Journal of Polymers and the Environment (2023) 31:2968–2982

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10924-023-02784-3

ORIGINALPAPER

Preparation and Characterization of Polyethylene Terephthalate/

Span‑85 Pervaporation Membranes Using Waste Bottles
for the Removal of Nitrobenzene from Water
Shirin Kiani1 · Seyed Mahmoud Mousavi1 · Saba Afrang1

Accepted: 30 January 2023 / Published online: 20 February 2023

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2023

Abstract
Applying waste polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles to fabricate membranes is a promising approach toward the circular
economy and sustainable development. In the present study, waste PET bottles were applied to fabricate pervaporation (PV)
membranes for the first time. Sorbitan trioleate (Span-85) was used as a hydrophobic additive, and the obtained membranes
were examined in the PV separation of nitrobenzene (NB) as a hazardous material from water. Increased water contact angle,
higher d-spacing (confirmed by X-ray diffraction spectroscopy), and decreased glass transition temperature (confirmed by
differential scanning calorimetry) were observed for the membranes containing Span-85 and contributed to an increase in
NB flux. The PET/1 wt% Span-85 membrane represented the highest separation factor (at 56,157.07) among the examined
membranes, 332-fold as high as the neat PET membrane.

Keywords Polyethylene terephthalate · Pervaporation · Nitrobenzene · Recycling · Sorbitan trioleate

Introduction of polymer composites for noise control applications [5],

incorporated into building materials such as bricks [6, 7]
Plastics, among which PET plays a significant role, contrib- and concrete [6–9], and applied in manufacturing yarn, knit-
ute significantly to our daily lives due to their durability and wear fabrics, and polyester fibers for apparel applications
high strength [1]. Due to the growth of the world population [1, 10] and also in obtaining filaments for 3D printers [11].
and the expanded bottle market, the application of PET is There are also reports on the application of recycled PET
increasing [1]. The food industry applies PET extensively in the synthesis of polyurethane composites [12] and flame
because of its chemical properties, recyclability, and low retardant unsaturated polyester resin [13] through chemi-
cost [2]. The worldwide production of PET bottles was cal recycling, magnetic microparticles adsorbent for dye
reported as 300 million tons in 2017, increasing annually wastewater treatment [14], and metal–organic frameworks as
[3]. This increasing amount has led to the accumulation of adsorbents for water treatment [15, 16]. The application of
PET wastes in landfills since 75% of plastic waste has not PET waste in the fabrication of carbonaceous materials [17]
yet been recycled [4]. Recycling PET wastes is a promising and as thermal insulation material [18] was also reported in
approach to addressing the environmental issues associated the literature.
with their disposal [4]. In addition, it lowers the need for raw One approach to recycling PET bottles is to apply them
materials, results in energy savings, and decreases green- in membrane fabrication. Arahman et al. [19] utilized
house gas emissions [1]. Due to the availability of waste PET waste PET bottles to fabricate ultrafiltration membranes
bottles, circular economy strategies can be effectively imple- for humic acid removal. They modified the hydrophilicity
mented [2]. Recycled PET can be utilized in the fabrication of PET membranes by blending with polyvinylpyrrolidone
(PVP) and achieved the maximum rejection of humic acid
at 75.92% using the PET/PVP blend membrane. In another
* Seyed Mahmoud Mousavi study, Rajesh and Murthy [20] prepared ultrafiltration
[email protected] membranes using waste PET bottles and polyethylene gly-
1
Chemical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, col (PEG) as the additive. Their obtained membranes were
Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran applied in the filtration of dextran aqueous solutions. They

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Journal of Polymers and the Environment (2023) 31:2968–2982 2969

found that an increase in the concentrations of PEG 400 aquatic environment without adequate treatment [31]. As
and PEG 600 augmented the flux while dropping the sol- a stable and non-degradable chemical, its discharge brings
ute separation. Pulido et al. [21] applied recycled PET to about long-term pollution of the environment [32]. NB is
fabricate solvent-resistant ultrafiltration membranes. They highly toxic and acute carcinogenic [33], causes severe
reported that the developed PET membranes were resist- damage to the vision, the liver, and kidneys, and leads to
ant to various solvents, acid, and chlorine. Ali et al. [22] lung irritation [34]. NB can impair sensor function and
applied waste PET bottles as a green material in prepar- lead to anemia and even death [32]. Skin contact or inha-
ing ultrafiltration membranes for treating cloudy water. In lation of NB vapor can cause acute poisoning [35]. The
their study, adding LiCl to the membrane structure resulted genotoxicity of NB has also been reported [36]. Approxi-
in a membrane with higher hydrophilicity, selectivity, and mately 8600 tons of NB are released into the aquatic envi-
flux. Kusumocahyo et al. [23] fabricated ultrafiltration ronment annually [32]. A previous study reported that 80%
membranes using recycled PET for treating bovine serum of surface water was contaminated by NB in China [36].
albumin (BSA) solution. They reported that using nonsol- According to the toxicity of NB and its widespread
vents with less polarity brings about membranes with higher discharge into the environment, considerable efforts have
water flux. In another study, Kusumocahyo et al. [24] applied been made to remove NB from water. Conventional treat-
PET bottle waste and PET resin to fabricate ultrafiltration ment technologies such as adsorption, biodegradation,
membranes. They showed that the membranes represented and reduction are not environmentally friendly and cost-
similar characteristics, such as porosity, hydrophilicity, effective [31]. In addition, their byproducts cause second-
morphology, and IR spectra. Lu et al. [25] used recycled ary pollution [31]. Chemical oxidations release hazard-
PET and a solvent blend of gamma-valerolactone (GVL) ous byproducts and are associated with long residence
and Rhodiasolv® PolarClean (PolarClean) as eco-friendly time and high pressure/temperature [30]. The application
materials to fabricate special polysulfone (PSf) ultrafiltra- of ozonation, photocatalysis, and the Fenton reaction is
tion membranes. At an evaporation time of 30 s, the result- limited because of the strict operational conditions or the
ing PET-PSf/PolarClean-GVL membranes performed better subsequent sludge disposal cost [36]. In electrochemical
than the PSf/N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone membranes in terms methods, commonly used cathodes may suffer from low
of permeability and rejection. Some studies also focused on stability or reactivity or be subject to limitations such as
fabricating electrospun fibrous membranes for treating aque- high cost [32]. The activated sludge process cannot effi-
ous solutions. For example, in a study by Xiong et al. [26] ciently remove NB owing to the strong electronegativity
the waste-derived PET Janus fibrous membranes indicated of the nitro-group, which decreases the electron density of
suitable antifouling properties, excellent mechanical proper- the benzene ring [36]. In addition, NB and its transforma-
ties, and prominent separation efficiency in treating water/ tion metabolites inhibit microbial activity in the biological
oil emulsions. In another study, Zander et al. [27] fabricated treatment owing to mutagenicity and toxicity [36]. Thus,
electrospun fibrous PET membranes using waste bottles for developing an efficient and feasible alternative approach
microfiltration application. Their PET-derived membrane to remove NB from water is still crucial.
removed more than 99% of 500 nm latex beads by gravity Pervaporation (PV) is an effective and clean separation
filtration. In our previous study, recycled PET bottles were technology for removing semivolatile compounds at low
applied to fabricate nanofiltration membranes for the sepa- concentrations from solutions [37]. PV is a simple method
ration of diltiazem from water [28]. Using Xanthan as the that provides advantages such as compactness and low costs
additive, the PET/Xanthan membranes prepared in methanol [38]. In addition, the PV process does not require heating or
as the nonsolvent were more hydrophilic than those obtained the addition of chemicals [37]. PV is based on membrane
in water and generally performed better in the nanofiltration properties and the diffusion and sorption of feed compo-
[28]. In a recent study, Khashij et al. [29] prepared nano- nents [39]. Today, there is a need to develop membranes that
filtration membranes from recycled PET for the rejection can be produced cost-effectively with improved mechanical
of Pb (II) and Cr (VI). The membranes developed in their properties and high selectivity and permeability [39]. In this
study proved promising for the removal of heavy metals regard, polyethylene terephthalate (PET) waste bottles can
from industrial effluents. be a proper choice as a cost-effective raw material.
Efficient water treatment processes are required to To summarize, applying waste PET bottles to fabricate
address the increasing global demand for clean water, membranes is a promising approach toward the circular
especially free of persistent organic pollutants such as economy and sustainable development. Having said that,
nitrobenzene (NB) [30]. NB is extensively used in indus- the preparation of PV membranes using recycled PET has
trial sections for producing explosives, pharmaceuticals, not been reported yet. In the present study, waste PET bottles
herbicides, insecticides, and aniline [31]. Originating from were utilized to prepare PV membranes for the first time.
its manufacture and application, NB is discharged into the The obtained membranes were characterized in different

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2970 Journal of Polymers and the Environment (2023) 31:2968–2982

aspects and then examined in the PV separation of NB from TFA + Span-85

water.
+ PET

Materials and Methods Stirring Stirring Degassing

Materials

Trifluoroacetic acid (TFA, purity > 99%), nitrobenzene

(NB, purity ≥ 99%), and sorbitan trioleate (Span-85) were
obtained from Merck, Germany. PET bottles containing
water were purchased from a local company. After the con-
sumption of bottled water, empty bottles were cut into 1 ­cm2
pieces and applied in membrane fabrication. Distilled water Placing in an incubator Casting in a Petri dish

was used in preparing the PV feed.

Fig. 1  Schematic diagram of the membrane preparation procedure

Membrane Preparation
Memrane porosity was determined by gravimetric
To prepare the neat PET membrane, PET (20 wt%) was method. First, dry membrane samples were weighted ­(Wdry).
added to the vial containing TFA as the solvent, and the Then, they were sequentially immersed in isopropanol for
mixture was stirred on a magnetic stirrer for 10 h. The 0.5 h, a mixture of isopropanol and distilled water (1:1 vol
obtained homogenous solution was kept stagnant for two ratio) for 0.5 h, and then distilled water for 24 h to ensure
hours for degassing. To achieve similar conditions for all complete wetting [40]. The wet samples were weighted after
membranes, 5.5 g of the solution was poured into a Petri removing surface water droplets (­ Wwet). Membrane porosity
dish with a 7.5 cm diameter. Then it was placed in an incu- was calculated by the equation below [41]:
bator (Shimaz Co., Iran) at 7˚C for 48 h. The obtained
membrane was detached from the Petri dish and applied in
( )
Wwet − Wdry
characterizations. 𝜀(%) = × 100 (1)
𝜌A𝛿
To prepare the blend PET/Span-85 membranes, an appro-
priate amount of Span-85 was added to the vial containing where ρ (g/cm3) is water density, A (­ cm2) is the membrane
TFA and stirred for two hours on a magnetic stirrer. Then area, and δ (cm) is the thickness of the wet sample, meas-
PET was added to the resultant solution, and stirring was ured by a micrometer. Porosity was measured in triplicate
continued for 10 h. The concentration of PET in the final for each membrane, and the average of the obtained results
solutions was constant at 20 wt%, while Span-85 loading was reported.
was varied at 0.5, 1, and 1.5 wt%. It should be noted that Membrane surface roughness was investigated by
higher Span-85 concentration brought about porous mem- conducting atomic force microscopy (AFM) on the Ara
branes that were inefficient in PV experiments. Thus, Span- Research atomic force microscope (Iran). The root mean
85 concentrations above 1.5% were not considered. Solution square roughness (Rrms) values were determined by analyz-
degassing, casting, and membrane fabrication was continued ing the AFM images using SPIP image processing software.
as mentioned above. A schematic diagram of the membrane Three random points were analyzed for each sample, and the
preparation procedure is provided in Fig. 1. average Rrms value was reported.
Attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared
(ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy was carried out on a Thermo
Characterization
Nicolet Avatar 370 device (USA). The spectra were collected
as an average of ten scans in the range of 650–4000 ­cm−1
Membrane morphology on the surface and cross-section was
with a resolution of 4.000.
examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) using the
The water contact angle (WCA) of the membranes
LEO 1450 VP SEM device (Germany). For examination,
was determined by imaging 4 µL water droplets immedi-
membranes were precoated in an Au–Pd sputter coater. The
ately after being dispensed on the membrane surface. The
cross-sectional analysis was conducted on freeze-fractured
obtained images were analyzed by ImageJ image analysis
samples. The cross-sectional SEM images were then ana-
software. WCA measurement was repeated in triplicate, and
lyzed using ImageJ image analysis software to determine
the average value was reported.
the membrane thickness.

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Journal of Polymers and the Environment (2023) 31:2968–2982 2971

X-ray diffraction (XRD) spectrometry was done by the Q

PW1730 PHILIPS XRD spectrometer (Netherlands) using
J= (3)
At
Cu-Kα radiation, and the obtained data were analyzed using
HighScore Plus software. where Q (g) is the permeate weight, A (­ m2) is the effective
Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) was conducted membrane area, and t (h) is the experiment duration.
using the METTLER TOLEDO DSC analyzer in a heat- The separation factor (α) was calculated based on the
ing–cooling-heating cycle from room temperature to 120 °C equation below [44]:
at a heating/cooling rate of 10 °C/min under the nitrogen yi/
yj
atmosphere. Glass transition temperature (­ Tg) was deter- 𝛼i,j = / (4)
mined using the second heating curve. xi
xj
The swelling of the membrane samples in the PV feed
solution (10 ppm NB in water) was studied at 25 °C by the where x and y are the weight fractions of components in the
determination of the dry weight ­(W0) and swollen weight feed and permeate, respectively, and i and j refer to NB and
­(Ws) of the membrane. The equation below was used to cal- water, respectively.
culate the degree of swelling (DS) [42]: PV separation index (PSI) was obtained using the fol-
lowing equation [45]:
Ws − W0
DS(%) = × 100 (2)
W0 PSI = J(𝛼 − 1). (5)

The swelling measurement was repeated in triplicate, and

the average value was reported.
Tensile properties of the membranes were assessed by
stretching the 10 mm × 70 mm rectangular strips of the Results and Discussion
membranes (gauge length = 50 mm) at a crosshead speed of
12.5 mm/min. The analysis was conducted using the SAN- SEM and AFM
TAM STM-20 universal testing machine (Iran) equipped
with a 6 kg load cell. Each sample was examined five times Figure 2 shows the surface SEM images of the developed
to report the average tensile properties. PET and PET/Span-85 membranes. The neat PET membrane
represents a smooth and dense structure on its surface; how-
ever, as Span-85 was loaded and its concentration was incre-
Pervaporation Experiments mented, the smooth surface turned into a rougher one. In
addition, some small dead-end pores emerged on the surface
The performance of the developed membranes was exam- of the PET membranes containing Span-85, which increased
ined in a PV experimental setup. The PV setup consisted of at higher Span-85 loadings. To assess the surface roughness
a feed tank, a feed pump, a disk-shaped membrane module of membranes, AFM analysis was conducted. Figure 3 indi-
with an effective area of 0.00138 m ­ 2, a vacuum pump, and cates the two- and three-dimensional AFM images of the
a cold trap. All experiments were conducted at 25 °C and developed PET membranes surface. The obtained Rrms val-
a vacuum pressure of 15 mm Hg. To conduct the experi- ues are reported in Table 1. Regarding the obtained results,
ments, the membrane was cut in the appropriate dimension surface roughness increased with Span-85 loading, which is
and placed into the module. Then, the PV feed (10 ppm NB in agreement with surface SEM images (Fig. 2).
in water) was poured into the feed tank and sealed to avoid The cross-sectional SEM images in Fig. 4 reveal a dense
the evaporation of the components. Also, the cold trap was structure for the neat PET membrane, but the formation
placed in a liquid nitrogen reservoir to condense the perme- of closed cells in the structure of the membranes contain-
ate. After the feed pump was turned on, the feed was allowed ing Span-85 is evident. The mentioned cavities increased
to circulate from the feed tank to the membrane module and as the loading of Span-85 was increased to 1.5%. The
vice versa for 30 min. Then the vacuum pump was turned on reason for the formation of closed cells in the membrane
to reach the desired vacuum pressure. The PV experiment structure, especially at higher Span-85 concentrations,
was prolonged for one hour. After the experiment, the weight can be the absorption of water from the environment by
of the permeate collected in the cold trap was determined, the hydrophilic head of Span-85 in the polymeric solution
and the permeate was sampled to analyze the concentra- during membrane preparation [44]. Zereshki et al. [46]
tion of NB using the Spectrum Instruments SP-UV-300SRB reported similar observations for polylactic acid/polyvinyl
UV–Vis spectrophotometer (Germany) at 267 nm. pyrrolidone membranes. The same was reported by Dirin
The following equation was used to calculate the perme- et al. [44] for polyvinylidene fluoride/Span-85 membranes.
ate flux, J (g/m2h, gMH) [43]:

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2972 Journal of Polymers and the Environment (2023) 31:2968–2982

Fig. 2  Surface scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of the developed polyethylene terephthalate (PET) membranes (left: 5kx magnifica-
tion and right: 10kx magnification): a PET, b PET/0.5% Span-85, c PET/1% Span-85, and d PET/1.5% Span-85

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Journal of Polymers and the Environment (2023) 31:2968–2982 2973

Fig. 3  Two- and three-dimensional atomic force microscopy (AFM) images of the developed polyethylene terephthalate (PET) membranes sur-
face: a PET, b PET/0.5% Span-85, c PET/1% Span-85, and d PET/1.5% Span-85

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2974 Journal of Polymers and the Environment (2023) 31:2968–2982

Table 1  Physical properties of the developed polyethylene terephtha- Thus, Span-85 was beneficial to the membrane hydrophobic-
late (PET) membranes ity, and the PET/1.5% Span-85 membrane represented the
Membrane Rrms (nm) Porosity (%) Thickness (µm) highest hydrophobicity. The obtained results are in agree-
ment with the study by Nasiraee et al. [52], in which Span-
PET 15.1 ± 1.1 0.14 ± 0.07 110.943 ± 1.124
85 incorporation into the polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)
PET/0.5% Span-85 20.4 ± 0.9 2.23 ± 0.33 143.050 ± 1.003
membrane augmented membrane hydrophobicity. Span-85
PET/1% Span-85 31.6 ± 1.7 4.87 ± 0.21 147.717 ± 0.815
hydrophobicity was mentioned in the previous literature [53,
PET/1.5% Span-85 45.7 ± 1.0 7.15 ± 0.17 150.201 ± 0.804
54] and is assigned to its oleic acid hydrophobic chains [53].

XRD
The porosity of the prepared PET and PET/Span-85
membranes is tabulated in Table 1. The obtained results
The phase structure of PET and PET/Span-85 membrane
indicate an increase in membrane porosity with Span-85
samples was assessed by XRD analysis, and the obtained
loading, which is consistent with the appearance of closed
spectra are depicted in Fig. 7. For the neat PET membrane,
cells in the membrane structure in Fig. 4.
the 2θ peaks at 16.9˚, 23.15˚, and 26.41˚ correspond to the
The thickness of developed membranes was deter-
(010), (011), and (100) crystal planes of semicrystalline
mined by analyzing the cross-sectional SEM images, and
PET, respectively [55, 56]. These three peaks are super-
the obtained results are reported in Table 1. It can be seen
imposed on the scattering curve owing to the amorphous
that membrane thickness was augmented with increasing
regions [57]. It can be seen that the intensity of the men-
Span-85 concentration. Increased membrane thickness can
tioned peaks dropped as the loading of Span-85 was raised,
be explained by the increased solid content and porosity of
which implies the decreased crystallinity of the PET/Span-
the membrane.
85 membranes [58]. The d-spacings corresponding to the
(100) crystal plane were obtained as 3.31, 3.34, 3.36, and
ATR‑FTIR
3.37 Å for Span-85 concentrations of 0%, 0.5%, 1%, and
1.5%, respectively. The decrease in crystallinity degree and
ATR-FTIR spectroscopy was conducted to investigate the
increase in d-spacing result from the formation of polymer-
chemical structure of PET and the changes in the chemi-
surfactant complexes [59]. Dirin et al. [44] reported that the
cal structure with the addition of Span-85. Figure 5 depicts
incorporation of Span-85 into the PVDF membrane low-
the obtained spectra. The PET spectrum shows the polymer
ered the crystallinity degree and increased the d-spacing.
characteristic bands, as mentioned in the previous studies
The lower crystallinity was attributed to the disturbed chain
[47–50]. The band at 720 ­cm−1 corresponds to aromatic C–H
packing, and the increased d-spacing was explained by
wagging [48]. The bands at 967 and 1238 ­cm−1 are assigned
repulsion among polymer chains, both resulting from the
to C–O stretching in PET crystalline and amorphous seg-
formation of polymer-surfactant complexes [44]. Higher
ments, respectively [47]. The vibration of the carbonyl group
d-spacing implies increased free space between the poly-
can be seen at 1712 ­cm−1 [50], and O–CH2 stretching is
meric chains [60].
shown at 1013 ­cm−1 [49].
With the addition of Span-85, no new band emerged due
to the overlapping of the significant bands of Span-85 with DSC
those of PET. However, the intensity of the overlapping
bands increased. For instance, the intensity of the 2855 and DSC analysis was conducted on PET and PET/Span-85
2919 ­cm−1 bands augmented at the higher loading of Span- membranes. Figure 8 indicates the DSC thermograms of
85, in agreement with the literature [44]. The mentioned the developed membranes with their associated glass transi-
bands are assigned to C–H stretching vibration [44, 51]. tion temperatures (­ Tg). The neat PET membrane represented
the highest ­Tg among the developed membranes, at 84.4˚C.
WCA​ The ­Tg of recycled PET is reported in the range of 75.6–86˚C
in the previous literature [61, 62], which is in agreement
To investigate the impact of Span-85 on membrane hydro- with the present research. With Span-85 incorporation, ­Tg
phobicity, the WCA of the membranes was determined and dropped and reached 78.4 for the PET/1.5% Span membrane,
reported in Fig. 6. Regarding Fig. 6, the neat PET membrane which implies that the presence of the surfactant disrupted
accounts for the lowest WCA among the prepared mem- the packing of polymer chains [59, 63] and increased their
branes, at 77.8˚. By incorporating Span-85 and increasing mobility [59]. Dirin et al. [44] attributed the disturbed chain
its concentration to 1.5%, WCA was augmented gradually packing to the formation of polymer-surfactant complexes.
and reached 84.2˚ for the PET/1.5% Span-85 membrane. Reduced ­Tg of the polymer in the presence of surfactants

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Fig. 4  Cross-sectional scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of the developed polyethylene terephthalate (PET) membranes (left: 1kx
magnification and right: 5kx magnification): a PET, b PET/0.5% Span-85, c PET/1% Span-85, and d PET/1.5% Span-85

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2976 Journal of Polymers and the Environment (2023) 31:2968–2982

(d)

(011)
(100)
(010)
2919
2855
(d)
(c)

Intensity (arbitrary unit)

Transmittance (arbitrary unit)

(b) (c)

(a)
(b)

1712

967
1238
1013

720
(a)

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
2θ (degree)
3650 3150 2650 2150 1650 1150 650
Wavenumber (cm-1)
Fig. 7  X-Ray diffraction (XRD) spectra of the developed polyethyl-
Fig. 5  Attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared (ATR- ene terephthalate (PET) membranes: a PET, b PET/0.5% Span-85, c
FTIR) spectra of the developed polyethylene terephthalate (PET) PET/1% Span-85, and d PET/1.5% Span-85
membranes: a PET, b PET/0.5% Span-85, c PET/1% Span-85, and d
PET/1.5% Span-85

86
84.2
84
82.4
Water contact angle (˚)

82
79.9 (d)
Heat flow (arbitrary unit)

80
77.8 Tg=78.4 ˚C
78 (c)
76
Tg=80.8 ˚C
(b)
74
Tg=82.6 ˚C
72
0 0.5 1 1.5 (a)
Span-85 concentration (wt.%) Tg=84.4 ˚C

Fig. 6  Water contact angle (WCA) of the developed polyethylene

terephthalate (PET) membranes
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Temperature (˚C)
was observed by Saedi et al. [59] and Le Roux and Van
Schalkwyk [63]. Fig. 8  Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) curves of the devel-
oped polyethylene terephthalate (PET) membranes: a PET, b
PET/0.5% Span-85, c PET/1% Span-85, and d PET/1.5% Span-85
Swelling

The swelling degree of PET and PET/Span-85 membranes

is shown in Fig. 9. The neat PET membrane accounts for
the highest swelling degree. By 0.5% and 1% Span load- However, a further increment in Span loading (1.5%)
ing, membrane swelling reduced to 10.48% and 3.67%, augmented membrane swelling due to the increased mem-
respectively. The falling trend in swelling can be attributed brane porosity (illustrated in Fig. 4), d-spacing (discussed
to the presence of Span-85 as a hydrophobic additive [44]. in “XRD” Section), and mobility of polymer chains (dis-
A gradual decrease in membrane swelling with the addition cussed in “DSC” Section). According to the literature,
of Span-85 to the PVDF membrane was also reported else- higher membrane swelling increases the free volume
where [44]. It should be noted that lower membrane swelling among the polymeric chains and thus enhances the trans-
is beneficial to the stability of membranes during PV [64]. port of molecules through the membrane [65].

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18
15.74 Tensile Test
16

Figure 10a shows the stress–strain curves derived for PET

Swelling degree (%)

14
12 10.48 10.54 and PET/Span-85 membranes. It can be seen that there is
10 a significant difference between the tensile behavior of the
8 PET membrane and that of the PET/Span-85 blend mem-
6
3.67 brane. For the convenience of the readership, Fig. 10b is also
4 provided to qualitatively assess the changes in the elastic
2 modulus of the membranes. Using the stress–strain data,
0
0 0.5 1 1.5
tensile properties were calculated and tabulated in Table 2.
Span-85 concentration (wt.%) Regarding Fig. 10 and Table 2, the neat PET membrane
accounts for the highest tensile strength and elastic modulus
Fig. 9  Swelling degree (SD) of the developed polyethylene terephtha- and the lowest elongation at break among the membranes
late (PET) membranes under analysis. By incorporating 0.5% Span, tensile strength
and elastic modulus dropped by 33% and 47%, respectively,
while a remarkable increase in elongation at break, i.e., from
(a) 60 6.84% to 236.59%, was observed. The observed changes
can be justified by considering the effect of Span-85 as a
50 PET plasticizer and the reduced membrane crystallinity in the
40
PET/0.5% Span-85 presence of Span-85. The plasticizing effect of Span-85 was
mentioned in the previous literature [52]. The presence of
stress (MPa)

PET/1% Span-85
30 plasticizers can lead to increased elongation at break and
decreased elastic modulus and tensile strength [41, 66]. In
20
addition, as discussed in “XRD” Section, membrane crystal-
PET/1.5% Span-85
linity was reduced by Span-85 loading. Lower crystallinity is
10
associated with higher elongation at break and lower elastic
0 modulus and tensile strength [67]. With adding 1% Span,
tensile properties varied with the same trend mentioned
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Strain
above. However, all three mechanical properties dropped
(b) 60 PET when 1.5% Span was added to the casting solution. This
50
final trend can be explained by the increased porosity of
the PET/1.5% Span-85 membrane [41]. It was previously
40
PET/0.5% Span-85 reported that membranes with higher porosity exhibit lower
elastic modulus, tensile strength, and elongation at break
stress (MPa)

PET/1% Span-85
30
[41].
20 PET/1.5% Span-85
PV Performance
10

The PV performance of PET and PET/Span-85 membranes

0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
was compared using an aqueous solution of NB (10 ppm
Strain concentration) as the feed. The obtained results are depicted
in Fig. 11 regarding NB, water, and total fluxes, separation
Fig. 10  a Stress–strain curves obtained for the developed polyethyl- factor, and PSI. Comparing Figs. 11a, b shows that water
ene terephthalate (PET) membranes and b focused on 0–0.1 strain flux was significantly higher than that of NB since water
range

Table 2  Tensile properties of Membrane Elastic modulus (MPa) Tensile strength (MPa) Elongation at break (%)
the developed polyethylene
terephthalate (PET) membranes PET 1727.70 ± 20.54 52.28 ± 1.25 6.84 ± 0.135
PET/0.5% Span-85 913.31 ± 8.97 34.78 ± 1.96 236.59 ± 5.69
PET/1% Span-85 825.55 ± 4.23 31.59 ± 0.87 305.28 ± 8.93
PET/1.5% Span-85 814.93 ± 5.36 28.33 ± 1.23 209.22 ± 12.15

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2978 Journal of Polymers and the Environment (2023) 31:2968–2982

Fig. 11  Pervaporation per- (a) 7 (b) 450

formance of the developed 354.47

Nitrobenzene flux (gMH)

5.36 400
polyethylene terephthalate 6

Water flux (gMH)

(PET) membranes: a nitroben- 5
350
zene flux, b water flux, c total 300
flux, d separation factor, and e 4 250
pervaporation separation index 3 200
2.28
150
2
0.86 100
1 0.6 35.21
50 13.49 4.06
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
Span-85 concentration (wt%) Span-85 concentration (wt%)

(c) 450
355.07
(d) 60000 56157.07
400
50000
Total flux (gMH)

Separation factor
350
300 40000
250
30000
200
150 20000 15222.79
100 6375.03
40.57 10000
50 14.35 6.34 169.26
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
Span-85 concentration (wt%) Span-85 concentration (wt%)
Pervaporation separation index

(e) 700000 617548.02

600000

500000
(gMH)

400000 356029.5

300000

200000
91467.33
100000 59744.08

0
0 0.5 1 1.5
Span-85 concentration (wt%)

molecules are much smaller than NB molecules. Regard- On the other hand, concerning Fig. 11b, water flux
ing Fig. 11a, NB flux augmented gradually with increasing decreased with the addition of Span concentration up
Span loading. The hydrophobic nature of Span-85 [53, 54], to 1%. Reduced water flux can be due to the increasing
which is assigned to its oleic acid hydrophobic chains [53], amount of the hydrophobic additive (Span-85). However,
contributed to the increase in the flux of organic component. a further increase in Span-85 loading (1.5%) was followed
Another reason for the increased NB flux can be the decreas- by a rise in water flux. As discussed in “Swelling” Sec-
ing trend of the glass transition temperature, which was tion, membrane swelling was increased by increasing
discussed in “DSC” Section. Lower Tg implies increased Span loading from 1 to 1.5%. Higher membrane swelling
free volume among the polymeric chains [68]. Higher free augments the free volume among the polymeric chains,
volume improves the flux of components [69]. In addition, thus enhances the transport of components through the
increased d-spacing of the polymeric chains (discussed in membrane [44] and increases the flux of components.
“XRD” Section) is another cause of the augmented NB flux. Figure 11c displays the variation of total flux with Span
According to the literature, d-spacing is the mean distance of concentration. It can be seen that total flux follows the
adjacent polymer segments and thus affects the permeability same trend as water flux since water flux was much higher
of components in the membrane [69]. than NB flux.

13
Journal of Polymers and the Environment (2023) 31:2968–2982 2979

Figure 11d indicates the separation factor in terms of of separation factor and NB flux was superior to that of the
Span loading. The neat PET membrane accounts for the PDMS membrane.
lowest separation factor among the studied membranes.
The PET/Span membranes provided higher separation fac-
tors than the neat PET membrane because of the presence
Conclusion
of Span-85, a hydrophobic additive. The hydrophobic addi-
tive improves the affinity of organic component (NB) to the
The present study focused on fabricating PV membranes
membrane matrix while decreasing water flux simultane-
using waste PET bottles. The obtained membranes were
ously. As shown in Fig. 11d, the separation factor increased
applied in the PV separation of NB from water. Span-85
with increasing Span loading to 0.5% and then surged at
was incorporated into the PET membranes in various con-
1% Span loading. The separation factor of the PET/0.5%
centrations to improve membrane hydrophobicity. SEM
Span and PET/1% Span membranes was 38 and 332-fold
images indicated that closed cells appeared in the membrane
as high as that of the neat PET membrane. However, a fur-
cross-section, especially at high additive concentration. The
ther increase in Span loading from 1 to 1.5% reduced the
contact angle of water with the membrane surface increased
separation factor. The sudden drop in the separation factor
as Span loading was increased. The XRD analysis implied
is attributed to the increased water flux due to membrane
a falling trend in the crystallinity and a rising trend in the
swelling, which was discussed above.
d-spacing of the membranes prepared with Span loading.
Figure 11e indicates the effect of Span loading on PSI. It
The results of the DSC analysis showed a lower glass transi-
is reported that there is a trade-off relationship between flux
tion temperature as Span loading was increased. Increasing
and separation factor, and therefore, PSI is used to evalu-
the amount of Span up to 1% in the PET membranes con-
ate the PV performance of the membranes as a composite
tributed to decreased elastic modulus and tensile strength,
parameter combining both flux and separation factor [70,
whereas elongation at break surged significantly. PV experi-
71]. In the present study, the highest PSI was obtained using
ments were conducted using 10 ppm NB in water as the
the PET/1.5% Span-85 membrane, at 617,548.02 gMH,
feed. The PET/1% Span-85 membrane accounted for the
almost ten times as high as that of the neat PET membrane.
highest separation factor, at 56,157.07, which was 332-fold
It should be noted that the acute water quality criterion
as high as that of the neat PET membrane. The lowest NB
for NB is 6.680 ppm [72]. In the present study, the initial
concentration in the treated feed was 2.5 ppm provided by
concentration of NB in the PV feed was 10 ppm which was
the PET/1.5% Span-85 membrane. Therefore, the PET/1.5%
reduced after the PV process. The lowest nitrobenzene con-
Span-85 membrane could reduce NB concentration to
centration in the treated feed was 2.5 ppm, achieved using
a value lower than the acute water quality criterion. The
the PET/1.5% Span-85 membrane. As a result, the men-
present results are promising in developing PV membranes
tioned membrane was capable of reducing NB concentration
using waste PET bottles to separate organics from water.
to a level below the acute water quality criterion.
Acknowledgements Shirin Kiani was partially supported by a grant
Comparison with the Previous Literature from Ferdowsi University of Mashhad (No. FUM-49216).

Author Contribution SK: Conceptualization, Methodology, Valida-

According to the results of PV experiments, the PET/1.5% tion, Investigation, Writing—Original Draft, Supervision, Funding
Span-85 membrane represented the optimal PV perfor- acquisition, Visualization. SMM: Conceptualization, Methodology,
mance in terms of PSI value. This membrane provided an Validation, Writing—Review & Editing, Resources, Supervision. SA:
Investigation.
NB flux of 5.36 gMH and a separation factor of 15,222.79.
To compare the PV performance of the PET/1.5% Span-85 Funding Shirin Kiani was partially supported by a grant from Ferdowsi
membrane with the results of previous studies, a literature University of Mashhad (Grant No. FUM-49216).
review was conducted on the PV separation of NB from
water, which revealed only one paper in this regard. Samdani Declarations
et al. [73] investigated the PV separation of various organ-
Conflict of interest There is no conflict of interest.
ics, including NB, from water using a polydimethylsiloxane
(PDMS) membrane. In their study, the PDMS membrane
provided an NB flux of ~ 0.1 gMH and a separation factor
of ~ 480. A comparison of the results of Samdani et al. [73] References
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