Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs).

→ Neither side trusted the other. Because they were so different, each side saw
each event differently and believed they were in the right. So every action they
took made them hate each other more.

4) Truman doctrine and policy of containment 1947

→ Truman Doctrine, which vowed to help countries under threat from the
Soviets. It is worth noting that the Soviet Union later issued the Brezhnev
Doctrine, which decreed that the Soviet Union would intervene with force in
order to protect communism in its satellites.

→ America would provide moral and financial support to countries whose

integrity threatened by communism . Containment means to contain the limits
of USSR

5) Support of Proxy-wars

→ These didnʼt necessarily cause the Cold War, but worsened it. The two
superpowers often wrestled for superiority when it came to third world countries,
supporting proxy wars in which they typically supplied and advised opposing
factions in civil wars including the Vietnam War to the U.S. backing the
Ethiopian government and the Soviets going with next-door rival Somalia in the
1970s. This just goes to show that their alignments were often arbitrary.

Development of Cold War:

The Cold War that took place between the Soviet Union and the United States
lasted for decades.The Cold War was at its peak in the period of 1948–53.The
Cold War tensions relaxed somewhat between 1953 to 1957.

The Warsaw Pact, which was a unified military organisation, was formed in the
year 1955. Then in the period of 1958-1962,again cold war
intensified.Intercontinental ballistic missiles were being made by the Soviet
Union as well as the United States.

The Soviets began installing their missiles in Cuba secretly and these could be
used to launch nuclear attacks on the cities of U.S.Throughout the entire cold
war duration, the Soviet Union and the United States avoided direct Military
confrontation in Europe.

1) Phase 1: 1945 - 1953: Beginning of Cold War

2) Phase 2 (1953–1962):: Crisis and escalation

3) Phase 3 (1962–1979): Confrontation through détente

Phase 1: 1945 - 1953: Beginning of Cold War

1) The yalta conference 1945

This was held in Russia and attended by the three allied leaders Stalin ,
Roosevelt and Churchill ,so that they could plan what was to happen when the
war ended.

Agreements were reached on the following points

→ A new organisation to be called the United Nations should be setup to

replace the League of Nations

→ Germany was to divided into zones - Russian ,American and British , while
Berlin would be split into corresponding zones

→ Free elections would be allowed in the state of Eastern Europe

→ Stalin promised to join the war against japan on conditions that Russiaʼs
received Sakhalin island and some territory in Manchuria

2) The Potsdam conference 1945

Like yalta was attended ted by three allied powers US ,Britain and USSR
Agreement reached on following points--

→ Germany was to be disarmed

→ Nazi party was to be disbanded

→ Germany was to pay war reparations of which would go for USSR

→ Disagreement continued over Poland

3) The Truman doctrine and the Marshall plan Truman doctrine

→ This sprang from the events in Greece , where communists were trying to
overthrow the monarchy

→ Britain who wanted to help Greece against the communists appealed to USA
for help

→ Truman , US president in his doctrine made it clear that USA had no intention
of returning toisolation as she had after First World War . Committed to a policy
of containment not just in Europe but throughout the world

4) Marshall plan 1947

→ Economic extension of Truman doctrine

→ Under Marshall plan , US produced Economic recovery programme which

offered financial helpto Western Europe

→ A prosperous Europe would provide lucrative markets for American exports ,

but its main aim

was political : communism was less likely to gain control in flourishing Europe

→ USSR didnʼt allowed her satellite countries to take advantage of Marshall

plan

5) The cominform

→ The communist information Bureau or cominform was the soviet response

to marshall plan . Setup by Stalin ,in 1947 to introduce Russian style
communism in satellite nations .

→ Cominform was flooded by the Molotov plan and comecon to aid Eastern
European nations

6) Russian Developments:

→ The Cominform, September 1947.

→ Communist Information Bureau,1947.

→ Molotov Plan,1947 : Russian aid to satellites.

→ Comecon ( Council of Mutual Economic Assistance) set up to coordinate

economic policies

7) Communist Takeover of Czechoslovakia, Feb 1948.

Reasons for Thaw in Relation post 1953:

1) Death of Stalin, 1953.

The next leader of USSR, Nikita Khrushchev believed in the philosophy of

“Peacefulcoexistence”.

2) JosephMcCarthy Discredited(US).

He was an American politician who is popular for spreading rumours about

increasing USSR infiltration in US institutions which created a fear in USA
towards USSR. This fear manifested in the form of arms race and increasing
mistrust between the two blocs.

He was discredited with the documentary of Journalist Edward R. Murrow which

showed the groundlessness of McCarthy's allegations. McCarthy was
eventually censured by the Senate.

3) End of Korean War by Signing of Peace agreement at Panmunjom, 1953.

4) Russian Concessions:

→ It gave up military bases in Finland.

→ Allowed 16 nations to enter UN by lifting veto.

→ Cominform was abandoned, suggesting more freedom for satellites.

5) Austrian State Treaty, May 1955:

It established Austria as a sovereign nation

Factors against Thaw in Relation post 1953 which led to Thaw being only
Partial:

Hungarian uprising against the communist government was ruthlessly

crushed by Russian tanks.

Warsaw Pact, 1955 was established after west Germany entered NATO.

Arm build up by Russians.

Berlin wall was created.

Cuban crisis of 1962

Phase 2 (1953–1962):: Crisis and escalation

1. Khrushchev, Eisenhower and de-Stalinization: In 1953, changes in political

leadership on both sides shifted the dynamic of the Cold War. After the death
of Joseph Stalin, Nikita Khrushchev became the Soviet leader.

2. Warsaw Pact and Hungarian Revolution: While Stalin's death in 1953 slightly
relaxed tensions, the situation in Europe remained an uneasy armed truce.
Hungarian Revolution was a nationwide revolt against the government of the
Hungarian People's Republic and its Soviet- imposed policies, lasting from 23
October until 10 November 1956. Though leaderless when it first began, it was
the first major threat to Soviet control since the USSR's forces drove Nazi
Germany from its territory at the end of World War II.

3. Competition in the Third World (Nationalist movements in some countries

and regions, notably Guatemala, Indonesia and Indochina were often allied with
communist groups, or perceived in the West to be allied with communists.)

4. Space Race: On the nuclear weapons front, the United States and the USSR
pursued nuclear rearmament and developed long-range weapons with which
they could strike the territory of the other. In August 1957, the Soviets
successfully launched the world's first intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM)
and in October, launched the first Earth satellite, Sputnik 1.The launch of
Sputnik inaugurated the Space Race. This culminated in the Apollo Moon
landings, which astronaut Frank Borman later described as "just a battle in the
Cold War."

5. Cuban Missile Crisis and Khrushchev's ouster (1962):

Timeline of Crisis:

Fidel Castro seized power from the corrupt American backed dictator Batista.
The First step of Castro was nationalisation of American owned estates and
Factories. This led toworsening of relations with USA and improvement in
relations with USSR. In Jan 1961, USA broke off diplomatic relations with Cuba
while Russians increased their economic aid. Kennedy attempted to ouster
Castro by Batista supporter with the active support of CIA(Operation
Mongoose). Castro defeated them and announced himself as Marxist and Cuba
as Socialist. Seeing an opportunity, Khrushchev decided to setup nuclear
missile launcher in Cuba aimed at USA. Kennedy created naval blockade and
Russia emerged as Chicken hearted.

CAMPAIGN AGAINST NUCLEAR WEAPONS, 1958:

This was a time when the threat of nuclear war was imminent and thus civil
society across the world raised a campaign against nuclear weapons to
encourage governments for unilateral disarmament. However, the campaign
failed as no government including Britain where the campaign started went for
unilateral disarmament due to the risk being too high given the tense
environment. All countries demanded multilateral disarmament.

Phase 3 (1962–1979): Confrontation through détente

Détente (a French word meaning release from tension) is the name given to a
period of improved relations between the United States and the Soviet Union
that began tentatively in 1971 and took decisive form when President Richard
M. Nixon visited the secretary- general of the Soviet Communist party, Leonid
I. Brezhnev, in Moscow, May 1972.

1. French withdrawal from NATO

2. Invasion of Czechoslovakia

In 1968, a period of political liberalization in Czechoslovakia called the Prague

Spring took place that included "Action Program" of liberalizations, which
described:

 increasing freedom of the press,

 freedom of speech and freedom of movement, along with
 an economic emphasis on consumer goods,
 the possibility of a multiparty government,
 limiting the power of the secret police and
  potentially withdrawing from the Warsaw Pact.

In answer to the Prague Spring, on 20 August 1968, the Soviet Army, together
with most of their Warsaw Pact allies, invaded Czechoslovakia.

3. Brezhnev Doctrine: the right of the Soviet Union to violate the

sovereignty of any country attempting to replace Marxism–Leninism with
capitalism.

4. Phase 4 (1979–1985): "Second Cold War"

 The term second Cold War refers to the period of intensive reawakening
of Cold War tensions and conflicts in the late 1970s and early 1980s.
Tensions greatly increased between the major powers with both sides
becoming more militaristic.
 Soviet War in Afghanistan: In April 1978, the communist People's
Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) seized power in Afghanistan in
the Saur Revolution.
 Gorbachev's economic reforms leading to disintegration of USSR:

i. Glasnost (openness) and Perestroika (restructuring)

 Perestroika: It restructured Soviet Economic and Political policy. It led

to decentralisation of economic control and encouraged enterprises to
become self-sustaining. Gorbachev proposed reduction of the direct
involvement of Communist party leadership in the country's governance
and increasing the authority of local government. Non-communist parties
were allowed to participate in elections.
 Glasnost: Glasnost was Soviet policy of open discussion on social and
political issues. It allowed criticism of the government officials and
allowed the media freedom of expression.

With the disintegration of the Soviet Union, the collapse of Communism in the
Soviet Union and Eastern Europe occurred.The bi-polar world became unipolar
world. On 31st July 1991, American President George Bush and Soviet leader
Michael Gorbachev signed the ‘historicʼ START - I Treaty in the Moscow
Summit.This marks the end of the Era of Cold War. The ideological war
otherwise known as Cold War was fought for about five decades since
1945.The world saw the vertical division of nation states. Military alliances were
made. Arms race developed.Nuclear holocaust threatened the world on many
occasions. However, after the 1970s détente resulted in the gradual relaxation
of tension between the two super powers which ultimately ended with the
dissolution of Soviet Union.

Post War Soviet Union and Disintegration of USSR

Soviet Union won admiration of anti-fascist elements during WW-2. It made

significant development on the front of military, industry and technology, but
standard of living of people remained low as consumer goods industry was not
promoted. In heavy industry also, major developments were made in space and
defense and many other areas were neglected. Economy was a command
economy with centralizing tendency. Excessive defense and space expenditure
weaken Soviet economy fundamentally as little funds were available for other
sectors and social welfare. At political front also, Stalin ruled like a dictator and
Communist Party was single political partytill1991. During his time dissenters
were sent into forced labor camps called ‘Gulags ’and prisons. In the mad race
with the US,USSR spent it most of energy in Weapons and other non-socialist
activities and the state soon become hollow from inside. The bureaucracy soon
spread its tentacles and the common man felt the pinch in every republic. After
years of being told that the Soviet system was better than Western capitalism,
the reality of its backwardness came as a political and psychological shock to
the people. The 70 years old Communist Party became unresponsive and often
showed apathy that hurt the people. In other East European countries also
similar tactics were used which gradually led to rise in unpopularity of the
communist governments. Yugoslavia was expelled from the world communist
movement in 1948 for her refusal to accept Soviet control.

Repression ended only on death of Stalin in 1953 and Nikita Khrushchev

became president. Nikita gave concept of peaceful co-existence and many
disarmament measures were taken during 1950s. Soviet Union even supported
NAM in many cases and liberation of many countries was supported. In this
period, policy of peaceful co-existence even created rift in the communist
movement as Mao Zedong led China still believed in inevitability of war and
revolution against bourgeoisie. Despite her espousal of peaceful coexistence,
it continued to interfere in East European countries – most notably in Hungary
in 1956 and Czechoslovakia in 1968.

A truly democratic government was formed only after Mikhail Gorbachev

became Russian president in 1985.Gorbachev made an attempt at redemption
by declaring his intent to revive Soviet Union economy and political system as
he advocated – Glasnost and Perestroika – i.e. transparency or openness and
restructuring. Glasnost involved openness in government working, openness in
political discourse, removal of civic disabilities and so on. Non-communist
parties were also allowed to enter politics. Perestroika aimed at re-structuring
the economy, but little was achieved. Failure on economic front also led to
strengthening of demands of autonomy by republics.

USSR was a union of Soviet Republics. One of the major issues with the Soviet
Union was dominance of center and Russia in this union. The communist ideals
could not be fully realized and it paved way for dissatisfaction. Corruption, high
centralization and high handed attitude further alienated republics. This bid at
liberalization led to emergence of pant up frustrations and ethnic disputes
emerged. Fall of many other socialist states around the globe at the same time
also led to the rejection of single party authoritarian state.

Gorbachev’s decision to normalise relations with the West and democratise and
reform the Soviet Union had some other effects that neither he nor anyone else
intended or anticipated. The people in the East European countries which were
part of the Soviet bloc started to protest against their own governments and
Soviet control. Unlike in the past, the Soviet Union, under Gorbachev, did not
intervene when the disturbances occurred, and the communist regimes
collapsed one after another.

In the meanwhile, Gorbachev further introduced greater political reforms. He

introduced direct elections and ban on political parties was ended. Baltic
republics (Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia) were the ones which were most vociferous
and soon legislatures of many of the republics started passing legislations
undermining the control of the central government and endorsing
independence.

This unrest also alerted military and Communist Party which tried to do away
with Gorbachev government in a failed coup as popular agitation was led by
Boris Yelstin who was president of Russia. But the coup attempt heightened the
fear in minds of people about the undoing of the reforms by a new government
and as a result many of the republic started to declare unilateral independence.
Russia and its close aides mooted on idea of dissolving the Soviet Union, but
retaining the unity via a loose alliance which later came to be known as
Commonwealth of Independent States. However, soon Gorbachev resigned in
December 1991 and with this ended Soviet Union and Cold war. Russia
became heir of USSR and inherited permanent membership in Security Council
and its nuclear arsenal. Break-up was sudden and unexpected. With this also
came to end ‘practically existing socialism’ as an alternative to capitalism.

Post USSR disintegration, authoritarian regimes came up in many of the 15

republics. In Russia also environment of political instability prevailed for some
time and mafia like Industrialists prevailed who became billionaires within short
time period by plundering the natural wealth of Russia. NATO expanded post
disintegration and despite its promises and earlier treaties, missiles were
stationed in Poland and Czechoslovakia.
 South Africa

Problems: -

 The whites dominated the politics and the economic life of the new state.
Blacks were not even allowed to vote.
 Even though blacks made up the majority of the population they were
discriminated very badly.
 Black people had to do most of the manual work in factories and on farms
and were supposed to stay in the places reserved for them away from
the white residential areas.
 A governmental system of pass laws controlled the movement of blacks.
 After second world war situation deteriorated for blacks because of the
apartheid law enacted by the government. This tightened up control over
blacks still further.

What is Apartheid?

 Translated from the Afrikaans meaning 'apartness', apartheid was the

ideology supported by the National Party (NP) government and was
introduced in South Africa in 1948.
 Apartheid called for the separate development of the different racial
groups in South Africa.
 In basic principles, apartheid did not differ that much from the policy of
segregation of the South African governments existing before the
Afrikaner Nationalist Party came to power in 1948. The main difference
is that apartheid made segregation part of the law.
Why was Apartheid introduced?

 The South Africans were determined to preserve their racial supremacy

as they became alarmed with the racial equality in the commonwealth.
 According to the whites in south Africa non-whites are inferior beings.
 The nationalists won the elections in 1945 with the promise to rescue the
whites from the black menace and to preserve racial purity.

Main features of Apartheid are: -

 Complete separation of blacks and whites as far as possible at all levels.

 Every person was given a racial classification and an identity card
 Marriage and sexual relations between whites and non-whites were
forbidden to preserve the purity of white race.
 Africans lost all political rights and their representation in parliament.

Opposition to Apartheid

 Inside south Africa: -

 Despite laws against right to strike protests still did take place by the
leaders like Albert Luthuli, Nelson Mandela.
 Sharpeville massacre brought world attention to this issue as it
condemned the south Africa government actions.
 From this massacre only even, black leaders realised that violence had
to be taken on by violence itself.

 Outside south Africa: -

 Rest of the commonwealth opposed this discriminatory practice.
 The united nations and organisation of African unity condemned
apartheid as well. Despite UN voted to place an economic boycott it
failed because countries still had trade relations with south Africa.

How did Apartheid end?

 In 1970 's there was strong external pressure to remove this practice.
 South Africa was hit by a recession in 1970's which made whites worse
off. So, they
 started emigrating and blacks were growing.
 The African homelands were a failure as they were poverty stricken.
 USA criticised the South African governments racist policy.
 Prime minister Botha introduced some important changes but these
were not enough.
 By the 1980's south Africa has great international pressure and also
internal attitudes changed
 Commonwealth agreed on a strong package of sanctions. USA joined
the fray too.
 The black population was no more uneducated and unskilled but well
educated.
 Even the Dutch reformed church criticised it.
 The new president Klerk in 1989 wanted to have a peaceful transition
with black majority rule: -
 Nelson Mandela was released from jail.
 Most of the remaining apartheid laws were dropped.
 Namibia was given independence finally
 Talks began to work out a new constitution.