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CE6703 WATER RESOURCES AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING

UNIT I WATER RESOURCES

Water resources survey – W ater resources of India and Tamilnadu – Description of

water resources planning – Estimation of water requirements for irrigation and drinking-
Single and multipurpose reservoir – Multi objective - Fixation of Storage capacity -
Strategies for reservoir operation - Design flood-levees and flood walls.
UNIT II WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
Economics of water resources planning; – National Water Policy – Consumptive and
non-consumptive water use - W ater quality – Scope and aims of master plan - Concept
ww
of basin as a unit for development - Water budget- Conjunctive use of surface and
ground water
UNIT III
w.E
IRRIGATION ENGINEERING
Need – Merits and Demerits – Duty, Delta and Base period – Irrigation efficiencies –
Crops and Seasons - Crop water Requirement – Estimation of Consumptive use of
water.
UNIT IV asy
CANAL IRRIGATION

En
Types of Impounding structures: Gravity dam – Diversion Head works - Canal drop –
Cross drainage works – Canal regulations – Canal outlets – Canal lining - Kennady�s
and Lacey�s Regime theory
UNIT V IRRIGATION METHODS AND MANAGEMENT gin
eer
Lift irrigation – Tank irrigation – W ell irrigation – Irrigation methods: Surface and Sub-
Surface and Micro Irrigation - Merits and demerits – Irrigation scheduling – W ater

ing
distribution – Participatory irrigation management with a case study
TOTAL :45 PERIODS.
TEXT BOOKS:
.ne
1.

2.
Linsley R.K. and Franzini J.B, “Water Resources Engineering”, McGraw-Hill Inc, 2000.

Punmia B.C., et. al; Irrigation and water power Engineering, Laxmi Publications,
t
16th Edition, New Delhi, 2009
3. Garg S. K., “Irrigation Engineering and Hydraulic structures”, Khanna Publishers,
23rd Revised Edition, New Delhi, 2009

REFERENCES:
1. Duggal, K.N. and Soni, J.P., “Elements of Water Resources Engineering”, New
Age International Publishers, 2005

2. Chaturvedi M.C., “Water Resources Systems Planning and Management”, Tata

McGraw-Hill Inc., New Delhi, 1997.

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3. Michael A.M., Irrigation Theory and Practice, 2nd Edition, Vikas Publishing House
Pvt. Ltd., Noida, Up, 2008

4. Dilip Kumar Majumdar, “Irrigation Water Management”, Prentice-Hall of India,

New Delhi, 2008.
5. Asawa, G.L., “Irrigation Engineering”, New Age International Publishers, New Delhi,
2000.
Table of contents

S.NO CONTENTS PAGE NO

a
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Aim and Objective of the subject 5

b
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Detailed Lesson Plan 6

c
asy
Unit I - Water Resources -Part-A 10

d Part-B
En 11

e Unit II–Water Resource Management -Part-A

gin 20

f Part-B eer 22

g Unit III–Irrigation Engineering -Part-A ing 30

h Part-B 32
.ne
i Unit IV–Canal Irrigation-Part-A 43
t
j Part-B 49

k Unit V–Irrigation methods&management -Part-A 69

l Part-B 72

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Aim

x To gain knowledge dam construction.

x To acquire the knowledge about why do we study water resources and irrigation
engineering in Civil Engineering.
x To gain knowledge of Water Resources Systems Planning and Management.

Objective of the Subject

1. To introduce the students exposed to different phases in Water Resources

Management and National Water Policy.

2. It will be imparted required knowledge on Reservoir planning, management and

economic analysis including Irrigation and Irrigation management practices.
3. To understand the various methods of Irrigation and its types.
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Industrial /Practical connectivity of the subject

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1. The students gain practical knowledge about the water resources and canal irrigation
system .

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2. This subject is useful to study the various irrigation projects such as canal,
spillway,tank sluices etc .
En
3. The students gain practical knowledge about water distribution and various irrigation
methods. gin
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SCAD GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS

Department of CIVIL Engineering

Detailed Lesson Plan

Name of the Subject& Code :CE6703&WATER RESOURCES&IRRIGATION

ENGINEERING

TEXT BOOKS:
3. Linsley R.K. and Franzini J.B, “Water Resources Engineering”, McGraw-Hill Inc, 2000.
4. Punmia B.C., et. al; Irrigation and water power Engineering, Laxmi Publications,
16th Edition, New Delhi, 2009
4.
ww
Garg S. K., “Irrigation Engineering and Hydraulic structures”, Khanna Publishers,
23rd Revised Edition, New Delhi, 2009

REFERENCES: w.E
6.
asy
Duggal, K.N. and Soni, J.P., “Elements of Water Resources Engineering”, New
Age
International Publishers, 2005
En
7.
gin
Chaturvedi M.C., “Water Resources Systems Planning and Management”, Tata
McGraw-Hill Inc., New Delhi, 1997.
8.
Pvt. Ltd., Noida, Up, 2008
eer
Michael A.M., Irrigation Theory and Practice, 2nd Edition, Vikas Publishing House

9. ing
Dilip Kumar Majumdar, “Irrigation Water Management”, Prentice-Hall of India,

10.
New Delhi, 2008.
.ne
Asawa, G.L., “Irrigation Engineering”, New Age International Publishers, New Delhi,
2000.
t

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Sessio Teaching
n
Topics to be covered Time Ref Method
No

UNIT I WATER RESOURCES 9

01 Water resources survey 50 min T2,T3 BB

02 Water resources of India and Tamilnadu 50 min T2, T3 BB&PPT

03 Description of water resources planning 50 min T2, T3 BB

Estimation of water requirements for
04 50 min T2, T3 BB

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05
irrigation and drinking

Description of water resources planning 50 min T2, T3 BB

06 w.E
Estimation of water requirements for
irrigation and drinking
50 min T2,T3 BB

07 asy
Single and multipurpose reservoir – Multi
100 min T2,T3 BB
objective
En
Fixation of Storage capacity -Strategies for
08
reservoir operation
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Design flood-levees and flood walls.
50 min

100 min
T2,T3

T2,T3
BB

BB
09

UNIT II WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT 9

eer
ing
10

11
Economics of water resources planning

National W ater Policy

50 min

50 min
T2,T3

T2,T3
.ne BB

BB

12,13
Consumptive and non-consumptive water
use
50 min T2,T3 BB&PPT
t
BB
14 Water quality 50 min T2,T3

15 Scope and aims of master plan 50 min T2,T3 BB

16 Concept of basin as a unit for development 50 min T2,T3 BB

17 Water budget- 50 min T2,T3 BB

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Conjunctive use of surface and ground

18 50min T2,T3 BB&PPT
water

UNIT III IRRIGATION ENGINEERING

19,20 Need – Merits and Demerits 50 min T2,T3 BB

21,22 Duty, Delta and Base period 50 min T2,T3 BB

23 Irrigation efficiencies 50 min T2,T3 BB

24 Crops and Seasons 50 min T2,T3 BB&PPT

25 Crop water Requirement 50 min T2,T3 BB

ww
26,27 Estimation of Consumptive use of water. 50 min T2,T3 BB

w.EUNIT IV CANAL IRRIGATION

Types of Impounding structures: Gravity

28
asy dam
50 min T2,T3 BB&PPT

29
En
Diversion Head works 50 min T2,T3 BB

30

31
Canal drop

Cross drainage works

gin 50 min T2,T3 BB

32 Canal regulations eer 50 min

50 min
T2,T3

T2,T3
BB

BB&PPT

33 Canal outlets – ing 50 min T2,T3 BB

34 Canal lining 50 min T2,T3 .ne BB

35

36
Kennady�s theory

Lacey�s Regime theory

50 min

50 min
T2,T3

T2,T3
BB

BB
t
UNIT V IRRIGATION METHODS AND
MANAGEMENT

37 Lift irrigation – Tank irrigation 50 min T2,T3 BB&PPT

38 Well irrigation 50 min T2,T3 BB&PPT

39 Irrigation methods: Surface Irrigation 50 min T2,T3 BB&PPT

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40,41 Sub-Surface and Micro Irrigation 50 min T2,T3 BB&PPT

42 Merits and demerits 50 min T2,T3 BB

43 Irrigation scheduling 50 min T2,T3 BB

44 Water distribution 50 min T2,T3 BB

Participatory irrigation management with a

45 50 min T2,T3 BB
case study

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UNIT 1-WATER RESOURCES

P a rt A

1. What is water resource survey?

A survey on groundwater by the central groundwater board showing the water quantity
over the nation is called water resource survey.

2. Write short notes on Water resources planning techniques used?

x To determine what measures should be employed to meet water needs.

x To take advantage of opportunities for water resources development.

ww x To preserve and enhance natural water resources and related land resources.

x w.E
3.what are the steps involved in planning a water resource project?

Statement of purpose
x
x
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Evaluation of alternatives
Systematic considerations of project
x Selection of project En
gin
4. What are the studies involved in planning a water resource project?

x Exploratory studies
eer
x
x
Feasibility studies
Final studies ing
5. What is the difference between single and multipurpose reservoir? .ne
If the reservoir is planned and constructed for a single purpose like conservation of
flood or diversion work.
t
If the reservoir is planned and constructed for a multipurpose is called as multipurpose
reservoir.

6. Define brackish water?

It is a type of water which has more salinity than fresh water, but not as much
as seawater. It may result from mixing of seawater with fresh water, as in estuaries.

7. Define flood levee and flood wall?

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A levee or dike is an elongated naturally occurring ridge or artificially constructed fill or

wall, which regulates water levels. It is usually earthen and often parallel to the course of
a river in its floodplain or along low-lying coastlines

A flood wall is a primarily vertical artificial barrier designed to temporarily contain the
waters of a river or other waterway which may rise to unusual levels during seasonal or
extreme weather events.

8. Write any two Strategies for reservoir operation?

�T
 he flow in the river changes seasonally and from year to year, due to temporal and spatial
variation in precipitation.

�T
ww
 hus, the water available abundantly during monsoon season becomes scarce during the
non-monsoon season, when it is most needed.

�T w.E
 he traditional method followed commonly for meeting the needs of water during the scarce

�T
asy
period is construction of storage reservoir on the river course.

 he excess water during the monsoon season is stored in such reservoirs for eventual use
in lean period. En
�C gin
 onstruction of storages will also help in control of flood, as well as generation of electricity
power.
eer
9. Define aquifer?
ing
An aquifer is an underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock, rock fractures or
unconsolidated materials (gravel, sand, or silt) from which groundwater can be extracted .ne
using a water well

10. Write short notes on Water Resources in India and Tamilnadu.

t
Water resources of India

The total water resources available in India is 1859 km3 , W hich is roughly 4% of the
worlds fresh water resources.

Water Resources of Tamilnadu

Tamilnadu accounts for 4% of the land area and 6% of the population, but only 3% of
the water resources of the country.

11. Define reservoir. And what is the purpose of storage reservoir

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x It is an area developed by water body due to construction of dam.

Storage reservoir serves the following purpose:

 Irrigation

 Water supply

 Hydroelectric power generation

 Flood control

 Navigation

 Recreation


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Development of fish & wild life

12.

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Soil conservation

List out the factors to be considered in selection of site for reservoir.

i.
asy
1. Ecological factors
Water supply
ii. Water quality En
iii. Climate
gin
iv.
v.
Hydrological characteristics
Soil Characteristics eer
vi. Land
ing
2. Biological and operational factors
3. Economic and social factors .ne
1. Briefly explain water resource survey in India?
P a rt B t
Water resources comprising of surface water (river and lakes), ground water and marine and
coastal waters, support all living things including human beings. Though water is available in
the universe in huge quantity in the order of 1400 x 106 km3, only 3% of the waters in the
universe is fresh water. Among the fresh waters, only about 5% of them or 0.15% of the total
world waters are readily available for beneficial use. The total water resources available in
India is 1850 km3, which is roughly 4% of the world's fresh water resources. Tamil Nadu
accounts for 4 per cent of the land area and 6 per cent of the population, but only 3 per cent

11

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of the water resources of the country. Most of Tamil Nadu is located in the rain shadow region
of the W estern Ghats and hence receives limited rainfall from the south-west monsoon.

Rainfall

The State gets relatively more rainfall during north east monsoon, especially, in the coastal
regions. The normal rainfall in south west and north east monsoon is around 322 mm and 470
mm which is lower than the National normal rainfall of 1250 mm. Similarly, the per capita
water availability of the State is 800 cubic meters which is lower than the National average of
2300 cubic meters.

Surface water resources of Tamil Nadu

ww
The total surface water potential of the state is 36 km3 or 24864 M cum.There are 17 major
river basins in the State with 61 reservoirs and about 41,948 tanks. Of the annual water
w.E
potential of 46540 million cubic metres (MCM), surface flows account for about half. Most of

asy
the surface water has already been tapped, primarily for irrigation which is the largest user.
There are about 24 lakh hectares are irrigated by surface water through major, medium and

En
minor schemes. The utilisation of surface water for irrigation is about 90 percent.

Ground Water resources of Tamil Nadu

gin
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The utilizable groundwater recharge is 22,423 MCM The current level of utilization expressed
as net ground water

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draft of 13.558 MCM is about 60 percent of the available recharge, while 8875 MCM (40

.ne
percent) is the balance available for use. Over the last five years, the percentage of safe
blocks has declined from 35.6 per cent to 25.2 percent while the semi-critical blocks have
gone up by a similar percentage. Over-exploitation has already occurred in more than a third
of the blocks (35.8 percent) while eight blocks (2 percent) have turned saline. The water level
t
data reveals that the depth of the wells range from an average of 0.93 metres in Pudukottai
district to 43.43 metres in Erode. According to the Central Groundwater Board, there has
been a general decline in groundwater level in 2003 due to the complete desaturation of
shallow aquifers. There has been a considerable failure of irrigation wells in Coimbatore
District.

Water Balance

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The W ater Resources Organisation prepared a State Framework W ater Resource Plan of
Tamil Nadu. The annual

water potential of the State including surface and groundwater is assessed as 46,540 MCM
(1643 TMC) while

the estimated demand is 54,395 MCM (1921 TMC) in 2001 which is likely to go up to 57,725
MCM in 2050. The various sectors are

x Domestic use (urban and rural) is projected to go up from 4 per cent to 6 per cent due to
increase in population and due to urbanisation. The domestic requirement would increase
by 55.72 percent.
x
ww
Agriculture use will remain stagnant or may even decrease due to progressive
urbanisation.
x w.E
The share of industry may not change much, but in absolute terms the increase will be
about 27.7 per cent.
x asy
Provision of 1600 MCM in 2050 would be made for minimum flow in rivers for ecological

En
purpose, which is a new category for water resource planning.

2. Discuss the water resource planning?

gin
x eer
The goals of water resources planning may be by the use of constructed facilities, or

ing
structural measures, or by management and legal techniques that do not require

x
constructed facilities.
.ne
The latter are called non-structural measures and may include rules to limit or control

x
water and land use which complement or substitute for constructed facilities.
A project may consist of one or more structural or non-structural resources.
t
x Water resources planning techniques are used to determine what measures should be
employed to meet water needs and to take advantage of opportunities for water
resources development, and also to preserve and enhance natural water resources
and related land resources.
x The scientific and technological development has been conspicuously evident during
the twentieth century in major fields of engineering.

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x But since water resources have been practiced for many centuries, the development in
this field may not have been as spectacular as, say, for computer sciences.
x However, with the rapid development of substantial computational power resulting
reduced computation cost, the planning strategies have seen new directions in the last
century which utilizes the best of the computer resources.
x Further, economic considerations used to be the guiding constraint for planning a
water resources project.
x But during the last couple of decades of the twentieth century there has been a
growing awareness for environmental sustainability.
x And now, environmental constrains find a significant place in the water resources
ww project (or for that matter any developmental project) planning besides the usual

w.E
economic and social constraints.

Priorities for water resources planning

asy
Water resource projects are constructed to develop or manage the available water resources

En
for different purposes. According to the National Water Policy (2002), the water allocation
priorities for planning and operation of water resource systems should broadly be as follows:

gin
1. Domestic consumption This includes water requirements primarily for drinking, cooking,

eer
bathing, washing of clothes and utensils and flushing of toilets.

ing
2. Irrigation Water required for growing crops in a systematic and scientific manner in areas
even with deficit rainfall.

.ne
3. Hydropower This is the generation of electricity by harnessing the power of flowing water.

4. Ecology / environment restoration W ater required for maintaining the environmental

health of a region.
t
5. Industries The industries require water for various purposes and that by thermal power
stations is quite high.

6. Navigation Navigation possibility in rivers may be enhanced by increasing the flow,

thereby increasing the depth of water required to allow larger vessels to pass.

7. Other uses Like entertainment of scenic natural view. This course on Water Resources
Engineering broadly discusses the facilities to be constructed / augmented to meet the

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demand for the above uses. Many a times, one project may serve more than one purpose of
the above mentioned uses.

SELECTION OF A PROJECT PLAN

x Planning may be defined as the systematic consideration of a project from the original
statement of purpose through the evaluation of alternatives to the final decision on a
course of action.

INVESTIGATIONS

x The basic data, usually required for planning of dams and reservoirs, can be grouped
in the following categories (1):
xww (i) Hydrologic data: Stream flows, flood flows, evaporation, sedimentation, water

x w.E
quality, water rights, and tail-water curves.
(ii) Geological data: Reservoir sites, dam sites, and construction materials.
x
x asy
(iii) Topographic surveys: Catchments, reservoir sites, dam sites, and borrow areas.
(iv) Legal data: Water rights.
x
En
(v) Reservoir site cost data: Land acquisition, clearing, and relocations.
x
archaeological.
gin
(vi) Environmental factors: Fish and wildlife, recreation, scenic, historical, and

x eer
(vii) Economic data: Economic base for area benefited, crop data, land classification,
and market data for various purposes.
ing
PLANNING OF RESERVOIRS

The main factors to be considered for this are as follows

.ne
(i) Rim stability, t
(ii) W ater-holding capability,

(iii) Loss of reservoir water,

(iv) Bank storage,

(v) Seismicity, and

(vi) Sedimentation.

4.Explain about estimation of water requirements for irrigation and drinking.

Irrigation Water Requirements

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x Irrigated agriculture is facing new challenges that require refined management and
innovative design.
x Formerly, emphasis centered on project design; however,current issues involve
limited water supplies with several competing users, the threat of water quality
degradation through excess irrigation, and narrow economic margins.
x Meeting these challenges requires improved prediction of irrigation water
requirements.
x Irrigation water requirements can be defined as the quantity, or depth, of irrigation
water in addition to precipitation required to produce the desired crop yield and quality
and to maintain an acceptable salt balance in the root zone.
x ww
This quantity of water must be determined for such uses as irrigation schedule

w.E
for a specific field and seasonal water needs for planning, management, and
development of irrigation projects.
x
asy
The amount and timing of precipitation strongly influence irrigation water requirements.
In arid areas, annual precipitation is generally less than 10 inches and irrigation is

En
necessary to successfully grow farm crops.
x
gin
In semiarid areas (those typically receiving between 15 to 20 inches of annual
precipitation), crops can be grown without irrigation, but are subject to droughts that
eer
reduce crop yields and can result in crop failure in extreme drought conditions.
x
typically characterized by short, dry periods.
ing
Sub humid areas, which receive from 20 to 30 inches of annual precipitation, are

x .ne
Depending on the available water storage capacity of soils and the crop rooting depth,

x
irrigation may be needed for short periods during the growing season in these areas.
In humid areas, those receiving more than 30 inches of annual precipitation, the
t
amount of precipitation normally exceeds evapotranspiration throughout most of the
year.
x However, drought periods sometimes occur, which reduce yield and impair quality,
especially for crops grown on shallow, sandy soils or that have a shallow root system.
x Irrigation is not needed to produce a crop in most years, but may be needed to protect
against an occasional crop failure and to maintain product quality.

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Irrigation requirements

x The primary objective of irrigation is to provide plants with sufficient water to obtain
optimum yields and a high quality harvested product.
x The required timing and amount of applied water is determined by the prevailing
climatic conditions, the crop and its stage of growth, soil properties (such as water
holding capacity), and the extent of root development.
x Water within the crop root zone is the source of water for crop evapotranspiration.
x Thus, it is important to consider the field water balance to determine the irrigation
water requirements.
x
x ww
Plant roots require moisture and oxygen to live.
Where either is out of balance, root functions are slowed and crop growth reduced.
x
w.E
All crops have critical growth periods when even small moisture stress can
significantly impact crop yields and quality.
x
asy
Critical water needs periods vary crop by crop.
x
En
Soil moisture during the critical water periods should be maintained at sufficient levels
to ensure the plant does not stress from lack of water.

The calculation of irrigation water requirements gin

x
eer
Delineation of major irrigation cropping pattern zones.
x
ing
These zones are considered homogeneous in terms of types of irrigated crops grown,
crop calendar, cropping intensity and gross irrigation efficiency.
x Represented on the map of Africa, they should be viewed as regions where some .ne
x
homogeneity can be found in terms of irrigated crops.
The cropping pattern proposed for the zone should be viewed as representative of an
t
'average' rather than a 'typical' irrigation scheme.
x Definition of the area of influence of the climate stations (in GIS) and quality check on
the climate data.
x Combination of the irrigation cropping pattern zones with the climate stations' zones (in
GIS) to obtain basic mapping units.
x Calculation of net and gross irrigation water requirements for different scenarios.
x Comparison with existing data and final adjustment.

Delineation of irrigation cropping pattern zones

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x The criteria used for the delineation of the irrigation cropping pattern zones were, in
order of decreasing importance: distribution of irrigated crops, average rainfall trends
and patterns, topographic gradients, presence of large river valleys (Nile, Niger,
Senegal), presence of extensive wetlands (the Sudd in Sudan), population pressure,
technological differences and crop calendar above and below the equator (Zaire).
x The starting point was the type of irrigated crops currently grown in Africa.
x This resulted in 18 zones. From these zones, sub-zones showing a different cropping
intensity or a different crop calendar were defied.
x This resulted in a total of 24 irrigation pattern zones which are considered to be
homogeneous for
x ww
Only the main crops currently grown, those occupying at least 85% of the irrigated

x w.E
area, were considered.
Land occupation of the remaining 15 % by secondary crops was assigned to the main

x
crops.
asy
An 'average' typical monthly crop calendar was assigned to each zone, based on work

En
done by FAO's global information and early warning system, and on information from

gin
the reference library of FAO's agro-meteorology group, AQUASTAT and, for eastern
Africa, from the IGADD crop production system zones inventory.
x eer
For each crop the actual cropping intensity was derived from national crop production

ing
and land use figures extracted from the FAO AGROSTAT [6] and AQUASTAT [21a]
databases.
x It ranges from 100 to 200%, according to the crop calendar. .ne
x The cropping intensity to be used in this study of irrigation potential ('potential'
scenario) was generally estimated by increasing current values by 10 to 20%, but it
t
was assumed that because of market limitations the current high intensity (in relative
terms) of vegetables in certain parts of the continent would not be found in the
potential scenario.

x Therefore, intensities of cereal crops are higher in the potential scenario than in the

x actual situation.

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4. Explain in detail about fixation of storage capacity and strategies for reservoir
operation?

Water storage reservoirs may be created by constructing a dam across a river, along with
suitable appurtenant structures. How ever, in that lesson not much was discussed about
fixing the size of reservoir based on the demand for which it is being constructed.

Further, reservoirs are also meant to absorb a part of flood water and the excess is
discharged through a spillway.

It is also essential to study the relation between flood discharge, reservoirs capacity and
spillway size in order to propose an economic solution to the whole project.

ww
These and topics on reservoir sedimentation have been discussed in this lesson which shall
give an idea as to how a reservoir should be built and optimally operated.
w.E
Fundamentally, a reservoir serves to store water and the size of the reservoir is governed by

asy
the volume of the water that must be stored, which in turn is affected by the variability of the
inflow available for the reservoir.

En
Reservoirs are of two main categories: (a) Impounding reservoirs into which a river flows

gin
naturally, and (b) Service or balancing reservoirs receiving supplies that are pumped or
channeled into them artificially.
eer
In general, service or balancing reservoirs are required to balance supply with demand.

ing
Reservoirs of the second type are relatively small in volume because the storage required by
them is to balance flows for a few hours or a few days at the most.
.ne
Impounding or storage reservoirs are intended to accumulate a part of the flood flow of the
river for use during the non-flood months. t
In this lesson, our discussions would be centered on these types of reservoirs

Reservoir storage zone and uses of reservoir

The storage capacity in a reservoir is nationally divided into three or four parts (Figure 1)
distinguished by corresponding levels.

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ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
Full Reservoir Level (FRL): It is the level corresponding to the storage which includes both

ing
inactive and active storages and also the flood storage, if provided for. In fact, this is the

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highest reservoir level that can be maintained without spillway discharge or without passing
water downstream through sluice ways.

Minimum Drawdown Level (MDDL): It is the level below which the reservoir will not be
drawn down so as to maintain a minimum head required in power projects.
t
Dead Storage Level (DSL): Below the level, there are no outlets to drain the water in the
reservoir by gravity.

Maximum Water Level (MWL): This id the water level that is ever likely to be attained during
the passage of the design flood. It depends upon the specified initial reservoir level and the
spillway gate operation rule. This level is also called sometimes as the Highest Reservoir
Level or the Highest Flood Level.

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Live storage: This is the storage available for the intended purpose between Full Supply
Level and the Invert Level of the lowest discharge outlet. The Full Supply Level is normally
that level above which over spill to waste would take place. The minimum operating level
must be sufficiently above the lowest discharge outlet to avoid vortex formation and air
entrainment. This may also be termed as the volume of water actually available at any time
between the Dead Storage Level and the lower of the actual water level and Full Reservoir
Level.

Dead storage: It is the total storage below the invert level of the lowest discharge outlet from
the reservoir. It may be available to contain sedimentation, provided the sediment does not
adversely affect the lowest discharge.
ww
Outlet Surcharge or Flood storage: This is required as a reserve between Full Reservoir

w.E
Level and the Maximum W ater level to contain the peaks of floods that might occur when
there is insufficient storage capacity for them below Full Reservoir Level. Some other terms

asy
related to reservoirs are defined as follows:

En
Buffer Storage: This is the space located just above the Dead Storage Level up to Minimum
Drawdown Level. As the name implies, this zone is a buffer between the active and dead

gin
storage zones and releases from this zone are made in dry situations to cater for essential

eer
requirements only. Dead Storage and Buffer Storage together is called Interactive Storage.
Within-the-Year Storage: This term is used to denote the storage of a reservoir meant for

ing
meeting the demands of a specific hydrologic year used for planning the project.

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Carry-Over Storage: When the entire water stored in a reservoir is not used up in a year, the
unused water is stored as carry-over storage for use in subsequent years. Silt /
Sedimentation zones: The space occupied by the sediment in the reservoir can be divided
into separate zones.
t

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ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
Freeboard: It is the margin kept for safety between the level at which the dam would be

ing
overtopped and the maximum still water level. This is required to allow for settlement of the
dam, for wave run up above still water level and for unforeseen rises in water level, because

.ne
of surges resulting from landslides into the reservoir from the peripheral hills, earthquakes or
unforeseen floods or operational deficiencies. The functions of reservoirs are to provide water
for one or more of the following purposes. Reservoirs that provide water for a combination of
t
these purpose, are termed as „Multi Purpose� reservoirs. Human consumption and/or
industrial use:

• Irrigation: usually to supplement insufficient rainfall.

• Hydropower: to generate power and energy whenever water is available or to provide

reliable supplies of power and energy at all times when needed to meet demand.

• Pumped storage hydropower schemes: in which the water flows from an upper to a lower
reservoir, generating power and energy at times of high demand through turbines, which may

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be reversible, and the water is pumped back to the upper reservoir when surplus energy is
available. The cycle is usually daily or twice daily to meet peak demands. Inflow to such a
reservoir is not essential, provided it is required to replace water losses through leakage and
evaporation or to generate additional electricity. In such facilities, the power stations, conduits
and either or both of the reservoirs could be constructed underground if it was found to do so.

• Flood control: storage capacity is required to be maintained to absorb foreseeable flood

inflows to the reservoirs, so far as they would cause excess of acceptable discharge spillway
opening. Storage allows future use of the flood water retained.

• Amenity use: this may include provision for boating, water sports, fishing, sight seeing.

ww
Formally, the Bureau of Indian Standards code IS: 4410 (part 6)1983 “Glossary of terms
relating to river valley projects -Reservoirs" defines the following types of reservoirs:

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• Auxiliary or Compensatory Reservoir: A reservoir which supplements and absorbed the
spill of a main reservoir.

asy
• Balancing Reservoirs: A reservoir downstream of the main reservoir for holding water let

En
down from the main reservoir in excess of that required for irrigation, power generation or
other purposes.
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• Conservation Reservoir: A reservoir impounding water for useful purposes, such as

eer
irrigation, power generation, recreation, domestic, industrial and municipal supply etc. •

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Detention Reservoir: A reservoir where in water is stored for a relatively brief period of time,
past of it being retained until the stream can safely carry the ordinary flow plus the released

.ne
water. Such reservoirs usually have outlets without control gates and are used for flood
regulation. These reservoirs are also called as the Flood Control Reservoir or Retarding
Reservoir.
t
• Distribution Reservoir: A reservoir connected with distribution system a water supply
project, used primarily to care for fluctuations in demand which occur over short periods and
as local storage in case of emergency such as a break in a main supply line failure of a
pumping plant.

• Impounding or Storage Reservoir: A reservoir with gate-controlled outlets wherein surface

water may be retained for a considerable period of time and released for use at a time when
the normal flow of the stream is in sufficient to satisfy requirements.

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Strategies for reservoir operation

x The flow in the river changes seasonally and from year to year, due to temporal and
spatial variation in precipitation.
x Thus, the water available abundantly during monsoon season becomes scarce during
the non-monsoon season, when it is most needed.
x The traditional method followed commonly for meeting the needs of water during the
scarce period is construction of storage reservoir on the river course.
x The excess water during the monsoon season is stored in such reservoirs for eventual
use in lean period.
x
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Construction of storages will also help in control of flood, as well as generation of
electricity power.
x
w.E
To meet the objective set forth in planning a reservoir or a group of reservoirs and to
achieve maximum benefits out of the storage created, it is imperative to evolve

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guidelines for operation of reservoirs.
x
En
Without proper regulation schedules, the reservoir may not meet the full objective for
which it was planned and may also pose danger to the structure itself.
x
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Control of flood is better achieved if the reservoir level is kept low in the early stages of

x
the monsoon season.
eer
However, at a later stage, if the anticipated inflows do not result the reservoir may not

ing
get filled up to FRL in the early stages of monsoon, to avoid the risk of reservoir

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remaining unfilled at later stage, there may be problem of accommodating high floods
occurring at later stage.
x In some cases while planning reservoirs, social and other considerations occasionally
result in adoption of a plan that may not be economically the best.
t
5. Explain about single and multipurpose reservoir.

Single Purpose Reservoirs The common principles of single purpose reservoir operation
are given below:

a) Flood control-Operation of flood control reservoirs is primarily governed by the available

flood storage capacity of damage centers to be protected, flood characteristics, ability and
accuracy of flood/ storm forecast and size of the uncontrolled drainage area. A regulation plan

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to cover all the complicated situations may be difficult to evolve, but generally it should be
possible according to one of the following principles:

1) Effective use of available flood control storage: Operation under this principle aims at
reducing flood damages of the locations to be protected to the maximum extent possible, by
effective use of flood event. Since the release under this plan would obviously be lower than
those required for controlling the reservoir design flood, there is distinct possibility of having a
portion of the flood control space occupied during the occurrence of a subsequent heavy
flood. In order to reduce this element of risk, maintenance of an adequate network of flood
forecasting stations both in the upstream and down stream areas would be absolutely
necessary.
ww
2) Control of reservoir design flood: According to this principle, releases from flood control

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reservoirs operated on this concept are made on the same hypothesis as adopted for
controlling the reservoir design flood, that is the full storage capacity would be utilized only

asy
when the flood develops into the reservoir design flood. However, as the design flood is
usually an extreme event, regulation of minor and major floods, which occur more often, is
En
less satisfactory when this method is applied.

gin
3) Combination of principle (1) and (2): In this method, a combination of the principles (1)

eer
and (2) is followed. The principle (1) is followed for the lower portion of the flood reserve to
achieve the maximum benefits by controlling the earlier part of the flood. Thereafter releases

ing
are made as scheduled for the reservoir design flood as in principle (2). In most cases this

.ne
plan will result in the best overall regulation, as it combines the good points of both the
methods.

4) Flood control in emergencies: It is advisable to prepare an emergency release schedule

that uses information on reservoir data immediately available to the operator. Such schedule
t
should be available with the operator to enable him to comply with necessary precautions
under extreme flood conditions.

5) Conservation: Reservoirs meant for augmentation of supplies during lean period should
usually be operated to fill as early as possible during filling period, while meeting the
requirements. All water in excess of the requirements of the filling period shall be impounded.
No spilling of water over the spillway will normally be permitted until the FRL is reached.
Should any flood occur when the reservoir is at or near the FRL, release of flood waters

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should be affected, so as not to exceed the discharge that would have occurred had there
been no reservoir. In case the year happens to be dry, the draft for filling period should be
curtailed by applying suitable factors. The depletion period should begin thereafter. However,
in case the reservoir is planned with carry-over capacity, it is necessary to ensure that the
regulation will provide the required carry-over capacity at the end of the depletion period.

Operation Of Multi Purpose Reservoirs:

The general principles of operation of reservoirs with these multiple storage spaces are
described below:

x Separate allocation of capacities- W hen separate allocations of capacity have been

ww
made for each of the conservational uses, in addition to that required for flood control,
operation for each of the function shall follow the principles of respective functions. The

w.E
storage available for flood control could, however be utilized for generation of
secondary power to the extent possible. Allocation of specific storage space to several

asy
purposes with the conservation zone may some times be impossible or very costly to

En
provide water for the various purposes in the quantities needed and at the time they
are needed.
x gin
Joint use of storage space- In multi-purpose reservoir where joint use of some of the

eer
storage space or storage water has been envisaged, operation becomes complicated
due to competing and conflicting demands. While flood control requires low reservoir
ing
level, conservation interests require as high a level as is attainable. Thus, the

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objectives of these functions are not compatible and a compromise will have to be
effected in flood control operations by sacrificing the requirements of these functions.
x In some cases parts of the conservational storage space is utilized for flood
moderation, during the earlier stages of the monsoon. This space has to be filled up for
t
conservation purpose towards the end of monsoon progressively, as it might not be
possible to fill up this space during the post-monsoon periods, when the flows are
insufficient even to meet the current requirements. This will naturally involve some
sacrifice of the flood control interests towards the end of the monsoon

Multipurpose reservoirs

x Water supply
x Flood control
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x Soil erosion
x Environmental management
x Hydroelectric power generation
x Navigation
x Recreation
x Irrigation
x The multipurpose nature of these facilities dictates that the agencies which manage
them are responsible for balancing competing demands.
x For example, managers responsible for hydroelectric power generation often want to

ww
keep lake levels as high as possible, since the water stored in the reservoir serves as
a kind of "fuel" for their generators.
x
w.E
However, managers responsible for flood control often want to keep lake levels as low
as possible to provide the maximum amount of storage capacity for rainwater runoff.

Water supply
asy
x
En
Water supply is the provision of water by public utilities, commercial organizations,

x Irrigation is covered separately. gin

community endeavors or by individuals, usually via a system of pumps and pipes.

Flood control eer

x
ing
Floods are caused by many factors: heavy rainfall, highly accelerated snowmelt,

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severe winds over water, unusual high tides, tsunamis, or failure of dams, levees,
retention ponds, or other structures that retained the water.
x Flooding can be exacerbated by increased amounts of impervious surface or by other
natural hazards such as wildfires, which reduce the supply of vegetation that can
t
absorb rainfall.
x Periodic floods occur on many rivers, forming a surrounding region known as the flood
plain.
x During times of rain, some of the water is retained in ponds or soil, some is absorbed
by grass and vegetation, some evaporates, and the rest travels over the land as
surface runoff.

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x Floods occur when ponds, lakes, riverbeds, soil, and vegetation cannot absorb all the
water. W ater then runs off the land in quantities that cannot be carried within stream
channels or retained in natural ponds, lakes, and man-made reservoirs.
x About 30 percent of all precipitation becomes runoff and that amount might be
increased by water from melting snow.
x River flooding is often caused by heavy rain, sometimes increased by melting snow.
x A flood that rises rapidly, with little or no advance warning, is called a flash flood.
x Flash usually result from intense rainfall over a relatively small area, or if the area was
already saturated from previous precipitation.

x
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Soil erosion

In geomorphology and geology, erosion refers to the actions of exogamic processes

w.E
(such as water flow or wind) which remove soil and rock from one location on the
Earth's crust, then transport it to another location where it is deposited.
x asy
Eroded sediment may be transported just a few millimeters, or for thousands of

x
kilometers.
En
While erosion is a natural process, human activities have increased by 10-40 times the
gin
rate at which erosion is occurring globally. Excessive (or accelerated) erosion causes

x
both 'on-site'nd 'off-site' problems.
eer
On-site impacts include decreases in agricultural and (on natural landscapes)
ing
ecological collapse, both because of loss of the nutrient-rich upper soil layers. In some
cases, the eventual end result is desertification.
.ne
x

x
Off-site effects include sedimentation of waterways and eutrophication of water bodies,
as well as sediment-related damage to roads and houses.
Water and wind erosion are now the two primary causes of land degradation;
t
combined, they are responsible for about 84% of the global extent of degraded,
making excessive erosion one of the most significant environmental problems world-
wide.
x Intensive agriculture, deforestation, roads, anthropogenic climate change and urban
sprawl are amongst the most significant human activities in regard to their effect on
stimulating erosion.

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x However, there are many remediation practices that can curtail or limit erosion of
vulnerable soils.

Environmental resource management

x Environmental resource management is the management of the interaction and impact

of human societies on the environment.
x It is not, as the phrase might suggest, the management of the environment itself.
x Environmental resources management aims to ensure that ecosystem services are
protected and maintained for future human generations, and also maintain ecosystem
integrity through considering ethical, economic, and scientific (ecological) variables.
x
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Environmental resource management tries to identify factors affected by conflicts that
rise between meeting needs and protecting resources.
x
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It is thus linked to protection and sustainability.

Hydroelectricity

x asy
Hydroelectricity is the term referring to electricity generated by hydropower; the

En
production of electrical power through the use of the gravitational force of falling or

x
flowing water.
gin
It is the most widely used form of renewable, accounting for 16 percent of global
eer
electricity generation – 3,427 terawatt-hours of electricity production in 2010, and is

x
ing
expected to increase about 3.1% each year for the next 25 years.
Hydropower is produced in 150 countries, with the Asia-Pacific region generating 32
percent of global hydropower in 2010. .ne
x China is the largest hydroelectricity producer, with 721 terawatt-hours of production in
2010, representing around 17 percent of domestic electricity use.
t
x There are now four hydroelectricity plants larger than 10 GW : the Three Gorges Dam
and Xiluodu Dam in China, Itapúa Dam across the Brazil/Paraguay border, and Guru
Dam in Venezuela.[1]
x The cost of hydroelectricity is relatively low, making it a competitive source of
renewable electricity.
x The average cost of electricity from a hydro plant larger than 10 megawatts is 3 to 5
U.S. cents per kilowatt-hour. It is also a flexible source of electricity

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x since the amount produced by the plant can be changed up or down very quickly to
adapt to changing energy demands.
x However, damming interrupts the flow of rivers and can harm local ecosystems, and
building large dams and reservoirs often involves displacing people and wildlife.
x Once a hydroelectric complex is constructed, the project produces no direct waste, and
has a considerably lower output level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO 2)
than fossil fuel powered energy plants.

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t

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UNIT 2- WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

PART A

1. List out any 4 important river basins in India.

River basin is considered as the basic hydrological unit for planning and development of
water resources. There are 12 major river basins with catchment area of 20000 km2 and
above.

SL.NO Basin Name Area(sq.km)

1. Ganga basin 808334.44

ww 2.

3.
Brahmaputra Basin

Godavari Basin
186421.6

302063.93

4. w.E Krishna Basin 254743.31

5.
asy Cauvery Basin 85624.44

6. Narmada Basin
En 92670.51

2. What is the Need for National Water policy? gin

eer
ing
 Water is a prime natural resource, a basic human need and a precious national asset.
Planning, development and management of water resources need to be governed by
national perspectives.
.ne
 Water is part of a larger ecological system. Realising the importance and scarcity
attached to the fresh water, it has to be treated as an essential environment for
sustaining all life forms.
t
 `Another important aspect is water quality. Improvements in existing strategies,
innovation of new techniques resting on a strong science and technology base are
needed to eliminate the pollution of surface and ground water resources, to improve
water quality. Science and technology and training have to play important roles in
water resources development and management in general.
3. Discuss the different methods to measure consumptive use.
i) Direct Methods/Field Methods

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ii) Empirical Methods

iii) Pan evaporation method

4. Discuss about the physical and chemical characteristics of water.

x Water is a tasteless, odourless liquid at standard temperature and pressure. The

colour of water and ice is, intrinsically, a very slight blue hue, although water appears
colourless in small quantities. Ice also appears colourless, and water vapour is
essentially invisible as a gas.

x water is transparent, and thus aquatic plants can live within the water because sunlight
can reach them. Only strong UV light is slightly absorbed.

x ww
Pure water has a low electrical conductivity, but this increases significantly with the

x
w.E
dissolution of a small amount of ionic material such as sodium chloride.

The boiling point of water (and all other liquids) is dependent on the barometric

asy
pressure. For example, on the top of Mt. Everest water boils at 68 degrees Celsius,
compared to 100 degrees Celsius at sea level. Conversely, water deep in the ocean
En
near geothermal vents can reach temperatures of hundreds of degrees and remain
liquid.
gin
5. Define National Water Policy.
eer
ing
National W ater Policy is formulated by the Ministry of W ater Resources of
the Government of India to govern the planning and development of water resources
and their optimum utilization. The first National W ater Policy was adopted in
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September, 1987.[1] It was reviewed and updated in 2002 and later in 2012.

India has been successful in creating live water storage capacity of about 253 billion
t
cubic meter(BCM) so far. In a first, the ecological needs of river have also been taken
into consideration.

6. Define water budget.

Water budgets are the calculated amount of water a household will require based on the
size of the family, number and types of fixtures, and landscape needs. The landscape
needs are based on turf water requirements only.

7. Write the components of Master Plan.

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x Space Utilization study of all spaces.

x Facilities Condition Assessment to support Deferred Maintenance Planning.
x Infrastructure Assessment of steam, condensate, chilled water, city water, storm,
sanitary, electrical, data and telecom to define major maintenance and capacity needs.

x Land Use to define strategies for building zones, plazas, transportation, landscape, art,
parking, campus entries, and wayfinding.

x Capital Plan including prioritized major capital needs for the next 10 years.
8. Identify the purpose of Master Plan? Explain
x
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The purpose of a master plan is to provide a vision and framework that allows us to
fulfill our physical needs as we grow our campus in a way that creates a unified
w.E
campus character and identity.
x

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A good master plan has all of the qualities of Maharishi’s 5 fundamentals of Progress:
 Stability

En
Adaptability


Purification
Integration gin
 Growth
eer
ing
9. List out the factors affecting the consumptive use of water.
.ne
x
x
Evaporation which depends on humidity
Mean Monthly temperature t
x Growing season of crops and cropping pattern
x Monthly precipitation in area
x Wind velocity in locality
x Soil and topography
x Irrigation practices and method of irrigation

x Sunlight hours

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PART - B

1. Write briefly about water budget and its development plan.

DEFINITION:

The indoor and outdoor water budgets are the calculated amount of water a household will
require based on the size of the family, number and types of fixtures, and landscape needs.
The landscape needs are based on turf water requirements only.

CONSIDERATIONS:

The goal of the water budget is to show the homeowner how much water is used in the

ww
house. The flow rates of the fixtures and the appliances provided by the builder (i.e.
commodes, faucets, showerheads, dishwashers) and added by the homeowner (i.e. clothes
w.E
washer) can be put in a budget form that helps the homeowners understand their water use.

asy
The primary exterior demand for water is for watering lawns. The water budget format tells
the homeowner how much water their turf should require based on size and type of grass.

En
The water budget establishes a baseline of how much the homeowner should expect to use

gin
in the house and where the water goes. Additional conservation strategies can be designed
from the water budget information.
eer
The figures derived from the W ater Budget calculations are estimates. Personal lifestyle will
determine the actual water use. ing
IMPLEMENTATION ISSUES
.ne
FINANCING: Not applicable

PUBLIC ACCEPTANCE: Good, if clearly presented.

t
GUIDELINES

Indoor Budget

Based on the average per capita interior water use rates developed and used by the U.S.
Housing and Urban Development (HUD).

Actual use rates for water fixtures will vary.

Some items in the indoor budget could be added to the home after the homeowners move in.
Use average water amounts for fixtures that are not in place. This helps the homeowner
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decide whether to add a fixture or appliance that is more conserving than the average
because they can see how it can affect the total.

Directions: The water-using items are listed in the left-hand column. The use rate per person
per day is shown in the next column. The third column is filled in with the flow rate. For
example, the rating of gallons of water used per flush and the rated flow rate on the
showerhead would be entered in this column.

Multiply the second column times the third column then times the fourth column (this is the
number of persons in the household). The subtotal for each item is entered in the fifth column.

The figures in the fifth column are added up to show the amount of water used each day. This

ww
total can be multiplied by 365 (days) to give the amount of water that would be consumed in
one year.

w.E
Use this W orksheet to calculate your own home.

asy
INDOOR W ATER BUDGET EXAMPLE

Fixtures and appliances in this home have the following flow rates:

Toilets En
1.6 gallons per flush

Showers
gin
2.5 gallons per minute
eer
Dishwasher 8.5 gal. per load
ing
Washing Machine The family will buy a model using 35 gal. per load

.ne
Faucets

B a th s
This amount is fixed at 8.5 gallons

Average use
t
Family size: 3

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IT E M USE RATE FLOW RATE # OF PERSONS TOTAL

4.0 flushes
Toilet per person 1 .6 3 1 9 .2
per day

4.8 minutes
Shower per person 2 .5 3 36
per day

0.30 loads
40 gal per load
wwWashing Machine per person
per day
(avg.)
3 36

w.E 0.17 loads

Dishwasher
asy per person
per day
8 .5 3 4 .3 4

En 8 .5
Faucets
gin N/A
estimated

0.14 baths eer

50 gal. per bath
B a th s per person
per day
(avg.) ing 3 21

TOTAL
.ne
125.04

Daily total (125.04) times 365 days equals 45,639.6 gallons per year.
t
Use this W orksheet to calculate your own home.

Outdoor Water Budget

The calculation method is for sunny turf (lawn) areas only. Shaded lawn areas will have
reduced water requirements. Soil type can also affect water demand. If no lawn is present
and there is a maintained landscape, use water requirements provided by the nursery or
landscape designer. This method will give a general indication of water demand only.

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To minimize water needs for turf areas, do not remove grass clippings, keep grass at the
recommended cutting height with frequent cuttings, and use a natural soil amendment such
as “Dillo Dirt.” Note that watering rates will vary during the year, with most watering occurring
in the summer. (See the Xeriscape Section.)

The outdoor W ater Budget can be calculated for 5 (five) grass types.

OUTDOOR W ATER BUDGET EXAMPLE

Grass Type Factor Chart

St. Augustine 1 .0

ww St. Augustine/Bermuda Mix 0.9

w.E Zoysia 0 .9

asy Bermuda

Buffalograss
0 .8

0 .5
En
Calculation Sequence (chart follows):

S te p 1 : gin
eer
Multiply 50 (inches of turf water demand for one year not including natural rainfall)

ing
times square feet of turf area (SQFT) divided by 12. This gives the cubic feet of water
demand per year. (CF/YR)(50 x SQFT) / 12 = CF/YR

S te p 2 : .ne
Multiply cubic feet of water demand per year (CF/YR) times 7.48 (a conversion factor)
times the grass type factor (GTF from the above table). This gives the gallons per year
t
(G/YR) required by the selected grass type.CF/YR x 7.48 x GTF = G/YR

S te p 3 :

Multiply 32 (inches of natural rainfall) times square feet of turf area (SQFT) divided by
12 gives the cubic feet of water supplied per year by rainfall (CFNR/YR).(32 x SQFT) /
12 = CFNR/YR

S te p 4 :

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Multiply the cubic feet of natural rainfall per year (CFNR/YR) times 7.48 to get the
gallons of natural rainfall (GNR).CFNR/YR x 7.48 = GNR

S te p 5 :

Subtract the gallons of natural rainfall (GNR) in Step 4 from the required water for the
selected grass type (G/YR) in Step 2. The remainder is the amount of additional
irrigation water the lawn will require. If the number is negative, that means natural
rainfall is adequate to keep the grass alive although water may be added to keep it
looking green during extended dry periods.G/YR – GNR = water requirement in gallons

Use this chart and Legend to fill in the Outdoor W ater Budget for your own home.

ww Grass Type Factor Chart

w.E St. Augustine 1 .0

asy St. Augustine/Bermuda Mix 0.9

Zoysia
En 0 .9

Bermuda
gin 0 .8

Buffalograss
eer 0 .5

UTDOOR WATER BUDGET EXAMPLE

GRASS TYPE: BUFFALOGRASS

ing
GRASS TYPE FACTOR (GTF): 0 .5 .ne
SQUARE FEET OF TURF (SQFT): 5,000

NATURAL RAINFALL (NR): 32

t
SQFT: square feet of turf………………5000

CF/YR: cubic feet per year……………..20,833

GTF: Grass Type Factor…………………0.5

G/YR: gallons per year…………………77,915

CFNR/YR: cubic feet of natural rainfall….13,333

GNR: gallons of natural rainfall………..99,733

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NR: natural rainfall (Austin = 32)………32

STEP 1 50 X 5,000 SQFT / 12 = 20,833 CF/YR

STEP 2 20,833 CF/YR X 7.48 X 0.5 GTF = 77,915 G/YR

STEP 3 32 NR X 5000 SQFT / 12 = 13,333 CFNR/YR

STEP 4 13,333 CFNR/NR X 7.48 = 99,733 GNR

STEP 5 77,915 G/YR (Step 2) – 99,733 GNR(Step 4) = -21,818 WATERING REQUIREMENT

This means that for 5000 square feet of Buffalo grass, 32 inches of rain gives almost 22,000
gallons more than is needed.

ww
If calculated for the other grass types, 5,000 square feet of turf will require from almost 27,000
gallons for Bermuda to over 58,000 gallons for St. Augustine.

w.E
Use this chart and Legend to fill in the Outdoor W ater Budget for your own home.

asy
2. What is the Necessity of National Water Policy? Explain

National W ater Policy is formulated by the Ministry of W ater Resources of the Government of
En
India to govern the planning and development of water resources and their optimum

gin
utilization. The first National W ater Policy was adopted in September, 1987.[1] It was reviewed
and updated in 2002 and later in 2012.
eer
India accounts for 15% of the world population and about 4% of the world’s water resources.

ing
One of the solutions to solve the country’s water woes is to link the rivers.[2]

.ne
India has been successful in creating live water storage capacity of about 253 billion cubic
meter(BCM) so far. In a first, the ecological needs of river have also been taken into
consideration. t
National W ater Policy (2012)

The main emphasis of National W ater Policy 2012 is to treat water as economic good which
the ministry claims to promote its conservation and efficient use.[4] This provision intended for
the privatization of water-delivery services is being criticized from various quarters.[5] The
policy also does away with the priorities for water allocation mentioned in 1987 and 2002
versions of the policy. The policy was adopted with a disapproval from many states.

The other major features are

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x To ensure access to a minimum quantity of potable water for essential health and hygiene
to all citizens, available within easy reach of the household

x To curtail subsidy to agricultural electricity users

x Setting up of Water Regulatory Authority

x To keep aside a portion of the river flow to meet the ecological needs and to ensure that
the low and high flow releases correspond in time closely to the natural flow regime.

x To give statutory powers to Water Users Associations to maintain the distribution system

x Project benefited families to bear part of the cost of resettlement & rehabilitation of project
affected families

x ww
To remove the large disparity between stipulations for water supply in urban areas and in

x
rural areas
w.E
To support a National Water Framework Law

asy
he major provisions under the policy are:

En
1. Envisages to establish a standardized national information system with a network of
data banks and data bases
gin
eer
2. Resource planning and recycling for providing maximum availability

3. To give importance to the impact of projects on human settlements and environment.

ing
4. Guidelines for the safety of storage dams and other water-related structures

5. Regulate exploitation of groundwater

.ne
6. Setting water allocation priorities in the following order: Drinking
water, Irrigation, Hydropower, Navigation, Industrial and other uses.
t
7. The water rates for surface water and ground water should be rationalized with due
regard to the interests of small and marginal farmers.

The policy also deals with participation of farmers and voluntary agencies, water quality,
water zoning, conservation of water, flood and drought management, erosion etc
3. What is Master Plan?Explain the components of Master Plan.

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The purpose of a master plan is to provide a vision and framework that allows us to fulfill
ww
our physical needs as we grow our campus in a way that creates a unified campus character
and identity.
w.E
A good master plan has all of the qualities of Maharishi’s 5 fundamentals of Progress:

asy
1. Stability: Embodies the core values of our University giving a solid direction to our growth
and a stable framework for expansion.
En
gin
2. Adaptability: Allows for flexibility as University goals and opportunities change over time.

3. Purification: Allows for a way for decisions to be evaluated in the context of the bigger

eer
picture so that weaker ideas fall aside while any projects that are started add the most

ing
benefit possible to the campus as a whole. It also allows us to eliminate current aspects
of the campus over time that do not contribute to its overall beauty or functionality.

.ne
4. Integration: All parts of the campus are considered in relation to each other so that every
aspect is part of an integrated whole

5. Growth: And in this way every project (whether it’s a path or a building or planting a tree)
t
builds upon what has already been done so that we continue to grow and enhance our
beautiful campus

Master Plan Components

x Space Utilization study of all spaces.

Paulien & Associates, experts in academic and facilities related studies for higher
education, have assessed campus-wide facility utilization. This assessment provides

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key planning data tying the use of campus spaces and facilities with the future plans
for that department, college or group.
Facilities Condition Assessment to support Deferred Maintenance Planning.

In support of the 2013 Campus Master Planning effort, Fishbeck, Thompson, Carr &
Huber (FTC&H) performed a facilities condition assessments for existing buildings and
supporting infrastructure on the Mt. Pleasant campus. They worked in collaboration
with the CMU Plant Engineering & Planning Department to gain a general overview of
the condition of each building. Clark Construction has provided estimating support for
this effort.

wwInfrastructure Assessment of steam, condensate, chilled water, city water, storm,

sanitary, electrical, data and telecom to define major maintenance and capacity needs.
w.E
asy
FTC&H has surveyed the major utility systems that support the facilities currently, and
understand their capability to support the future growth of the physical campus. Clark

En
Construction has provided estimating support for this effort.

gin
Land Use to define strategies for building zones, plazas, transportation, landscape, art,
parking, campus entries, and wayfinding.

eer
ing
The land master plan studies the locations and synergies between buildings, plazas,
pedestrian and vehicular paths, landscape, art, signage and other physical assets on

.ne
campus. This has proposed a future plan for the transformation of campus in support
of the university's goals as established in the Strategic Plan.
Capital Plan including prioritized major capital needs for the next 10 years. t
The capital plan provides the outline that allows the planning efforts to come to built
reality over the next 10 years.

4. Discuss about the Consumptive and NonConsumptive Water use.

The consumptive and nonconsumptive classifications of water are important when assessing
the quantity o£ water allocated. Water used consumptively diminishes the source and is not
available for other uses; whereas nonconsumptive water use does not diminish the source or
impair future water use.
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1. Consumptive Use of Surface and Ground W ater

Consumptive water use causes diminishment of the source at the point of appropriation.
Definition: Diminishment is defined as to make smaller or less in quantity, quality, rate of
flow, or availability.
By-pass reach defined. A water use may be consumptive to a specific reach of a stream
when water is diverted, used, and returned to the same source at a point downstream not
in close proximity to the point of diversion. The stream reaches between the point of
withdrawal and point of discharge is the by-pass reach.
2. Non consumptive Water Use, Surface W ater
Surface water use is non consumptive when there is no diversion from the water source

ww
or diminishment of the source. Additionally, when water is diverted and returned
immediately to the source at the point of diversion following its use in the same quantity
w.E
as diverted and meets water quality standards for the source, the water use is classified

asy
as nonconsumptive. Examples of this classification include the following:

a. Water use in hydroelectric projects when the water is not diverted away from the natural

En
confines of the river or stream channel. These hydroelectric projects are commonly called
run-of-the-river projects.
gin
eer
b. Water use in some beautification ponds and fish hatcheries when the outflow is returned to
the point of diversion, i.e., there is no bypass reach in the system. The continuous use of

ing
water by such a facility does not result in diminishment of the source; inflow is equal to
outflow.
.ne
These facilities normally require water to fill or charge the system once a year. The water
used to fill or hydraulically charge such a system is consumptive and does cause a
diminishment of the source. Water use to fill these facilities will be allowed, subject to
t
instream flows and existing rights, when water is available.

Exception to 2.B. W ater use can be classified as nonconsumptive when the water is returned
to the same pool from which it is diverted and the pool’s water elevation is not changed by
the initial start-up and stopping of the diversion.

Definitions: A pool in a river system is a body of water which has the same water surface
elevation, within 0.05 of one foot, at any point between the point of diversion and the point of
discharge.

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A pool in a lake system is the body of water with no flow restriction between the diversion
point and the point of discharge and the velocity of the water at both points is the same or
within ten (10) percent of each other. If the diversion point and the discharge point are
separated by a restrictive, natural or artificial, channel the water bodies are considered
separate and distinct.

Some of the above described projects may cause an increase in bank storage, evaporation
rate, or preclude others uses of the water body in the vicinity of the project. The Department
recognizes the consumptive nature of these factors. However, due to the complexity of
quantifying these factors, it is the Department’s policy to classify the project’s water use as
nonconsumptive.
ww
3. Nonconsumptive W ater Use,

w.E
Ground Water Ground water use is nonconsumptive when there is no diminishment of the
source. In order not to diminish the source, the withdrawn water is injected or infiltrated

asy
immediately back to the aquifer. The water must be returned in the same quantity and
quality (excluding temperature change) at a point in close proximity to the withdrawal
En
wells. An example of this use is a heat pump.

gin
eer
Before issuing a permit which proposes to use injection wells, ensure that the applicant
can obtain an injection well permit if required by the Water Quality Program. See Chapter
173- 218 W AC.
ing
4. CONCURRENT USE OF GROUND AND SURFACE W ATER
.ne
Combined use of ground and surface water use may be classified nonconsumptive if the
quantity of water captured is returned in close proximity to the source immediately after
use.
t
Direct hydraulic continuity between the source and point of discharge must be
unequivocal. When a project proposed nonconsumptive combined use of surface and
ground water, the draft report of exam shall be sent to the section supervisor of the
Hydrology and Coordination Section for review and comment.
5. Discuss about the economics of water resource planning.
Economic planning and evaluation of water development projects is currently a popular
subject in the field of resource economics.
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1. Choosing Among Feasible Alternatives:

Economic analysis, or the understanding and prediction of decision making under
conditions of resource scarcity, plays a major role in the planning, design and
management of sustainable water resource systems. Allocation of water among
competing uses to obtain an optimum value in terms of market or welfare measures is one
of the main problems of water resources planners.
Price theory is very relevant where markets are operating efficiently, whereas welfare
economics seeks to maximize human welfare in situations where desirable social gains
and undesirable social costs are not fully accounted for in a profit maximizing, market
economy (North, 1985).

wwPrice theory and welfare economics tend to focus on static analyses of projects,
whereas, financial analysis considers the time value of investments and decisions. In this
w.E
section, we will consider some aspects of financial analysis.

asy
Choice is governed by economic and financial feasibility and acceptability with respect
to social and environmental impacts. Here we want to consider investment analysis which

En
serves as a guide for allocating resources between present and future consumption. The
process consists of:
gin
 Identifying alternatives to be considered;

eer
 Predicting the consequences resulting from these alternatives;

ing
 Converting the consequences into some commensurable units
 Choosing among the alternatives
2. Cost-Effectiveness Analysis:
.ne
A program is cost-effective if, on the basis of life cycle cost analysis of competing
alternatives, it is determined to have the lowest costs expressed in present value terms for a
t
given amount of benefits. Cost-effectiveness analysis is appropriate whenever it is
unnecessary or impractical to consider the dollar value of the benefits provided by the
alternatives under consideration. This is the case whenever

(i) each alternative has the same annual benefits expressed in monetary
terms; or
(ii) each alternative has the same annual affects, but dollar values cannot
be assigned to their benefits. Analysis of alternative defense systems
often falls in this category (OMB, 1992).
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3. Benefit-Cost Analysis:

Benefit – Cost Analysis is a systematic quantitative method of assessing the

desirability of government projects or policies when it is important to take a long view of future
effects and a broad view of possible side-effects (OMB, 1992).

• Both costs and benefits of a project must be measured and expressed in

commensurable units;
• It is the main analytical tool used to evaluate water resource and
environmental decisions;
• Benefits of an alternative are estimated and compared with the total costs that

ww society would bear if that action were undertaken;

• Viewpoint is important - some groups are only concerned with benefits, others

w.E
are concerned only with costs

In benefit – cost analyses, any costs and benefits that are unaffected by which

asy
alternative is selected should be neglected. That is, the differences between alternatives need

En
only be considered. 3 Estimates of benefits and costs are typically uncertain because of
imprecision in both underlying data and modeling assumptions. Because such uncertainty is

gin
basic to many analyses, its effects should be analyzed and reported (OMB, 1992).

eer
Uncertainty may exist in: objectives, constraints, public response, technological
change, or extreme events and recurrence.
ing
4. Financial Analysis: .ne
Financial analyses use cash flow analysis and discounting techniques in benefit-cost
analyses to maximize the rate of return to capital. Capital is the limiting factor here and
t
maximizing profit is not necessarily achieved. The basic principle is that an investment will be
made if revenues in the future will repay the cost at a positive rate of interest (North, 1985).

The standard criterion for deciding whether a government program can be justified on
economic principles is net present value -- the discounted monetized value of expected net
benefits (i.e., benefits minus costs). Net present value is computed by assigning monetary
values to benefits and costs, discounting future benefits and costs using an appropriate
discount rate, and subtracting the sum total of discounted costs from the sum total of
discounted benefits.
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Discounting benefits and costs transforms gains and losses occurring in different time
periods to 5 a common unit of measurement. Programs with positive net present value
increase social resources and are generally preferred. Programs with negative net present
value should generally be avoided (OMB, 1992).

The process proceeds as:

• Define each alternative and predict their consequences

• Place monetary value on consequences
• Select a discount rate
• Convert time streams of benefits and costs o Construct cash flow diagrams o

ww Convert values of costs and benefits at one date to equivalent values at the
present (or another convenient) time.
5. Discount Rate:
w.E
In order to compute net present value, it is necessary to discount future benefits and

asy
costs. This discounting reflects the time value of money. Benefits and costs are worth more if

En
they are experienced sooner. All future benefits and costs, including nonmonetized benefits
and costs, should be discounted. The higher the discount rate, the lower is the present value

gin
of future cash flows. For typical investments, with costs concentrated in early periods and

eer
benefits following in later periods, raising the discount rate tends to reduce the net present
value (OMB, 1992).

ing
The discount rate measures the rate at which current consumption will be sacrificed to
ensure 6 consumption (production) later. Greater sacrifices mean more resources can be
.ne
devoted to future production. Alternatives discount rates include:

• Zero;
t
• Interest paid to borrow funds for project financing;
• Internal rate of return;
• Market interest rate for risk free investments -- Interest on recently issued
government bonds having a maturity date approximately equal to the project life
• Most productive investments (opportunity cost of capital) -- If funds were
committed to a project yielding the highest rate of return first, then to subsequent
projects in order of rate of return, the IRR of the last project selected before funds run
out is the MIRR

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• Interest paid on borrowed funds for governments using bond financing

• US federal practice (Senate Doc. 97, 1962) -- “Average rate of interest payable
by the US Treasury on interest-bearing marketable securities outstanding at the end of
the fiscal year preceding computation which had terms to maturity of 15 years or
more”.

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t

UNIT – III

IRRIGATION ENGINEERING

1) Define irrigation ?
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Irrigation is defined as the science of artificial application of water to the land in

accordance with the crop requirements.

2) What are the necessity of irrigation ?

1.inadequate rainfall

2.increasing yield of crops

3.growing perennial crops

4.uneven distribution of rainfall.

3) What is base period?

wwThe time between the first watering of a crop at the time of its sowing to its last
watering before harvesting is called the base period.

w.E
4) Define duty of water?

asy
It is the relationship between the volume of water and the area of crops it matures is
called duty of water.

5) Define delta of a crop? En

gin
It is the total depth of water required by a crop during the entire period the crop is in
the field. And it is denoted by Δ.
eer
6) What are the factors on which duty depends?

1.type of crop ing

2.climate and seasons .ne
3.useful rainfall

4.type of soil
t
5.efficiency of cultivation method

7) Define irrigation efficiency?

It is the efficiency of water output to the water input,and is usually expressed as percentage.

8) Define Gross Command Area.

It is the total area bounded with in the irrigation boundary of a project. It includes the
cultivable as well as uncultivable areas.

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9) What is meant by Consumptive Use of Water (CU)?

Water requirement of crop is the total quantity of water from the time the crop is sown
to the time it is harvested. This water requirement may vary from crop to crop, from soil to soil
and period to period. Water required to meet the demand of evapo-transpiration and
metabolic activities of the crop to-geather is known as consumptive use (CU) of water.

10) How will you calculate the available moisture depth in the irrigation field? The
moisture depth is denoted by delta,
𝑩
Delta = 8.64
𝑫

ww
For example Base Peroid = 110 days and D = 1400 hectares / cumec

∴ Moisture Depth = 8.64 x 110/1400 =0.68 m = 68 cm.

w.E PART - B

•
asy
1. Explain the Advantage and Disadvantage of Irrigation.

In Lift Irrigation, farmers can supply water to the crop field according to their need,

En
hence there is no possibility of over irrigation which may occur in flow irrigation.

•
gin
Water table is lowered considerably in lift irrigation. Therefore, there is no possibility of

•
water that may happen in surface irrigation.
eer
In lift irrigation, as water is directly applied to the field, loss of water due to seepage in
conveyance of flow irrigation is less. ing
•
.ne
Initial cost of construction in flow irrigation system is quite high as it requires to
construct a barrier like dam or weir, other hydraulic structure like canal headworks, silt
t
excluder or rejector, etc. But in lift irrigation initial cost is quite low as it does not require
any hydraulic structures.

• As the loss of water is small in lift irrigation, duty of water is very high.

• Maintenance cost in flow irrigation is higher than lift irrigation.

• More than one crop may be grown in a year in the same crop field in lift irrigation.

• Yield of crop in flow irrigation is more than lift irrigation water.

2. Define Consumptive Use of Water (CU).

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Water requirement of crop is the total quantity of water from the time the crop is sown
to the time it is harvested. This water requirement may vary from crop to crop, from soil to soil
and period to period. Water required to meet the demand of evapo-transpiration and
metabolic activities of the crop to-geather is known as consumptive use (CU) of water.

What are the factors Affecting Consumptive Use (CU)?

• Evaporation which is dependent on humidity

• Mean monthly temperature

• Monthly precipitation

• Wind velocity in the locality which affects evaporation

• ww
Soil type and its topography

•
w.E
Cropping pattern, growth stage and type of crop

• asy
Growing season of the crop

Method of applying irrigation

• Irrigation water depth En

• Day light hours gin
3. Relationship between duty, delta & base period:
eer
ing
Let there be a crop of base period B days. Let onecumec of water be applied to this
crop on the field for B days.

Now, the volume of water applied to this crop during B days .ne
V= (1 x 60 x x 60 x24 x B) m3

= 86400 B(cubic meters)

t
By definition of duty(D), one cubic meter supplied for B days matures D hectares of land.

Therefore this quantity of water (V) matures D hectares of land or 104 D sq. m of area.

Total depth of water applied on this land

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 86,8400 𝐵 8.64 𝐵
= Area
= 10000 𝐷
= 𝐷
metres

By definition, this total depth of water is called delta(Δ).

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8.64 𝐵
Δ = 𝐷
metres

864 𝐵
Δ= cm
𝐷

Where Δ is in cm, B is in days and D is duty in hectares/cumec.

4. Optimum Utilization of Irrigation Water:

If a crop is sown and produced under absolutely identical conditions, using different
amount of water depths, the yield is found to vary.

The yield increase with water, reaches a certain maximum value and then falls down.
The quantity of water at which the yield is maximum, is called the optimum water depth.

wwTherefore, optimum utilization of irrigation, generally means, getting maximum yield

w.E
with any amount of water.

The supplies of water to the various crops should be adjusted in such a fashion, as to

asy
get optimum benefit ratio, not only for the efficient use of available water and maximum yield,
but also to prevent water logging of the land in question.

En
To achieve economy in the use of water, it is necessary that the farmers be made

gin
acquainted with the fact that only a certain fixed amount of water gives best results.

eer
More than that quantity, as well as, less than that quantity, reduces the yield. Many
cultivators, till today feel, that they can increase the crop yield by using more and more water.
ing
Hence, they try to supply more water to their fields by undue tapping at the outlets.
This must be checked. Moreover, farmers should be encouraged to line their water courses,
.ne
thereby saving atleast 20% of the costly irrigation water, which can be used to irrigate extra
additional fields. t

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ww
5. After how many days will you supply water to soil(clay loam) in order to ensure

w.E
efficient irrigation of the given crop, if
i. Field capacity of soil = 27%

asy
ii. Permanent wilting point = 14%
iii.
iv. En
Dry density of soil = 15 kN/ m3
Effective depth of root zone = 75 cm
v.
gin
Daily consumptive use of water for the given crop = 11mm

Available moisture
eer
= Field capacity - Permanent wilting point

= 27 – 14 = 13%
ing
Let the readily available moisture be 80% of the available moisture.

Readily available moisture = 13x(80/100) = 10.4% .ne

m0 = 27 – 10.4 = 16.6%

Hence when irrigation water is applied, moisture is raised from 16.6% to 27%
t
Depth of water stored in root zone, during each watering
𝛾𝑑 .𝑑
= d [Field capacity - m0]
𝛾𝑤

𝛾𝑑 .𝑑
= d [0.27 – 0.166] meters
𝛾𝑤

1.5𝑥0.75
= x 0.104 = 0.119 m = 11.9 cm
9.81

Thus, depth of water available for evapo-transpiration = 11.9 cm

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Daily consumptive use of water = 1.1 cm

Watering frequency = (11.9/1.1) = 10.82 days 𝛺 10 days.

Hence water should be applied after every 10 days.

6. Estimation of Consumptive Use of Water.

Although various methods have been developed in order to evapotranspiration

(consumptive use) values of different crop in an area, or for areas vegetated with the same
cropping patteren, but the most simple and commonly used methods are:

1. Blaney – Criddle Equation, and

2. Hargreaves class A pan evaporation method.
ww 3. Penman’s Equation.

w.E
They are described below:

Blaney – Criddle Equation:

asy
It states that the monthly consumptive use is given by

EnCu =
𝒌.𝒑
𝟒𝟎
[𝟏. 𝟖𝒕 + 𝟑𝟐]

Where, gin
Cu = monthly consumptive use in cm.
eer
ing
K = Crop factor, determined by experiments for eaSch crop, under the
environmental conditions of the particular area.

t = Mean monthly temperature in ℃ .ne

P = Monthly per cent of annual day light hours that occur during the
period.
t
𝑝
If [1.8𝑡 + 32] is represented by f, we get
40

Cu = k.f

However, it is found that the values of k based on seasonal determinations were too
low for the short periods between irrigations. This led to furtherdevelopments and finally the
formula was expressed as

Cu = k ∑f

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Where Cu = seasonal consumptive use, (i.e)consumptive use during te period of growth for a
given crop in a given area.

The above formula involves the use of crop factor, the value of which is to be
determined for each crop and for different places.

At present, this information is not available in india. Moreover, this formula does not
take into consideration the factor s such as humidity, wind velocity, elevation,etc. on which
consumptive use depends. Hargreaves class A Pan evaporation method is, therefore,
generally used in india.

Hargreaves class A pan evaporation method:

wwIn this method, evaporation is related to pan evaporation by a constant K, called

consumptive use coefficient. The formula can be written as
w.E 𝑬𝒗𝒂𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒑𝒊𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏(𝑬𝒕 𝒐𝒓 𝑪𝒖)
𝑷𝒂𝒏 𝒆𝒗𝒂𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏(𝑬𝒑)
=K

Or asy Et or Cu = K. Ep

En
Consumptive use coefficient (k) is different for different crops and is different for the
same crop at different crop at different places.
gin
It also varies with the crop growth, and is different at different crop stages for the same
crop. eer
ing
The above relationship is now available for various crops from many countries such as
Isral, philippines, U.S.A. and India.
.ne
Penmam’s Equation:

While the Blaney ccriddle equation and the Hargreaves class A pan equation using t
Christiansen formula had been in use for the last many years for computing the consumptive
use, Cu values, and net irrigation requirements for different crops;

The Penman equation has, however, more recentlybeen introduced for determining the
consumptive use of different segments of a basin, depending upon the type of vegetation
covering each sub – basin.

The advantage with this equation lies in the fact that the different specified values of
coefficient of reflection, a factor used in this equation, are avaible for different types of areas,

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which can be used in Penman’s equation tocompute consumptive use values for different
segments of command area.

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
Penman’s Equation, incorporating some of the modifications suggested by other
investigations, is given as:
eer
Et =
𝑨.𝑯𝒏+𝑬𝑨.𝜸
𝑨+ 𝜸
ing
Where Et = Daily potential evapo- transpiration
.ne
A = Slope of the saturation vapour pressure Vs Temp. curve at the mean air
temperature. t
Hn = Net incoming solar radiation or energy, expressed in mm of evaporable water
per day

Ea = A parameter including wind velocity and saturation deficit(mm/day)

𝛾 = psychromatic constant = 0.49 mm of Hg/℃

𝒏 𝒏
Hn = Hc (1-r)�𝒂 + 𝒃. 𝑵� – 𝝈.Ta4(0.56 – 0.092√𝒆𝒂) x �𝟎. 𝟏𝟎 + 𝟎. 𝟗𝟎. 𝑵�

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Hc = mean incident solar radiation a t the top of the atmosphere on a horizontal

surfaces, expressed in mm of evaporable water per day. This value is a function of latitude
(ф) of the place and the peroid of the year

r = reflection coefficient

a = a constant depending upon the latitude(ф) and is given as a = 0.29 cos ф

b = a constant having average value = 0.52

n = maximum possible hours of bright sunshine(mean value)

𝜎 = Stefan – Bolzman constant = 2.01 x 10 -9 mm / day

wwTa = mean air temperature in oK = 273 + oC

ea = actual mean vapour pressure in the air in mm of Hg

w.E
The parameter Ea of Penman’s equation is estimated as:

asy
Ea = 0.35 �𝟏 +
𝑽𝟐
𝟏𝟔𝟎
� (es - ea) mm / day

Where,
En
V2 = mean wind speeed at 2 m above the ground in km/day

gin
es = Saturation vapour pressure at mean air temperature in mm of Hg

ea = Actual mean vapour pressure of air in mm of Hg.

7. Irrigation efficiency: eer

ing
It is the water stored in the root zone after losses to the water pumped or supplied in the

.ne
system, i.e. it is the ratio of the water output to the water input and usually expressed in
percentage. Loss of water occurs in conveyance, water application, water storage and
water use. Therefore, irrigation efficiency may be efficiency in conveyance, efficiency in
water application, efficiency in storage and efficiency in water use.
t
For ex, if 1 cumec of water is pumped to the farm, but 0.75 cumec is delivered in length of
1 km from the well, the loss (1-0.75) = 0.25 cumec is due to conveyance.

Therefore, Efficiency of water conveyance= (0 .75/1.0) x 100 = 75 %

Water Conveyance Efficiency(ηc)

This takes into account the conveyance or transit losses and is determined from the
following expression

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𝑾𝒇
ηc = 𝑾𝒓 x 100

where, ηc = W ater conveyance efficiency

Wf = Water delivered to the farm or irrigation plot

Wr = W ater supplied or diverted from the river

Water Application Efficiency (ηa):

It is the ratio of the quantity of water stored into the root zone of the crops to the
quantity of water delivered to the field.
𝑾𝒔
ηa = 𝑾𝒇 x 100

ww where,
ηa = water application efficiency
w.E Wf = Water delivered to the farm or irrigation plot

asy
Ws = water stored in the root zone during the irrigation

Water Use Efficiency:

En
gin
It is the ratio of water beneficially used, including leaching water, to the quantity of
water delivered, and is determined by,
𝑾𝒖
ηu = 𝑾𝒅 x 100
eer
where,
ηu = water use efficiency
ing
Wu = Water used beneficially .ne
Wd = water delivered.

Water Storage Efficiency:

t
The concept of Water Storage Efficiency gives an insight to how to completely the
required water has been stored in the root zone during irrigation. It is determined by,
𝑾𝒔
ηs = x 100
𝑾𝒏

where,

ηs = W ater Storage Efficiency

Ws = water stored in the root zone during irrigation.

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Wn = water needed in the root zone prior to irrigation.

Water Distribution Efficiency:

It is determined by following expression,

𝒚
ηd = [1- 𝒅] x 100

where,
ηd = W ater Distribution Efficiency
y = average numerical deviation in depth of water
d= average depth of water during irrigation.

Consumptive Use Efficiency:

wwIt is given by,

where,
w.E ηd =
𝑾 𝒄𝒖
𝑾𝒅
x 100

asy Wcu = normal consumptive use of water

En
Wd = net amount of water depleted from root zone of soil.

gin
eer
ing
.ne
t

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UNIT-IV

CANAL IRRIGATION

PART-A

1. Write down the classification of canals.

 Classification based on the nature of source of supply:-
1. Permanent Canal.
2. Inundation Canal.
 Classification based on the financial output:-
1. Productive Canal

ww 2. Protective Canal
 Classification based on discharge and its relative importance in a given network of
canal:-
w.E
1. Main Canal.

asy
2. Branch Canal.
3. Major Distributary .
4. Minor Distributary . En
5. Water Course . gin
 Classification based on Canal Alignment:-
1. Contour Canal .
eer
2. Watershed Canal (Ridge Canal). ing
3. Side Slope Canal.
2. What is canal drop? Why it is necessary? .ne
Whenever the available natural ground slope is steep than the designed bed
slope of the channel, the difference is adjusted by constructing vertical ‘falls’ or
t
‘drops’ in the canal bed at suitable intervals, as shown in figure below. Such a drop in a
natural canal bed will not be stable and, therefore, in order to retain this drop, a
masonry structure is constructed. Such a structure is called a Canal Fall or a Canal
drop.
Necessity of Canal Falls
• When the slope of the ground suddenly changes to steeper slope, th e
permissible bed slope cannot be maintained. It requires excessive earthwork in

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filling to maintain the slope. In such a case falls are provided to avoid excessive earth
work in filling.
• When the slope of the ground is more or less uniform and the slope is greater
than the permissible bed slope of canal.
• In cross-drainage works, when the difference between bed level of canal and that of
drainage is small or when the F.S.L of the canal is above the bed level of
drainage then the canal fall is necessary to carry the canal water below the stream
or drainage.
3. Write three important factors to be considered during the alignment of canals.
i)Alignment should be on the ridge so as to get the maximum command

ww
ii)Canals should be aligned on the watershed for economical considerations
iii) The length of the canal has to be kept minimum while aligning
w.E
4. What are canal falls and where they are located?

asy
A hydraulic structure constructed to lower the water level and to act as an energy
dissipation device is a canal fall.

En
Main canal location is based on the considerations of the cost of the cost of excavation

gin
and cost of filling the cost of construction of a drop to be balanced in case of branch
canals the falls are decided based on the command area. Location of the drops also

eer
depend on the position of bridge, regulator or other masonry works.

ing
5. What are the types of cross drainage works? What is the various regulation
works used in canals?

.ne
In an irrigation project an irrigation canal may have to cross the natural drainages viz.,
rivers,streams,nullahs or canals at different points within the command area of the
project. In such situations some arrangement has to be made to allow both the
vdrainages to go without disturbance. This is accomplished by construction of a
t
structure called cross drainage work.
various regulation works used in canals
In order to regulate discharges, depths, velocities, etc in canals , different types of
regulation are needed which is called canal regulation works. Various regulation works
are importance are
i) Canal Falls
ii) Canal Regulators

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iii) Canal escapes

iv) Canal outlets
6. What is the use of canal regulators? What is meant by canal escape?
Channels may be of two types, viz., main channel or parent channel and off taking
channel. Regulators are provided to regulate the flow
A distributing head regulator controls the discharge to the off-taking channel. This is
the regulator which controls the flow to the new channel.
The flow in the parent channel is controlled by cross regulator. Sometimes the
regulator is used to raise the water level to enable the flow to off-taking channel.
7. List the main functions of head regulators.

wwThe main function of a head regulator are:

(i) To regulate the flow of water to the off taking new channel.
(ii) w.E
To control the quantity of silt entry into the off taking channel.
(iii)
asy
Forms as a meter for measuring discharge.
8. Mention the main functions of cross regulators.

En
Main functions of a cross regulator are
(i)
(ii) gin
To effectively control the whole canal irrigation system.
To ensure the full demand of the off-take channel the cross regulator is
operated.
eer
(iii)
(iv) ing
To effectively balance the fluctuations in various sections of the canal system
It is provided with a road bridge to connect canal drop location and the irrigation
channel.
.ne
9. What are different types dams? State their suitability, Write the uses of dams.
t
S.No Type of dam Suitability

1. Gravity dam They require a strong foundation preferably

rock to resist the weight of the dam. Most suited
across narrow gorges with steep side slopes

2. Arch dam They require a strong abutment to resist the

reaction and need less mass. Suitable for
narrow gorges where the height is more.

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3. Buttress Dam Less weight and suitable where rocky or hand

stratum is not available

4. Timber and steel Very less weight and temporary structure and
dam s the height of the dam is restricted to 9m.

5. Earth and earth rock Consider where large quantity of suitable earth
dam and rock fragments are available and also in
low bearing capacity sites.

Uses of Dam
To provide a supply of water for towns, cities and mining sites

wwTo contain and store waste (tailings) from mines;

To provide a supply of water for the irrigation of crops
w.E
To generate electricity in hydro-electric power stations

asy
To help control or mitigate floods
10. Draw a typical line sketch of gravity dam Indicate the components.

En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
11. What are arch dams? What is the surplus weir?
Arch dam is a curved masonry or concrete dam with upstream convex face. It depends
principally on arch action for its stability and resists itself the part of the pressure of the
reservoir by its own weight. Because of such action the water load is transferred to the
abutments and thus needs a less massive structure.
Surplus weir:
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The excess water during normal flow or during floods are to be removed. The excess
water should not be allowed to pass over tank bunds. Instead the excess water is
allowed to pass over a weir called surplus weir which is constructed in the body of a
tank.
12. How spillways are classified? State their respective functions.
Overfall spillway:
• that allows water to pass over its crest widely used on gravity, arch, & buttress dam
Chute spillways:
• In this type water is conveyed from the reservoir to the river or to nalla below the dam
through an excavated open channel, through fairly steep slope

ww
Shaft spillway
x
x w.E
The shape is just like a funnel.
water drops through a vertical shaft in a the foundation material to a horizontal conduit

x asy
that conveys the water past the dam.
Lower end of shaft is turned atright angle and then water taken out below the dam
horizontally.
En
x Also called as glory hole spillway.
Side Channel Spillway gin
x eer
When the dam is not rigid and it is undesirable to pass flood water over the dam , this

x
type of spillway is used.
ing
After passing crossing over the spillway crest ,water flows parallel to the crest.
Siphon Spillway .ne
x
x
It is designed by the principle of a siphon.
When water rises over the FRL then water start spilling.
t
x There is a air vent for removing the entrapped pressure from the water.
13. How a spillway differs from sluice?
A sluice is an opening provided on the tank to allow excess water to move to the
downstream side. Spillway is the structure constructed in the body of the dam or near
the dam or periphery of the reservoir.
14. Write down the necessity of spillway.
The excess water during normal flow are during floods has to be disposed immediately
before it is affecting the main dam. In order to relieve the excess water the structure
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called the spillway is constructed in the body of the dam or near the dam on the
periphery of the reservoir.
15. State the difference between kennadys and laceystheory

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
PART-B
ing
1. a) What are the factors affecting location and types of dams .ne
Topography

Topography dictates the first choice of the type of dam.

t
1. A narrow U-shaped valley, i.e. a narrow stream flowing between high rocky walls, would
suggest a concrete overflow dam.

2. A low plain country, would suggest an earth fill dam with separate spillways.

3. A narrow V-shaped valley indicates the choice of an Arch dam

Geological and Foundation Conditions

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Geological and Foundation conditions should be thoroughly surveyed because the

foundations have to carry the weight of the dam. Various kind of foundations generally
encountered are

1. Solid rock foundations such as granite have strong bearing power and almost every kind
of dam can be built on such foundations.

2. Gravel foundations are suitable for earthen and rock fill dams.

3. Silt and fine sand foundations suggest construction of earth dams or very low gravity
dams.

4. Clay foundations are likely to cause enormous settlement of the dam. Constructions of

ww
gravity dams or rock fill dams are not suitable on such foundations. Earthen dams after
special treatments can be built.
w.E
Availability of Materials

asy
Availability of materials is another important factor in selecting the type of dam. In order to
achieve economy in dam construction, the materials required must be available locally or at
En
short distances from the construction site.

Spillway Size and Location gin

eer
spillway disposes the surplus river discharge. The capacity of the spillway will depend on the

ing
magnitude of the floods to be by-passed. The spillway is therefore much more important on
rivers and streams with large flood potential.

Earthquake Zone .ne

If dam is situated in an earthquake zone, its design must include earthquake forces. The type
of structure best suited to resist earthquake shocks without danger are earthen dams and
t
concrete gravity dams.

Height of Dam

Earthen dams are usually not provided for heights more than 30 m or so. For greater heights,
gravity dams are generally preferred.

b) What are the forces acting on a dam and explain them with neat sketch

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In the design of a dam, the first step is the determination of various forces which acts on the
structure and study their nature. Depending upon the situation, the dam is subjected to the
following forces:

1. Water pressure

2. Earthquake forces

3. Silt pressure

4. Wave pressure

5. Ice pressure

ww
6. Self weight of the dam.

The forces are considered to act per unit length of the dam.

w.E
For perfect and most accurate design, the effect of all the forces should be investigated. Out

asy
of these forces, most common and important forces are water pressure and self weight of the
dam.

1. Water Pressure
En
gin
Water pressure may be subdivided into the following two categories:

I) External water pressure:

eer
ing
It is the pressure of water on the upstream face of the dam. In this, there are two cases:

(i) Upstream face of the dam is vertical and there is no water on the downstream side of the
dam (figure 1).
.ne
t

The total pressure is in horizontal direction and acts on the upstream face at a height from
the bottom. The pressure diagram is triangular and the total pressure is given by

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Where w is the specific weight of water. Usually it is taken as unity.

H is the height upto which water is stored in m.

(ii) Upstream face with batter and there is no water on the downstream side (figure 2).

ww
w.E
Here in addition to the horizontal water pressure as in the previous case, there is vertical

asy
pressure of the water. It is due to the water column resting on the upstream sloping side.

The vertical pressure

En
acts on the length ‘b’ portion of the base. This vertical pressure is
given by
gin
eer
Pressure ing
acts through the centre of gravity of the water column resting on the sloping
upstream face.
.ne
If there is water standing on the downstream side of the dam, pressure may be calculated
similarly. The water pressure on the downstream face actually stabilizes the dam. Hence as
an additional factor of safety, it may be neglected.
t
II) Water pressure below the base of the dam or Uplift pressure

When the water is stored on the upstream side of a dam there exists a head of water equal to
the height upto which the water is stored. This water enters the pores and fissures of the
foundation material under pressure. It also enters the joint between the dam and the
foundation at the base and the pores of the dam itself. This water then seeps through and
tries to emerge out on the downstream end. The seeping water creates hydraulic gradient
between the upstream and downstream side of the dam. This hydraulic gradient causes
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vertical upward pressure. The upward pressure is known as uplift. Uplift reduces the effective
weight of the structure and consequently the restoring force is reduced. It is essential to study
the nature of uplift and also some methods will have to be devised to reduce the uplift
pressure value.

ww
uplift pressure is given by

w.E
Where asy
is the uplift pressure, B is the base width of the dam and H is the height upto which
water is stored.
En
This total uplift acts at gin
from the heel or upstream end of the dam.

eer
Uplift is generally reduced by providing drainage pipes or holes in the dam section.

ing
Self weight of the dam is the only largest force which stabilizes the structure. The total weight

.ne
of the dam is supposed to act through the centre of gravity of the dam section in vertically
downward direction. Naturally when specific weight of the material of construction is high,
restoring force will be more. Construction material is so chosen that the density of the
material is about 2.045 gram per cubic meter.
t
2. Earthquake Forces

The effect of earthquake is equivalent to an acceleration to the foundation of the dam in the
direction in which the wave is travelling at the moment. Earthquake wave may move in any
direction and for design purposes, it is resolved into the vertical and horizontal directions. On
an average, a value of 0.1 to 0.15g (where g = acceleration due to gravity) is generally
sufficient for high dams in seismic zones. In extremely seismic regions and in conservative
designs, even a value of 0.3g may sometimes by adopted.

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Vertical acceleration reduces the unit weight of the dam material and that of water is

to times the original unit weight, where is the value of g accounted against
earthquake forces, i.e. 0.1 when 0.1g is accounted for earthquake forces. The horizontal
acceleration acting towards the reservoir causes a momentary increase in water pressure and
the foundation and dam accelerate towards the reservoir and the water resists the movement
owing to its inertia. The extra pressure exerted by this process is known as hydrodynamic
pressure.

3. Silt Pressure

If h is the height of silt deposited, then the forces exerted by this silt in addition to the external

ww
water pressure, can be represented by Rankine formula

w.E
acting at from the base.

Where,
asy
En
= coefficient of active earth pressure of silt =

gin
= angle of internal friction of soil, cohesion neglected.

= submerged unit weight of silt material.

eer
h = height of silt deposited.
ing
4. Wave Pressure

Waves are generated on the surface of the reservoir by the blowing winds, which exert a .ne
pressure on the downstream side. Wave pressure depends upon wave height which is given
by the equation
t
for F < 32 km, and

for F > 32 km

Where is the height of water from the top of crest to bottom of trough in meters.

V – wind velocity in km/hour

F – fetch or straight length of water expanse in km.

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The maximum pressure intensity due to wave action may be given by

a n d a ct s a t meters above the still water surface.

ww
w.E
The pressure distribution may be assumed to be triangular of height as shown in figure
4.
asy
Hence total force due to wave action
En
= acting at gin
above the reservoir surface.

5. Ice Pressure
eer
ing
The ice which may be formed on the water surface of the reservoir in cold countries may
sometimes melt and expand. The dam face is subjected to the thrust and exerted by the
.ne
expanding ice. This force acts linearly along the length of the dam and at the reservoir level.
The magnitude of this force varies from 250 to 1500 kN/sq.m depending upon the
temperature variations. On an average, a value of 500 kN/sq.m may be taken under ordinary
t
circumstances.

6. Weight of dam

The weight of dam and its foundation is a major resisting force. In two dimensional analysis of
dam, unit length is considered.

2. What are the causes of failure of gravity dam and how to prevent them?
The incident of failures demonstrate that depending on the type of dam, the cause of
failure may be classified as:

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a. hydraulic failures; (for all types of dams)

b. failures due to seepage.
(i) through foundation, (all except arch dams)
(ii) through body of dam (embankment dam)
c. failures due to stresses developed within structure.
Arch dams fail instantaneously, whereas the gravity dams take some multiples of 10
minutes.A study of dam failures in the world has revealed the percentage distribution
of dam breaks and its attributes causes of failure
Table: Causes of failures
Cause of failure Cause of failure

ww
Foundation problems 40 %

w.E
Inadequate spillway

Poor construction
23 %

12 %
asy
Uneven settlement 10%

High pore pressure En 5%

Acts of war gin

3%

Embankment slips 2%
eer
Defective materials 2%
ing
Incorrect operations

Earthquakes
2%

1% .ne
However, the maximum number of failures are in earthen dams. Earthen dams
fail due to (a) overtopping, erosion due to wave at upstream face, toe erosion (b)
t
Seepage and (c) structural failure. Some of the details of the embankment dam defect
mechanisms are given in table.

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ww The causes of failures may be classified as (i) foundation deterioration (ii)

w.E
foundation instability (iii) defective spillway (iv) defective outlets (v) defects in
embankments (vi) concrete deterioration and defects (vii) overtopping (ix) inadequacy

asy
of spillway and (x) sudden filling of reservoirs.

En
3. Explain in detail with the help of neat sketches the various types of cross
drainage works
• gin
Type I (Irrigation canal passes over the drainage)
•
•
(a) Aqueduct
(b) Siphon Aqueduct eer
ing
•
•
Type II (Drainage passes over the irrigation canal)
(a) Super passage .ne
•
•
(b) Siphon super passage
Type III (Drainage and canal intersection each other of the same level)
t
• (a) Level crossing
• (b) Inlet and outlet

Selection of Type of Cross Drainage Works

• Relative bed levels

• Availability of suitable foundation

• Economical consideration

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• Discharge of the drainage

• Construction problems

Type-I Irrigation canal Passes over the Drainage: This condition involves the construction
of following:

Aqueduct

The hydraulic structure in which the irrigation canal is taken over the drainage (such as
river, stream etc..) is known as aqueduct. This structure is suitable when bed level of canal is
above the highest flood level of drainage. In this case, the drainage water passes clearly
below the canal.

ww
w.E
asy
En
Type-II Drainage Passes Over the irrigation Canal.
gin
Super Passage
eer
ing
The hydraulic structure in which the drainage is taken over the irrigation canal is known
as super passage. The structure is suitable when the bed level of drainage is above the full
supply level of the canal. The water of the canal passes clearly below the drainage.
.ne
t

Siphon Super Passage

The hydraulic structure in which the drainage is taken over the irrigation canal, but the
canal water passes below the drainage under siphonic action is known as siphon super

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passage. This structure is suitable when the bed level of drainage is below the full supply
level of the canal.

Type III Drainage and Canal Intersect each other at the same level.

ww
Level Crossings

When the bed level of canal and the stream are approximately the same and quality of

w.E
water in canal and stream is not much different, the cross drainage work constructed is called
level crossing where water of canal and stream is allowed to mix. With the help of regulators

asy
both in canal and stream, water is disposed through canal and stream in required quantity.

En
Level crossing consists of following components (i) crest wall (ii) Stream regulator (iii) Canal
regulator.

gin
eer
ing
.ne
Inlet and Outlet
t
When irrigation canal meets a small stream or drain at same level, drain is allowed to
enter the canal as in inlet. At some distance from this inlet point, a part of water is allowed to
drain as outlet which eventually meets the original stream. Stone pitching is required at the
inlet and outlet. The bed and banks between inlet and outlet are also protected by stone
pitching. This type of CDW is called Inlet and Outlet.

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4. State how dams are classified and list the various types of dams.

ww
Dams can be classified in number of ways. But most usual ways of classification of dams are
mentioned below:

w.E
Based on the functions of dam, it can be classified as follows:

Storage dams: They are constructed to store water during the rainy season when there is a

asy
large flow in the river. Many small dams impound the spring runoff for later use in dry
summers.
En
gin
Storage dams may also provide a water supply, or improved habitat for fish and wildlife. They

may store water for hydroelectric power generation, irrigation or for a flood control project.

eer
Storage dams are the most common type of dams and in general the dam means a storage
dam unless qualified otherwise.
ing
.ne
Diversion dams: A diversion dam is constructed for the purpose of diverting water of the
river into an off-taking canal (or a conduit). They provide sufficient pressure for pushing water
into ditches, canals, or other conveyance systems. Such shorter dams are used for irrigation,
and for diversion from a stream to a distant storage reservoir. A diversion dam is usually of
t
low height and has a small storage reservoir on its upstream. The diversion dam is a sort of
storage weir which also diverts water and has a small storage. Sometimes, the terms weirs
and diversion dams are used synonymously.

Detention dams: Detention dams are constructed for flood control. A detention dam retards
the flow in the river on its downstream during floods by storing some flood water. Thus the
effect of sudden floods is reduced to some extent. The water retained in the reservoir is later
released gradually at a controlled rate according to the carrying capacity of the channel

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downstream of the detention dam. Thus the area downstream of the dam is protected against
flood.

Debris dams: A debris dam is constructed to retain debris such as sand, gravel, and drift
wood flowing in the river with water. The water after passing over a debris dam is relatively
clear.

Coffer dams: It is an enclosure constructed around the construction site to exclude water so
that the construction can be done in dry. A cofferdam is thus a temporary dam constructed

for facilitating construction. A coffer dam is usually constructed on the upstream of the main

dam to divert water into a diversion tunnel (or channel) during the construction of the dam.

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When the flow in the river during construction of the dam is not much, the site is usually
enclosed by the coffer dam and pumped dry. Sometimes a coffer dam on the downstream of
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the dam is also required.

asy
Based on structure and design, dams can be classified as follows:

En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t

Gravity Dams: A gravity dam is a massive sized dam fabricated from concrete or stone

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masonry. They are designed to hold back large volumes of water. By using concrete, the
weight of the dam is actually able to resist the horizontal thrust of water pushing against it.

This is why it is called a gravity dam. Gravity essentially holds the dam down to the ground,
stopping water from toppling it over.

Gravity dams are well suited for blocking rivers in wide valleys or narrow gorge ways. Since
gravity dams must rely on their own weight to hold back water, it is necessary that they are
built on a solid foundation of bedrock.

Earth Dams: An earth dam is made of earth (or soil) built up by compacting successive
layers of earth, using the most impervious materials to form a core and placing more

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permeable substances on the upstream and downstream sides. A facing of crushed stone
prevents erosion by wind or rain, and an ample spillway, usually of concrete, protects
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against catastrophic washout should the water overtop the dam. Earth dam resists the forces

asy
exerted upon it mainly due to shear strength of the soil. Although the weight of the earth dam
also helps in resisting the forces, the structural behavior of an earth dam is entirely different

En
from that of a gravity dam. The earth dams are usually built in wide valleys having

gin
flat slopes at flanks (abutments).The foundation requirements are less stringent than those of

eer
gravity dams, and hence they can be built at the sites where the foundations are less strong

. They can be built on all types of foundations. However, the height of the dam will depend
upon the strength of the foundation material. ing
Rockfill Dams: A rockfill dam is built of rock fragments and boulders of large size. An
.ne
impervious membrane is placed on the rockfill on the upstream side to reduce the seepage
through the dam. The membrane is usually made of cement concrete or asphaltic concrete. In
early rockfill dams, steel and timber membrane were also used, but now they are obsolete.
t
A dry rubble cushion is placed between the rockfill and the membrane for the distribution of

water load and for providing a support to the membrane. Sometimes, the rockfill dams have

an impervious earth core in the middle to check the seepage instead of an impervious
upstream membrane. The earth core is placed against a dumped rockfill. It is necessary to
provide adequate filters between the earth core and the rockfill on the upstream and
downstream sides of the core so that the soil particles are not carried by water and piping
does not occur. The side slopes of rockfill are usually kept equal to the angle of repose of
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rock, which is usually taken as 1.4:1 (or 1.3:1). Rockfill dams require foundation stronger than
those for earth dams.

Arch Dams: An arch dam is curved in plan, with its convexity towards the upstream side.

An arch dam transfers the water pressure and other forces mainly to the abutments by arch
action. An arch dam is quite suitable for narrow canyons with strong flanks which are capable
of resisting the thrust produced by the arch action.

The section of an arch dam is approximately triangular like a gravity dam but the section is
comparatively thinner. The arch dam may have a single curvature or double curvature in the
vertical plane. Generally, the arch dams of double curvature are more economical and are

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used in practice.

Buttress Dams: Buttress dams are of three types : (i) Deck type, (ii) Multiple-arch type, and
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(iii) Massive-head type. A deck type buttress dam consists of a sloping deck supported by

asy
buttresses. Buttresses are triangular concrete walls which transmit the water pressure from

the deck slab to the foundation. Buttresses are compression members. Buttresses are
En
typically spaced across the dam site every 6 to 30 metre, depending upon the size and

gin
design of the dam. Buttress dams are sometimes called hollow dams because the buttresses

eer
do not form a solid wall stretching across a river valley.The deck is usually a reinforced

ing
concrete slab supported between the buttresses, which are usually equally spaced.

In a multiple-arch type buttress dam the deck slab is replaced by horizontal arches supported

.ne
by buttresses. The arches are usually of small span and made of concrete. In a massive-head
type buttress dam, there is no deck slab. Instead of the deck, the upstream edges of the

buttresses are flared to form massive heads which span the distance between the buttresses.
t
The buttress dams require less concrete than gravity dams. But they are not necessarily
cheaper than the gravity dams because of extra cost of form work, reinforcement and more
skilled labor. The foundation requirements of a buttress dam are usually less stringent than
those in a gravity dam.

Steel Dams: A steel dam consists of a steel framework, with a steel skin plate on its
upstream face. Steel dams are generally of two types: (i) Direct-strutted steel dams, and
(ii)Cantilever type steel dams. In a direct strutted steel dam, the water pressure is transmitted

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directly to the foundation through inclined struts. In a cantilever type steel dam, there is a bent
supporting the upper part of the deck, which is formed into a cantilever truss. This
arrangement introduces a tensile force in the deck girder which can be taken care of by
anchoring it into the foundation at the upstream toe. Hovey suggested that tension at the
upstream toe may be reduced by flattening the slopes of the lower struts in the bent.
However, it would require heavier sections for struts. Another alternative to reduce tension is
to frame together the entire bent rigidly so that the moment due to the weight of the water on
the lower part of the deck is utilised to offset the moment induced in the cantilever. This
arrangement would, however, require bracing and this will increase the cost. These are quite
costly and are subjected to corrosion. These dams are almost obsolete. Steel dams are

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sometimes used as temporary coffer dams during the construction of the permanent dams.
Steel coffer dams are supplemented with timber or earthfill on the inner side to make them
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water tight. The area between the coffer dams is dewatered so that the construction may be

asy
done in dry for the permanent dam.

Timber Dams: Main load-carrying structural elements of timber dam are made of wood,

En
primarily coniferous varieties such as pine and fir. Timber dams are made for small heads (2-

gin
4 m or, rarely, 4-8 m) and usually have sluices; according to the design of the apron they are
divided into pile, crib, pile-crib, and buttressed dams.
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The openings of timber dams are restricted by abutments; where the sluice is very long it is

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divided into several openings by intermediate supports: piers, buttresses, and posts. The
openings are covered by wooden shields, usually several in a row one above the other.
Simple hoists—permanent or mobile winches—are used to raise and lower the shields. .ne
5. Explain the different ways of alignment of canals. t
Alignment of Canal.

• Canals are aligned on contour, ridge and along side slope and they are named as:
• (i) Contour Canal
• (ii) Ridge or W atershed Canal
• (iii) Side Slope Canal
• In aligning irrigation canal the following important points are to be considered:
• (i) It must cover the entire area proposed to be irrigated.

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• (ii) Smallest possible length of the canal for economy, smaller head loss due to friction
and smaller loss in seepage and evaporation.

Contour Canal

• Canal aligned nearly parallel to the contour is called Contour Canal.

• In contour canal, culturable area lies on one side of it. Thus, contour canal can irrigate
on one side. As one of the bank is on the higher side, so only a bank is required to
construct on the lower side. Therefore, it is sometimes called single bank canal.

Drawbacks

• Drainage enters from hilly side, so it has the risk of breaching and silting.

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It can irrigate on one side only.

Advantages
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•
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Low Initial cost of construction as no need to construct one of the bank.

Discharge capacity increases as rain water from higher side is collected in the canal.

En
Ridge or Watershed Canal The canal is aligned along a natural watershed, known as ridge.

gin
These canals usually take off from the contour canal. It irrigates on both sides. C.D can be
avoided and hence it is more economical.

Advantages eer
• ing
This canal can supply water on both sides and thus a large area may be taken under
cultivation.
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• It is the best irrigation canal and most economical.

Dis-Advantages
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• If watershed has number of sharp loops, certain problems are encountered.

• Aligning canal along the ridge, length becomes more and if length are reduced aligning
straight, high ground left between canal and the ridge line, cannot be irrigated.
Moreover, CDW s are required to construct as drainage may flow from high land. If
villages or towns are situated on ridge, canal has to leave the ridge to bypass the town
and villages.

Side-Slope Canal

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This canal is aligned roughly perpendicular to contour of the contour. Since it is perpendicular
to the contour, construction of Cross Drainage Works (CDW s) does not arise. Since
constructed along the falling contour, slope of this canal is steep, which is not essential for
unlined canal. It irrigates only on one side just like contour canal.

Advantages:

• Construction of CDW s is not necessary

• Disadvantages:Slope of this channel is more. If it is unlined erosion takes place. It

also irrigates one side of the canal.

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UNIT-V IRRIGATION METHODS &WATER MANAGEMENT

PART - A

1. What are the disadvantages of irrigation?

2. Over irrigation may lead to water logging
x It may reduce crop yield
x It is expensive and complex.

2.What are the types of irrigation?

3. Surface irrigation
x Sub-surface irrigation.

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3. What are the techniques of water distribution in the farms?

x
x
Free flooding
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Border flooding
x Check flooding asy
x
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Basin flooding, furrow irrigation method, drip irrigation method.

4.List some types of irrigation?

Canal irrigation,
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x Lift irrigation, eer
x Tank irrigation
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x
x
Sprinkler irrigation
Drip irrigation .ne
5.What are the techniques of water distribution in the farms? t
x Free flooding
x Border flooding
x Check flooding
x Basin flooding, furrow irrigation method, drip irrigation method

6.What are the types of sprinkler system?

4. Permanent system
x Semi-permanent system
x Portable system
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7.Define tank irrigation?

It is defined as the storage irrigation scheme, which utilizes the water

stored on the upstream side of a smaller earth dam

8. What is called alluvial soil?

The process of silt deposition may continue over long periods of

time, resulting in the formation is called alluvial soil

9. What is called non-alluvial soil?

Mountainous regions may go on disintegrating over a period of

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time, resulting in the formation of a rocky plain area called non-alluvial soil

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10.Under what condition sub surface irrigation method is favoured?

A sub surface irrigation method is favoured under the following conditions:

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(i)Presence of impervious sub soil strata at a reasonable depth.

(ii)W ater table to exist at deeper depth .

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(iii)Uniform topographic conditions.
gin
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11.Name the components which are used in a drip irrigation.

The components used in the drip irrigation system are

x Head ing
x Fertilizer tank
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x
x
x
Filter tank
Mains
Sub mains
t
12.What are thepurposes served by Water resources development plan?

(i)W ater supply to municipal and industrial needs

(ii)Irrigation

(iii)power generation

(iv)Flood control

13.what is meant by optimization?

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Optimum utilization of irrigation water implies that getting maximum yield with the given
quantity of water. Thus optimum water depth is defined as the quantity of water at which the
yield is maximum.

14. State the need for optimum use of water?

(i)Prevents wastage of water

(ii)prevents excessive soil erosion

(iii)improves the quality of crop

15. How to minimize the irrigation water losses?

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(i)improving irrigation efficiency

(ii)correct irrigation scheduling

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(iii)Change of method of irrigation

asy PART -B

1. List the various types of irrigation methods. Discuss any four flooding methods in
detail. En
These are various types of irrigation methods gin
x Lift irrigation,
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x
x
Tank irrigation
Sprinkler irrigation ing
x Drip irrigation
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x Canal irrigation

1. Lift irrigation:
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When water is lifted from surface sources or underground sources by man or animal
power, mechanical or electrical power and directly supplied to the agricultural land, then it is
known as lift irrigation.

2. Tank irrigation:

There is thus no technical differences between a 'reservoir'and a 'tank' ,expect that a

large-sized tank will be termed as a reservoir. These earthen bunds, spanning across the
streams, are called tank bunds or tank banks.

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3. Sprinkler irrigation:

In this form water application method water is applied to solid into form of a spray
through network of bytes and pumps. it is kind of artificial rain.

4. Drip irrigation:

Drip irrigation , also called trickle irrigation, is the latest field irrigation technique, and is
meant for adoption at places where there exists acute scarcity of irrigation water and other
salt problems . in this method,water is slowly and directly applied to the root zone of the
plants, there by minimizing the losses by evaporation and percolation.

5. Canal irrigation:

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A direct irrigation scheme which makes use of a weir or a barrge ,as well as a storage

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irrigation scheme which makes use of a storage dam or a storagee reservior , necessitaes the
construction.

Methods of flooding:
asy
En
There are various ways in which the irrigation water can be applied to the fields.

x
x
Free flooding
Check flooding gin
x Border Flooding
eer
x Basin flooding

Free flooding method:

ing
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In this method,ditches areexcavated in the field and they may be on the contour or up
and down the slope. water from, these distiches, flows across the field.

Border Flooding:
t
In this method the land divided into a number of strips ,sseparted by low leves called
borders.Borders should be sufficiently high to prevent overtopping during irrigation.

Check Flooding:

Check flooding is similar to ordinary flooding except that at a water is controlled by

surrounding the check area with low felt levels. Levels are generally constructor along the
contours ,having vertical interval of about 5to10cm.

Basin Flooding:
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This method is a special type check at the flooding and is adopted specially

for orchard trees .one or more trees generally placed in the basin

2.Distinguish between drip irrigation and sprinkler irrigation.

Sprinkler irrigation:

x In this form water application method water is applied to solid into form of a spray
through network of bytes and pumps. it is kind of artificial rain.
x Seepage losses, which occur in earthen channels of surface irrigation methods
x This method leaches down salts and prevents water -logging or salinity.
x Upto 80% efficiency can be achieved ,i.e.80% of applied water can be stored in the

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root zone of plants.
x
x w.E
They are not suited to crops requiring frequent and larger depths of irrigation.
Initial cost of the system is very high,and the system requires a high technical skill.
x
x
asy
It requires larger electrical power.
Heavy soil with poor intake cannot be irrigated efficiently.
x En
A constant water supply is needed for commercial use of equipment.

Drip irrigation:
gin
x
eer
Drip irrigation , also called trickle irrigation, is the latest field irrigation technique, and is
meant for adoption at places where there exists acute scarcity of irrigation water and
ing
other salt problems . in this method,water is slowly and directly applied to the root zone
of the plants, there by minimizing the losses by evaporation and percolation.
.ne
x This system involves laying of a system of head, mains, sub-mains, laterals, and drop
nozzles. water oozes out of these small drip nozzles uniformly and at a very small rate
,directly into the plant roots area.
t
x The laterals are very small sized specially designed , black pvc pipes taking off from
the mains or sub -mains ,laterals can usually be up to 50m long and one lateral line is
laid for each row of crop.
x The Drip nozzles,also called emitters or values are fixed on laterals at regular intervals
of about 0.5 to 1 m or so ,discharging water at very small rates of the order of 2 to 10
lites per hour.

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3.Write shorts notes canal irrigation and tank irrigation.

Canal irrigation :

x A direct irrigation scheme which makes use of a weir or a barrage ,as well as a storage
irrigation scheme which makes use of a storage dam or a storage reservoir ,
necessities the construction.
x Distribution systems for canal irrigation
x It has been emphasized earlier that the direct irrigation scheme using a weir or a
barrage, as well the storage irrigation scheme using a dam or a reservoir,require a
network of irrigation canals of different sizes and capacities.The canal system as

x
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consists of:
Main canal;
x
x
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Branch canals;
Distributaries also called major distributaries;
x asy
Minors,also called minor distributaries;
x watercourses
En
Main canal (head reach):
gin
The canal head works are generally situated on the river flowing in a valley, and the
eer
canal should reach the ridge line in the shortest possible distance. the canal in this reach

ing
must therefore , be aligned very carefully ,and has to be generally excavated in deep cutting
below N.S.L.

Main canal (Portion below head reach): .ne

Attempts are made to align the canal along the ridge and somewhat central to the
command area.sometimes, ridge line has to be scarified.
t
Branch canals:

Branch Canals are taken off from the main canal on either side to take irrigation water
to the whole tract required to be irrigation. very little irrigation is infact,done from the branch
canals themselves, as they serve to supply water primarily the distributaries.

Distributaries:

Smaller channels which take off from the branch canals and distribute their supply through
outlets into minors or water courses ,are called distributaries.
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Minors:

Sometimes the country is such that the distance between the distributory outlet and the
farmer's field is very long; say more than 3km orso. Discharge in a minor is generally
,lessthan 2.5 cumec .

Water Courses:

These are not the government channels and belong to the cultivory .they are small
channels, which are excavated and maintained by the cultivasators.

4.Explain the tank irrigation. Explain maximum water level and flow tank level in detail.

x Tank irrigation:
x ww
Tank irrigation may be defined as the storage irrigation scheme which utilizes the

x w.E
water stored on the upstream side of a smaller earth dam called a bund.
These earthen bund reservoirs are thus in fact called as tanks,specifically in South

x
asy
India ,where such works are very common.
This terminology is therefore, limited to india only.
x En
There is thus no technical differences between a 'reservoir'and a 'tank' ,expect that a

gin
large-sized tank will be termed as a reservoir.
x
banks. eer
These earthen bunds,spanning across the streams, are called tank bunds or tank

x
ing
Most of the existing tanks of south india possess a maximum depth of 4.5m, while a
few are as deep as 7.5to9m, and only a few exceptional on, exceed 11m in depth.
.ne
when the depth of the tank exceeds 12m or so the tank is generally referred to as a

x
reservoir.
Like all earth dams ,tank bunds are generally provided with sluices or outlets for
t
discharging water from the tank for irrigation or other purposses.these tank sluices
may be pipes or rectangular or arched openings passing near the base of the bund
and through the body of the bund and carrying the water into the downstream channel
below the bund or transporting at distances where required ,through pipes or canals.
x Similarly ,as in the case of all dam reservoir projects, tanks are provided with
arrangements for spilling away the excess surplus water that may enter into the
tank,so as to avoid over topping of the tank bund.

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x These surplus escape arrangements may be in the form of a surplus escape weir
provided in the body or at one end of the tank bund ,or some other arrangement like a
syphin spillway may be provided as is done in the case of the projects.when tank is full
upto FTL, and extra water at equal to full tank level does not exceed the maximum
water level(M.W .L).The top of the tank bund will be kept at a level ,so as to provide a
suitable free-board above thisM.W .L.

5.Explain lift irrigation and list the components and discuss advantages and
disadvantages?

Lift irrigation:

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when water is lifted from surface sources or underground sources by man or animal
power,mechanical or electrical power and directly supplied to the agricultural land,then it is

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known as lift irrigation.

x
asy
Lift irrigation can be divided into two groups:

Lifting of water by man or animal power.

x En
Lifting of water by mechanical or electrical power.

gin
when mechanical or electrical powers are not available in villages or the economic condition

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of the farmers is not good enough to afford this expensive method,the lifting of water is done.

x
x
Doon
Mote ing
x Persian wheel
.ne
x
x
x
Swinging basket
Dhenkli
Rati or pulley
t
x Wind lass

When mechanical or electrical power is available in villages or the farmers can afforded the
expenditure for the installation of the same,the underground water is lifted by pumps and
directly supplied to the agricultural land.

x Open well
x Shallow tube well
x Deep tube well
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Now -a-days ,the pumping system of lift irrigation from shallow or deep tube well is widely
practiced.

Advantages of lift irrigation:

x The formers can supply water to their fields according to the requirements and hence
is no possibility of over irrigation.
x The water table is lowered when water is lifted from the wells thereby reducing
chances of water logging in the area.
x As water is applied directly to the fields,there is no water loss due to conveyance.
x Initial cost is low as there is no necessary of constructing hydraulic structures.
x
x
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As the loss of water is low, the duty of water is high.
The maintenance cost is low.
x
x
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more than one crop be grown in a year on the same land.
Loss of valuable land is prevented as there is no necessity of constructing the network
of canals. asy
x
En
The water of the well is cooler in hot season and warmer in cold season.

Disadvantages of lift irrigation:

x
gin
In summer the surface water may be dried up and the water table may go down below
the suction head. eer
x
ing
If the lifting mechanism fails due to mechanical or electrical failure.
x
x
The well water has no silt content.
.ne
The lift irrigation in consideration with the yield of crop is not cost effective.

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