BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Dr. Pramod R. Bokde

Assistant Professor
Priyadarshini Bhagwati College of Engineering, Nagpur

September 6, 2022
2

DISCLAIMER

This document does not claim any originality and

cannot be used as a substitute for prescribed
textbooks. The information presented here is merely a
collection by the teacher for his respective teaching
assignments. Various sources as mentioned at the end
of the document as well as freely available material
from internet were consulted for preparing this
document. The ownership of the information lies with
the respective authors or institutions.
Contents

1 D.C. CIRCUITS 23

1.1 Introduction to Electric Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

1.1.1 Basic Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

1.2 R-L-C Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

1.2.1 Resistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

1.2.2 Inductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

1.2.3 Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

1.3 Network Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

1.3.1 Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

1.3.2 Network Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

1.3.3 Branch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

1.3.4 Junction Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

1.3.5 Node . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

1.3.6 Mesh (or Loop) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

1.4 Classification of Electrical Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

1.5 Energy Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

1.5.1 Voltage Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

1.5.2 Current Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

3
4 CONTENTS

1.5.3 Dependent Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

1.6 Ohm’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

1.6.1 Limitations of Ohm’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

1.7 Series Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

1.7.1 Characteristics of Series Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

1.8 Parallel Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

1.8.1 Characteristics of Parallel Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

1.9 Voltage Division in Series Circuits of Resistors . . . . . . . . . . . 46

1.10 Current Division in Parallel Circuit of Resistors . . . . . . . . . . . 47

1.11 Source Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

1.12 Combinations of sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

1.12.1 Voltage Sources in Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

1.12.2 Voltage Sources in Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

1.12.3 Current Sources in Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

1.12.4 Current Sources in Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

1.13 Kirchhoff’s Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

1.13.1 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

1.13.2 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

1.13.3 Sign Conventions to be followed while applying KVL . . . 57

1.13.4 Steps to Apply Kirchhoff’s Laws to Get Network Equations 58

1.14 Delta/Star and Star/Delta Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

1.14.1 Delta/Star Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

1.14.2 Star/Delta Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

1.15 Superposition Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

1.15.1 Explanation of Superposition Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . 64

CONTENTS 5

1.15.2 Steps to Apply Superposition Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . 65

1.16 Thevenin’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

1.16.1 Explanation of Thevenin’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

1.16.2 Procedure for Finding Thevenin Equivalent Circuit . . . . 68

1.16.3 Advantages of Thevenin’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

1.17 Norton’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

1.17.1 Explanation of Norton’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

1.17.2 Steps to Apply Norton’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

1.18 Maximum Power Transfer theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

1.18.1 Proof of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem . . . . . . . . 72

1.18.2 Steps to Apply Maximum Power Transfer Theorem . . . . 74

2 A.C. Circuits 75

2.1 Some Important A.C. Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

2.2 Important Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

2.3 Values of Alternating Voltage and Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

2.4 Complex Waveform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

2.4.1 R.M.S. Value of Complex Waveform . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

2.5 A.C. Circuit Containing Resistance Only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

2.5.1 Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

2.6 A.C. through Pure Inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

2.6.1 Concept of Inductive Reactance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

2.6.2 Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

2.7 A.C. through Pure Capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

2.7.1 Concept of Capacitive Reactance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

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2.7.2 Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

2.8 A.C.through Series R-C Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

2.9 A.C.through Series R-L-C Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

2.10 Resonance in A.C. Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

2.11 Resonance in Series A.C. Circuit (Series Resonance) . . . . . . . . 102

2.11.1 Effects of series resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

2.11.2 Graphical Explanation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

2.11.3 Resonance Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

2.11.4 Q-Factor of Series Resonant Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

2.11.5 Bandwidth of a Series Resonant Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . 107

2.11.6 Expression for Half Power Frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . 110

2.11.7 Expression for Bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

3 Magnetic Circuits 113

3.1 Laws of Magnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

3.2 Basic Definitions of Magnetic Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

3.2.1 Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

3.2.2 Magnetic Lines of Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

3.2.3 Magnetic Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

3.2.4 Pole Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

3.2.5 Magnetic Flux Density (B) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

3.2.6 Magnetic Field Strength (H) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

3.2.7 Permeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

3.2.8 Magnetomotive Force (M.M.F.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

3.2.9 Reluctance (S) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

CONTENTS 7

3.2.10 Permeance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

3.3 Magnetic Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

3.3.1 Series Magnetic Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

3.3.2 Series Circuit with Air Gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

3.3.3 Parallel Magnetic Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

3.3.4 Parallel Magnetic Circuit with Air Gap . . . . . . . . . . . 127

3.4 Kirchhoff’s Laws for Magnetic Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

3.4.1 Kirchhoff’s Flux Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

3.4.2 Kirchhoff’s M.M.F. Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

3.5 Comparison of Magnetic and Electric Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

3.6 Magnetic Leakage and Fringing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

3.6.1 Leakage Coefficient or Hopkinson’s Coefficient . . . . . . 133

3.6.2 Magnetic Fringing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

3.7 B-H Curve or Magnetization Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

3.7.1 Steps in Obtaining Hysteresis Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

4 Single Phase Transformer 1

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

4.2 Working Principle of a Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

4.3 Transformer on DC Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

4.4 Turns Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

4.5 Transformation Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

4.6 Ideal Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

4.6.1 Behaviour of Ideal Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

4.6.2 Phasor Diagram of Ideal Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

8 CONTENTS

4.7 EMF Equation of a Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

4.8 Magnetic Leakage flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

4.9 Practical Transformer with Resistance and Leakage Reactance . . 11

4.10 Resistance and Reactance of the Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

4.10.1 Primary Side Referred to Secondary Side . . . . . . . . . . 13

4.11 Transformer on No Load Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

4.12 Transformer on Load Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

4.12.1 Phasor Diagram of Transformer on Inductive Load . . . . 18

4.12.2 Phasor Diagram of Transformer on Capacitive Load . . . . 20

4.13 Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

4.13.1 Equivalent Circuit when all the Quantities are referred to

Primary side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

4.13.2 Equivalent Circuit when all the Quantities are referred to

Secondary side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

4.14 Voltage Regulation of a Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

4.15 All Day Efficiency of a Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

4.16 Polarity Test of Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

4.17 Tests on Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

4.17.1 Open Circuit Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

4.17.2 Short Circuit Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

4.18 Parallel Operation of Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

4.18.1 Necessity of Parallel Operation of Transformers . . . . . . 36

4.18.2 Conditions for parallel operation of Transformers . . . . . 36

5 Three Phase Transformer 39

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
CONTENTS 9

5.2 Construction of Three Phase Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

5.2.1 Core Type Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

5.2.2 Shell Type Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

5.3 Working of Three Phase Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

5.4 Three Phase Transformer Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

5.5 Open Delta Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

5.6 Scott Connection of Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

5.7 Autotransformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

5.7.1 Why do we need to go for Auto Transformer? . . . . . . . 54

5.7.2 Principle of Operation of Autotransformer . . . . . . . . . 54

5.7.3 Equivalent Circuit of Autotransformer . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

5.7.4 Advantages of Autotransformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

5.7.5 Disadvantages of Autotransformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

5.7.6 Applications of Autotransformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

5.8 Tap Changing Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

5.8.1 Off-load tap-changing transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

5.8.2 On-load tap-changing transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

6 THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR 63

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

6.2 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

6.2.1 Stator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

6.2.2 Rotor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

6.3 Rotating Magnetic Field Due to 3-Phase Currents . . . . . . . . . . 67

6.3.1 Speed of Rotating Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

10 CONTENTS

6.3.2 Direction of rotating magnetic field . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

6.4 Principle of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

6.5 Slip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

6.6 Rotor Current Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

6.7 Effect of Slip on Rotor Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

6.8 Rotor Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

6.9 Rotor Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

6.10 Starting Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

6.11 Condition for Maximum Starting Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

6.12 Effect of Change of Power Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

6.13 Starting Torque of 3-phase Induction Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

6.14 Motor Under Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

6.15 Torque Under Running Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

6.16 Maximum Torque under Running Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

6.17 Torque-Slip Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

6.18 Comparison of Induction Motor and Transformer . . . . . . . . . 91

6.19 Speed Regulation of Induction Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

6.20 Speed Control of 3-phase Induction Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

6.21 Power Stages in an Induction Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

6.22 Induction Motor Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

6.23 Rotor Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

6.24 Equivalent Circuit of 3-Phase Induction Motor at Any Slip . . . . 98

6.25 Equivalent Circuit of the Rotor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

6.26 Transformer Equivalent Circuit of Induction Motor . . . . . . . . 102

6.27 Approximate Equivalent Circuit of Induction Motor . . . . . . . . 104

CONTENTS 11

6.28 Starting of 3-phase Induction Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

6.29 Methods of Starting of 3-phase Induction Motors . . . . . . . . . . 106

6.30 Methods of Starting Squirrel-Cage Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

6.30.1 Direct-on-line starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

6.30.2 Stator Resistance Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

6.30.3 Autotransformer Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

6.30.4 Star-delta starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

6.31 Starting of Slip Ring Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

6.32 Slip-Ring Motors Versus Squirrel Cage Motors . . . . . . . . . . . 114

6.33 Induction Motor Rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

7 Single Phase Induction Motors 117

7.1 Types of Single Phase Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

7.2 Single Phase Induction Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

7.3 Making Single Phase Motors Self Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

7.4 Split-Phase Induction Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

7.5 Capacitor-Start Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

7.6 Capacitor-Start Capacitor-Run Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

7.7 Shaded Pole Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

7.8 A.C. Series Motor or Universal Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

7.9 Single Phase Repulsion Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

7.10 Repulsion-Start Induction-Run Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

7.11 Repulsion-Induction Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

7.12 Single-Phase Synchronous Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

7.13 Reluctance Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

12 CONTENTS

7.14 Hysteresis Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

8 ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS 143

8.1 Wire and Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

8.1.1 Difference between Wire and Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

8.1.2 Classification of Wires and Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

8.1.3 Specifications of Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

8.2 Earthing or Grounding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

8.2.1 Necessity of Earthing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

8.2.2 Methods of Earthing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

8.2.3 Selection of Earthing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

8.2.4 Earth Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

8.2.5 Difference Between Earth Wire and Neutral Wire . . . . . 152

8.3 Fuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

8.3.1 Desirable Characteristics of Fuse Element . . . . . . . . . . 153

8.3.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

8.3.3 Types of Fuses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

8.4 Circuit Breaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

8.4.1 Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

8.4.2 Earth Leakage Circuits Breaker (ELCB) . . . . . . . . . . . 160

8.4.3 Molded Case Circuits Breaker(MCCB) . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

8.5 Safety precautions in Handling Electrical Appliance . . . . . . . . 165

8.6 Battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

8.6.1 Types of Primary Cells / Batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

8.6.2 Types of Secondary Cells/Batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

CONTENTS 13

8.6.3 Comparison of Primary and Secondary Cells . . . . . . . . 175

8.6.4 Battery Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

8.7 Energy Consumption Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

14 CONTENTS
List of Figures

1.1 Resistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

1.2 Inductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

1.3 Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

1.4 An Electrical Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

1.5 Active and Passive Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

1.6 Ideal Voltage Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

1.7 Practical Voltage Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

1.8 D.C. Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

1.9 A.C. Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

1.10 Ideal Current Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

1.11 Practical Current Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

1.12 D.C. Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

1.13 A.C. Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

1.14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

1.15 Ohm’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

1.16 A Series Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

1.17 A Parallel Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

1.18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

15
16 LIST OF FIGURES

1.19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

1.20 Voltage Source and Current Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

1.21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

1.22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

1.23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

1.24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

1.25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

1.26 Current Sources in Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

1.27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

1.28 Junction Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

1.29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

1.30 Delta-Star Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

1.31 Star-Delta Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

1.32 Different forms of Star-connection and Delta Connections . . . . . 63

1.33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

1.34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

1.35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

1.36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

1.37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

1.38 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

1.39 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

1.40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

1.41 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

1.42 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

1.43 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
LIST OF FIGURES 17

2.1 AC Waveform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

2.3 Sinusoidal Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

2.4 Pure Resistive Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

2.5 A.C. through purely resistive circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

2.6 V, I and P for purely resistive circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

2.7 Purely Inductive Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

2.8 A.C. through purely Inductive Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

2.9 VL Vs f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

2.10 Waveform of voltage, current and power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

2.11 Purely Capacitive Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

2.12 A.C. through purely capacitive circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

2.13 XC vs f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

2.14 Series RC circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

2.15 Phasor diagram of series RC circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

2.16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

2.17 Series R-L-C circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

2.18 Graph of Series Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

2.19 Resonance Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

2.20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

3.1 Concept of magnetic flux density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

3.2 Magnetic circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

3.3 Electrical equivalent of magnetic circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

3.4 A series magnetic circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

18 LIST OF FIGURES

3.5 Equivalent electrical circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

3.6 A ring with an air gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

3.7 A parallel magnetic circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

3.8 Parallel circuit with air gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

3.9 Electrical equivalent circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

3.10 Leakage and useful flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

3.11 Magnetic Fringing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

3.12 Experiment set up to obtain B-H curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

3.13 B-H curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

3.14 A Hysteresis Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

4.1 Simple Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

4.2 Transformer Symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

4.3 Ideal Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

4.4 Phasor Diagram of an Ideal Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

4.5 Flux Waveform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

4.6 Magnetic Leakage Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

4.7 Practical Transformer with Resistance And Leakage Reactance . . 11

4.8 Primary Side of transformer referred to secondary side . . . . . . 13

4.9 Transformer is operating at no load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

4.10 Phasor diagram when transformer is on No-Load . . . . . . . . . 15

4.11 Operation of the Transformer on Load Condition . . . . . . . . . . 17

4.12 Operation of the Transformer on Load Condition . . . . . . . . . . 18

4.13 Phasor Diagram of the Transformer on Inductive Load . . . . . . 19

4.14 Phasor Diagram of the Transformer on Capacitive Load . . . . . . 20

LIST OF FIGURES 19

4.15 Equivalent circuit diagram of a transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

4.16 Circuit Diagram of Transformer when all the Secondary

Quantities are Referred to Primary Side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

4.17 Circuit Diagram of Transformer When All the Primary

Quantities are Referred to Secondary Side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

4.18 Simplified Equivalent Circuit Diagram of a Transformer . . . . . . 25

4.19 Equivalent Circuit of transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

4.20 Polarity test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

4.21 Circuit Diagram of Open Circuit Test on Transformer . . . . . . . 32

4.22 Circuit Diagram of Short Circuit Test on Transformer . . . . . . . 34

5.1 Three Phase Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

5.2 Three phase transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

5.3 Core Type transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

5.4 Shell Type Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

5.5 Working of Three Phase Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

5.6 Three Phase Transformer Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

5.7 Three phase transformer connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

5.8 Open Delta Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

5.9 Open Delta Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

5.10 Scott Connection of transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

5.11 Phasor Diagram of Scott Connection Transformer . . . . . . . . . 51

5.12 secondary Phasor diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

5.13 Auto-Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

5.14 Auto transformer on load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

5.15 Equivalent Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

20 LIST OF FIGURES

5.16 Phasor Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

5.17 Off-load tap-changing transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

5.18 On Load Tap Changing using reactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

6.1 Stator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

6.2 Squirrel Cage Rotor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

6.3 Wound Rotor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

6.4 Three brushes connected to a 3-phase star-connected rheostat . . 67

6.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

6.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

6.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

6.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

6.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

6.10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

6.11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

6.12 Circuit of a 3-phase induction motor at any slip . . . . . . . . . . . 79

6.13 Phase of Rotor Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

6.14 Variation of Starting Torque with rotor resistance . . . . . . . . . . 82

6.15 3-phase induction motor under load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

6.16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

6.17 Torque-Slip Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

6.18 Power Stages in an induction motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

6.19 Equivalent Circuit Per Phase of Induction Motor . . . . . . . . . . 98

6.20 Phasor Diagram of Induction Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

6.21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
LIST OF FIGURES 21

6.22 Equivalent Circuit per phase of a 3-phase induction motor . . . . 102

6.23 Equivalent circuit of induction motor as referred to primary side . 103

6.24 Approximate Equivalent Circuit of 3-phase Induction Motor . . . 104

6.25 Stator Resistance Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

6.26 Autotransformer starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

6.27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

6.28 Star-Delta Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

6.29 Starting of Slip Ring Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

7.1 Single Phase Induction Motor having squirrel cage rotor . . . . . 118

7.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

7.3 Split Phase Induction Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

7.4 Capacitor Start Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

7.5 Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

7.6 Shaded Pole Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

7.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

7.8 A.C. Series Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

7.9 Single Phase Repulsion Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

7.10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

7.11 Repulsion Induction Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

7.12 Reluctance Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

7.13 Hysteresis Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

8.1 Plate Earthing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

8.2 Pipe Earthing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

8.3 Rod Earthing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

22 LIST OF FIGURES

8.4 Re-wireable or Kit-Kat fuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

8.5 HRC Cartridge Fuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

8.6 Cross section of HRC Cartridge Fuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

8.7 Miniature Circuit Breaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

8.8 Cross section of MCB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

8.9 Voltage earth leakage circuit breaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

8.10 Current- earth leakage circuit breaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

8.11 Moulded Case Circuit Breaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

Chapter 1

D.C. CIRCUITS

1.1 Introduction to Electric Circuits

Network theory is the study of solving the problems of electric

circuits or electric networks. In this introductory chapter, let us
first discuss the basic terminology of electric circuits and the types
of network elements.

1.1.1 Basic Terminology

In Network Theory, we will frequently come across the following

terms -

• Electric Circuit
• Electric Network
• Current
• Voltage
• Power

So, it is imperative that we gather some basic knowledge on

these terms before proceeding further. Let’s start with Electric

23
24 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

Circuit.

Electric Circuit

An electric circuit contains a closed path for providing a flow of

electrons from a voltage source or current source. The elements
present in an electric circuit will be in series connection, parallel
connection, or in any combination of series and parallel
connections.

Electric Network

An electric network need not contain a closed path for providing

a flow of electrons from a voltage source or current source. Hence,
we can conclude that ”all electric circuits are electric networks”
but the converse need not be true.

Current

The current I flowing through a conductor is nothing but the time

rate of flow of charge. Mathematically, it can be written as -
dQ
I=
dt
Where,

• Q is the charge and its unit is Coloumb.

• t is the time and its unit is second.

As an analogy, electric current can be thought of as the flow of

water through a pipe. Current is measured in terms of Ampere. In
general, Electron current flows from negative terminal of source
to positive terminal, whereas, Conventional current flows from
positive terminal of source to negative terminal.
1.1. INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 25

Electron current is obtained due to the movement of free

electrons, whereas, Conventional current is obtained due to the
movement of free positive charges. Both of these are called as
electric current.

Voltage

The voltage V is nothing but an electromotive force that causes the

charge (electrons) to flow. Mathematically, it can be written as -
dW
V =
dQ
Where,

• W is the potential energy and its unit is Joule.

• Q is the charge and its unit is Coloumb.

As an analogy, Voltage can be thought of as the pressure of water

that causes the water to flow through a pipe. It is measured in
terms of Volt.

Power

The power ”P” is nothing but the time rate of flow of electrical
energy. Mathematically, it can be written as -
dW
P =
dt
Where,

• W is the electrical energy and it is measured in terms of Joule.

• t is the time and it is measured in seconds.

26 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

We can re-write the above equation as -

dW dW dQ
P = = × =VI
dt dQ dt
Therefore, power is nothing but the product of voltage V and
current I. Its unit is Watt.

1.2 R-L-C Parameters

1.2.1 Resistor

The main functionality of Resistor is either opposes or restricts

the flow of electric current. Hence, the resistors are used in order
to limit the amount of current flow and / or dividing (sharing)
voltage.

Let the current flowing through the resistor is I amperes and

the voltage across it is V volts. The symbol of resistor along with
current, I and voltage, V are shown in the following figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1: Resistor

According to Ohm’s law, the voltage across resistor is the

product of current flowing through it and the resistance of that
resistor. Mathematically, it can be represented as -
V = IR
V
∴I=
R
1.2. R-L-C PARAMETERS 27

The current flowing through the resistor is directly

proportional to the applied voltage across resistor and inversely
proportional to the resistance of resistor.

Power in an electric circuit element can be represented as -

P=VI
∴P = (IR)R
∴P = I 2R
OrP=VI
 
V
∴P =V
R
2
V
∴P =
R

1.2.2 Inductor

In general, inductors will have number of turns. Hence, they

produce magnetic flux when current flows through it. So, the
amount of total magnetic flux produced by an inductor depends
on the current, I flowing through it and they have linear
relationship.

Mathematically, it can be written as ±

ψ∝I
∴ ψ = LI
Where,

• ψ is the total magnetic flux

• L is the inductance of an inductor

Let the current flowing through the inductor is I amperes and the
voltage across it is V volts. The symbol of inductor along with
current I and voltage V are shown in the following figure 1.2.
28 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

Figure 1.2: Inductor

According to Faraday’s law, the voltage across the inductor

can be written as ±
dψ
V = (1.1)
dt
Substitute ψ = LI in the above equation.
dLI
V =
dt
dI
∴V =L
dt
1
Z
∴I= V dt
L
From the above equations, we can conclude that there exists a
linear relationship between voltage across inductor and current
flowing through it.

We know that power in an electric circuit element can be

represented as -
P =VI
Substituting V = L dI
dt in the above equation.
 
dI
P = L I
dt
dI
∴ P = LI
dt

By integrating the above equation, we will get the energy

1.2. R-L-C PARAMETERS 29

stored in an inductor as -

1
W = LI 2
2

So, the inductor stores the energy in the form of magnetic field.

1.2.3 Capacitor

In general, a capacitor has two conducting plates, separated by a

dielectric medium. If positive voltage is applied across the
capacitor, then it stores positive charge. Similarly, if negative
voltage is applied across the capacitor, then it stores negative
charge.

So, the amount of charge stored in the capacitor depends on

the applied voltage V across it and they have linear relationship.
Mathematically, it can be written as ±

Q∝V
∴ Q = CV

Where,

• Q is the charge stored in the capacitor.

• C is the capacitance of a capacitor.

Let the current flowing through the capacitor is I amperes and the
voltage across it is V volts. The symbol of capacitor along with
current I and voltage V are shown in the following figure 1.3.
30 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

Figure 1.3: Capacitor

We know that the current is nothing but the time rate of flow
of charge. Mathematically, it can be represented as ±
dQ
I=
dt
Substitute Q = CV in the above equation ±
d(CV )
I=
dt
dV
∴I=C
dt
1
Z
orV = Idt
C

From the above equations, we can conclude that there exists

a linear relationship between voltage across capacitor and current
flowing through it.

We know that power in an electric circuit element can be

represented as ±
P =VI
Substitute I = C dV
dt in the above equation
 
dV
P =V C
dt
dV
∴ P = CV
dt
1.3. NETWORK TERMINOLOGY 31

By integrating the above equation, we will get the energy stored

in the capacitor as ±
1
W = CV 2
2

So, the capacitor stores the energy in the form of electric

field.

1.3 Network Terminology

In this section, we will define some of the basic terms related to

electrical network.

1.3.1 Network

Any arrangement of different circuit elements along with the

electrical energy sources is called an electrical network.The
example of electrical network is shown in figure 1.4.

1.3.2 Network Element

Any individual circuit element with two terminals which can be

connected to other circuit element, is called a network element.

Network element can be either active elements or passive

elements. Active elements are the elements which supply power
or energy to the network.Voltage source and current source are
the examples of active elements. Passive elements are the
elements which either store energy or dissipate energy in the
form of heat. Resistor, inductor and capacitor are the three basic
passive elements. Inductors and capacitors can store energy and
resistors dissipate energy in the form of heat.
32 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

Figure 1.4: An Electrical Network

1.3.3 Branch

A part of the network which connects the various points of the

network with one another is called a branch. In figure 1.4, AB, BC,
CD, DA,DE, CF and EF are the various branches. A branch may
consists of more than one element.

1.3.4 Junction Point

A point where three or more branches meet is called a junction

point. Point D and D are the junction points in the network shown
in figure 1.4.

1.3.5 Node

A point at which two or more elements are joined together is

called node. The junction points are also the nodes of the
network. In the network shown in figure 1.4, A, B, C,D, E and F
are the nodes of the network.
1.4. CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTRICAL NETWORKS 33

1.3.6 Mesh (or Loop)

Mesh (or Loop) is a set of branches forming a closed path in a

network in such a way that if one branch is removed then
remaining branch do not form a closed path. A loop also can be
defined as a closed path which originates from a particular node,
terminating at the same node, travelling through various other
nodes, without travelling through any node twice.In the figure
1.4 paths A-B-C-D-A, A-B-C-F-E-D-A, D-C-F-E-D etc are the
loops of the network.

1.4 Classification of Electrical Networks

The behavior of the entire electrical network depends on the

behavior and characteristics of its elements.Based on such
characteristics electrical network can be classified as below:

1 Linear Network : A circuit or network whose parameters i.e.

elements like resistances, inductances and capacitances are
always constant irrespective of the change in time, voltage,
temperature etc, is known as linear network. The Ohm’s
law can be applied to such network. The mathematical
equations of such network can be obtained by using the law
of superposition. The response of the various network
elements is linear with respect to the excitation applied to
them.
2 Non Linear Network: A circuit whose parameters change
their values with change in time, temperature, voltage etc. is
known as non linear network. The Ohm’s aw may not be
applied to such network. Such network does not follow the
law of superposition. The response of the various elements
is not linear with respect to their excitation.The best example
is a circuit consisting of a diode where diode current does
not vary linearly with the voltage applied to it.
34 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

3 Bilateral network : A circuit whose characteristics, behavior

is same irrespective of the direction of current through
various elements of it, is called bilateral network. Network
consisting of ony resistances is good example of bilateral
network.
4 Unilaternal Network: A circuit whose operation, behavior
is dependent on the direction of the current through various
elements is called unilateral network. Circuit consisting of
diodes, which allows flow of current only in one direction is
good example of unilateral circuit.
5 Active Network : A circuit which contains at least one source
of energy is called active network. An energy source may be
a voltage or current source.
6 Passive Network: A circuit which contains no energy source
is called passive circuit. This is shown in figure 1.5.

Figure 1.5: Active and Passive Network

7 Lumped Network: A network in which all the network

elements are physically separable is known as lumped
network. Most of the electric networks are lumped in nature,
which consists elements like R, L,C, voltage source etc.
8 Distributed Network: A network in which the circuit
elements like resistance, inductance etc. cannot be physically
separable for analysis purpose, is called distributed
network. The best example of such a network is a
transmission line where resistance, inductance and
1.5. ENERGY SOURCES 35

capacitance of a transmission line are distributed all along its

length and cannot be shown as a separable elements, any
where in the circuit.

1.5 Energy Sources

There are basically two types of energy sources; Voltage source and
Current Source. These are classified as :

1 Ideal Source
2 Practical Source

1.5.1 Voltage Source

Ideal voltage source is defined as the energy source which gives

constant voltage across its terminals irrespective of the current
drawn through its terminals. The symbol for ideal voltage source
is shown in figure 1.6(a). This is connected to the load as shown
in figure 1.6(b). At any time the value of voltage at load terminals
remains same. This is indicated by V-I characteristics shown in
figure 1.6.

Figure 1.6: Ideal Voltage Source

Practical Voltage Source : Practically, every voltage source has

small internal resistance shown in series with voltage source and
is represented by Rse as shown in figure 1.7.
36 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

Figure 1.7: Practical Voltage Source

Because of Rse , voltage across terminals decreases slightly

with increase in current and it is given by expression,
VL = −(Rse )IL + VS = VS − IL Rse

Note : For ideal voltage source, RSe = 0.

Voltage sources are further classified as follows:

1 Time Invariant Sources : The sources in which voltage is not

varying with time are known as time invariant voltage
sources or D.C. sources. These are denoted by capital letters.
Such a source is represented in the figure 1.8.

Figure 1.8: D.C. Source

2 Time Variant Sources : The sources in which voltage is

varying with time are known as time variant voltage sources
or A.C. sources. These are denoted by small letters. This is
shown in figure 1.9.
1.5. ENERGY SOURCES 37

Figure 1.9: A.C. Source

1.5.2 Current Source

Ideal current source is the source which gives constant current at

its terminals irrespective of the voltage appearing across its
terminals. The symbol for ideal current source is shown in the
figure 1.10(a). This is connected to the load as shown in figure
1.10(b). At any time, the value of the current flowing through
load IL is same i.e. is irrespective of voltage appearing across its
terminals. This is explained by V-I characteristics shown in the
figure 1.10(c).

Figure 1.10: Ideal Current Source

But practically, every current source has high internal

resistance, shown in parallel with current source and it is
represented by Rsh . This is shown in the figure 1.11.
38 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

Figure 1.11: Practical Current Source

Because of Rsh , current through its terminals decreases

sightly with increase in voltage at its terminals.

Note : For ideal current source Rsh = ∞.

Similar to voltage sources, current sources are classified as

follows :

1. Time Invariant Sources : The sources in which current is not

varying with time are known as time invariant current
sources or D.C. sources. These are denoted by capital letters.
Such a current source is represented in the figure 1.12.

Figure 1.12: D.C. Source

2. Time Variant Sources : The sources in which current is

varying with time are known as time variant current sources
or A.C. sources. These are denoted by small letters. Such a
source is represented in the figure 1.13.
1.5. ENERGY SOURCES 39

Figure 1.13: A.C. Source

1.5.3 Dependent Sources

Dependent sources are those whose value of source depends on

voltage or current in the circuit. Such sources are indicated by
diamond as shown in the figure 1.14 and further classified as :

1 Voltage Dependent Voltage Source : It produces a voltage as

a function of voltages elsewhere in the given circuit. This is
called VDVS. It is shown in the figure 1.14(a).

Figure 1.14:

2 Current Dependent Current Source : It produces a current

as a function of currents elsewhere in the given circuit. This
is called CDCS. It is shown in the figure 1.14(b).

3 Current Dependent Voltage Source : It produces a voltage

as a function of current elsewhere in the given circuit. This is
called CDVS. It is shown in the figure 1.14(c).

4 Voltage Dependent Current Source : It produces a current

40 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

as a function of voltage elsewhere in the given circuit. This is

called VDCS. It is shown in the figure 1.14(d).

K is constant and V1 and I1 are the voltage and current

respectively, present elsewhere in the given circuit. This
dependent sources are also known as controlled sources.

1.6 Ohm’s Law

This law gives relationship between the potential difference (V),

the current (I) and the resistance (R) of a d.c. circuit. Dr. Ohm in
1827 discovered a law called Ohm’s Law. It states that -

”The current flowing through the electric circuit is directly

proportional to the potential difference across the circuit and inversely
proportional to the resistance of the circuit, provided the temperature
remains constant”.

Mathematically,
V
I∝
R
where, I is the current fowing in amperes, the V is the voltage
applied and R is the resistance of the conductor, as shown in the
figure 1.15.

Figure 1.15: Ohm’s Law

Now,
V
I=
R
1.6. OHM’S LAW 41

The unit of potential difference is defined in such a way that

the constant of proportionality is unity.

Ohm’s Law is :
V
I= amperes
R
V = IR volts
V
= constant = R ohms
I

The Ohm’s law can be defined as,

The ratio of potential difference (V ) between any two points of a
conductor to the current (I) flowing between them is constant, provided
that the temperature of the conductor remains constant.

Ohm’s law can be applied either to the entire circuit or to

the part of a circuit. If it is applied to entire circuit, the voltage
across the entire circuit and resistance of the entire circuit should
be taken into account. If the Ohm’s law is applied to the part of
a circuit, then the resistance of that part and potential across that
part should be used.

1.6.1 Limitations of Ohm’s Law

The limitations of the Ohm’s Law are :

1 It is not applicable to the nonlinear devices such as diodes,

zener diodes, voltage regulators etc.

2 It does not hold good for non-metallic conductors such as

silicon carbide. The law for such conductors is given by,

V = KI m

where, K, m are constants.

42 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

1.7 Series Circuit

A series circuit is one in which several resistances are connected

one after the other. Such connection is also called end to end
connection or cascade connection. There is only one path for the
flow of current.

Consider the resistances connected as shown in figure 1.16.

Figure 1.16: A Series Circuit

The resistances R1 , R2 and R3 are said to be in series. The

combination is connected across a source of voltage V volts.
Naturally the current flowing through all of them is same
indicated as I amperes, e.g. the chain of small lights, used for the
decoration purposes is good example of series combination.

Let V1 , V2 and V3 be the voltages across the terminals of

resistances R1 , R2 and R3 respectively. Then,
V = V1 + V2 + V3
Now, according to Ohm’s Law, V1 = IR1 , V2 = IR2 , V3 = IR3 .
Current through all of them is same i.e. I.
∴ V = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 = I(R1 + R2 + R3 )
Applying Ohm’s Law to overall circuit,
V = IReq
where, Req = Equivalent resistance of the circuit. By comparison
of two equations,
Req = R1 + R2 + R3
1.8. PARALLEL CIRCUIT 43

i.e. total or equivalent resistance of the series circuit is

arithmetic sum of the resistances connected in series.

For n resistances in series,

R = R1 + R2 + R3 + ........ + Rn

1.7.1 Characteristics of Series Circuits

1 The same current flows through each resistance.

2 The supply voltage V is the sum of the individual voltage

drops across the resistances.

V = V1 + V2 + ....... + Vn

3 The equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of the individual

resistances.

4 The equivalent resistance is the largest of all the individual

resistances. i.e. R > R1 , R > R2 , .......R > Rn

1.8 Parallel Circuit

The parallel circuit is one in which several resistances are

connected across one another in such a way that one terminal of
each is connected to form a junction point while the remaining
ends are also joined to form another junction point. Consider a
parallel circuit shown in figure 1.17.
44 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

Figure 1.17: A Parallel Circuit

In the parallel connection shown, the three resistances R1 ,

R2 and R3 are connected in parallel and combination is connected
across a source of voltage ’V ’.

In parallel circuit current passing through each resistance is

different. Let total current drawn is say I as shown. There are
3 paths for this current, one through R1 , second through R2 and
third through R3 . Depending upon the values of R1 , R2 and R3 the
appropriate fraction of total current passes through them. These
individual currents are shown as I1 , I2 and I3 . While the voltage
across the two ends of each resistances R1 , R2 and R3 is the same
and equals the supply voltage V .

Applying the Ohm’s Law to each resistance.

V = I 1 R1 , V = I 2 R2 , V = I 3 R3
Therefore, I1 = RV1 , I2 = RV2 , I3 = RV3 .
V V V
I = I1 + I2 + I3 = + +
 R1  R2 R3
1 1 1
=V + +
R1 R2 R3
For overall circuit, if Ohm’s Law is applied,
V = IReq
V
∴I=
Req
1.8. PARALLEL CIRCUIT 45

where, Req Total or equivalent resistance of the circuit.

Comparing the two equations,
1 1 1 1
= + +
Req R1 R2 R 3
where, R is the equivalent resistance of the parallel combination.

In general, if n resistances are connected in parallel,

1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ........ +
R R1 R2 R 3 Rn

Conductance (G) :
It is known that, R1 = G (conductance), hence,

∴ G = G1 + G2 + G3 + ...... + Gn

Note : Now if n = 2, two resistances are in parallel, then

1 1 1
= +
R R1 R2
R1 R2
∴R=
R1 + R2

This formula is directly used for two resistances in parallel.

1.8.1 Characteristics of Parallel Circuits

1 The same potential difference gets across all the resistances in

parallel.
2 The total current gets divided into the number of paths equal
to the number of resistances in parallel. The total current is
always sum of all the individual currents.

I = I1 + I2 + I3 + ......... + In
46 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

3 The reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of a parallel

circuit is equal to the sum of the reciprocal of the individual
resistances.

4 The equivalent resistance is the smallest of all the resistances.

i.e. R < R1 , R < R2 , R < R3 .........., R < Rn .

5 The equivalent conductance is the arithmetic addition of the

individual conductances.

1.9 Voltage Division in Series Circuits of Resistors

Consider a series circuit of two resistors R1 and R2 connected to

source of V volts.

Figure 1.18:

As two resistors are connected in series, the current flowing

through both the resistors is same, i.e. I. Then applying KVL, we
get,

V = IR1 + IR2
V
∴I=
R1 + R2
Total voltage applied is equal to the sum of voltage drops VR1 and
1.10. CURRENT DIVISION IN PARALLEL CIRCUIT OF RESISTORS 47

VR2 across R1 and R2 respectively.

∴ VR1 = I · R1
 
V R1
∴ VR1 = · R1 = V
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
Similarly,
∴ VR2 = I · R2
 
V R2
∴ VR2 = · R2 = V
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
So this circuit is a voltage divider circuit.

Note : Voltage drop across any resistor, or combination of resistors

in a series circuit is equal to the ratio of that resistance value to the
total resistance, multiplied by the source voltage.

1.10 Current Division in Parallel Circuit of

Resistors

Consider a parallel circuit of two resistors R1 and R2 connected

across a source of V volts.

Figure 1.19:

Current through R1 is I1 and R2 is I2 , while total current

drawn from source is IT .
∴ IT = I1 + I2
48 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

V V
But, I1 = , I2 =
R1 R2
i.e. V = I1 R1 = I2 R2  
R2
∴ I1 = I2
R1
Substituting the value of I1 in IT ,
     
R2 R2 R1 + R2
∴ IT = I2 + I2 = I2 + 1 = I2
R1 R1 R1
 
R1
∴ I2 = IT
R 1 + R2
Now,
 
R1
I1 = IT − I2 = IT − IT
R1 + R2
 
R 1 + R2 − R1
∴ I1 = IT
R1 + R 2
 
R2
∴ I1 = IT
R 1 + R2

Note : The current in any branch is equal to the ratio of opposite

branch resistance to the total resistance value, multiplied by the
total current in the circuit.

1.11 Source Transformation

Consider a practical voltage source shown in the figure 1.20

having internal resistance Rse connected to the load having
resistance RL .

Figure 1.20: Voltage Source and Current Source

1.11. SOURCE TRANSFORMATION 49

Now we can replace voltage source by equivalent current

source.

Note : The two sources are said to be equivalent, if they supply

equal load current to the load, with same load connected across
its terminals.

The current delivered in above case by voltage source is,

V
I=
(Rse + RL )
It is to be replaced by a current source then load current must be
V
.
(Rse + RL )
Consider an equivalent current source shown in the figure
1.20. The total current is I. Both the resistances will take current
proportional to their values.

From the current division in parallel circuit we can write,

Rsh
IL = I ×
(Rsh + RL )

V
Now this IL and Rse +RL must be same, so equating 1.11 and
1.11,
V I × Rsh
∴ =
Rse + RL Rsh + RL

Let internal resistance be, Rse = Rsh = R say, then

V = I × Rsh = I × R
V
∴I=
Rsh
V V
∴I= =
R Rse

Note :
50 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

1 If voltage source is converted to current source, then current

V
source I = with parallel internal resistance equal to Rse .
Rse

2 If current source is converted to voltage source, then voltage

source V = IRsh with series internal resistance equal to Rsh .

The direction of current of equivalent current source is

always from -ve to +ve, internal to the source. While converting
current source to voltage source, polarities of voltage is always as
+ve terminal at top of arrow and -ve terminal at bottom of arrow,
as direction of current is from -ve to +ve, internal to the source.
This ensures that current flows from positive to negative terminal
in the external circuit.

Note the directions of transformed sources, shown in figures

1.21below:

Figure 1.21:
1.12. COMBINATIONS OF SOURCES 51

1.12 Combinations of sources

In a network consisting of many sources, series and parallel

combinations of sources exist. If such combinations are replaced
by the equivalent source then the network simplification becomes
much more easy.

1.12.1 Voltage Sources in Series

If two voltage sources are in series then the equivalent is

dependent on the polarities of the two sources.

Consider the two sources as shown in the figure 1.22.

Figure 1.22:

Thus, if the polarities of the two sources are same then the
equivalent single source is the addition of the two sources with
polarities same as that of the two sources.

Consider the two sources as shown in figure 1.23.

52 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

Figure 1.23:

Thus if the polarities of the two sources are different then the
equivalent single source is the difference between the two voltage
sources. The polarities of such source is same as that of the greater
of the two sources.

Note : The voltage sources to be connected in series must have

same current ratings though their voltage ratings may be same or
different.

This technique can be used to reduce the series combination

of more than two voltage sources connected in series.

1.12.2 Voltage Sources in Parallel

Consider the two voltage sources in parallel as shown in the figure

1.24.

Figure 1.24:

The equivalent single source has a value same as V1 and V2 .

1.12. COMBINATIONS OF SOURCES 53

It must be noted that at the terminals open circuit voltage

provided by each source must be equal as the sources are in
parallel.

Note : The voltage source to be connected in parallel must have

the same voltage ratings though their current ratings may be same
or different.

1.12.3 Current Sources in Series

Consider the two current sources in series as shown in the figure

1.25.

Figure 1.25:

The equivalent single source has a value same as I1 and I2 .

Note : The current through series circuit is always same hence it

must be noted that the current sources to be connected in series
must have same current rating through their voltage ratings may
be same or different.

1.12.4 Current Sources in Parallel

Consider the two current sources in parallel as shown in the figure

1.26.
54 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

Figure 1.26: Current Sources in Parallel

If the directions of the currents of the sources connected in

parallel are same then the equivalent singe source is the addition
of the two sources with direction same as that of the two sources.

Consider the two current sources with opposite directions

connected in parallel as shown in figure 1.27.

Figure 1.27:

Thus if the directions of the two sources are different then

the equivalent singe source has a direction same as greater of the
two sources with a value equal to the difference between the two
sources.

Note : The current sources to be connected in parallel must have

same voltage ratings though their current ratings may be same or
different.
1.13. KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS 55

1.13 Kirchhoff’s Laws

In 1847, a German Physicist, Kirchhoff, formulated two

fundamental laws of electricity. These laws are of tremendous
importance from network simplification point of view.

1.13.1 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

Consider a junction point in a complex network as shown in figure

1.28.

Figure 1.28: Junction Point

At this junction point if I1 = 2 A, I2 = 4 A and I3 = 1 A, then to

determine I4 we write, total current entering is 2 + 4 = 6 A, while
total current leaving is 1 + I4 A. And hence, I4 = 5A.

Kirchhoff’s Current Law can be stated as -

ªThe total current flowing towards a junction point is equal to the total
current flowing away from that junction point”.

Another way to state the law is -

The algebraic sum of all the current meeting at a junction point is always
zero.

The word algebraic means considering the signs of various

currents. X
I at junction point = 0

Sign Conventions :
56 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

Currents flowing towards a junction point are assumed to

be positive while currents flowing away from a junction point
assumed to be negative.

Figure 1.29:

Refer to figure 1.28, currents I1 and I2 are positive , while I3

and I4 are negative. Applying KCL,
X
I at junction O = 0
∴ I1 + I2 − I3 − I4 = 0
∴ I1 + I2 = I3 + I4

This law is very helpful in network simplification.

1.13.2 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

”In any network, the algebraic sum of the voltage drops across the circuit
elements of any closed path (or loop or mesh) is equal to the algebraic
sum of the e.m.f.s in the path”.

In other words, ”The algebraic sum of all the branch voltages,

around any closed path or closed loop is always zero.”
X
Around a closed path V =0

The law states that if one starts at a certain point of a closed

path and goes on tracing and noting all the potential changes
(either drops or rises), in any one particular direction, till the
1.13. KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS 57

starting point is reached again, he must be at the same potential

with which he started tracing a closed path.

Sum of all the potential rises must be equal to sum of all the
potential drops while tracing any closed path of the circuit. The
total change in potential along a closed path is always zero.

This law is very useful in loop analysis of the network.

1.13.3 Sign Conventions to be followed while applying

KVL

When current flows through a resistance, the voltage drop occurs

across the resistance. The polarity of this voltage drop always
depends on direction of the current. The current always flows
from higher potential to lower potential.

In figure 1.29(a), current flowing from right to left, hence

point B is at higher potential than point A, as shown.

In the figure 1.29(b), current I is flowing from left to right

hence point A is at higher potential than point B, as shown.

Once all such polarities are marked in the given circuit, we

can apply KVL to any closed path in the circuit.

Now while tracing a closed path, if we go from -ve marked

terminal to +ve marked terminal, that voltage must be taken as
positive. This is called potential rise.

For example, if the branch AB is traced from A to B then the

drop across it must be considered as rise and must be taken as
+IR while writing the equations.

While tracing a closed path, if we go from +ve marked

terminal to -ve marked terminal, that voltage must be taken as
negative. This is called potential drop.
58 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

For example, in the figure 1.29(a) only, if the branch is traced

from B to A then it should be taken as negative, as −IR while
writing the equations.

Similarly in the figure 1.29(b), if branch is traced from A to B

then there is a voltage drop and term must be written negative as
−IR while writing the equation. If the branch is traced from B to
A, it becomes a rise in voltage and term must be written positive
as +IR while writing the equation.

Note :

1 Potential rise ie.e traveling from negative to positively

marked terminal must be considered as Positive.
2 Potential drop i.e. traveling from positive to negatively
marked terminal, must be considered as Negative.
3 While tracing a closed path, select any one direction
clockwise or anticlockwise. This selection is totally
independent of the directions of currents and voltages of
various branches of that closed path.

1.13.4 Steps to Apply Kirchhoff’s Laws to Get Network

Equations

1 Draw the circuit diagram from the given information and

insert all the values of sources with appropriate polarities
and all the resistances.
2 Mark al the branch currents with some assumed directions
using KCL at various nodes and junction points. Kept the
number of unknown currents minimum as far as possible to
limit the mathematical calculations required to solve them
later.
Assumed directions may be wrong, in such case answer of
such current will be mathematically negative which
1.14. DELTA/STAR AND STAR/DELTA TRANSFORMATION 59

indicates the correct direction of the current. A particular

current leaving a particular source has some magnitude,
then same magnitude of current should enter that source
after traveling through various branches of the network.

3 Mark all the polarities of voltage drops and rises as per

directions of the assumed branch currents flowing through
various branch resistances of the network. This is necessary
for application of KVL to various closed loops.

4 Apply KVL to different closed paths in the network and

obtain the corresponding equations. Each equation must
contain some element which is not considered in any
previous equation.

5 Solve the simultaneous equations for the unknown currents.

From these currents unknown voltages and power
consumption in different resistances can be calculated.

1.14 Delta/Star and Star/Delta Transformation

There are some networks in which the resistances are neither in

series nor in parallel. A familiar case is a three terminal network
e.g. delta network or star network. In such situations, it is not
possible to simplify the network by series and parallel circuit
rules. However, converting delta network into star and
vice-versa often simplifies the network and makes it possible to
apply series parallel circuit techniques.

1.14.1 Delta/Star Transformation

Consider three resistors RAB , RBC and RCA connected in delta to

three terminals A, B and C as shown in Fig. 1.30 (i). Let the
equivalent star-connected network have resistances RA , RB and
RC . Since the two arrangements are electrically equivalent, the
60 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

resistance between any two terminals of one network is equal to

the resistance between the corresponding terminals of the other
network.

Figure 1.30: Delta-Star Network

Let us consider the terminals A and B of the two networks.

Resistance between A and B for star = Resistance between A and B for delta

RA + RB = RAB ||(RBC + RCA ) (1.2)

RAB (RBC + RCA )
∴ RA + RB = (1.3)
(RAB + RBC + RCA )

Similarly,
RBC (RCA + RAB )
RB + RC = (1.4)
(RAB + RBC + RCA )
RCA (RAB + RBC )
and RC + RA = (1.5)
(RAB + RBC + RCA )
Subtracting eq. (1.4) from eq. (1.3) and adding the result to eq.
(1.5), we have,
RAB RCA
RA = (1.6)
(RAB + RBC + RCA )
RBC RAB
Similarly RB = (1.7)
(RAB + RBC + RCA )
RCA RBC
and RC = (1.8)
(RAB + RBC + RCA )
1.14. DELTA/STAR AND STAR/DELTA TRANSFORMATION 61

In an easy way to remember, we can remember the equation

as-
Product of two adjacent arms of△
Any arm of star connection =
Sum of arms of△
(1.9)

Thus to find the star resistance that connects to terminal A,

divide the product of the two delta resistors connected to A by the sum of
the delta resistors. Same is true for terminals B and C.

1.14.2 Star/Delta Transformation

Let us consider how to replace the star-connected network of Fig.

1.30(ii) by the equivalent delta-connected network of Fig. 1.30 (i).

Dividing eq. (1.6) by (1.7), we have,

RA RCA
= (1.10)
RB RBC
RA RBC
∴ RCA = (1.11)
RB
Dividing eq. (1.6) by (1.8), we have,
RA RAB
= (1.12)
RC RBC
RA RBC
∴ RAB = (1.13)
RC

Figure 1.31: Star-Delta Conversion

62 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

Substituting the values of RCA and RAB in eq. (1.6), we have,

RB RC
RBC = RB + RC + (1.14)
RA
RC RA
Similarly RCA = RC + RA + (1.15)
RB
RA RB
and RAB = RA + RB + (1.16)
RC

i.e. Resistance between two terminals of delta = Sum of star

resistances connected to those terminals plus product of same two
resistances divided by the third star resistance

Note. Figs. 1.32 (i) to (iii) show three ways that a wye (Y)
arrangement might appear in a circuit. Because the
wye-connected components may appear in the equivalent form
shown in Fig. 1.32 (ii), the arrangement is also called a tee (T)
arrangement. Figs. 1.32 (iv) to (vi) show equivalent delta forms.
Because the delta (△) arrangement may appear in the equivalent
form shown in Fig. 1.32 (vi), it is also called a pi (π) arrangement.
The figures show only a few of the ways the wye (Y) and delta
(△) networks might be drawn in a schematic diagram. Many
equivalent forms can be drawn by rotating these basic
arrangements through various angles. Note that each network
has three terminals.
1.15. SUPERPOSITION THEOREM 63

Figure 1.32: Different forms of Star-connection and Delta Connections

1.15 Superposition Theorem

Superposition is a general principle that allows us to determine

the effect of several energy sources (voltage and current sources)
acting simultaneously in a circuit by considering the effect of
each source acting alone, and then combining (superposing)
these effects. This theorem as applied to d.c. circuits may be
stated as under :

In a linear, bilateral d.c. network containing more than

one energy source, the resultant potential difference across or
current through any element is equal to the algebraic sum of
potential differences or currents for that element produced by
each source acting alone with all other independent ideal
voltage sources replaced by short circuits and all other
independent ideal current sources replaced by open circuits
 64 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

(non-ideal sources are replaced by their internal resistances).

1.15.1 Explanation of Superposition Theorem

Consider a network shown in figure 1.33 having the two voltage

sources V1 and V2 . Let us calculate the current in the branch A-B
of the network using superposition theorem.

Figure 1.33:

Step-1 According to the superposition theorem, consider each

source independently. Let source V1 volts is acting
independently. At this time other sources must be replaced
by internal impedances.
But as the internal impedance of V2 is not given, the source V2
must be replaced by short circuit. Hence the circuit becomes
as shown in figure 1.34 (a).

Figure 1.34:

Using any of the network reduction techniques, obtain the

current through the the branch A-B.
 1.16. THEVENIN’S THEOREM 65

Step-2 Now consider source V2 volts alone, with V1 replaced by a

short circuit, to obtain the current through branch A-B. The
corresponding circuit is shown in figure 1.34(b).
Obtain IAB due to V2 alone by using any of the network
reduction techniques.
Step-3 According to the superposition theorem, the total current
through branch A-B is the sum of the currents through
branch A-B produced by each source acting independently.

∴ Total IAB = IAB due to V1 + IAB due to V2

1.15.2 Steps to Apply Superposition Theorem

Step-1 Select a single source acting alone. Short the other voltage
sources and open the current sources, if the internal
resistances are not known. If known, replace them by their
internal resistances.
Step-2 Find the current through or the voltage across the required
element due to the source under consideration, using a
suitable network simplification techniques.
Step-3 Repeat the above two steps for all remaining sources.
Step-4 Add the individual effects produced by individual sources,
to obtain the total current in or voltage across the element.

1.16 Thevenin’s Theorem

Fig. 1.35 (i) shows a network enclosed in a box with two

terminals A and B brought out. The network in the box may
consist of any number of resistors and e.m.f. sources connected in
any manner. But according to Thevenin, the entire circuit behind
terminals A and B can be replaced by a single source of e.m.f. VT h
(called Thevenin voltage) in series with a single resistance RT h
66 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

(called Thevenin resistance) as shown in Fig. 1.35 (ii). The values

of VT h and RT h are determined as mentioned in Thevenin’s
theorem. Once Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is obtained [See Fig.
1.35 (ii)], then current I through any load resistance RL connected
across AB is given by ;

VT h
I=
RT h + RL

Figure 1.35:

Thevenin’s theorem as applied to d.c. circuits is stated below

: Any linear, bilateral network having terminals A and B can be
replaced by a single source of e.m.f. VT h in series with a single
resistance RT h .

1 The e.m.f. VT h is the voltage obtained across terminals A

and B with load, if any removed i.e. it is open-circuited
voltage between terminals A and B.

2 The resistance RT h is the resistance of the network

measured between terminals A and B with load removed
and sources of e.m.f. replaced by their internal resistances.
Ideal voltage sources are replaced with short circuits and
ideal current sources are replaced with open circuits.
1.16. THEVENIN’S THEOREM 67

1.16.1 Explanation of Thevenin’s Theorem

Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 1.36 (i). As far as the circuit
behind terminals AB is concerned, it can be replaced by a single
source of e.m.f. VT h in series with a single resistance RT h as shown
in Fig. 1.37 (ii).

Figure 1.36:

1 Finding VT h :
The e.m.f. VT h is the voltage across terminals AB with load
(i.e. RL ) removed as shown in Fig. 1.36 (ii). With RL
disconnected, there is no current in R2 and VT h is the voltage
appearing across R3 .

V
VT h = Voltage acrossR3 = × R3
R1 + R3

Figure 1.37:
68 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

2 Finding RT h :

To find RT h , remove the load RL and replace the battery by

a short-circuit because its internal resistance is assumed zero.
Then resistance between terminals A and B is equal to RT h as
shown in Fig.1.37 (i). Obviously, at the terminals AB in Fig.
1.37 (i), R1 and R3 are in parallel and this parallel combination
is in series with R2 .
R1 R3
RT h = R2 +
R1 + R3
When load RL is connected between terminals A and B [See
Fig. 1.37 (ii)], then current in RL is given by ;
VT h
I=
RT h + RL

1.16.2 Procedure for Finding Thevenin Equivalent Circuit

1 Open the two terminals (i.e., remove any load) between

which you want to find Thevenin equivalent circuit.
2 Find the open-circuit voltage between the two open
terminals. It is called Thevenin voltage VT h .
3 Determine the resistance between the two open terminals
with all ideal voltage sources shorted and all ideal current
sources opened (a non-ideal source is replaced by its internal
resistance). It is called Thevenin resistance RT h .
4 Connect VT h and RT h in series to produce Thevenin
equivalent circuit between the two terminals under
consideration.
5 Place the load resistor removed in step (1) across the terminals
of the Thevenin equivalent circuit. The load current can now
be calculated using only Ohm’s law and it has the same value
as the load current in the original circuit.
1.17. NORTON’S THEOREM 69

1.16.3 Advantages of Thevenin’s Theorem

1 It reduces a complex circuit to a simple circuit viz. a single

source of e.m.f. VT h in series with a single resistance RT h .

2 It greatly simplifies the portion of the circuit of lesser interest

and enables us to view the action of the output part directly.

3 This theorem is particularly useful to find current in a

particular branch of a network as the resistance of that
branch is varied while all other resistances and sources
remain constant.

4 Thevenin’s theorem can be applied in successive steps. Any

two points in a circuit can be chosen and all the components
to one side of these points can be reduced to Thevenin’s
equivalent circuit.

1.17 Norton’s Theorem

The Norton’s theorem can be stated as below -

”Any combination of linear bilateral circuit elements and

active sources, regardless of the connection or complexity,
connected to a given load RL , can be replaced by a simple two
terminal network, consisting of a single current source of IN
amperes and a singe impedance Req in parallel with it, across
the two terminals of the load RL . The IN is the short circuit
current flowing through the short circuited path, replaced
instead of RL . It is also called Norton’s current. The Req is the
equivalent impedance of the given network as viewed through
the load terminals, with RL removed and all the active sources
are replaced by their internal impedances. If the terminal
impedances are unknown then the independent voltage
sources must be replaced by short circuit while the
70 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

independent current sources must be replaced by open circuit,

while calculating Req ”.

1.17.1 Explanation of Norton’s Theorem

Consider the network shown in figure 1.38(a). The terminals A-

B are the load terminals where RL is connected. According to the
Norton’s theorem, the network can be replaced by a current source
IN with equivalent resistance Req parallel with it, across the load
terminals, as shown in figure 1.38(b).

Figure 1.38:

For obtaining the currents IN , short the load terminals AB

as shown in the figure 1.39. Then find current IN by using any of
the network simplification techniques. This is Norton’s current.
While to calculate Req use the same procedure used in Thevenin’s
theorem. For the convenience of Req is shown in the figure 1.40.

Figure 1.39:
 1.17. NORTON’S THEOREM 71

Figure 1.40:

This theorem is called dual of the Thevenin’s theorem. This

is because, if the Thevenin’s equivalent voltage source is
converted to equivalent current source using source
transformation, we get the Norton’s equivalent. This is shown in
figure 1.41.

Figure 1.41:

1.17.2 Steps to Apply Norton’s Theorem

Step-1 : Short the branch through which the current is to be

calculated.
Step-2 : Obtain the current through this short circuited branch, using
any of the network simplification techniques. This current is
Norton’s current IN .
Step-3 : Calculate the equivalent resistance Req as viewed through the
terminals of interest, by removing the branch resistance and
making all the independent sources inactive.
 72 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

Step-4 : Draw the Norton’s equivalent across the terminals of interest,

showing a current source IN with the resistance Req parallel
with it.
Step-5 : Reconnect the branch resistance. Let it be RL . Then using
current division in parallel circuit of two resistances, current
through the branch of interest can be obtained as,
Req
I = IN ×
Req + RL

1.18 Maximum Power Transfer theorem

Statement :
”In an active resistive network, maximum power transfer to the
load resistance takes place when the load resistance equals the
equivalent resistance of the network as viewed from the
terminals of the load”.

1.18.1 Proof of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Consider a d.c. source of voltage V volts and having internal

resistances of r ohms connected to a variable load resistance RL
as shown in figure 1.42. The load current is IL and is given by,
V
IL =
r + RL

Figure 1.42:
1.18. MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM 73

The power consumed by the load resistance RL is given as ±

 2
V
P = IL2 RL = RL
(r + RL )

If RL is changed, IL is also going to change and at a

particular value of RL , power transferred to the load is
maximum. Let us calculate the value of RL for which power
transfer to load is maximum. To satisfy maximum power transfer
we can write,

dP
=0
dRL
 2
d V
∴ RL = 0
dRL (r + RL )
 
d R L
∴V2 =0
dRL (r + RL )2
d(RL ) d
∴ (r + RL )2 − RL (r + RL )2 = 0
dRL dRL
2
∴ (r + RL ) (1) − RL 2(r + RL ) = 0
∴ (r + RL − 2RL ) = 0
∴ RL = r

Thus when load resistance is equal to the internal resistance

of source then maximum power transfer takes place.

Now any complex network can be represented with a singe

voltage source of VT H volts with equivalent resistance Req in series
with it, using Thevenin’s theorem across the load terminals. Thus
the variable load resistance RL , in such case must be equal to Req
to have maximum power transfer to the load.
 74 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

Figure 1.43:

The magnitude of maximum power transfer can be obtained

by substituting RL = Req in the expression of power.
 2
VT H
Pmax = RL
Req + RL
VT2H VT2H
∴ Pmax = × Req = watts
(2Req )2 4Req

1.18.2 Steps to Apply Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Step-1 : Calculate Thevenin’s voltage VT H or Norton’s current IN .

Step-2 : Calculate Req as viewed through the load terminals.
Step-3 : Draw Thevenin’s equivalent or Norton’s equivalent.
Step-4 : RL = Req gives the condition for maximum power transfer to
load.
Step-5 : And maximum power is given by-
VT2H
Pmax =
4Req
Chapter 2

A.C. Circuits

2.1 Some Important A.C. Terminology

An alternating voltage or current changes continuously in

magnitude and alternates in direction at regular intervals of time.
It rises from zero to maximum positive value, falls to zero,
increases to a maximum in the reverse direction and falls back to
zero again (See Fig. 2.1).

Figure 2.1: AC Waveform

1 Waveform : The shape of the curve obtained by plotting the

instantaneous values of voltage or current as ordinate
against time along X-axis is called its waveform or
waveshape. Fig. 2.1 shows the waveform of an alternating
voltage varying sinusoidally.

75
76 CHAPTER 2. A.C. CIRCUITS

2 Instantaneous value : The value of an alternating quantity at

any instant is called instantaneous value. The instantaneous
values of alternating voltage and current are represented by
v and i respectively. As an example, the instantaneous
values of voltage (See Fig. 2.1) at 0o , 90o and 270o are 0,
+Vm , −Vm respectively.
3 Cycle : One complete set of positive and negative values of
an alternating quantity is known as a cycle. Fig. 2.1 shows
one cycle of an alternating voltage.
A cycle can also be defined in terms of angular measure.
One cycle corresponds to 360o electrical or 2π radians. The
voltage or current generated in a conductor will span 360o
electrical (or complete one cycle) when the conductor moves
past successive north and south poles.
4 Alternation : One-half cycle of an alternating quantity is
called an alternation. An alternation spans 180o electrical.
Thus in Fig. 2.1, the positive or negative half of alternating
voltage is the alternation. (v) Time period : The time taken
in seconds to complete one cycle of an alternating quantity is
called its time period. It is generally represented by T .
5 Frequency : The number of cycles that occur in one second
is called the frequency (f ) of the alternating quantity. It is
measured in cycles/sec (C/s) or Hertz (Hz). One Hertz is
equal to 1 C/s.
The frequency of power system is low; the most common
being 50 C/s or 50 Hz. It means that alternating voltage or
current completes 50 cycles in one second. The 50 Hz
frequency is the most popular because it gives the best
results when used for operating both lights and machinery.
6 Amplitude : The maximum value (positive or negative)
attained by an alternating quantity is called its amplitude or
peak value. The amplitude of an alternating voltage or
current is designated by Vm (or Em ) or Im .
2.2. IMPORTANT RELATIONS 77

2.2 Important Relations

1 Time period and frequency : Consider an alternating

quantity having a frequency of f C/s and time period T
second.
Time taken to complete f cycles = 1 second (By definition)
Time taken to complete 1 cycle = 1/f second
But the time taken to complete one cycle is the time period T
(by definition).
1 1
T = or f =
f T
2 Angular velocity and frequency : The coil is rotating with
an angular velocity of ω rad/sec in a uniform magnetic field.
In one revolution of the coil, the angle turned is 2π radians
and the voltage wave completes 1 cycle. The time taken to
complete one cycle is the time period T of the alternating
voltage.
Angle Turned 2π
∴ Anguar velocity, ω = =
Time Taken T
∴ ω = 2πf

3 Frequency and speed : Consider a coil rotating at a speed of

N r.p.m. in the field of P poles. As the coil moves past
successive north and south poles, one complete cycle is
generated. Obviously, in one revolution of the coil, P/2
cycles will be generated. Now,
frequency, f = Number of cycles/sec
= (No. of cycles/revolution) × (No. of revolutions/sec)
   
P N PN
= × =
2 60 120
PN
f=
120
For example, an a.c. generator having 10 poles and running
at 600 r.p.m. will generate alternating voltage and current
78 CHAPTER 2. A.C. CIRCUITS

whose frequency is :
PN 10 × 6000
f= = = 50 Hz
120 120

2.3 Values of Alternating Voltage and Current

1 Peak Value :
It is the maximum value attained by an alternating quantity.
The peak or maximum value of an alternating voltage or
current is represented by Vm or Im . However, peak value is
not used to specify the magnitude of alternating voltage or
current. Instead, we generally use r.m.s. values to specify
alternating voltages and currents.
2 Average Value
The average value of a waveform is the average of all its
values over a period of time. In performing such a
computation, we regard the area above the time axis as
positive area and area below the time axis as negative area.
The algebraic signs of the areas must be taken into account
when computing the total (net) area. The time interval over
which the net area is computed is the period T of the
waveform.
Total Area under the curve for time T
Averge Value =
Time T
(a) In case of symmetrical waves (e.g. sinusoidal voltage or
current), the average value over one cycle is zero. It is
because positive half is exactly equal to the negative half
so that net area is zero. However, the average value of
positive or negative half is not zero. Hence in case of
symmetrical waves, average value means the average
value of half-cycle or one alternation.
Area of one Alternation
Average value of a symmetrical wave =
Base Length of one alternation
2.3. VALUES OF ALTERNATING VOLTAGE AND CURRENT 79

(b) In case of unsymmetrical waves (e.g. half-wave rectified

voltage etc.), the average value is taken over the full cycle.

Area over one cycle

Average value of unsymmetrical waves =
Baselengthof onecycle

The average value of a waveform is also called its d.c. value.

In fact, when a waveform is measured with a d.c. instrument
(d.c. ammeter or d.c. voltmeter), it is the average value of the
waveform that is indicated by the instrument.

3 Average Value of Sinusoidal Current

The average value of alternating current (or voltage) over
one cycle is zero. It is because the waveform is symmetrical
about time axis and positive area exactly cancels the
negative area. However, the average value over a half-cycle
(positive or negative) is not zero. Therefore, average value of
alternating current (or voltage) means half-cycle average
value unless stated otherwise.

The half-cycle average value of a.c. is that value of steady

current (d.c.) which would send the same amount of charge
through a circuit for half the time period of a.c. as is sent
by the a.c. through the same circuit in the same time. It is
represented by Iav . This can be obtained by integrating the
instantaneous value of current over one half cycle (i.e. area
over half-cycle) and dividing the result by base length of half-
cycle (= π).

The equation of an alternating current varying sinusoidally is

given by ;

i = Im sin θ
80 CHAPTER 2. A.C. CIRCUITS

Figure 2.2:

Consider an elementary strip of thickness dθ in the first half-

cycle of current wave as shown in Fig. 2.2. Let i be the mid-
ordinate of this strip.

Area of strip = idθ

Z π
Area of half cycle = idθ
0
Z π
= Im sin θdθ
0
= Im [− cos θ]π0 = 2Im
Area of Half Cycle 2Im
∴ Average value, Iav = =
Base Length of Half Cycle π
∴ Iav = 0.637Im

Hence, the half-cycle average value of a.c. is 0·637 times the peak
value of a.c.
For positive half-cycle, Iav = +0.637Im
For negative half-cycle, Iav = −0.637Im
Clearly, average value of a.c. over a complete cycle is zero.

4 R.M.S. Value or Effective Value :

The effective or r.m.s. value of an alternating current is that steady
current (d.c.) which when flowing through a given resistance for
a given time produces the same amount of heat as produced by the
alternating current when flowing through the same resistance for
the same time.
2.3. VALUES OF ALTERNATING VOLTAGE AND CURRENT 81

For example, when we say that the r.m.s. or effective value

of an alternating current is 5A, it means that the alternating
current will do work (or produce heat) at the same rate as 5A
direct current under similar conditions.

The following points may be noted :

1 For symmetrical waves, the r.m.s. or effective value can

be found by considering half-cycle or full-cycle. It is
because second half is the negative of the first half and
the r.m.s. value depends upon the squares of the
instantaneous values. However, for unsymmetrical
waves, full-cycle should be considered.
2 The r.m.s. value of symmetrical wave can also be
expressed as :
s
Area of half-cycle of squared wave
R.M.S. Value =
Half-cycle base

3 The r.m.s. or effective value of an alternating voltage can

similarly be expressed as :
r
v12 + v22 + v32 + ......... + vn2
vr.m.s. =
n

5 R.M.S. Value of Sinusoidal Current :

The equation of the alternating current varying sinusoidally
is given by ;
i = Im sin θ

Consider an elementary strip of thickness dθ in first half-cycle

of the squared current wave (shown dotted in Fig. 2.3). Let i2
be the mid-ordinate of this strip.
82 CHAPTER 2. A.C. CIRCUITS

Figure 2.3: Sinusoidal Current

Area of Strip = i2 dθ

Z π
Area of half-cycle of the squared wave = i2 dθ
Z0 π
2
= Im sin2 θdθ
0 Z
π
2
= Im sin2 θdθ
0
2
πIm
=
2
s
Area of half-cycle squared wave
∴ Irms =
Half-cycle base
r
2 /2
πIm
=
π
Im
=√
2
∴ Irms = 0.707Im

Similarly, it can be proved that for alternating voltage varying

sinusoidally, Vr.m.s. = 0.707Vm .

6 Form Factor or Peak Factor

There exists a definite relation among the peak value,
2.3. VALUES OF ALTERNATING VOLTAGE AND CURRENT 83

average value and r.m.s. value of an alternating quantity.

The relationship is expressed by two factors, namely ; form
factor and peak factor.
(a) Form factor : The ratio of r.m.s. value to the average
value of an alternating quantity is known as form factor
i.e.
R.M.S. Value
Form Factor =
Average Value
The value of form factor depends upon the waveform of
the alternating quantity. Its least value is 1 (e.g. for
square wave, rectangular wave) and may be as high as 5
for other waveforms. The form factor for an alternating
voltage or current varying sinusoidally is 1.11. i.e.
For a sinusoidal voltage or current,
0.707 × Max. Value
Form Factor = = 1.11
0.637 × Max. value
The form factor gives a measure of the ªpeakiness” of the
waveform. The peakier the wave, the greater is its form
factor and vice-versa.
(b) Peak factor : The ratio of maximum value to the r.m.s.
value of an alternating quantity is known as peak factor
i.e.
Max. Value
Peak Factor =
R.M.S. Value
The value of peak factor also depends upon the
waveform of the alternating quantity. For an alternating
voltage or current varying sinusoidally, its value is 1·414
i.e.
For a sinusoidal voltage or current,
Max. Value
Peak Factor = = 1.414
0.707 × Max. value
Note : Peak factor is also called crest factor or amplitude
factor.
84 CHAPTER 2. A.C. CIRCUITS

2.4 Complex Waveform

Complex waves are those which depart from sinusoidal form i.e., they
are non-sinusoidal.

A periodic non-sinusoidal wave of any form (complex

waveform) can be considered to be made up of sinusoidal waveforms of
various frequencies and amplitudes.

The above statement is the basis of Fourier series.

Accordingly, a square waveform can be considered to be made
up from a combination of sinusoidal waveforms. Thus any
non-sinusoidal quantity i can be expressed as the sum of a
number of sinusoidal quantities i1 , i2 , i3 , .... The frequency of i1
will be the same as that of i and the frequencies of i2 , i3 ... will be
integral multiple (2, 3, 4, 5...n) of that of i. In symbols,

i = i1 + i2 + i3 + ......
= im1 sin(ωt + φ1 ) + im2 sin(2ωt + φ2 ) + im3 sin(3ωt + φ3 ) + ....

If we add d.c. component I0 to equation above, it is known

as Fourier series.

The term that has the same frequency as i, namely

im1 sin(ωt + φ1 ) is called fundamental component;
im2 sin(2ωt + φ2 ), whose frequency is twice that of i (or i1 ) is called
the second harmonic component; im3 sin(3ωt + φ3 ) is the third
harmonic. The following points may be noted :

1 The frequency f of the fundamental component is the lowest

and is equal to the frequency of the complex wave. The
fundamental is also called first harmonic.

2 The frequency of second harmonic is 2f (twice that of

fundamental) and the frequency of third harmonic is 3f
(thrice that of fundamental) and so on.
2.4. COMPLEX WAVEFORM 85

3 The components of frequencies f, 3f, 5f etc. are called odd

harmonics and components of frequencies 2f, 4f, 6f etc. are
called even harmonics.

4 It is not necessary for all the components to be present in an

equation for a complex wave.
For example, a sine wave has no harmonics; the only
frequency present is the fundamental.

5 The harmonics are integer multiples of the fundamental

frequency. The amplitude of each harmonic decreases as the
frequency increases.

6 Any periodic waveform can be produced by summing sine

waves that have proper frequency, amplitude and phase.

2.4.1 R.M.S. Value of Complex Waveform

When a voltage has a complex waveform, the total average

power is the arithmetic sum of the average powers developed by
the voltages and the currents of like frequencies. Let us assume
that the current in a resistor R is given by ;

i = I0 + Im1 sin(ωt + φ1 ) + Im2 sin(2ωt + φ2 ) + Im3 sin(3ωt + φ3 )

The average power produced by the d.c. term is -

P0 = I02 R

The average power produced by the fundamental is -

2
I2

Im1
P1 = √ R = m1 R
2 2
The average power produced by the second harmonic is -
 2 2
Im2 Im2
P2 = √ R= R
2 2
86 CHAPTER 2. A.C. CIRCUITS

The average power produced by the third harmonic is -

 2 2
Im3 Im3
P3 = √ R= R
2 2
The total power PT is the sum of these average values.
2 2 2
Im1 Im2 Im3
∴ PT = I02 R
+ R+ R+ R
2 2 2
2 2 2
 
2 Im1 Im2 Im3
∴ PT = I 0 + + + R
2 2 2
The total power must be the power that is developed by the r.m.s.
current Ir.m.s. .
R
PT = Ir.m.s.
2 2 2
 
2 2 Im1 Im2 Im3
∴ Ir.m.s. R = I0 + + + R
2 2 2
r
2
Im1 2
Im2 2
Im3
∴ Ir.m.s. = I0 +2 + +
2 2 2

If I1 , I2 and I3 are the r.m.s. values of the fundamental, the

second harmonic and the third harmonic respectively, then,
2
Im1 2 Im1
I1 = √ or I1 =
2 2
2 2
2 Im2 2 Im3
Similarly, I2 = and I3 =
2 2
q
∴ Irms = I02 + I12 + I22 + I32

The current Ir.m.s. is the root-mean square value of this

complex waveform. Similarly, the r.m.s. value Vr.m.s. of a complex
voltage wave is -
q
∴ Vrms = V02 + V12 + V22 + V32
Hence, the r.m.s. value of a complex wave (current or voltage) is equal
to the square root of the sum of the squares of the r.m.s. values of its
individual components.
2.5. A.C. CIRCUIT CONTAINING RESISTANCE ONLY 87

Active Power PT
Circuit Power Factor = =
Apperant Power Vrms Irms

2.5 A.C. Circuit Containing Resistance Only

Consider a simple circuit consisting of a pure resistance R ohms

connected across a voltage v = Vm sin ωt. The circuit is shown in
figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4: Pure Resistive Circuit

According to Ohm’s law, we can write the equation of

current i as -
v Vm sin ωt
i= =
R  R

Vm
∴i= sin(ωt)
R
This is the equation giving the instantaneous value of the current.
Comparing this with the standard equation,
i = Im sin(ωt + φ)
Vm
∴ Im = and φ = 0
R

Vm
So, maximum value of alternating current i is Im =
R
while, as φ = 0, it indicates that it is in phase with the voltage
applied. There is no phase difference between the two. The
88 CHAPTER 2. A.C. CIRCUITS

current is going to achieve its maximum (positive or negative)

and zero whenever voltage is going to achieve its maximum
(positive or negative) and zero values.

The waveforms of voltage and current and the

corresponding phasor diagram is shown in figure 2.5 (a) and (b).

Figure 2.5: A.C. through purely resistive circuit

Note : In purely resistive circuit the current and its voltage applied
are in phase with each other.

2.5.1 Power

The instantaneous power in a.c. circuits can be obtained by taking

the product of the instantaneous values of current and voltage.

P = v × i = Vm sin(ωt) × Im sin(ωt)
∴ P = Vm Im sin2 (ωt)
Vm Im
∴P = (1 − cos 2ωt)
2
Vm Im Vm Im
∴P = − cos(2ωt)
2 2

From the above equation, it is clear that the instantaneous

power consists of two components -
2.6. A.C. THROUGH PURE INDUCTANCE 89
 
Vm Im
1 constant power component .
2
 
Vm Im
2 Fluctuating component cos(2ωt) having frequency
2
double the frequency of the applied voltage.

Now, the average value of the fluctuating cosine component

of double frequency is zero, over one complete cycle. So average
power consumption over one cycle is equal to the constant power
Vm Im
component i.e. .
2
Vm Im Vm Im
Pav = =√ ·√
2 2 2
∴ Pav = Vrms × Irms watts

The figure 2.6 shows the waveforms of voltage, current and

power.

Figure 2.6: V, I and P for purely resistive circuit

2.6 A.C. through Pure Inductance

Consider a simple circuit consisting of a pure inductance of L

henries, connected across a voltage given by the equation
v = Vm sin ωt. The circuit is shown in figure 2.7.
90 CHAPTER 2. A.C. CIRCUITS

Figure 2.7: Purely Inductive Circuit

Pure inductance has zero ohmic resistance. Its internal

resistance is zero. The coil has pure inductance of L henries (H).

When alternating current ′ i′ flows through inductance ’L′ , it

sets up an alternating magnetic field around the inductance.This
changing flux links the coil and due to self inductance , e.m.f. gets
induced in the coil. This e.m.f. opposes the applied voltage.

The self induced emf in the coil is given by,

di
Self induced emf, e = −L
dt

At all instants, applied voltage, V is equal and opposite to the self

induced e.m.f, e

 
di
∴ v = e = − −L
dt
di
∴v=L
dt
di
∴ Vm sin ωt = L
dt
Vm
∴ di = sin ωtdt
L
2.6. A.C. THROUGH PURE INDUCTANCE 91

 
Vm Vm − cos ωt
Z Z
i = di = sin ωtdt =
L L ω
Vm  π  π 
∴i=− sin − ωt cos ωt = sin − ωt
ωL 2 2
Vm  π
∴i= sin ωt −
ωL  2
π
∴ i = Im sin ωt −
2
where,
Vm Vm
Im = =
ωL XL
where, XL = ωL = 2πf l Ω

The above equation clearly shows that the current is purely

sinusoidal and having phase angle of − π2 radians i.e. −90o . This
means that the current lags voltage applied by 90o . The negative
sign indicates lagging nature of the current. If current is assumed
as reference, we can say that the voltage across inductance leads
the current passing though inductance by 90o .

Figure 2.8 shows the waveforms and the corresponding

phasor diagram.

Figure 2.8: A.C. through purely Inductive Circuit

92 CHAPTER 2. A.C. CIRCUITS

2.6.1 Concept of Inductive Reactance

In purely inductive circuit,

Vm
Im =
XL

where, XL = ωL = 2πf L Ω
The term XL is called Inductive Reactance and is measured in
ohms.

So, inductive reactance is defined as the opposition offered

by the inductance of a circuit to the flow of an alternating
sinusoidal current.

It is measured in ohms and it depends on the frequency of

the applied voltage.

The inductive reactance is directly proportional to the

frequency for constant L. i.e. XL ∝ f , for constant L. So graph of
XL Vs f is a straight line passing through the origin as shown in
figure 2.9.

Figure 2.9: VL Vs f

Note : If the frequency is zero, which is so for d.c. voltage, the

inductive reactance is zero. Therefore, it is said that the inductance
offers zero reactance for the d.c. or steady current.
2.6. A.C. THROUGH PURE INDUCTANCE 93

2.6.2 Power

The expression for the instantaneous power can be obtained by

taking the product of instantaneous voltage and current.

 π
P = v × i = Vm sin ωt × Im sin ωt −
2 π
= −Vm Im sin (ωt) cos(ωt) as sin ωt − = − cos ωt
2
Vm Im
∴P =− sin(2ωt)
2

Note : This power is a sine curve of frequency double than that of

applied voltage.

The average value of sine curve over a complete cycle is

always zero.
Z 2π
Vm Im
Pav = − sin(2ωt)d(ωt) = 0
0 2

The figure 2.10 shows voltage, current and power

waveforms.

Figure 2.10: Waveform of voltage, current and power

It can be observed from it that when power curve is

positive, energy gets stored in the magnetic field established due
94 CHAPTER 2. A.C. CIRCUITS

to the increasing current while during negative power curve, this

power is returned back to the supply.

The areas of positive loop and negative loop are exactly same
and hence, average power consumption is zero.

Note : Pure inductance never consumes power.

2.7 A.C. through Pure Capacitance

Consider a simple circuit consisting of a pure capacitor of C

farads, connected across a voltage given by the equation,
v = Vm sin ωt. The circuit is shown in the figure 2.11.

Figure 2.11: Purely Capacitive Circuit

The current i charges the capacitor C. The instantaneous

charge q on the plates of the capacitor is given by,

q = Cv
∴ q = CVm sin ωt
2.7. A.C. THROUGH PURE CAPACITANCE 95

Now, current is rate of flow of charge.

dq d
∴i= = (CVm sin ωt)
dt dt
d
∴ i = CVm (sin ωt) = CVm ω cos ωt
dt
Vm  π
∴ i = 1
sin ωt +
ωC 
2
π 
∴ i = Im sin ωt +
2

Vm
where, Im =
XC
1 1
where, XC = = Ω
ωC 2πf C
The above equation clearly shows that the current is purely
sinusoidal and having phase angle of + π2 radians i.e. +90o .

This means current leads voltage appied by 90o . The positive

sign indicates leading nature of the current. If current is assumed
reference, we can say that voltage across capacitor lags the current
passing through the capacitor by 90o .

Figure 2.12 shows waveforms of voltage and current and

the corresponding phasor diagram. The current waveform starts
earlier by 90o in comparison with voltage waveform. When
voltage is zero, the current has positive maximum value.

Figure 2.12: A.C. through purely capacitive circuit

96 CHAPTER 2. A.C. CIRCUITS

Note : In purely capacitive circuit, current leads voltage by 90o .

2.7.1 Concept of Capacitive Reactance

We have seen that, the current through capacitor in the standard

form is
Vm
Im = and
XC
1 1
XC = = Ω
ωC 2πf C
The term XC is called Capacitive Reactance and is measured in
ohms. So capacitive reactance is defined as the opposition offered
by the capacitance of a circuit to the flow of an alternating sinusoidal
current.

XC is measured in ohms and it depends on the frequency of

the applied voltage.

The capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the

frequency for constant C.
1
XC ∝ for constant C
f
The graph of XC Vs f is a rectangular hyperbola as shown in figure
2.13.

Figure 2.13: XC vs f
2.8. A.C.THROUGH SERIES R-C CIRCUIT 97

Note : If the frequency is zero, which is so for d.c. voltage, the capacitive
reactance is infinite. Therefore, it is said that the capacitance offers open
circuit to the d.c. or it blocks d.c.

2.7.2 Power

Instantaneous power is given by ;

π
P = vi = Vm sin ωt × Im sin(ωt + ) = Vm Im sin ωt cos ωt
2
Vm Im
∴P = sin(2ωt)
2
The average power can be calculated as ±
Z 2π
1 Vm Im
Pav = sin(2ωt)d(ωt)
2π 0 2
∴ Pav = 0

Hence power absorbed in a pure capacitance is zero.

2.8 A.C.through Series R-C Circuit

Fig. 2.14 shows a resistance of R ohms connected in series with a

capacitor of C farad.

Figure 2.14: Series RC circuit

98 CHAPTER 2. A.C. CIRCUITS

Let V = r.m.s. value of applied voltage

I = r.m.s. value of the circuit current
VR = IR........... where VR is in phase with I
VC = IXC ......... where VC lags I by 90o

Taking current as the reference phasor, the phasor diagram

of the circuit can be drawn as shown in Fig. 2.15. The voltage drop
VR (= IR) is in phase with current and is represented in magnitude
and direction by the phasor OA. The voltage drop VC (= IXC ) lags
behind the current by 90o and is represented in magnitude and
direction by the phasor AB. The applied voltage V is the phasor
sum of these two drops i.e.

Figure 2.15: Phasor diagram of series RC circuit

p
The quantity R2 + XC2 offers opposition to current flow
and is called impedance of the circuit.

V
q
I= where,Z = R2 + XC2
Z
2.8. A.C.THROUGH SERIES R-C CIRCUIT 99

Figure 2.16:

1 Phase angle : It is clear from the phasor diagram that circuit

current I leads the applied voltage V by φo . This fact is also
illustrated in the wave diagram (See Fig. 2.16) and impedance
triangle (See Fig. 2.16) of the circuit. The value of the phase
angle can be determined as under :
VC IXC XC
tan φ = − =− =−
VR IR R
Since current is taken as the reference phasor, negative phase
angle implies that voltage lags behind the current. This is the
same thing as current leads the voltage.
If the applied voltage is v = Vm sin ωt, then equation for the
circuit current will be :
Vm
i = Im sin(ωt + φ) where, Im =
Z

2 Power : The equations for voltage and current are :

v = Vm sin ωt; i = Im sin(ωt + φ)

P = Power in R + Power in C
V
P = I 2 R + 0 = IR × I = IR ×
Z
R
∴P =VI × = V I cos φ
Z
100 CHAPTER 2. A.C. CIRCUITS

2.9 A.C.through Series R-L-C Circuit

This is a general series a.c. circuit. Fig. 2.17 shows R, L and C

connected in series across a supply voltage V (r.m.s.). The
resulting circuit current is I (r.m.s.).
Voltage across R , VR = IR... VR is in phase with I
Voltage across L, VL = IXL ... where VL leads I by 90o
Voltage across C, VC = IXC ... where VC lags I by 90o

Figure 2.17: Series R-L-C circuit

As before, the phasor diagram is drawn taking current as

the reference phasor. In the phasor diagram (See Fig. 2.17), OA
represents VR , AB represents VL and AC represents VC . It may be
seen that VL is in phase opposition to VC . It follows that the
circuit can either be effectively inductive or capacitive depending
upon which voltage drop (VL or VC ) is predominant. For the case
considered, VL > VC so that net voltage drop across L-C
combination is VL –VC and is represented by AD. Therefore, the
applied voltage V is the phasor sum of VR and VL –VC and is
represented by OD.
2.9. A.C.THROUGH SERIES R-L-C CIRCUIT 101

q
2
p
2
V = VR + (VL − VC ) = (IR)2 + (IXL − IXC )2
p
∴ V = I R2 + (XL − XC )2
V
∴I=p
R2 + (XL − XC )2
p
The quantity R2 + (XL − XC )2 offers opposition to current
flow and is called impedance of the circuit.

R R
Circuit Power Factor, cos φ = =p
Z R2 + (XL − XC )2
VL − VC XL − XC
also, tan φ = =
VR R

Since XL , XC and R are known, phase angle φ of the circuit

can be determined.

Power Consumed, P = V I cos φ = I 2 R

Three cases of R-L-C series circuit.

We have seen that the impedance of a R-L-C series circuit is given
by ; p
Z = R2 + (XL − XC )2

1 When XL –XC is positive (i.e. XL > XC ), phase angle φ is

positive and the circuit will be inductive. In other words, in
such a case, the circuit current I will lag behind the applied
voltage V by φ.
2 When XL –XC is negative (i.e. XC > XL ), phase angle φ is
negative and the circuit is capacitive. That is to say the circuit
current I leads the applied voltage V by φ .
102 CHAPTER 2. A.C. CIRCUITS

3 When XL –XC is zero (i.e. XL = XC ), the circuit is purely

resistive. In other words, circuit current I and applied voltage
V will be in phase i.e. φ = 0o . The circuit will then have unity
power factor.

If the equation for the applied voltage is v = Vm sinωt, then

equation for the circuit current will be :

Vm
i = Im sin(ωt ± φ) where, Im =
Z

2.10 Resonance in A.C. Circuits

An a.c. circuit containing reactive elements (L and C) is said to be in

resonance when the circuit power factor is unity.

Resonance means to be in step with. When applied voltage

and circuit current in an a.c. circuit are in step with (i.e. phase
angle is zero or p.f. is unity), the circuit is said to be in electrical
resonance. If this condition exists in a series a.c. circuit, it is called
series resonance. On the other hand, if this condition exists in a
parallel a.c. circuit, it is called parallel resonance. The frequency at
which resonance occurs is called resonant frequency (fr ).

2.11 Resonance in Series A.C. Circuit (Series

Resonance)

A series R-L-C a.c. circuit is said to be in resonance when circuit

power factor is unity.

Consider a series R-L-C circuit connected to a.c. supply of V

volts (r.m.s.). The circuit impedance (Z) and circuit current (I) are
2.11. RESONANCE IN SERIES A.C. CIRCUIT (SERIES RESONANCE) 103

given by ;
p
Z= R2 + (XL − XC )2
V V
I= =p
Z R2 + (XL − XC )2
Resonance will occur in this circuit when circuit power factor is
unity. This will happen when XL = XC . Regardless of the values
of inductance (L) and capacitance (C), there is one frequency at
which these two reactances are equal because XL and XC are
frequency dependent. The frequency at which XL = XC (i.e.
circuit power factor becomes unity) is called resonant frequency fr .

The resonant frequency (fr ) for R ± L ± C series a.c. circuit is

defined as the frequency at which XL = XC .

At series resonance,

XL = XC
1
∴ 2πfr L =
2πfr C
1
∴ Resonant Frequency, fr = √
2π LC

2.11.1 Effects of series resonance

The key points concerning series resonance are :

1 XL = XC
1
2 fr = √
2π LC
3 Zr = minimum = R
V V
4 Circuit Current, Ir = = = Maximum
Zr R
5 Circuit Power Factor = 1
104 CHAPTER 2. A.C. CIRCUITS

6 Power dissipated in the circuit is maximum.

7 Since at series resonance the current flowing in the circuit is

very large, the voltage drops across L and C are also very
large. In fact, these drops are much greater than the applied
voltage. However, voltage drop across L±C combination as a
whole will be zero because these drops are equal in
magnitude but 180o out of phase with each other.

2.11.2 Graphical Explanation

Fig. 2.18 shows the graphical explanation of series resonance. We

know that XL = 2πf L so that XL ∝ f . Therefore, graph between
XL and f is a straight line passing through the origin. Also XC =
1
2πf C so that XC ∝ 1/f . Therefore, graph between XC and f is a
hyperbola.

Starting at a very low frequency, XC is high and XL is low

and the circuit is predominantly capacitive. As the frequency is
increased, XC decreases and XL increases until a value is reached
(point P) where XL = XC . At this frequency (fr ), the two
reactances cancel, making the circuit purely resistive. This
condition is series resonance. As frequency is increased further
(i.e. beyond fr ), XL becomes greater than XC and the circuit is
predominantly inductive. Note that at series resonance, the
circuit impedance is minimum and is equal to circuit resistance R.
2.11. RESONANCE IN SERIES A.C. CIRCUIT (SERIES RESONANCE) 105

Figure 2.18: Graph of Series Resonance

2.11.3 Resonance Curve

The curve between current and frequency is known as resonance

curve. Fig.2.19 shows the resonance curve of a typical R-L-C
series circuit. Note that current reaches its maximum value at the
resonant frequency (fr ), falling off rapidly on either side at that
point. It is because if the frequency is below fr , XC > XL and the
net reactance is no longer zero. If the frequency is above fr , then
XL > XC and the net reactance is again not zero. In both cases,
the circuit impedance will be more than the impedance Zr (= R)at
resonance. The result is that the magnitude of circuit current
decreases rapidly as the frequency changes from the resonant
frequency. Note also the effect of resistance in the circuit. The
smaller the resistance, the greater the current at resonance and
sharper the curve. On the other hand, the greater the resistance,
the lower the resonant peak and flatter the curve (See Fig. 2.19).
106 CHAPTER 2. A.C. CIRCUITS

Figure 2.19: Resonance Curve

2.11.4 Q-Factor of Series Resonant Circuit

At series resonance, VL = Ir XL and VC = Ir XC

VL I r XL XL
∴ = =
V Ir R R
VC I r XC XC
and = =
V Ir R R

The ratio VL /V or VC /V at resonance is a measure of the

quality of a series resonant circuit. This is called the Q-factor (Q
stands for quality) of the circuit. It is also known as the voltage
magnification factor.

XL ωr L
Q- factor, Q = =
R R
XC 1
also Q- factor, Q = =
R ωr CR
Since the coil resistance is often the only resistance in a series
resonant circuit, the Q is sometimes referred to as the Q-factor of
the coil. Therefore, we use the expression XL /R for Q in series
resonant circuit.

The Q-factor of a series resonant circuit can also be expressed

2.11. RESONANCE IN SERIES A.C. CIRCUIT (SERIES RESONANCE) 107

in terms of L and C. We know that,

1
fr = √
2π LC
1
∴ 2πfr = √
LC
1
∴ ωr = √
LC

Substituting ωr in the equation-

XL ωr L
Q- factor, Q = =
R R
√1 L
LC
∴ Q- factor, Q =
R
r
1 L
∴ Q- factor, Q =
R C

It is clear that the Q-factor of a series resonant circuit may be

increased either by reducing R or by increasing the L/C ratio.

The series resonant circuit is also called an acceptor circuit

because such a circuit accepts currents at one particular
frequency (i.e., fr ) but virtually rejects currents of other
frequencies. Such circuits are used in radio and television
receivers.

2.11.5 Bandwidth of a Series Resonant Circuit

Consider the current versus frequency graph of a R-L-C series

circuit shown in Fig. 2.20.
108 CHAPTER 2. A.C. CIRCUITS

Figure 2.20:

It is clear from the graph that the current reaches maximum

value (= Ir ) at resonance. It is also clear that at frequencies close
to resonance, the current level is only a little below its maximum
value. Thus the resonant circuit is said to select a band (i.e., range)
of frequencies rather than just one frequency fr . We arbitrarily
select frequency f1 below fr and frequency f2 above fr such that
at f1 and f2 , the circuit current = 0.707Ir where Ir is the circuit
current at resonance as shown in Fig. 2.20. Then,

Bandwidth of the series resonant circuit is -

Bandwidth, BW = △f = f2 –f1

Hence bandwidth of a series resonant circuit is the range of

frequencies for which the circuit current is equal to or greater than 70.7
% of the circuit current at resonance (i.e., Ir ).

Note that f1 and f2 are the limiting frequencies at which

current is exactly equal to 70.7 % of the maximum value. The
frequency f1 (i.e., on the lower side) is called the lower cut off
frequency and the frequency f2 (i.e., on the higher side) is called
the upper cut off frequency. The frequencies f1 and f2 are also
called half-power frequencies (or half-power points) or ±3dB
frequencies.

1 The frequencies f1 and f2 are called half-power frequencies .

2.11. RESONANCE IN SERIES A.C. CIRCUIT (SERIES RESONANCE) 109

At series resonance, the circuit current is maximum (= Ir ) and

circuit impedance is R. Also power delivered at resonance is
maximum (Pmax ) and is given by ;
Pmax = Ir2 R

At f1 or f2 , circuit current = 0.707 Ir so that power delivered

at f1 or f2 is -

2 Ir2 R Pmax
Pf 1 or Pf 2 = (0.707Ir ) R = =
2 2
Hence frequencies f1 and f2 may also be defined as those
frequencies at which the power delivered to the circuit is half the
power delivered at resonance.
2 The frequencies f1 and f2 are also called ± 3dB frequencies.
Power delivered at resonance = P max
Pmax
Power delivered atf1 orf2 =
2
∴ Change in power level from resonance to f1 or f2
Pmax
= 10 log10 = 10 log10 2
Pmax /2
= 3dB below reference = −3dB

Hence frequencies f1 and f2 can also be defined as those

frequencies at which the power is 3 dB below the power at
resonance.
Other names for f1 and f2 are critical frequencies and band
frequencies.

Important points about f1 and f2 :

At f1 and f2 ,

Ir
1. Circuit current is √ where Ir = current at resonance.
2
110 CHAPTER 2. A.C. CIRCUITS
√ √
2. Circuit impedance is 2R or 2Zr .

Pmax
3. P1 = P2 =
2
4. Circuit phase angle is φ = ±45o .

2.11.6 Expression for Half Power Frequencies

In R-L-C series circuit, the current is maximum at resonance and

its value is Im (= Ir ) = V /R. The magnitude of circuit current at
any frequency is given by ;

V
I=q
R(2 XL − XC )2

This equation can be rewritten as :

V
I=q
2
R 1 + XL −X
R
C

Im
∴I=q
2
1 + XL −X
R
C

Im
At half power points, I = √
2

Im Im
∴√ =q
2 1 + XL −X C

2
R

∴ At half power points,

XL − XC
=1
R
∴ XL − XC = R
2.11. RESONANCE IN SERIES A.C. CIRCUIT (SERIES RESONANCE) 111

But at fr , XL –XC = 0. Therefore, when the frequency

increases from fr to f2 , XL must increase by R/2and XC must
decrease by R/2.

R
∴ 2πf2 L − 2πfr L =
2
R
∴ f2 − fr =
4πL
R
∴ f2 = fr +
4πL

Similarly, when the frequency decreases from fr to f1 , XC

must increase by R/2 and XL must decrease by R/2.

R
∴ 2πfr L − 2πf1 L =
2
R
∴ fr − f1 =
4πL
R
∴ f1 = fr −
4πL

2.11.7 Expression for Bandwidth

We know that,
R
f2 = fr +
4πL
R
f1 = fr −
4πL
R
∴ f2 − f1 =
2πL
But f2 –f1 is the bandwidth (BW) of the series resonant circuit.
R
Bandwidth, BW =
2πL
112 CHAPTER 2. A.C. CIRCUITS

It is clear that smaller the ratio R/L, the narrower will be the
bandwidth and vice-versa. We can also express the bandwidth
of a series resonant circuit in terms of the Q-factor of the series
resonant circuit.

Rfr
f2 − f1 =
2πfr L
2πfr L R 1
But, Q = so that =
R 2πfr L Q
fr
∴ f2 − f1 =
Q
fr
∴ Bandwidth BW = f2 − f1 =
Q

Clearly, the greater the value of Q, the narrower will be the

bandwidth. The circuit effectively rejects currents whose
frequencies are outside f2 –f1 . The ability of a resonant circuit to
select one particular frequency and to discriminate against other
frequencies is termed as selectivity of the circuit. The circuits with
the narrowest bandwidths obviously have greatest selectivity.
Note that series resonance is also called voltage resonance
because at series resonance, very large voltages are developed
across L and C − Q times the applied voltage.
Chapter 3

Magnetic Circuits

3.1 Laws of Magnetism

There are two fundamental laws of magnetism which are as

follows :

1 Law 1 : It states that ‘Like magnetic ploes repel and unlike

poles attract each other’.
2 Law 2 : This law is experimentally proved by Scientist
Coulomb and hence also known as Coulomb’s Law.
The force (F) exerted by one pole on the other pole is
(a) directly proportional to the product of the pole strengths.
(b) inversely proportional to the square of the distances
between them and,
(c) nature of medium surrounding the pole.
Mathematically this law can be expressed as,
M1 M2
F ∝
d2
where, M1 and M2 are pole strengths of the poles while d is
distance between the poles.
KM1 M2
∴F =
d2
113
114 CHAPTER 3. MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

where, K depends on the nature of the surroundings and

called permeability.

3.2 Basic Definitions of Magnetic Circuits

3.2.1 Magnetic Field

Magnet has its influence on the surrounding medium. The region

around a magnet within which the influence of the magnet can be
experienced is called magnetic field. Existence of such field can
be experienced with the help of compass needle, iron or pieces of
metals or by bringing another magnet in the vicinity of a magnet.

3.2.2 Magnetic Lines of Force

The magnetic field of magnet is represented by imaginary lines

around it which are called magnetic lines of force. These lines
have no physical existence, these are purely imaginary and were
introduced by Michael Faraday to get the visualization of
distribution of such lines of force.

3.2.3 Magnetic Flux

The total number of lines of force existing in a particular magnetic

field is called magnetic flux. Lines of force can be called lines of
magnetic flux. The unit of flux is weber and flux is denoted by
symbol (φ). The unit weber is denoted by Wb.

1weber = 108 lines of force

3.2. BASIC DEFINITIONS OF MAGNETIC CIRCUITS 115

3.2.4 Pole Strength

Every pole has a capacity to radiate or accept certain number of

magnetic lines of force i.e. magnetic flux which is called its
strength. Pole strength is measurable quantity assigned to poles
which depends on the force between the poles. If two poles are
exerting equal force on one other, they are said to have equal pole
strength.

Unit of pole strength is weber as pole strength is directly

related to flux i.e. lines of force.

3.2.5 Magnetic Flux Density (B)

It can be defined as ªThe flux per unit area (a) in a plane at right
angles to the Flux is known as ‘flux density’. Mathematically,
φ Wb
B= or Tesla
a m2

It is shown in the figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1: Concept of magnetic flux density

3.2.6 Magnetic Field Strength (H)

This gives the quantitative measure of strongness or weakness of

the magnetic field. Note that pole strength and magnetic field
116 CHAPTER 3. MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

strength are different. This can be defined as ‘The force

experienced by a unit N-pole (i.e. N pole with 1 Wb of pole
strength) when placed at any point in a magnetic field is known
as magnetic field strength at that point.

It is denoted by H and its unit is newtons per weber i.e.

(N/Wb) or amperes per meter (A/m) or ampere turns per meter
(AT/m). The mathematical expression for calculating magnetic
field strength is,

ampere turns
H=
length
NI
∴H=
l

More the value of H, more stronger is the magnetic field. This is

also called magnetic field intensity.

3.2.7 Permeability

The flow of flux produced by the magnet not only depends on the
magnetic field strength but also on the important property of the
magnetic material called permeability. It is related to the medium
in which magnet is placed. The force exerted by one magnetic pole
on other depends on the medium in which magnets are placed.

The permeability is defined as the ability or ease with which the

magnetic material forces the magnetic flux through a given medium.

For any magnetic material, there are two permeabilities,

1 Absolute permeability

2 Relative permeability
3.2. BASIC DEFINITIONS OF MAGNETIC CIRCUITS 117

Absolute Permeability µ

The magnetic field strength (H) decides the flux density (B) to be
produced by the magnet around it, in a given medium. The ratio
of magnetic flux density B in a particular medium (other than
vacuum or air) to the magnetic field strength H producing that
flux density is called absolute permeability of that medium.

It is denoted by µ and mathematically can be expressed as,

B
µ=
H
∴ B = µH

The permeability is measured in units henries per meter as

H/m.

Permeability of Free Space or Vacuum (µ0 )

If the magnet is placed in a free space or vacuum or in air then

the ratio of flux density B and magnetic field strength H is called
Permeability of free space or Vacuum or air.

It is denoted as µ0 and measured in H/m. It denotes the ease

with which the magnetic flux permeates the free space or vacuum
or air.

It is experimentally found that this µ0 i.e. ratio of B and H

in vacuum remains constant every where in the vaccum and its
value is 4π × 10−7 H/m.
B
∴ µ0 = in vacuum = 4π × 10−7 H/m
H

The ratio of B and H is constant only for free space, vacuum

or air which is µ0 = 4π × 10−7 H/m.
118 CHAPTER 3. MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

Relative Permeability µr

Generally the permeability of different magnetic materials is

defined relative to the permeability of free space (µ). The relative
permeability is defined as the ratio of flux density produced in a
medium (other than free space) to the flux density produced in
free space, under the influence of same magnetic field strength
and under identical conditions.

Thus if the magnetic field strength is H which is producing

flux density B in the medium while flux density B0 in free space
then the relative permeability is defined as,
B
µr = where H is same
B0

It is dimensionless and has no units.

For free space, vacuum or air, µr = 1.

According to definition of absolute permeability we can

write for given H,
B
µ= in medium (3.1)
H
B0
µ0 = in free space (3.2)
H
Dividing (3.1) and (3.2),
µ B
=
µ0 B0
B
But, = µr
B0
µ
= µr
µ0
∴ µ = µ0 µr H/m

The relative permeability of metals like iron, steel varies from 100
to 100,000.
3.2. BASIC DEFINITIONS OF MAGNETIC CIRCUITS 119

3.2.8 Magnetomotive Force (M.M.F.)

The flow of electrons is current which is basically due to

electromotive force (e.m.f.). Similarly the force behind the flow of
flux or production of flux in a magnetic circuit is called
magnetomotive force (m.m.f.). The m.m.f. determines the
magnetic field strength.

It is the driving force behind the magnetic circuit. It is given

by the product of the number of turns of the magnetizing coil and
the current passing through it.

Mathematically it can be expressed as,

m.m.f. = N I ampere turns

where, N = Number of turns of magnetising coil and I is the

current through coil.

Its unit is ampere turns (AT) or amperes (A).

It is also defined as the work done in joules on a unit

magnetic pole in taking it once round a closed magnetic circuit.

3.2.9 Reluctance (S)

In an electric circuit, current flow is opposed by the resistance of

the material, similarly there is opposition by the material to the
flow of flux which is called reluctance.

It is defined as the resistance offered by the material to the

flow of magnetic flux through it. It is denoted by ’S’. It is directly
proportional to the length of the magnetic circuit while inversely
120 CHAPTER 3. MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

proportional to the area of cross-section.

l
S∝
a
Kl
∴S=
a
where, l in m while a in m2 .

K = Constant of proportionality
1
= Reciprocal of absolute permeability of material =
µ
l l
∴S= = A/Wb
µa µ0 µr a
It is measured in amperes per weber.

The reluctance can be also expressed as the ratio of

magnetomotive force to the flux produced.

m.m.f.
Reluctance =
flux
NI
∴S= AT/Wb or A/Wb
φ

3.2.10 Permeance

The permeance of the magnetic circuit is defined as the reciprocal

of the reluctance.

It is defined as the property of the magnetic circuit due to

which it allows flow of the magnetic flux through it.
1
∴ Permeance =
Reluctance

It is measured in weber per amperes (Wb/A).

3.3. MAGNETIC CIRCUITS 121

3.3 Magnetic Circuits

The magnetic circuit can be defined as the closed path traced by

the magnetic lines of force i.e. flux. Such a magnetic circuit is
associated with different magnetic quantities as m.m.f., flux
reluctance, permeability etc.

Consider simple magnetic circuit shown in the figure 3.2.

This circuit consists of an iron core with cross-sectional area of a
m2 with a mean length of l m. A coil of N turns is wound on one
of the side of the square core which is excited by a supply. This
supply drives a current I through the coil. This current carrying
coil produces the flux φ which completes its path through the
core as shown in figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2: Magnetic circuit

This is analogous to simple electric circuit in which a supply

i.e. e.m.f of E volts drives a current I which completes its path
through a closed conductor having resistance R. This analogous
electric circuit is shown in the figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3: Electrical equivalent of magnetic circuit

122 CHAPTER 3. MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

Let,
I = Current flowing through the coil
N = Number of turns
φ = Flux per webers
B = Flux density in the core
µ = Absolute permeability of the magnetic material
µr = Relative permeability of the magnetic material

Magnetic field strength inside the solenoid is given by,

NI
H= AT/m
l

Now, flux density is,

B = µH
µ 0 µr N I
∴B=
l

Now as area of cross section is a m2 , total flux in core is,

µ0 µr N Ia
φ = Ba = Wb
l
NI
i.e. φ = l
µ0 µr a
m.m.f. F
∴φ= =
reluctance S
where,
N I = Magnetomotive force m.m.f. in AT

l
S=
µ 0 µr a
= Reluctance offered by the magnetic path

This expression of the flux is very much similar to expression

for current in electric circuit. So current is analogous to the flux,
e.m.f. is analogous to the m.m.f. and resistance is analogous to the
reluctance.
3.3. MAGNETIC CIRCUITS 123

3.3.1 Series Magnetic Circuits

In practice magnetic circuit may be composed of various

materials of different permeabilities, of different lengths and of
different cross-sectional areas. Such a circuit is called composite
magnetic circuit. When such parts are connected one after the
other the circuit is called series magnetic circuit.

Consider the circular ring made up of different materials of

lengths l1 , l2 and l3 and with cross sectional areas a1 , a2 and a3 with
absolute permeabiities µ1 , µ2 and µ3 as shown in the figure 3.4.

Figure 3.4: A series magnetic circuit

Let coil wound on ring has N turns carrying a current of I

amperes.
The total m.m.f. available is = N I

This will set the flux φ which is same through all the three
elements of the circuit.

This is similar to three resistances connected in series in

electrical circuit and connected to e.m.f. carrying same current I
through all of them.

Its analogous electric circuit can be shown in figure 3.5.

124 CHAPTER 3. MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

Figure 3.5: Equivalent electrical circuit

The total resistance of the electric circuit is R1 + R2 + R3 .

Similarly the total reluctance of the magnetic circuit is,
I1 I2 I3
Total ST = S1 + S2 + S3 = + +
µ 1 a1 µ 2 a2 µ 3 a3
Total m.m.f. NI NI
∴ Total φ = = =
Total reluctance ST (S1 + S2 + S3 )
∴ N I = St φ = (S1 + S2 + S3 )φ
∴ N I = S1 φ + S2 φ + S3 φ
∴ (mmf)T = (mmf)1 + (mmf)2 + (mmf)3

The total m.m.f. also can be expressed as,

(mmf)T = H1 l1 + H2 l2 + H3 l3
B1 B2 B3
where, H1 = H2 = H3 =
µ1 µ2 µ3
So for a series magnetic circuit we can remember -

1. The magnetic flux through all the parts is same.

2. The equivalent reluctance is sum of the reluctance of different
parts.
3. The resultant m.m.f. necessary is sum of the m.m.f.s in each
individual part.
3.3. MAGNETIC CIRCUITS 125

3.3.2 Series Circuit with Air Gap

The series magnetic circuit can also have a short air gap. Such air
gap is not possible in case of electric circuit.

Consider a ring having mean length of iron part as li as

shown in the figure 3.6.

Figure 3.6: A ring with an air gap

Total m.m.f. = N I
Total reluctance = ST = Si + Sg
where, Si = Reluctance of iron path
Sg = Reluctance of air gap

li
∴ Si =
µai
lg
∴ Sg =
µo ai

The cross-sectional area of air gap is assumed to be equal to

area of the iron ring.
li lg
∴ ST = +
µai µ0 ai
m.m.f. NI
∴φ= =
Reluctance ST
orTotal m.m.f. = m.m.f. for iron + m.mf. for air gap
∴ N I = Si φ + Sg φ AT for ring
126 CHAPTER 3. MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

3.3.3 Parallel Magnetic Circuits

In case of electric circuits, resistances can be connected in parallel.

Current through each of such resistances is different while voltage
across all of them is same. Simiarly different reluctances may be in
parallel in case of magnetic circuits. A magnetic circuit which has
more than one path for the flux is known as a parallel magnetic
circuit.

Figure 3.7: A parallel magnetic circuit

Consider a magnetic circuit shown in the figure 3.7(a). At

point A the total flux φ divides into two parts phi1 and φ2 .
∴ φ = φ1 + φ2

The fluxes φ1 and φ2 have their paths completed through

ABCD and AFED respectively.

This is similar to division of current in case of parallel

connection of two resistances in an electric circuit. The analogous
electric circuit is shown in the figure 3.7(b).

The mean length of path ABCD = l1 m

The mean length of the path AFED = l2 m
The mean length of the path AD = lc m
The reluctance of the path ABCD = S1
The reluctance of path AFED = S2
The reluctance of path AD = Sc
The total m.m.f. produced = N I AT
3.3. MAGNETIC CIRCUITS 127

m.m.f.
flux =
reluctance
∴ m.m.f. = φ × S
∴ For path ABCDA, N I = φ1 S1 + φSc
For path AFEDA, N I = φ2 S2 + φSc

I1 I2 Ic
where, S1 = S2 = Sc =
µa1 µa2 µac
Generally a1 = a2 = ac = Area if cross section.

For parallel circuit, total m.m.f. = m.m.f required by central

limb + m.m.f. required by any one of outer limbs

N I = (N I)AD + (N I)ABCD or (N I)AF ED

∴ N I = φSc + [φ1 S1 or φ2 S2 ]

As in the electric circuit e.m.f. across parallel branches is

same, in the magnetic circuit the m.m.f. across parallel branches is
same.

Thus same m.m.f. produces different fluxes in the two

parallel branches. For such parallel branches,

φ 1 S 1 = φ 2 S2

Hence while calculating total m.m.f., the m.m.f. of only one

of the two parallel branches must be considered.

3.3.4 Parallel Magnetic Circuit with Air Gap

Consider a parallel magnetic circuit with air gap in the central

limb as shown in the figure 3.8.
128 CHAPTER 3. MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

Figure 3.8: Parallel circuit with air gap

The central limb is series combination of iron path and air

gap. The central limb is made up of,

path GD = iron path = lc

path GA = air gap = lg

The total flux produced is φ. It gets divided at A into φ1 and

φ2 .
∴ φ = φ1 + φ2

The reluctance of central limb is now,

lc lg
Sc = Si + Sg = +
µac µ0 ac

Hence m.m.f. of central limb is now,

(mmf)AD = (mmf)GD + (mmf)GA

Hence the total m.m.f. can be expressed as,

(N I)total = (N I)GD + (N I)GA + (N I)ABCD or (N I)AF ED

Thus the electrical equivalent circuit for such case becomes as

shown in the figure 3.9.
3.4. KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS FOR MAGNETIC CIRCUIT 129

Figure 3.9: Electrical equivalent circuit

3.4 Kirchhoff’s Laws for Magnetic Circuit

Similar to the electrical circuit Kirchhoff’s Laws can be used to

analyze complex magnetic circuit.

3.4.1 Kirchhoff’s Flux Law

The total magnetic flux arriving at any junction in a magnetic

circuit is equal to the total magnetic flux leaving that junction.

At a junction,
X
φ=0

3.4.2 Kirchhoff’s M.M.F. Law

The resultant m.m.f. around a closed magnetic circuit is equal to

the algebraic sum of the products of the flux and the reluctance of
each part of the closed circuit i.e. for a closed magnetic circuit.
X X
m.m.f = φS

As φ × S = flux × reluctance = m.m.f. .

M.M.F. also can be calculated as H × l, where H is field

130 CHAPTER 3. MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

strength and l is mean length.

∴ m.m.f. = Hl

Alternatively the same law can be stated as :

The resultant m.m.f. around any closed loop of a magnetic circuit
is equal to the algebraic sum of the products of the magnetic field
strength and the length of each part of the circuit i.e. for a closed
magnetic circuit. X X
m.m.f. = Hl

3.5 Comparison of Magnetic and Electric Circuits

Similarities between electric and magnetic circuits are listed below

:
S.N. Electric Circuit Magnetic Circuit
1 Path traced by the current is Path traced by the magnetic
called electric circuit. flux is defined as magnetic
circuit.
2 E.M.F. is the driving force M.M.F. is the driving force in
in electric circuit, the unit is the magnetic circuit, the unit
volts. of which is ampere turns.
3 There is current I in the There is flux φ in the
electric circuit measured in magnetic circuit measured in
amperes. webers.
4 The flow of electrons decides The number of magnetic
the current in conductor. lines of force decides the
flux.
5 Resistance opposes the flow Reluctance is opposed by
of the current. Unit is ohm. magnetic path to the flux.
Unit is ampere turn/weber.
3.5. COMPARISON OF MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 131

6 R = ρla , directly proportional S = I

µ0 µr a , Directly
to l, Inversely proportional proportional to I, inversely
to a , Depends on nature of proportional to µ = µ0 µr ,
material. Inversely proportional to
area a.
e.m.f. m.m.f.
7 The current I = Resistance The flux φ = reluctance
8 The current density δ = aI The flux density B = φa
A/m2 W b/m2
9 Conductivity is reciprocal Permeance is reciprocal of
of the resistivity. the reluctance. Permeance =
I 1
Conductance = R S
10 Kirchhoff’s current and Kirchhoff’s m.m.f. law and
voltage law is applicable to flux law is applicable to the
the electric circuit. magnetic circuit.

There are few dissimilarities between the two which are

listed below :
S.N. Electric Circuit Magnetic Circuit
1 In the electric circuit the Due to m.m.f. flux gets
current actually flows established and does not
i.e. there is movement of flow in the sense in which
electrons. current flows.
2 There are many materials There is no magnetic
which can be used as insulator as flux can pass
insulators i.e. air, P.V.C. through all the materials,
synthetic resin etc, from even through the air as well.
which current can not pass.
3 Energy must be supplied Energy is required to create
to the electric circuit to the magnetic flux, but is not
maintain the flow of current. required to maintain it.
132 CHAPTER 3. MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

4 The resistance and The reluctance, permeance

the conductivity are and permeability are
independent of current dependent on the flux
density under constant density.
temperature. But may
change due to temperature.
5 Electric lines of flux are not Magnetic lines of flux are
closed. They start from closed lines. They flow from
positive charge and end on N pole to S pole externally
negative charge. while S pole to N pole
internally.
6 There is continuous Energy is required to create
consumption of electrical the magnetic flux and not to
energy. maintain it.

3.6 Magnetic Leakage and Fringing

Most of the applications which are using magnetic effects of an

electric current, are using flux in air gap for their operation. Such
devices are generators, motors, measuring instruments like
ammeter, voltmeter etc. Such devices consists of magnetic circuit
with the air gap and flux in air gap is used to produce the
required effect.

Such flux which is available in air gap and is utilized to

produce the desired effect is called useful flux denoted by φu .

It is expected that whatever is the flux produced by the

magnetic coil, it should complete its path through the iron and air
gap. So all the flux will be available in air gap. In actual practice
it is not possible to have entire flux available in air gap. This is is
because, we have seen that there is no perfect insulator for the
flux. So part of the flux completes its path through the air or
medium in which coil and magnetic circuit is placed.
3.6. MAGNETIC LEAKAGE AND FRINGING 133

Such flux which leaks and completes its path through

surrounding air or medium instead of the desired path is called
the leakage flux.

The figure 3.10 shows the useful and leakage flux.

Figure 3.10: Leakage and useful flux

3.6.1 Leakage Coefficient or Hopkinson’s Coefficient

The ratio of the total flux (φT ) to the useful flux (φu ) is defined
as the leakage coefficient of Hopkinson’s coefficient or leakage
factor of that magnetic circuit.

It is denoted by λ.
Total Flux φT
∴λ= =
Useful Flux φu

The value of λ is always greater than 1 as φT is always more

than φu . It generally varies between 1.1 and 1.25. Ideally its value
should be 1.

3.6.2 Magnetic Fringing

When flux enters into the air gap, it passes through the air gap
in terms of parallel flux lines. There exists a force of repulsion
between the magnetic lines of force which are parallel and having
same direction. Due to this repulsive force there is tendency of the
134 CHAPTER 3. MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

magnetic flux to bulge out (Spread out) at the edge of the air gap.
This tendency of flux to bulge out at the edges of the air gap is
called magnetic fringing.

Figure 3.11: Magnetic Fringing

It has following two effects:

1 It increases the effective cross-sectional area of the air gap.

2 It reduces the flux density in the air gap.

So leakage, fringing and reluctance, in practice should be as

small as possible.

3.7 B-H Curve or Magnetization Curve

We know that the magnetic field strength H is Nl I . As current in

coil changes, magnetic field strength also changes. Due to this flux
produced and hence the flux density also changes. So there exists
a particular relationship between B and H for a material which can
be shown on the graph.

The graph between the flux density (B) and the magnetic
field strength (H) for the magnetic material is called as its
magnetization curve or B-H curve.

Let us obtain the B-H curve experimentally for a magnetic

material. The arrangement required is shown in the figure 3.12.
3.7. B-H CURVE OR MAGNETIZATION CURVE 135

Figure 3.12: Experiment set up to obtain B-H curve

The ring specimen as a mean length of l meters with a cross

sectional area of a square meters. Coil is wound for N turns
carrying a current T which can be varied by changing the
variable resistance R connected in series. Ammeter is connected
to measure the current. For measurement of flux produced, flux
meter can be used which is not shown in the figure 3.12.
φ
So H can be calculated as Nl I while B can be calculated as a
for various values of current and plotted.

With the help of resistance R, I can be changed from zero to

maximum possible value.

The B-H curve takes the following form, as shown in the

figure 3.13.

Figure 3.13: B-H curve

136 CHAPTER 3. MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

The following points can be noted from the graph :

1 Initial portion : Near the origin for low values of H, the flux
density does not increase rapidly. This is represented by
curve OA. The point A is called as instep.

2 Middle portion : In this portion as H increases, the flux

density B increases rapidly. This is almost straight line
curve. At point C it starts bending again. The point C where
this portion bends is called as knee point.

3 Saturation portion : After the knee point, rate of increase in

B reduces drastically. Finally the curve becomes parallel to
X-axis indicating that any increase in H hereafter is not going
to cause any change in B. The ring is said to be saturated and
region as saturation region.

3.7.1 Steps in Obtaining Hysteresis Loop

1 Initially variable resistance is kept maximum so current

through the circuit is very low. The field strength H is also
very low. So as current is increased, for low values of field
strengths, field density do not increase rapidly. But after the
knee point flux density increases rapidly upto certain point.
This point is called point of saturation. There-after any
change in current do not have an effect on the flux density.
This curve is nothing but the magnetization curve (B-H
curve). This is the initial part of hysteresis loop.

2 After the saturation point, now current is again reduced to

zero. Due to this field strength also reduces to zero. But it is
observed that flux density do not trace the same curve back
but falls back as compared to previous magnetization curve.
This phenomenon of falling back of flux density while
demagnetization cycle is called hysteresis. Hence due to this
effect, when current becomes exactly zero, there remains
3.7. B-H CURVE OR MAGNETIZATION CURVE 137

some magnetism associated with a coil and hence the flux

density. The core does not get completely demagnetized
though current through coil becomes zero. This value of flux
density when exciting current through the coil and magnetic
field strength is reduced to zero is called residual flux
density or remanent flux density. This is also called residual
magnetism of the core. The magnitude of this residual flux
or magnetism depends on the nature of the material of the
core. And this property of the material is called retentivity.

3 But now if it is required to demagnetize the core entirely then

it is necessary to reverse the direction of the current through
the coil. This is possible with the help of the intermediate
switch.
The value of magnetic field strength required to wipe out the
residual flux density is called the coercive force. It is
measured in terms of coercivity.

4 If now reversed current is increased, core will get saturated

but in opposite direction. At this point flux density is
maximum but with opposite direction.

5 If this current is reduced to zero, again core shows a hysteresis

property and does not get fully demagnetized. It shows same
value of residual magnetism but with opposite direction.

6 If current is reversed again, then for a certain magnitude of

field strength, complete demagnetization of the core is
possible.

7 And if it is increased further, then saturation in the original

direction is achieved completing one cycle of magnetization
and demagnetization.

The curve plotted for such one cycle turns out to be a closed
loop, which is called hysteresis loop. Its nature is shown in the
figure 3.14.
138 CHAPTER 3. MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

Figure 3.14: A Hysteresis Loop

Part of Curve Represents what?

O-C-D : Region corresponding to normal
magnetization curve increased from O
to Imax corresponding to Bm . Maximum flux
density is +Bm .
D-E : Current reduced to zero, but core cannot be
completely demagnetized. O-E represents
residual magnetism and residual flux
density, denoted by +Br .
E-F : Current is reversed and increased in reversed
direction to get complete demagnetization
of the core. O-F represents coercive force
required to completely wipe out +Br .
F-G Current is increased in reversed direction till
saturation in opposite direction is achieved.
Maximum flux density same but with
opposite direction i.e. −Bm .
G-I Current is reduced to zero but again flux
density lags and core cannot be completely
demagnetized. O-I represents residual flux
density in other direction i.e. −Br .
I-J Current is again reversed and increased till
complete demagnetization is achieved.
3.7. B-H CURVE OR MAGNETIZATION CURVE 139

J-D Current is again increased in original

direction till saturation is reached.
Corresponding flux density is again +Bm .
140 CHAPTER 3. MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
Chapter 4

Single Phase Transformer

4.1 Introduction

A Transformer changes the voltage level (or current level) on its

input winding to another value on its output winding using a
magnetic field. A transformer consists of two electrically isolated
coils and operates on Faraday’s principal of ªmutual induction”,
in which an EMF is induced in the transformers secondary coil by
the magnetic flux generated by the voltages and currents flowing
in the primary coil winding.

Both the primary and secondary coil windings are wrapped

around a common soft iron core made of individual laminations
to reduce eddy current and power losses. The primary winding
of the transformer is connected to the AC power source which
must be sinusoidal in nature, while the secondary winding
supplies electrical power to the load. Having said that, a
transformer could be used in reverse with the supply connected
to the secondary winding provided the voltage and current
ratings are observed.

The ratio of the transformers primary and secondary

windings with respect to each other produces either a step-up
voltage transformer or a step-down voltage transformer with the

1
2 CHAPTER 4. SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

ratio between the number of primary turns to the number of

secondary turns being called the ªturns ratio” or ªtransformer
ratio”.

If this ratio is less than unity, n < 1 then NS is greater than

NP and the transformer is classed as a step-up transformer. If this
ratio is greater than unity, n > 1, that is NP is greater than NS ,
the transformer is classed as a step-down transformer. Note that
single phase step-down transformer can also be used as a step-
up transformer simply by reversing its connections and making
the low voltage winding its primary, and vice versa as long as the
transformer is operated within its original VA design rating.

If the turns ratio is equal to unity, that is n = 1, then both

the primary and secondary have the same number of coil turns so
therefore the voltages and currents will be the same for both the
primary and secondary windings.

This type of 1:1 transformer is classed as an isolation

transformer as both the primary and secondary windings of the
transformer have the same number of volts per turn. The
efficiency of a transformer is the ratio of the power it delivers to
the load to the power it absorbs from the supply. In an ideal
transformer there are no losses so no loss of power then
PIN = POU T .

4.2 Working Principle of a Transformer

The basic principle on which the transformer works is Faraday’s

Law of Electromagnetic Induction or mutual induction between
the two coils. The working of the transformer is explained below.
The transformer consists of two separate windings placed over the
laminated silicon steel core.

The winding to which AC supply is connected is called

primary winding and to which load is connected is called
4.2. WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A TRANSFORMER 3

secondary winding as shown in the figure below. It works on the

alternating current only because an alternating flux is required
for mutual induction between the two windings.

Figure 4.1: Simple Transformer

When the AC supply is given to the primary winding with

a voltage of V1 , an alternating flux φ sets up in the core of the
transformer, which links with the secondary winding and as a
result of it, an emf is induced in it called Mutually Induced emf.
The direction of this induced emf is opposite to the applied
voltage V1 , this is because of the Lenz’s law shown in the figure
4.2below :

Figure 4.2: Transformer Symbol

Physically, there is no electrical connection between the two

windings, but they are magnetically connected. Therefore, the
electrical power is transferred from the primary circuit to the
secondary circuit through mutual inductance. The induced emf
in the primary and secondary windings depends upon the rate of
change of flux linkage that is N dφ
dt .
4 CHAPTER 4. SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

dφ
dtis the change of flux and is same for both the primary and
secondary windings. The induced emf E1 in the primary winding
is proportional to the number of turns N1 of the primary windings
(E1 ∝ N1 ). Similarly induced emf in the secondary winding is
proportional to the number of turns on the secondary side (E2 ∝
N2 ).

4.3 Transformer on DC Supply

As discussed above, the transformer works on AC supply, and it

cannot work not DC supply. If the rated DC voltage is applied
across the primary winding, a constant magnitude flux will set
up in the core of the transformer and hence there will not be any
self-induced emf generation, as for the linkage of flux with the
secondary winding there must be an alternating flux required and
not a constant flux.

According to Ohm’s Law :

DC Applied Voltage
Primary Current = (4.1)
Resistance of Primary Winding

The resistance of the primary winding is very low, and the

primary current is high. So this current is much higher than the
rated full load primary winding current. Hence, as a result, the
amount of heat produced will be greater and therefore, eddy
current loss (I 2 R)loss will be more. Because of this, the
insulations of the primary windings will get burnt, and the
transformer will be damaged.

4.4 Turns Ratio

It is defined as the ratio of primary to secondary turns.

N1
Turns Ratio =
N2
4.5. TRANSFORMATION RATIO 5

If N2 > N1 the transformer is called Step-up transformer

If N2 < N1 the transformer is called Step-down transformer
If N1 = N2 , the transformer is called Isolation transformer.

4.5 Transformation Ratio

The transformation ratio is defined as the ratio of the secondary

voltage to the primary voltage. It is denoted by K.
E2 N2
Transformation Ratio = = ∵ E2 ∝ N2 and E1 ∝ N1
E1 N1
(4.2)

4.6 Ideal Transformer

Definition: The transformer which is free from all types of losses

is known as an ideal transformer. It is an imaginary transformer
which has no core loss, no ohmic resistance and no leakage flux.

The ideal transformer has the following important

characteristic :

1 The resistance of their primary and secondary winding

becomes zero.

2 The core of the ideal transformer has infinite permeability.

The infinite permeable means less magnetizing current
requires for magnetizing their core.

3 The leakage flux of the transformer becomes zero, i.e. the

whole of the flux induces in the core of the transformer links
with their primary and secondary winding.

4 The ideal transformer has 100 percent efficiency, i.e. the

transformer is free from hysteresis and eddy current loss.
6 CHAPTER 4. SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

The above mention properties are not possible in the

practical transformer. In an ideal transformer, there is no power
loss. Therefore, the output power is equal to the input power.

E2 I2 cos φ = E1 I1 cos φ (4.3)

E2 I2 = E1 I1 (4.4)
E2 I1
∴ = (4.5)
E1 I2

Since El ∝ N2 and E1 ∝ N1 , also E1 is similar to V1 and E2 is

similar to V2 .

Therefore, transformation ratio will be given by the equation

shown below :
V2 E1 N2 I1
= = = (4.6)
V1 E1 N1 I2
The primary and the secondary currents are inversely
proportional to their respective turns.

4.6.1 Behaviour of Ideal Transformer

Consider the ideal transformer shown in the figure below. The

voltage source V1is applied across the primary winding of the
transformer. Their secondary winding is kept open. The N1 and
N2 are the numbers of turns of their primary and secondary
winding.

The current Im is the magnetizing current flows through the

primary winding of the transformer. The magnetizing current
produces the flux φm in the core of the transformer. As the
permeability of the core is infinite, the flux of the core link with
both the primary and secondary winding of the transformer.

The flux link with the primary winding induces the emf E1
because of self-induction. The direction of the induced emf is
4.7. EMF EQUATION OF A TRANSFORMER 7

Figure 4.3: Ideal Transformer

inversely proportional to the applied voltage V1 . The emf E2

induces in the secondary winding of the transformer because of
mutual induction.

4.6.2 Phasor Diagram of Ideal Transformer

The phasor diagram of the ideal transformer is shown in the

figure below 4.4. As the coil of the primary transformer is purely
inductive the magnetising current induces in the transformer lag
90o by the input voltage V1 . The E1 and E2 are the emf induced in
the primary and secondary winding of the transformer. The
direction of the induces emf inversely proportional to the applied
voltage.

Note : The input energy of the transformer is equal to their output

energy. The power loss in the ideal transformer becomes zero.

4.7 EMF Equation of a Transformer

When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to the primary winding of a

transformer, alternating flux φm sets up in the iron core of the
transformer. This sinusoidal flux links with both primary and
8 CHAPTER 4. SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

Figure 4.4: Phasor Diagram of an Ideal Transformer

secondary winding. The function of flux is a sine function. The

rate of change of flux with respect to time is derived
mathematically.

The derivation of EMF Equation of the transformer is shown

below. Let

• φm be the maximum value of flux in Weber

• f be the supply frequency in Hz

• N1 is the number of turns in the primary winding

• N2 is the number of turns in the secondary winding

• φ is the flux per turn in Weber

Figure 4.5: Flux Waveform

4.7. EMF EQUATION OF A TRANSFORMER 9

As shown in the above figure that the flux changes from +φm
to –φm in half a cycle of 2f1 seconds. By Faraday’s Law, Let E1 is
the emf induced in the primary winding.
dψ
E1 = − (4.7)
dt
where, ψ = N1 φ
dφ
∴ E1 = −N1 (4.8)
dt
Since φis due to AC supply φ = φm sin ωt
d
E1 = −N1 (φm sin ωt) (4.9)
dt
∴ E1 = −N1 ωφm cos ωt (4.10)
 π
∴ E1 = N1 ωφm sin ωt − (4.11)
2
So the induced emf lags flux by 90 degrees.

Maximum valve of emf

E1max = N1 ωφm
But, ω = 2πf
∴ E1max = 2πf N1 φm (4.12)
Root mean square RMS value is -
E1max
E1 = √ (4.13)
√ 2
∴ E1 = 2πf N1 φm (4.14)

Putting the value of π = 3.14 in the above equation, we will

get the value of E1 as -
E1 = 4.44f N1 φm (4.15)
Similarly,
√
E2 = 2πf N2 φm (4.16)
ORE2 = 4.44f N2 φm (4.17)
10 CHAPTER 4. SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

Taking the ratio of E2 and E1 , we get,

E2 4.44f N2 φm
= (4.18)
E1 4.44f N1 φm
E2 N2
∴ = =K (4.19)
E1 N1

The above equation is called the turn ratio where K is known

as transformation ratio. The above equations can also be written
as shown below using the relation (φm = Bm × Ai ) where Ai is the
iron area and Bm is the maximum value of flux density.

E1 = 4.44N1 f Bm Ai (4.20)
and E2 = 4.44N2 f Bm Ai (4.21)

For a sinusoidal wave -

RMS Value
= Form Factor = 1.11 (4.22)
Average Value

4.8 Magnetic Leakage flux

In a transformer it is observed that, all the flux linked with

primary winding does not get linked with secondary winding. A
small part of the flux completes its path through air rather than
through the core (as shown in the fig at right), and this small part
of flux is called as leakage flux or magnetic leakage in
transformers. This leakage flux does not link with both the
windings, and hence it does not contribute to transfer of energy
from primary winding to secondary winding. But, it produces
self induced emf in each winding. Hence, leakage flux produces
an effect equivalent to an inductive coil in series with each
winding. And due to this there will be leakage reactance.
4.9. PRACTICAL TRANSFORMER WITH RESISTANCE AND LEAKAGE REACTANCE11

Figure 4.6: Magnetic Leakage Flux

(To minimize this leakage reactance, primary and secondary

windings are not placed on separate legs, refer the diagram of core
type and shell type transformer from construction of transformer.)

4.9 Practical Transformer with Resistance and

Leakage Reactance

In the following figure 4.7, leakage reactance and resistance of the

primary winding as well as secondary winding are taken out,
representing a practical transformer.

Figure 4.7: Practical Transformer with Resistance And Leakage Reactance

where,
12 CHAPTER 4. SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

R1 and R2 = resistance of primary and secondary winding resp.

X1 and X2 = leakage reactance of primary and secondary winding
resp.
Z1 and Z2 = Primary impedance and secondary impedance resp.

Z1 = R1 + jX1
Z2 = R2 + jX2

The impedance in each winding lead to some voltage drop in

each winding. Considering this voltage drop the voltage equation
of transformer can be given as ±
V1 = E1 + I1 (R1 + jX1 ) Primary Side
V2 = E2 − I2 (R2 + jX2 ) Secondary Side
where,
V1 = supply voltage of primary winding
V2 = terminal voltage of secondary winding
E1 and E2 = induced emf in primary and secondary winding
respectively.

4.10 Resistance and Reactance of the Transformer

The Resistance of the transformer is defined as the internal

resistance of both primary and secondary windings. In an actual
transformer, the primary and the secondary windings have some
resistance represented by R1 and R2 and the reactances by X1 and
X2 . Let K be the transformation ratio. To make the calculations
easy the resistances and reactances can be transferred to either
side that means either all the primary terms are referred to the
secondary side, or all the secondary terms are referred to the
primary side.

The resistive and the reactive drops in the primary and

secondary side are represented as follows :
4.10. RESISTANCE AND REACTANCE OF THE TRANSFORMER 13

• Resistive drop in the secondary side = I2 R2

• Reactive drop in the secondary side = I2 X2

• Resistive drop in the primary side = I1 R1

• Reactive drop in the primary side = I1 X1

4.10.1 Primary Side Referred to Secondary Side

Since the transformation ratio is K, primary resistive and reactive

drop as referred to secondary side will be K times, i.e., KI1 R1
and KI1 X1 respectively. If I1 is substituted equal to KI2 then we
have primary resistive and reactive drop referred to secondary
side equal to K 2 I2 R1 and K 2 I2 X1 respectively.

Figure 4.8: Primary Side of transformer referred to secondary side

The Total resistive drop in a transformer -

k 2 I 2 R1 + I 2 R2 = I 2 k 2 R1 + R 2


(4.23)

Total reactive drop in a transformer -

k 2 I 2 X1 + I 2 X2 = I 2 k 2 X1 + X2


(4.24)

The term (K 2 R1 + R2 ) and (K 2 X1 + X2 ) represent the equivalent

resistance and reactance of the transformer referred to the
secondary side.
14 CHAPTER 4. SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

4.11 Transformer on No Load Condition

When the transformer is operating at no load, the secondary

winding is open circuited, which means there is no load on the
secondary side of the transformer and, therefore, current in the
secondary will be zero, while primary winding carries a small
current I0 called no load current which is 2 to 10 % of the rated
current. This current is responsible for supplying the iron losses
(hysteresis and eddy current losses) in the core and a very small
amount of copper losses in the primary winding. The angle of lag
depends upon the losses in the transformer. The power factor is
very low and varies from 0.1 to 0.15.

Figure 4.9: Transformer is operating at no load

The no load current consists of two components :

1 Reactive or magnetizing component Im

(It is in quadrature with the applied voltage V1 . It produces
flux in the core and does not consume any power)
2 Active or power component Iw , also known as working
component
(It is in phase with the applied voltage V1 . It supplies the
iron losses and a small amount of primary copper loss)

The following steps are given below to draw the phasor

diagram :
4.11. TRANSFORMER ON NO LOAD CONDITION 15

• The function of the magnetizing component is to produce the

magnetizing flux, and thus, it will be in phase with the flux.

• Induced emf in the primary and the secondary winding lags

the flux φ by 90 degrees.

• The primary copper loss is neglected, and secondary current

losses are zero as I2 = 0. Therefore, the current I0 lags behind
the voltage vector V1 by an angle φ0 called no-load power
factor angle shown in the phasor diagram above.

• The applied voltage V1 is drawn equal and opposite to the

induced emf E1 because the difference between the two, at
no load, is negligible.

• Active component Iw is drawn in phase with the applied

voltage V1 .

• The phasor sum of magnetizing current Im and the working

current Iw gives the no load current I0 .

Figure 4.10: Phasor diagram when transformer is on No-Load

Working component, Ipw = Io cos φ0

No Load current, I0 = Iw2 + Im2

Magnetizing Component, Im = Io sin φ0

16 CHAPTER 4. SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

Iw
Power Factor, cos φ0 =
I0
No Load Power Input, P0 = V1 I0 cos φ0

4.12 Transformer on Load Condition

When the transformer is on loaded condition, the secondary of

the transformer is connected to load. The load can be resistive,
inductive or capacitive. The current I2 flows through the
secondary winding of the transformer. The magnitude of the
secondary current depends on the terminal voltage V2 and the
load impedance. The phase angle between the secondary current
and voltage depends on the nature of the load.

Operation of the Transformer on Load Condition

The Operation of the Transformer on Load Condition is explained
below :

• When secondary of the transformer is kept open, it draws the

no-load current from the main supply. The no-load current
induces the magneto motive force N0 I0 and this force set up
the flux φ in the core of the transformer. The circuit of the
transformer at no load condition is shown in the figure below.
• When the load is connected to the secondary of the
transformer, the I2 current flows through their secondary
winding. The secondary current induces the magnetomotive
force N2 I2 on the secondary winding of the transformer. This
force set up the flux φ2 in the transformer core. The flux φ2
oppose the flux φ, according to Lenz’s law
• As the flux φ2 opposes the flux φ, the resultant flux of the
transformer decreases and this flux reduces the induces EMF
E1 . Thus, the strength of the V1 is more than E1 and an
additional primary current I1′ drawn from the main supply.
The additional current is used for restoring the original
4.12. TRANSFORMER ON LOAD CONDITION 17

Figure 4.11: Operation of the Transformer on Load Condition

value of the flux in the core of the transformer so that the

V1 = E1 . The primary current I1′ is in phase opposition with
the secondary current I2 . Thus, it is called the primary
counter balancing current.
• The additional current I1′ induces the magnetomotive force
N1 I1′ . And this force set up the flux φ′1 . The direction of the
flux is same as that of the φ and it cancels the flux φ2 which
induces because of the MMF N2 I2 .

Now, N1 I1′ = N2 I2  
N2
I1′ = I2 = KI2 (4.25)
N1
Therefore,

• The phasor difference between V1 and I1 gives the power

factor angle φ1 of the primary side of the transformer.
• The power factor of the secondary side depends upon the
type of load connected to the transformer.
• If the load is inductive as shown in the above phasor diagram,
the power factor will be lagging, and if the load is capacitive,
18 CHAPTER 4. SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

Figure 4.12: Operation of the Transformer on Load Condition

the power factor will be leading.The total primary current I1

is the vector sum of the current I0 and I1′ . i.e

I1 = I0 + I1′ (4.26)

4.12.1 Phasor Diagram of Transformer on Inductive Load

The phasor diagram of the actual transformer when it is loaded

inductively is shown below in figure 4.13 :

Steps to draw the phasor diagram -

• Take flux φ a reference

• Induces emf E1 and E2 lags the flux by 90 degrees.
• The component of the applied voltage to the primary equal
and opposite to induced emf in the primary winding. E1 is
represented by V1′ .
• Current I0 lags the voltage V1′ by 90 degrees.
• The power factor of the load is lagging. Therefore current I2
is drawn lagging E2 by an angle φ2 .
4.12. TRANSFORMER ON LOAD CONDITION 19

Figure 4.13: Phasor Diagram of the Transformer on Inductive Load

• The resistance and the leakage reactance of the windings

result in a voltage drop, and hence secondary terminal
voltage V2 is the phasor difference of E2 and voltage drop.

V2 = E2 − Voltge drops

I2 R2 is in phase with I2 and I2 X2 is in quadrature with I2 .

• The total current flowing in the primary winding is the
phasor sum of I1′ and I0 .
• Primary applied voltage V1 is the phasor sum of V1′ and the
voltage drop in the primary winding.
• Current I1′ is drawn equal and opposite to the current I2

V1 = V1′ + Voltge drop

I1 R1 is in phase with I1 and I1 XI is in quadrature with I1 .

• The phasor difference between V1 and I1 gives the power
factor angle φ1 of the primary side of the transformer.
20 CHAPTER 4. SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

• The power factor of the secondary side depends upon the

type of load connected to the transformer.
• If the load is inductive as shown in the above phasor diagram,
the power factor will be lagging, and if the load is capacitive,
the power factor will be leading. Where I1 R1 is the resistive
drop in the primary windings I2 X2 is the reactive drop in the
secondary winding

4.12.2 Phasor Diagram of Transformer on Capacitive Load

The Transformer on Capacitive load (leading power factor load) is

shown below in the phasor diagram 4.14.

Figure 4.14: Phasor Diagram of the Transformer on Capacitive Load

Steps to draw the phasor diagram at capacitive load :

• Take flux φ a reference

• Induces emf E1 and E2 lags the flux by 90 degrees.
4.13. EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A TRANSFORMER 21

• The component of the applied voltage to the primary equal

and opposite to induced emf in the primary winding. E1 is
represented by V1′ .
• Current I0 lags the voltage V1′ by 90 degrees. The power factor
of the load is leading. Therefore current I2 is drawn leading
E2
• The resistance and the leakage reactance of the windings
result in a voltage drop, and hence secondary terminal
voltage V2 is the phasor difference of E2 and voltage drop.

V2 = E2 − Voltage drops

I2 R2 is in phase with I2 and I2 X2 is in quadrature with I2 .

• Current I1′ is drawn equal and opposite to the current I2
• The total current I1 flowing in the primary winding is the
phasor sum of I1′ and I0 .
• Primary applied voltage V1 is the phasor sum of V1′ and the
voltage drop in the primary winding.

V1 = V1′ + Voltage drop

I1 R1 is in phase with I1 and I1 X1 is in quadrature with I1 .

• The phasor difference between V1 and I1 gives the power
factor angle φ1 of the primary side of the transformer.
• The power factor of the secondary side depends upon the
type of load connected to the transformer.

4.13 Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer

The equivalent circuit diagram of any device can be quite helpful

in predetermination of the behaviour of the device under the
various condition of operation. It is simply the circuit
22 CHAPTER 4. SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

representation of the equation describing the performance of the

device.

The simplified equivalent circuit of a transformer is drawn

by representing all the parameters of the transformer either on
the secondary side or on the primary side. The equivalent circuit
diagram of the transformer is shown below in figure 4.15

Figure 4.15: Equivalent circuit diagram of a transformer

Let the equivalent circuit of a transformer having the

transformation ratio K = E
E1
2

The induced emf E1 is equal to the primary applied voltage

V1 less primary voltage drop.This voltage causes current I0 no load
current in the primary winding of the transformer. The value of
no-load current is very small, and thus, it is neglected. Hence, I1 =
I1′ . The no load current is further divided into two components
called magnetizing current (Im ) and working current (Iw ).

These two components of no-load current are due to the

current drawn by a noninductive resistance R0 and pure
reactance X0 having voltage E1 or (V1 ± primary voltage drop).

The secondary current I2 is -

I1′ I1 − I0
I2 = = (4.27)
K K
4.13. EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A TRANSFORMER 23

The terminal voltage V2 across the load is equal to the

induced emf E2 in the secondary winding less voltage drop in the
secondary winding.

4.13.1 Equivalent Circuit when all the Quantities are

referred to Primary side

In this case to draw the equivalent circuit of the transformer all

the quantities are to be referred to the primary as shown in the
figure 4.16 below : The following are the values of resistance and

Figure 4.16: Circuit Diagram of Transformer when all the Secondary Quantities
are Referred to Primary Side

reactance given below :

Secondary resistance referred to primary side is given as -
R2
R2′ = 2
K
The equivalent resistance referred to primary side is given as -
Rep = R1 + R2′
Secondary reactance referred to primary side is given as -
X2
X2′ = 2
K
The equivalent reactance referred to primary side is given as -
Xep = X1 + X2′
24 CHAPTER 4. SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

4.13.2 Equivalent Circuit when all the Quantities are

referred to Secondary side

The equivalent circuit diagram of the transformer is shown below

when all the quantities are referred to the secondary side.

Figure 4.17: Circuit Diagram of Transformer When All the Primary Quantities
are Referred to Secondary Side

The following are the values of resistance and reactance

given below :
Primary resistance referred to secondary side is given as -

R1′ = K 2 R1

The equivalent resistance referred to secondary side is given as -

Res = R2 + R1′

Primary reactance referred to secondary side is given as -

X1′ = K 2 X1

The equivalent reactance referred to secondary side is given as -

Xes = X2 + X1′

No load current I0 is hardly 3 to 5 % of full load rated current,

the parallel branch consisting of resistance R0 and reactance X0
4.14. VOLTAGE REGULATION OF A TRANSFORMER 25

can be omitted without introducing any appreciable error in the

behavior of the transformer under the loaded condition.

Further simplification of the equivalent circuit of the

transformer can be done by neglecting the parallel branch
consisting R0 and X0 . The simplified circuit diagram of the
transformer is shown below in figure 4.18

Figure 4.18: Simplified Equivalent Circuit Diagram of a Transformer

4.14 Voltage Regulation of a Transformer

Definition: The voltage regulation is defined as the change in the

magnitude of receiving and sending the voltage of the
transformer. The voltage regulation determines the ability of the
transformer to provide the constant voltage for variable loads.

When the transformer is loaded with continuous supply

voltage, the terminal voltage of the transformer varies. The
variation of voltage depends on the load and its power factor.
Mathematically, the voltage regulation is represented as -
E2 − V2
Voltage Regulation = (4.28)
E2
E2 − V2
∴ % Voltage Regulation = × 100 (4.29)
E2
Where,
26 CHAPTER 4. SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

E2 ± secondary terminal voltage at no load

V2 ± secondary terminal voltage at full load

The voltage regulation by considering the primary terminal

voltage of the transformer is expressed as,
V1 − E1
% Voltage Regulation = × 100 (4.30)
V1

Let us understand the voltage regulation by taking an

example explained below :
If the secondary terminals of the transformer are open circuited
or no load is connected to the secondary terminals, the no-load
current flows through it. If the no current flows through the
secondary terminals of the transformer, the voltage drops across
their resistive and reactive load become zero. The voltage drop
across the primary side of the transformer is negligible.

If the transformer is fully loaded, i.e., the load is connected to

their secondary terminal, the voltage drops appear across it. The
value of the voltage regulation should always be less for the better
performance of transformer.

Figure 4.19: Equivalent Circuit of transformer

From the circuit diagram shown above, the following

conclusions are made.
4.14. VOLTAGE REGULATION OF A TRANSFORMER 27

1 The primary voltage of the transformer is always greater than

the emf induces on the primary side. V1 > E1

2 The secondary terminal voltage at no load is always greater

than the voltage at full load condition. E2 > V2 .By
considering the above circuit diagram, the following
equations are drawn.

V1 = I1 R1 cos φ1 + I1 X1 sin φ1 + E1 (4.31)

E2 = I2 R2 cos φ2 + I2 X2 sin φ2 + V2 (4.32)

The approximate expression for the no-load secondary

voltage for the different types of load is -
For Inductive Load :

E2 = I2 R02 cos φ2 + I2 X02 sin φ2 + V2 (4.33)

∴ E2 − V2 = I2 R02 cos φ2 + I2 X02 sin φ2 (4.34)
E2 − V2 I2 R02 I2 X02
∴ × 100 = × 100 cos φ2 + × 100 sin φ2 (4.35)
E2 E2 E2
where,
I2 R02
× 100 is a percentage resistance drop.
E2
I2 X02
× 100 is a percentage reactance drop.
E2
For a Capacitive Load :

E2 = I2 R02 cos φ2 − I2 X02 sin φ2 + V2 (4.36)

∴ E2 − V2 = I2 R02 cos φ2 − I2 X02 sin φ2 (4.37)
E2 − V2 I2 R02 I2 X02
∴ × 100 = × 100 cos φ2 − × 100 sin φ2 (4.38)
E2 E2 E2
28 CHAPTER 4. SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

4.15 All Day Efficiency of a Transformer

Definition: All day efficiency means the power consumed by the

transformer throughout the day. It is defined as the ratio of output
power to the input power in kWh or Wh of the transformer over
24 hours.

Mathematically, it is represented as -
Output in kWh
All Day Efficiency, ηallday = (for 24 hrs) (4.39)
Input in kWh
All day efficiency of the transformer depends on their load cycle.
The load cycle of the transformer means the repetitions of load on
it for a specific period.

The ordinary or commercial efficiency of a transformer

define as the ratio of the output power to the input power.

Output Power Output Power

η= = (4.40)
Input Power Output Power + Losses

What is the need of All Day Efficiency?

Some transformer efficiency cannot be judged by simple
commercial efficiency as the load on certain transformer
fluctuates throughout the day. For example, the distribution
transformers are energised for 24 hours, but they deliver very
light loads for the major portion of the day, and they do not
supply rated or full load, and most of the time the distribution
transformer has 50 to 75 % load on it.

As we know, there are various losses in the transformer

such as iron and copper loss. The iron loss takes place in the core
of the transformer. Thus, the iron or core loss occurs for the
whole day in the distribution transformer. The second type of
loss known as copper loss takes place in the windings of the
4.16. POLARITY TEST OF TRANSFORMER 29

transformer also known as the variable loss. It occurs only when

the transformers are in the loaded condition. Hence, the
performance of such transformers cannot be judged by the
commercial or ordinary efficiency, but the efficiency is calculated
or judged by All Day Efficiency also known as operational
efficiency or energy efficiency which is computed by energy
consumed during 24 hours.

4.16 Polarity Test of Transformer

Polarity means the direction of the induced voltages in the

primary and the secondary winding of the transformer. If the two
transformers are connected in parallel, then the polarity should
be known for the proper connection of the transformer. There are
two types of polarity one is Additive, and another is Subtractive.

Additive Polarity: In additive polarity the same terminals of the

primary and the secondary windings of the transformer are
connected.

Subtractive Polarity: In subtractive polarity different terminals of

the primary and secondary side of the transformer are connected.

Explanation with Connection Diagram:

Each of the terminals of the primary as well as the secondary
winding of a transformer is alternatively positive and negative
with respect to each other as shown in the figure below. Let A1
and A2 be the positive and negative terminal respectively of the
transformer primary and a1 , a2 are the positive and negative
terminal of the secondary side of the transformer.

If A1 is connected to a1 and A2 is connected to a2 that means

similar terminals of the transformer are connected, then the
polarity is said to be additive. If A1 is connected to a2 and A2 to
a1, that means the opposite terminals are connected to each other,
and thus the voltmeter will read the subtractive polarity.
30 CHAPTER 4. SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

Figure 4.20: Polarity test

It is essential to know the relative polarities at any instant of

the primary and the secondary terminals for making the correct
connections if the transformers are to be connected in parallel or
they are used in a three phase circuit.

In the primary side, the terminals are marked as A1 and A2

and from the secondary side the terminals are named as a1 and a2 .
The terminal A1 is connected to one end of the secondary winding,
and a voltmeter is connected between A2 and the other end of the
secondary winding.

When the voltmeter reads the difference that is (V1 –V2 ), the
transformer is said to be connected with opposite polarity know
as Subtractive polarity and when the voltmeter reads (V1 + V2 ), the
transformer is said to have additive polarity.

Steps to Perform Polarity Test :

1 Connect the circuit as shown in the above circuit diagram

figure and set the autotransformer to zero position.
2 Switch on the single phase supply
3 Records the values of the voltages as shown by the voltmeter
4.17. TESTS ON TRANSFORMER 31

V1 , V2 and V3 .

4 If the reading of the V3 shows the addition of the value of

V1 and V2 that is V2 = V1 + V2 the transformer is said to be
connected in additive polarity.

5 If the reading of the V3 is the subtraction of the readings of V1

and V2 , then the transformer is said to be connected in
subtractive or negative polarity.

4.17 Tests on Transformer

The open circuit and short circuit test are performed for
determining the parameter of the transformer like their efficiency,
voltage regulation, circuit constant etc. These tests are performed
without the actual loading and because of this reason the very
less power is required for the test. The open circuit and the short
circuit test gives the very accurate result as compared to the full
load test.

4.17.1 Open Circuit Test

The purpose of the open circuit test is to determine the no-load

current and losses of the transformer because of which their
no-load parameter are determined. This test is performed on the
primary winding of the transformer. The wattmeter, ammeter
and the voltage are connected to their primary winding. The
nominal rated voltage is supplied to their primary winding with
the help of the ac source.

The secondary winding of the transformer is kept open and

the voltmeter is connected to their terminal. This voltmeter
measures the secondary induced voltage. As the secondary of the
transformer is open the no-load current flows through the
primary winding.
32 CHAPTER 4. SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

Figure 4.21: Circuit Diagram of Open Circuit Test on Transformer

The value of no-load current is very small as compared to

the full rated current. The copper loss occurs only on the primary
winding of the transformer because the secondary winding is
open. The reading of the wattmeter only represents the core and
iron losses. The core loss of the transformer is same for all types
of loads.

Calculation of open circuit test :

Let,
W0 ± wattmeter reading
V1 ± voltmeter reading
I0 ± ammeter reading

Then the iron loss of the transformer Pi = W0 and

W0 = V1 I0 cos φ0 (4.41)

The no-load power factor is -

W0
cos φ0 = (4.42)
V1 I0
Working component Iw is -

W0
Iw = (4.43)
V1
4.17. TESTS ON TRANSFORMER 33

Putting the value of W0 from , you will get the value of working
component as -
Iw = I0 cos φ0 (4.44)
Magnetizing component is -
q
Im = I02 − Iw2 (4.45)

Equivalent exciting resistance is -

V1
R0 = (4.46)
Iw
Equivalent exciting reactance is -
V1
X0 = (4.47)
Im

The iron losses measured by the open circuit test are used for
calculating the efficiency of the transformer.

4.17.2 Short Circuit Test

The short circuit test is performed for determining the below

mention parameter of the transformer.

1 It determines the copper loss occur on the full load. The

copper loss is used for finding the efficiency of the
transformer.
2 The equivalent resistance, impedance, and leakage reactance
are known by the short circuit test. The short circuit test is
performed on the secondary or high voltage winding of the
transformer. The measuring instrument like wattmeter,
voltmeter and ammeter are connected to the High voltage
winding of the transformer. Their primary winding is short
circuited by the help of thick strip or ammeter which is
connected to their terminal.
34 CHAPTER 4. SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

The low voltage source is connected across the secondary

winding because of which the full load current flows from both
the secondary and the primary winding of the transformer. The
full load current is measured by the ammeter connected across
their secondary winding.

The circuit diagram of the short circuit test is shown below

figure 4.22

Figure 4.22: Circuit Diagram of Short Circuit Test on Transformer

The low voltage source is applied across the secondary

winding which is approximately 5 to 10% of the normal rated
voltage. The flux is set up in the core of the transformer. The
magnitude of the flux is small as compared to the normal flux.

The iron loss of the transformer depends on the flux. It is less

occur in the short circuit test because of the low value of flux. The
reading of the wattmeter only determines the copper loss occur
on their windings. The voltmeter measures the voltage applied to
their high voltage winding. The secondary current induces in the
transformer because of the applied voltage.

Calculation of Short Circuit Test

Let,
Wc ± Wattmeter reading
V2sc ± voltmeter reading
4.18. PARALLEL OPERATION OF TRANSFORMER 35

I2sc ± ammeter reading

Then the full load copper loss of the transformer is given by -
 2
I2f l
Pc = (4.48)
I2sc
and,
2
I2sc Res = Wc (4.49)
Equivalent resistance referred to secondary side is -
Wc
Res = 2
(4.50)
Iesc
Equivalent impedance referred to the secondary side is given by -
V2sc
Zes = (4.51)
I2sc
The Equivalent reactance referred to the secondary side is given
by ± p
Xes = (Zes )2 − (Res )2 (4.52)
The voltage regulation of the transformer can be determined at
any load and power factor after knowing the values of Zes and
Res .

In the short circuit test the wattmeter record, the total losses
including core loss but the value of core loss are very small as
compared to copper loss so, the core loss can be neglected.

4.18 Parallel Operation of Transformer

Sometimes, it becomes necessary to connect more than one

transformer’s in parallel, for example, for supplying excess load
of the rating of existing transformer. If two or more transformers
are connected to a same supply on the primary side and to a
same load on the secondary side, then it is called as parallel
operation of transformers.
36 CHAPTER 4. SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

4.18.1 Necessity of Parallel Operation of Transformers

Why parallel operation of transformers is needed?

1 Increased Load: When load is increased and it exceeds the

capacity of existing transformer, another transformer may be
connected in parallel with the existing transformer to supply
the increased load.

2 Non-availability of large transformer: If a large transformer

is not available which can meet the total requirement of load,
two or more small transformers can be connected in parallel
to increase the capacity.

3 Increased reliability: If multiple transformers are running in

parallel, and a fault occurs in one transformer, then the other
parallel transformers still continue to serve the load. And the
faulty transformer can be taken out for the maintenance.

4 Transportation is easier for small transformers: If

installation site is located far away, then transportation of
smaller units is easier and may be economical.

4.18.2 Conditions for parallel operation of Transformers

There are various conditions that must fulfill for the successful
operation of transformers as follows.

1 The line voltage ratio of two transformers must be equal.

2 The per unit impedance of each transformer should be equal

and they should have same ratio of equivalent leakage
reactance to the equal resistance(X/R).

3 The transformers should have same secondary winding

polarity.
4.18. PARALLEL OPERATION OF TRANSFORMER 37

4 The Transformers should have same phase sequence (Three

phase transformer)

5 The transformers should have the zero relative phase

replacement between the secondary line voltages.(Three
phase transformers)

1 The line voltage ratios of the two transformers must be

equal
This condition is used to avoid the inequality EMF induction
at the two secondary windings. If the two transformers
connected in parallel have slightly different voltage ratios,
then due the inequality of induced emfs in the secondary
voltages, a circulating current will flow in a loop format in
the secondary windings. This current is greater than the no
load current and will be quite high due to less leakage
impedance during load. When the secondary windings are
loaded, this circulating current will tend to unequal loading
on two transformers and one transformer may be over
loaded and another may be less loaded.

2 Equal per unit leakage impedance

If the ratings or line voltages are equal their per unit leakage
impedance’s should be equal in order to have equal load
sharing of the both transformers. If the ratings are unequal
then the transformer which has less rating will draw more
current and it leads to unequal load sharing. It may also lead
to mismatch in line voltages due to voltage drops. In other
words, for unequal ratings, the numerical values of their
impedance’s should be in inverse proportional to their
ratings to have current in them in line with their ratings.
A difference in the ratio of the reactance value to the
resistance value of the impedance results in different phase
angles of the currents carried by the two parallel
transformers. Due to this phase angle difference between
voltage and current, one transformer may be working on
38 CHAPTER 4. SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

high power factor and another transformer may be working

on lower factor. Hence real power sharing is not
proportional between the two transformers.
3 The transformers should have same secondary winding
polarity
The transformers should be properly connected with regards
to their polarity. If they are connected with in correct
polarities then the two emf’s induced in the secondary
winding which are in parallel, will act together and produce
a short circuit between the two of them. Total loss of power
supply and high damage to the transformers.
4 The Transformers should have same phase sequence
In case of three winding transformers in-addition to the
above conditions the phase sequence of line voltages of the
both transformers must be identical for parallel operation. If
the phase sequence is not correct in every voltage cycle each
pair of phases will get shorted.
5 The transformers should have zero relative phase
displacement between the secondary line voltages
This condition indicates that the two secondary line voltages
should have zero phase displacement which avoids
Un-intended short circuit between the phases of two
windings.
Chapter 5

Three Phase Transformer

5.1 Introduction

Three phase transformers are more economical for supplying

large loads and large power distribution. Even though most of
the utilization equipments are connected by the single phase
transformers, these are not preferred for large power distribution
in the aspect of economy.

The three phase power is used in almost all fields of

electrical power system such as power generation, transmission
and distribution sectors, also all the industrial sectors are
supplied or connected with three phase system. Therefore, to
step-up (or increase) or step-down (or decrease) the voltages in
the three phase systems, three phase transformers are used. As
compared with the single phase transformer, there are numerous
advantages with 3 phase transformer such as smaller and lighter
to construct for the same power handling capacity, better
operating characteristics, etc.

Three phase transformers are used to step-up or step-down

the high voltages in various stages of power transmission system.
The power generated at various generating stations is in three
phase nature and the voltages are in the range of 13.2 KV or 22

39
40 CHAPTER 5. THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

Figure 5.1: Three Phase Transformer

KV. In order to reduce the power loss to the distribution end, the
power is transmitted at somewhat higher voltages like 132 or 400
KV. Hence, for transmission of the power at higher voltages,
three phase step-up transformer is used to increase the voltage.
Also at the end of the transmission or distribution, these high
voltages are step-down to levels of 6600, 400, 230 volts, etc. For
this, a three phase step down transformer is used. A three phase
transformer can be built in two ways; a bank of three single phase
transformers or single unit of three phase transformer.

The former one is built by suitably connecting three single

phase transformers having same ratings and operating
characteristics. In this case if the fault occurs in any one of the
transformers, the system still retained at reduced capacity by
other two transformers with open delta connection. Hence,
continuity of the supply is maintained by this type of connection.
These are used in mines because easier to transport individual
single phase transformers.

Instead of using three single phase transformers, a three

phase bank can be constructed with a single three phase
transformer consisting of six windings on a common
multi-legged core. Due to this single unit, weight as well as the
5.2. CONSTRUCTION OF THREE PHASE TRANSFORMERS 41

Figure 5.2: Three phase transformer

cost is reduced as compared to three units of the same rating and

also windings, the amount of iron in the core and insulation
materials are saved. Space required to install a single unit is less
compared with three unit bank. But the only disadvantage with
single unit three phase transformer is if the fault occurs in any
one of the phase, then entire unit must be removed from the
service.

5.2 Construction of Three Phase Transformers

A three phase transformer can be constructed by using common

magnetic core for both primary and secondary windings. As we
discussed in the case of single phase transformers, construction
can be core type or shell type. So for a bank of three phase core
type transformer, three core type single phase transformers are
combined. Similarly, a bank of three phase shell type transformer
is get by properly combining three shell type single phase
transformers. In a shell type transformer, EI laminated core
surrounds the coils whereas in core type coil surrounds the core.
42 CHAPTER 5. THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

5.2.1 Core Type Construction

In core type three phase transformer, core is made up of three

limbs or legs and two yokes. The magnetic path is formed
between these yokes and limbs. On each limb both primary and
secondary windings are wounded concentrically. Circular
cylindrical coils are used as the windings for this type of
transformer. The primary and secondary windings of one phase
are wounded on one leg. Under balanced condition, the magnetic
flux in each phase of the leg adds up to zero. Therefore, under
normal conditions, no return leg is needed. But in case of
unbalanced loads, high circulating current flows and hence it
may be best to use three single phase transformers.

Figure 5.3: Core Type transformer

5.2.2 Shell Type Construction

In shell type, three phases are more independent because each

phase has independent magnetic circuit compared with core type
transformer. The construction is similar to the single phase shell
type transformer built on top of another. The magnetic circuits of
this type of transformer are in parallel. Due to this, the saturation
effects in common magnetic paths are neglected. However, shell
type constructed transformers are rarely used in practice.
5.3. WORKING OF THREE PHASE TRANSFORMERS 43

Figure 5.4: Shell Type Transformer

5.3 Working of Three Phase Transformers

Consider the below figure in which the primary of the

transformer is connected in star fashion on the cores. For
simplicity, only primary winding is shown in the figure which is
connected across the three phase AC supply. The three cores are
arranged at an angle of 120 degrees to each other. The empty leg
of each core is combined in such that they form center leg as
shown in figure 5.5.

When the primary is excited with the three phase supply

source, the currents IR , IY and IB are starts flowing through
individual phase windings. These currents produce the magnetic
fluxes φR , φY and φB in the respective cores. Since the center leg
is common for all the cores, the sum of all three fluxes are carried
by it. In three phase system, at any instant the vector sum of all
the currents is zero. In turn, at the instant the sum of all the fluxes
is same. Hence, the center leg doesn’t carry any flux at any
instant. So even if the center leg is removed it makes no
difference in other conditions of the transformer.

Likewise, in three phase system where any two conductors

44 CHAPTER 5. THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

Figure 5.5: Working of Three Phase Transformer

acts as return for the current in third conductor, any two legs acts
as a return path of the flux for the third leg if the center leg is
removed in case of three phase transformer. Therefore, while
designing the three phase transformer, this principle is used.
These fluxes induce the secondary EMFs in respective phase such
that they maintain their phase angle between them. These EMFs
drives the currents in the secondary and hence to the load.
Depends on the type of connection used and number of turns on
each phase, the voltage induced will be varied for obtaining
step-up or step-down of voltages.

5.4 Three Phase Transformer Connections

Three phase transformer connections in three phase system, the

three phases can be connected in either star or delta configuration.
In case you are not familiar with those configurations, study the
following image which explains star and delta configuration. In
any of these configurations, there will be a phase difference of 120o
between any two phases.
5.4. THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS 45

Figure 5.6: Three Phase Transformer Connections

Windings of a three phase transformer can be connected in

various configurations as (i) star-star, (ii) delta-delta, (iii)
star-delta, (iv) delta-star, (v) open delta and (vi) Scott connection.
These configurations are explained below.

1 Star-Star (Y-Y)

• Star-star connection is generally used for small,

high-voltage transformers. Because of star connection,
number of required turns/phase √ is reduced (as phase
voltage in star connection is 1/ 3 times of line voltage
only). Thus, the amount of insulation required is also
reduced.
• The ratio of line voltages on the primary side and the
secondary side is equal to the transformation ratio of the
transformers.
• Line voltages on both sides are in phase with each other.
• This connection can be used only if the connected load is
balanced.

2 Delta-Delta (△ − △)
46 CHAPTER 5. THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

• This connection is generally used for large, low-voltage

transformers. Number of required phase/turns is
relatively greater than that for star-star connection.
• The ratio of line voltages on the primary and the
secondary side is equal to the transformation ratio of the
transformers.
• This connection can be used even for unbalanced loading.
• Another advantage of this type of connection is that
even if one transformer is disabled, system can continue
to operate in open delta connection but with reduced
available capacity.
3 Star-Delta OR Wye-Delta (Y − △)
• The primary winding is star (Y) connected with
grounded neutral and the secondary winding is delta
connected.
• This connection is mainly used in step down transformer
at the substation end of the transmission line.
√
• The ratio of secondary to primary line voltage is 1/ 3
times the transformation ratio.
• There is 30o shift between the primary and secondary line
voltages.
4 Delta-Star OR Delta-Wye (△ − Y )
• The primary winding is connected in delta and the
secondary winding is connected in star with neutral
grounded. Thus it can be used to provide 3-phase 4-wire
service.
• This type of connection is mainly used in step-up
transformer at the beginning of transmission line.
√
• The ratio of secodary to primary line voltage is 3 times
the transformation ratio.
• There is 30o shift between the primary and secondary line
voltages.
5.5. OPEN DELTA CONNECTION 47

Above transformer connection configurations are shown in the

following figure 5.7.

Figure 5.7: Three phase transformer connections

5.5 Open Delta Connection

In three phase systems, the use of transformers with three

windings (or legs) per side is common. These three windings are
often connected in delta or star, resulting in common transformer
configurations such as delta-delta or delta-star. An open delta
transformer is a special arrangement which uses only two
48 CHAPTER 5. THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

windings.

The illustration in figure 5.8 shows how an open delta

transformer is connected. On both the primary and secondary
there are only two windings. Even in this configuration, it is still
possible to transform a three phase voltage.

Figure 5.8: Open Delta Transformer

Open delta transforms are not the commonly used.

Typically they would be used for small loads where cost is
important. Alternatively, they could be used as an emergency
measure, should one winding only of a transformer fail.
Sometimes you may hear an open delta transformer referred to as
a V-connection transformer.

Power Delivered :
Sometimes the power delivered by an open delta transformer is
compared to that of an equivalent three winding transformer.
Typically figures like having 57.7% of the capacity of an
equivalent three winding transformer or 87 % of two
transformers (same winding size) are quoted. While you can
think of the transformer in this manner, it is more fruitful not to
consider comparisons but to the necessary calculations on the
open delta transformer.

Consider the illustration, showing the output from both a

5.5. OPEN DELTA CONNECTION 49

Figure 5.9: Open Delta Connection

close delta and open delta transformer.

√ Note, that in the delta
connection to line current is 3 times the phase current, whereas
in the open delta, they are the same. The transformer output
power (in VA) is for a balanced transformer system for the closed
delta connection (using phase current), this give:

V A = 3VL Iph (5.1)

And for the open delta connection:

p
V A = 3 VL Iph (5.2)

Taking the ratio of open delta to closed delta power, gives:

V A = 0.577 or 57.7% (5.3)

Open delta transformers are three phase devices, with only

two windings on each of the primary and secondary sides. While
cheaper than a conventional three winding transformer, the open
delta will only deliver 57.7% of the power of a conventional
50 CHAPTER 5. THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

transformer (not two thirds, 66.7% as may be expected). There is

limited adoption of open delta transformers, although they can
be useful in certain situations.

Applications of Open-Delta configurations:

1 Widely used for small 3-phase loads.

2 Used in applications where the current load is less, and may
increase in future.
3 There is no relative shift in output, so can be used for
unbalanced loads and where harmonics are involved.

5.6 Scott Connection of Transformer

Definition: The Scott-T Connection is the method of connecting

two single phase transformer to perform the 3-phase to 2-phase
conversion and vice-versa. The two transformers are connected
electrically but not magnetically. One of the transformers is called
the main transformer, and the other is called the auxiliary or teaser
transformer.

The figure 5.10 below shows the Scott-T transformer

connection. The main transformer is centre tapped at D and is
connected to the line B and C of the 3-phase side. It has primary
BC and secondary a1 a2 . The teaser transformer is connected to
the line terminal A and the centre tapping D. It has primary AD
and the secondary b1 b2

The identical, interchangeable transformers are used for

Scott-T connection in which each transformer has a primary
winding of Tp turns and is provided with tapping at 0.289Tp ,
0.5Tp and0.866Tp .

Phasor Diagram of Scott Connection Transformer

5.6. SCOTT CONNECTION OF TRANSFORMER 51

Figure 5.10: Scott Connection of transformer

The line voltages of the 3-phase system VAB , VBC , and VCA which
are balanced are shown in the figure 5.11 below. The same voltage
is shown as a closed equilateral triangle. The figure below shows
the primary windings of the main and the teaser transformer.

|VAB | = |VBC | = |VCA | = VL

Figure 5.11: Phasor Diagram of Scott Connection Transformer

The D divides the primary BC of the main transformers into

two halves and hence the number of turns in portion BD = the
52 CHAPTER 5. THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

number of turns in portion DC = Tp /2.The voltage VBD and VDC

are equal, and they are in phase with VBC .
1 1
VBD = VDC = VBC = VL ∠0o
2 2
The voltage between A and D is -
√ !
1 3 1
VAD = VL − +j + VL
2 2 2
√ !
3
VAD = VL j = 0.866VL ∠90o
2

√ The teaser transformer has the primary voltage rating that

is 3/2 or 0.866 of the voltage ratings of the main transformer.
Voltage VAD is applied to the primary of the teaser transformer
and therefore the secondary of the voltage V2t of the teaser
transformer will lead the secondary terminal voltage V2m of the
main transformer by 90ë as shown in the figure 5.12 below. Then,

Figure 5.12: secondary Phasor diagram

Vs1 Ts
=
VAD TAD
√
Ts Ts 3Vt
V2t = VAD = √ ×
TAD 3 2
2 Tp
Ts
VL = v2m
Tp
5.7. AUTOTRANSFORMER 53

For keeping the voltage per turn same in the primary of the
main transformer and the primary of the teaser transformer, the
number of turns
√ in the primary of the teaser transformer should
be equal to 3/2Tp .

Thus, the secondaries of both transformers should have

equal voltage ratings.The V2t and V2m are equal in magnitude and
90o apart in time; they result in the balanced 2-phase system.

Applications of Scott Connection:

The following are the applications of the Scott-T connection.

1 The Scott-T connection is used in an electric furnace

installation where it is desired to operate two single-phase
together and draw the balanced load from the three-phase
supply.
2 It is used to supply the single phase loads such as electric
train which are so scheduled as to keep the load on the three
phase system as nearly as possible.
3 The Scott-T connection is used to link a 3-phase system with a
two±phase system with the flow of power in either direction.

The Scott-T connection permits conversions of a 3-phase

system to a two-phase system and vice versa. But since 2-phase
generators are not available, the converters from two phases to
three phases are not used in practice.

5.7 Autotransformer

A Transformer, in which a part of the winding is common to both

the Primary and Secondary circuit, is called an Auto Transformer.
It shall be noted that in Two Winding Transformer, Primary and
Secondary windings are electrically isolated but in Auto
Transformer, the two windings are not electrically isolated.
54 CHAPTER 5. THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

5.7.1 Why do we need to go for Auto Transformer?

We have some advantages of auto-transformer over normal two

winding transformers.

1 Autotransformers usually smaller in size, because one

winding is eliminated.

2 As size is small cost also low(so cheap in cost)

3 As the winding is same so leakage reactance will be less.

4 Increased kVA rating.

5.7.2 Principle of Operation of Autotransformer

The principle of operation of the transformer is the same as the

one of the common transformer, and then the relation between
input and output voltages and input and output currents and the
ratio of number of turns between the primary and the secondary
winding is the same. The currents of the primary and secondary
windings are flowing on the opposite directions, so the total
current flowing through the common part of the winding is equal
to the difference between the current on the low-voltage winding
and the current on the high-voltage winding. A simplified
diagram of a Step-down Auto Transformer is shown in figure
5.13 below.

As shown in the figure above, N1 and N2 are the number of

turns between winding AB and AC respectively. If a voltage V1is
applied across AB, an exciting current will start flowing through
the full winding. Therefore, voltage per turn in winding AB is
V1 /N1 and hence voltage across CB is (V1 /N1 )N2 . As the load
current is I2 and the current taken from the source is I1 ,
neglecting losses
5.7. AUTOTRANSFORMER 55

Figure 5.13: Auto-Transformer

Input Power = Output Power (5.4)

∴ V1 I1 cos φ1 = V2 I2 cos φ2 (5.5)
Assuming internal impedance drop and losses to be negligible,
power factor for primary and secondary will be almost same.
cos φ1 = cos φ2

Therefore from equation 6.2,

V1 I1 = V2 I2 (5.6)
V2 I1 N2
∴ = = =K (5.7)
V1 I2 N1
In our case of Step down Auto Transformer, k < 1.
Again, since the direction of flow of load current is in the
opposite to the current flowing in the Primary because of Lenze’s
Law, hence the current flowing in winding BC = (I2 − I1 ).
ICB = (I2 − I1 )

Primary MMF = IAC (N1 − N2 ) (5.8)

∴ Primary MMF = I1 (N1 − N2 ) (5.9)
∴ Primary MMF = N1 I1 –N2 I1 (5.10)
56 CHAPTER 5. THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

N1 I2
But N2 = I1 So, N1 I1 = N2 I2 Therefore,

Primary MMF = N2 I2 − N2 I1 (5.11)

∴ Primary MMF = (I2 − I1 )N2 (5.12)
∴ Primary MMF = ICB N2 = Secondary MMF (5.13)

Thus we see that in Auto Transformer, Transformer action

take place between winding AC and BC. Thus VA of winding AC
will be transferred to winding BC by Transformer action.
Therefore,
Transformed VA = VAB IAB (5.14)
Transformed VA = (V1 − V2 )I1 (5.15)
Now, total VA input = V1 I1 Therefore,
Transformed VA (V1 − V2 )I1
= (5.16)
Input VA V1 I1
V2
=1− (5.17)
V1
=1−K (5.18)

Thus we see that out of total input VA, only a part of it is

transformed by Transformer action and remaining is therefore
transferred by conduction. So
Conducted VA = Total Input–Transformed VA (5.19)
= V1 I1 − (V1 − V2 )I1 (5.20)
= V2 I1 (5.21)
so,
Conducted VA V2 I1
= (5.22)
Input VA V1 I1
V2
= K (5.23)
V1
5.7. AUTOTRANSFORMER 57

Thus in an Auto Transformer, a part of input power is

delivered to the load by Transformer action while the remaining
is by conduction method. Power transfer because of conduction
method is possible in Auto Transformer because a part of
winding is common to both the primary as well as secondary
circuit.

5.7.3 Equivalent Circuit of Autotransformer

Figure 5.14: Auto transformer on load

As mentioned earlier the magnetizing current can be

neglected, for simplicity. Writing the Kirchoff’s equation to the
primary and secondary, we have
V1 = E1 + I1 (r1 + jxl1 ) − (I2 − I1 )(r2 + jxl2 ) (5.24)
Note that the resistance r1 and leakage reactance xl1 refer to that
part of the winding where only the primary current flows.
Similarly on the load side, we have,
E2 = V2 + (I2 − I1 )(r2 + jxl2 ) (5.25)
The voltage ratio V1 : V2 = E1 : E2 = T1 : T2 = a where T1 is the
total turns of the primary. Then E1 = aE2 and I2 = aI1

The magnetization branch can now be hung across the

mains for completeness. The above equivalent circuit can now be
58 CHAPTER 5. THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

compared with the approximate equivalent circuit of a two

winding case Re = r1 + a2r2 and Xe = xl1 + a2xl2 . Thus in the
case of an auto transformer total value of the short circuit
impedance is lower and so also the percentage resistance and
reactance. Thus the full load regulation is lower. Having a
smaller value of short circuit impedance is sometimes considered
to be a disadvantage. That is because the short circuit currents
become very large in those cases. The efficiency is higher in auto
transformers compared to their two winding counter part at the
same load. The phasor diagram of operation for the auto
transformer drawing a load current at a lagging power factor
angle of θ2 is shown in Fig. 5.16. The magnetizing current is
omitted here again for simplicity.

Figure 5.15: Equivalent Circuit

From the foregoing study it is seen that there are several

advantages in going in for the autotransformer type of
arrangement. The voltage/current transformation and
impedance conversion aspects of a two winding transformer are
retained but with lesser material (and hence lesser weight) used.
The losses are reduced increasing the efficiency. Reactance is
reduced resulting in better regulation characteristics. All these
benefits are enhanced as the voltage ratio approaches unity. The
price that is required to be paid is loss of electrical isolation and a
larger short circuit current (and larger short circuit forces on the
5.7. AUTOTRANSFORMER 59

winding).

Figure 5.16: Phasor Diagram

5.7.4 Advantages of Autotransformer

1 Less costly
2 Better regulation
3 Low losses as compared to ordinary two winding transformer
of the same rating.

5.7.5 Disadvantages of Autotransformer

There are various advantages of the auto transformer, but then

also one major disadvantage, why auto transformer is not widely
used, is that

1 The secondary winding is not insulated from the primary

winding.
If an auto transformer is used to supply low voltage from a
60 CHAPTER 5. THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

high voltage and there is a break in the secondary winding,

the full primary voltage comes across the secondary terminal
which is dangerous to the operator and the equipment. So
the auto transformer should not be used to for
interconnecting high voltage and low voltage system.

2 Used only in the limited places where a slight variation of the

output voltage from input voltage is required.

5.7.6 Applications of Autotransformer

1 It is used as a starter to give upto 50 to 60% of full voltage to

the stator of a squirrel cage induction motor during starting.

2 It is used to give a small boost to a distribution cable, to

correct the voltage drop.

3 It is also used as a voltage regulator

4 Used in power transmission and distribution system and also

in the audio system and railways.

5.8 Tap Changing Transformer

The change of voltage is affected by changing the numbers of

turns of the transformer provided with taps. For sufficiently close
control of voltage, taps are usually provided on the high voltage
windings of the transformer. There are two types of tap-changing
transformers.

1 Off-load tap changing transformer

2 On-load tap changing transformer

5.8. TAP CHANGING TRANSFORMER 61

5.8.1 Off-load tap-changing transformer

In this method, the transformer is disconnected from the main

supply when the tap setting is to be changed. The tap setting is
usually done manually. The off load tap changing transformer is
shown in the figure 5.17 below :

Figure 5.17: Off-load tap-changing transformer

5.8.2 On-load tap-changing transformer

In order that the supply may not be interrupted, on-load tap

changing transformer is used. Such a transformer is known as a
tap-changing under load transformer. While tapping, two
essential conditions are to be fulfilled.

• The load circuit should not be broken to avoid arcing and

prevent the damage of contacts.

• No parts of the windings should be short±circuited while

adjusting the tap.

The tap changing employing a center tapped reactor R show

in the figure above. Here S is the diverter switch, and 1, 2, 3 are
selector switch. The transformer is in operation with switches 1
62 CHAPTER 5. THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

Figure 5.18: On Load Tap Changing using reactor

and S closed. To change to tap 2, switch S is opened, and 2 is

closed. Switch 1 is then opened, and S closed to complete the tap
change. It is to be noted that the diverter switch operates on load,
and no current flows in the selector switches during tap changing.

It is to be noted that the diverter switch operates on load,

and no current flows in the selector switches during tap changing.
During the tap change, only half of the reactance which limits the
current is connected in the circuit.
Chapter 6

THREE PHASE INDUCTION

MOTOR

6.1 Introduction

Like any electric motor, a 3-phase induction motor has a stator

and a rotor. The stator carries a 3-phase winding (called stator
winding) while the rotor carries a short-circuited winding (called
rotor winding). Only the stator winding is fed from 3-phase
supply. The rotor winding derives its voltage and power from the
externally energized stator winding through electromagnetic
induction and hence the name. The induction motor may be
considered to be a transformer with a rotating secondary and it
can, therefore, be described as a ªtransformertype” a.c. machine
in which electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy.

Advantages :

1 It has simple and rugged construction.

2 It is relatively cheap.

3 It requires little maintenance.

4 It has high efficiency and reasonably good power factor.

63
64 CHAPTER 6. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

5 It has self starting torque.

Disadvantages :

1 It is essentially a constant speed motor and its speed cannot

be changed easily.

2 Its starting torque is inferior to d.c. shunt motor.

6.2 Construction

A 3-phase induction motor has two main parts (i) stator and (ii)
rotor. The rotor is separated from the stator by a small air-gap
which ranges from 0.4 mm to 4 mm, depending on the power of
the motor.

6.2.1 Stator

It consists of a steel frame which encloses a hollow, cylindrical

core made up of thin laminations of silicon steel to reduce
hysteresis and eddy current losses. A number of evenly spaced
slots are provided on the inner periphery of the laminations [See
Fig. 6.1]. The insulated connected to form a balanced 3-phase star
or delta connected circuit. The 3-phase stator winding is wound
for a definite number of poles as per requirement of speed.
Greater the number of poles, lesser is the speed of the motor and
vice-versa. When 3-phase supply is given to the stator winding, a
rotating magnetic field of constant magnitude is produced. This
rotating field induces currents in the rotor by electromagnetic
induction.
6.2. CONSTRUCTION 65

Figure 6.1: Stator

6.2.2 Rotor

The rotor, mounted on a shaft, is a hollow laminated core having

slots on its outer periphery. The winding placed in these slots
(called rotor winding) may be one of the following two types:

1 Squirrel cage type

2 Wound type

Squirrel cage rotor

It consists of a laminated cylindrical core having parallel slots on
its outer periphery. One copper or aluminum bar is placed in each
slot. All these bars are joined at each end by metal rings called
end rings [See Fig. 6.2]. This forms a permanently short-circuited
winding which is indestructible. The entire construction (bars and
end rings) resembles a squirrel cage and hence the name. The rotor
is not connected electrically to the supply but has current induced
in it by transformer action from the stator.

Those induction motors which employ squirrel cage rotor

are called squirrel cage induction motors. Most of 3-phase
induction motors use squirrel cage rotor as it has a remarkably
66 CHAPTER 6. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Figure 6.2: Squirrel Cage Rotor

simple and robust construction enabling it to operate in the most

adverse circumstances. However, it suffers from the
disadvantage of a low starting torque. It is because the rotor bars
are permanently short-circuited and it is not possible to add any
external resistance to the rotor circuit to have a large starting
torque.

Wound Rotor
It consists of a laminated cylindrical core and carries a 3- phase
winding, similar to the one on the stator [See Fig. (6.3)]. The rotor
winding is uniformly distributed in the slots and is usually
star-connected. The open ends of the rotor winding are brought
out and joined to three insulated slip rings mounted on the rotor
shaft with one brush resting on each slip ring. The three brushes
are connected to a 3-phase star-connected rheostat as shown in
Fig. 6.4. At starting, the external resistances are included in the
rotor circuit to give a large starting torque. These resistances are
gradually reduced to zero as the motor runs up to speed.
6.3. ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO 3-PHASE CURRENTS 67

Figure 6.3: Wound Rotor

The external resistances are used during starting period only.

When the motor attains normal speed, the three brushes are short-
circuited so that the wound rotor runs like a squirrel cage rotor.

Figure 6.4: Three brushes connected to a 3-phase star-connected rheostat

6.3 Rotating Magnetic Field Due to 3-Phase

Currents

When a 3-phase winding is energized from a 3-phase supply, a

rotating magnetic field is produced. This field is such that its
poles do no remain in a fixed position on the stator but go on
shifting their positions around the stator. For this reason, it is
called a rotating Held. It can be shown that magnitude of this
68 CHAPTER 6. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

rotating field is constant and is equal to 1.5 φm where φm is the

maximum flux due to any phase.

Figure 6.5:

To see how rotating field is produced, consider a 2-pole, 3i-

phase winding as shown in Fig. (6.6 (i)). The three phases X, Y
and Z are energized from a 3-phase source and currents in these
phases are indicated as Ix , Iy and Iz [See Fig. (6.6 (ii))]. Referring
to Fig. (6.6 (ii)), the fluxes produced by these currents are given
by:

φx = φm sin ωt
φy = φm sin(ωt − 120o )
φz = φm sin(ωt − 240o )

Here φm is the maximum flux due to any phase. Fig. (6.5)

shows the phasor diagram of the three fluxes. We shall now
prove that this 3-phase supply produces a rotating field of
constant magnitude equal to 1.5 φm .

1 At instant 1 [See Fig. (6.6 (ii)) and Fig. (6.6 (iii))], the current
in phase X is zero and currents in phases Y and Z are equal
and opposite. The currents are flowing outward in the top
conductors and inward in the bottom conductors. This
establishes a resultant flux towards right. The magnitude of
6.3. ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO 3-PHASE CURRENTS 69

Figure 6.6:

the resultant flux is constant and is equal to 1.5 φm as proved

under:

At instant 1, ωt = 0o . Therefore, the three fluxes are given by;

φx = 0
√
3
φy = φm sin(−120o ) = − φm
√2
3
φz = φm sin(−240o ) = φm
2
70 CHAPTER 6. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Figure 6.7:

The phasor sum of −φy and φz is the resultant flux φr [See Fig.
(6.7)]. It is clear that:
√ √ √
3 60o 3 3
Resultant Flux,φr = 2× φm cos = 2× φm = 1.5φm
2 2 2 2
2 At instant 2, the current is maximum (negative) in φy phase
Y and 0.5 maximum (positive) in phases X and Y . The
magnitude of resultant flux is 1.5φm as proved under:
At instant 2, ωt = 30o . Therefore, the three fluxes are given
by;
φm
φx = φm sin(30o ) =
2
o
φy = φm sin(−90 ) = −φm
φm
φz = φm sin(−210o ) =
2

Figure 6.8:
6.3. ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO 3-PHASE CURRENTS 71

The phasor sum of φx , −φy and φz is the resultant flux φr

Phasor sum of φx and φz ,
φm 120o φm
φ′r = 2 × cos =
2 2 2

Phasor sum of φ′r and −φy ,

φm
φr = + φm = 1.5φm
2

Note that resultant flux is displaced 30o clockwise from

position 1.

3 At instant 3, current in phase Z is zero and the currents in

phases X and Y are equal and opposite (currents in phases X
and Y arc 0.866 × max. value). The magnitude of resultant
flux is 1.5 φm as proved under:

Figure 6.9:

At instant 3, ωt = 60o . Therefore, the three fluxes are given

by;
√
o 3
φx = φm sin(60 ) = φm
2 √
3
φy = φm sin(−60o ) = − φm
2
o o
φz = φm sin(−180 ) = 0
72 CHAPTER 6. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

The resultant flux φr is the phasor sum of φx and - φy (∵ φz =

0). √
3 60o
φr = 2 × φm cos = 1.5φm
2 2
Note that resultant flux is displaced 60o clockwise from
position 1.

4 At instant 4, the current in phase X is maximum (positive)

and the currents in phases V and Z are equal and negative
(currents in phases V and Z are 0.5 × max. value). This
establishes a resultant flux downward as shown under:

Figure 6.10:

At instant 4, ωt = 90o . Therefore, the three fluxes are given

by;

φx = φm sin(90o ) = φm
φm
φy = φm sin(−30o ) = −
2
φm
φz = φm sin(−150o ) = −
2

The phasor sum of φx , - φy and - φz is the resultant flux φr

Phasor sum of - φz and - φy ,
φm 120o φm
φ′r =2× cos =
2 2 2
6.3. ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO 3-PHASE CURRENTS 73

Phasor sum of φ′r and φx ,

φm
φr = + φm = 1.5φm
2

Note that the resultant flux is downward i.e., it is displaced 90o

clockwise from position 1.

It follows from the above discussion that a 3-phase supply

produces a rotating field of constant value (= 1.5 φm , where φm is
the maximum flux due to any phase).

6.3.1 Speed of Rotating Magnetic Field

The speed at which the rotating magnetic field revolves is called

the synchronous speed (Ns ). Referring to Fig. (6.6 (ii)), the time
instant 4 represents the completion of one-quarter cycle of
alternating current Ix from the time instant 1. During this one
quarter cycle, the field has rotated through 90o . At a time instant
represented by 13 or one complete cycle of current Ix from the
origin, the field has completed one revolution. Therefore, for a
2-pole stator winding, the field makes one revolution in one cycle
of current. In a 4-pole stator winding, it can be shown that the
rotating field makes one revolution in two cycles of current. In
general, fur P poles, the rotating field makes one revolution in
P/2 cycles of current.

P
∴ Cycles of current = × revolutions of field
2

P
or Cycles of current per second = ×Revolutions of field per second
2
(6.1)

Since revolutions per second is equal to the revolutions per

minute (Ns) divided by 60 and the number of cycles per second is
74 CHAPTER 6. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

the frequency f ,

P Ns Ns P
∴f = × =
2 60 120
120f
∴ Ns =
P

The speed of the rotating magnetic field is the same as the

speed of the alternator that is supplying power to the motor if the
two have the same number of poles. Hence the magnetic flux is
said to rotate at synchronous speed.

6.3.2 Direction of rotating magnetic field

The phase sequence of the three-phase voltage applied to the

stator winding in Fig. (6.6 (ii)) is X-Y-Z. If this sequence is
changed to X-Z-Y, it is observed that direction of rotation of the
field is reversed i.e., the field rotates counterclockwise rather than
clockwise. However, the number of poles and the speed at which
the magnetic field rotates remain unchanged. Thus it is necessary
only to change the phase sequence in order to change the
direction of rotation of the magnetic field. For a three-phase
supply, this can be done by interchanging any two of the three
lines. As we shall see, the rotor in a 3-phase induction motor runs
in the same direction as the rotating magnetic field. Therefore, the
direction of rotation of a 3-phase induction motor can be reversed
by interchanging any two of the three motor supply lines.

6.4 Principle of Operation

Consider a portion of 3-phase induction motor as shown in Fig.

(6.11). The operation of the motor can be explained as under:
6.4. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION 75

Figure 6.11:

1 When 3-phase stator winding is energized from a 3-phase

supply, a rotating magnetic field is set up which rotates
round the stator at synchronous speed Ns (= 120f /P ).
2 The rotating field passes through the air gap and cuts the
rotor conductors, which as yet, are stationary. Due to the
relative speed between the rotating flux and the stationary
rotor, e.m.f.s are induced in the rotor conductors. Since the
rotor circuit is short-circuited, currents start flowing in the
rotor conductors.
3 The current-carrying rotor conductors are placed in the
magnetic field produced by the stator. Consequently,
mechanical force acts on the rotor conductors. The sum of
the mechanical forces on all the rotor conductors produces a
torque which tends to move the rotor in the same direction
as the rotating field.
4 The fact that rotor is urged to follow the stator field (i.e.,
rotor moves in the direction of stator field) can be explained
by Lenz’s law. According to this law, the direction of rotor
currents will be such that they tend to oppose the cause
producing them. Now, the cause producing the rotor
currents is the relative speed between the rotating field and
the stationary rotor conductors. Hence to reduce this relative
76 CHAPTER 6. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

speed, the rotor starts running in the same direction as that

of stator field and tries to catch it.

6.5 Slip

We have seen above that rotor rapidly accelerates in the direction

of rotating field. In practice, the rotor can never reach the speed
of stator flux. If it did, there would be no relative speed between
the stator field and rotor conductors, no induced rotor currents
and, therefore, no torque to drive the rotor. The friction and
windage would immediately cause the rotor to slow down.
Hence, the rotor speed (N) is always less than the suitor field
speed (Ns). This difference in speed depends upon load on the
motor.

The difference between the synchronous speed Ns of the rotating

stator field and the actual rotor speed N is called slip. It is usually
expressed as a percentage of synchronous speed i.e.,

Ns − N
Percentage Slip, s = × 100
Ns

• The quantity Ns − N is sometimes called slip speed.

• When the rotor is stationary (i.e., N = 0), slip, s = 1 or 100 %.

• In an induction motor, the change in slip from no-load to full-

load is hardly 0.1 % to 3 % so that it is essentially a constant-
speed motor.

6.6 Rotor Current Frequency

The frequency of a voltage or current induced due to the relative

speed between a vending and a magnetic field is given by the
6.7. EFFECT OF SLIP ON ROTOR CIRCUIT 77

general formula;
NP
Frequency =
120
where, N = Relative speed between magnetic field and the
winding and P = Number of poles

For a rotor speed N , the relative speed between the rotating

flux and the rotor is Ns − N . Consequently, the rotor current
frequency f ′ is given by;

(Ns − N )P
f′ =
120
sN s P Ns − N
∴ f′ = ∵s=
120 Ns
Ns P
∴ f ′ = sf ∵f =
120
i.e., Rotor current frequency = Fractional slip × Supply frequency

1 When the rotor is at standstill or stationary (i.e., s = 1), the

frequency of rotor current is the same as that of supply
frequency (f ′ = sf = 1 × f = f ).
2 As the rotor picks up speed, the relative speed between the
rotating flux and the rotor decreases. Consequently, the slip s
and hence rotor current frequency decreases.

6.7 Effect of Slip on Rotor Circuit

When the rotor is stationary, s = 1. Under these conditions, the

per phase rotor e.m.f. E2 has a frequency equal to that of supply
frequency f . At any slip s, the relative speed between stator field
and the rotor is decreased. Consequently, the rotor e.m.f. and
frequency are reduced proportionally to sEs and sf respectively.
At the same time, per phase rotor reactance X2 , being frequency
dependent, is reduced to sX2 .
78 CHAPTER 6. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Consider a 6-pole, 3-phase, 50 Hz induction motor. It has

synchronous speed N s = 120f /P = 120 × 50/6 = 1000 r.p.m. At
standsill, the relative speed between stator flux and rotor is 1000
r.p.m. and rotor e.m.f./phase = E2 (say). If the fullload speed of
the motor is 960 r.p.m., then,
1000 − 960
s= = 0.04
1000

1 The relative speed between stator flux and the rotor is now
only 40 r.p.m. Consequently, rotor e.m.f./phase is reduced
to:
40
E2 × = 0.04E2 or sE2
1000
2 The frequency is also reduced in the same ratio to:
40
50 × = 50 × 0.04 or sf
1000

3 The per phase rotor reactance X2 is likewise reduced to:

40
X2 × = 0.04X2 or sX2
1000
Thus at any slip s,
Rotor e.m.f./phase = sE2
Rotor reactance/phase = sX2
Rotor frequency = sf
where E2 , X2 and f are the corresponding values at standstill.

6.8 Rotor Current

Fig. (6.12) shows the circuit of a 3-phase induction motor at any

slip s. The rotor is assumed to be of wound type and star
connected. Note that rotor e.m.f./phase and rotor
reactance/phase are sE2 and sX2 respectively. The rotor
resistance/phase is R2 and is independent of frequency and,
6.8. ROTOR CURRENT 79

therefore, does not depend upon slip. Likewise, stator winding

values R1 and X1 do not depend upon slip.

Figure 6.12: Circuit of a 3-phase induction motor at any slip

Since the motor represents a balanced 3-phase load, we need

consider one phase only; the conditions in the other two phases
being similar.

At standstill. Fig. (6.13 (i)) shows one phase of the rotor circuit at
standstill.
E2 E2
Rotor current/phase, I2 = =p 2
Z2 R2 + X22

R2 R2
Rotor p.f., cos φ2 = =p 2
Z2 R2 + X22

Figure 6.13: Phase of Rotor Circuit

80 CHAPTER 6. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

When running at slip s. Fig. (6.13 (ii)) shows one phase of the
rotor circuit when the motor is running at slip s.
sE2 sE2
Rotor current/phase, I2′ = =
Z2′
p
R22 + (sX2 )2

R2 R2
Rotor p.f., cos φ′2 = =
Z2′
p
R22 + (sX2 )2

6.9 Rotor Torque

The torque T developed by the rotor is directly proportional to:

1. rotor current
2. rotor e.m.f.
3. power factor of the rotor circuit

T ∝ E2 I2 cos φ2
T = kE2 I2 cos φ2

where,
I2 = rotor current at standstill
E2 = rotor e.m.f. at standstill
cos φ2 = rotor p.f. at standstill

6.10 Starting Torque

Let, E2 = rotor e.m.f. per phase at standstill

X2 = rotor reactance per phase at standstill
R2 = rotor resistance per phase
6.10. STARTING TORQUE 81

q
Rotor Impedance/phase, Z2 = R22 + X22 ...at standstill

E2 E2
Rotor Current/phase, I2 = =p 2 ...at standstill
Z2 R2 + X22

R2 R2
Rotor p.f., cos φ2 = =p 2 ...at standstill
Z2 R2 + X22

∴ Starting Torque, Ts = KE2 I2 cos φ2

E2 R
= KE2 × p 2 × p 2
R2 + X22 R22 + X22
KE22 R2
= 2
R2 + X22

Generally, the stator supply voltage V is constant so that flux

per pole φ set up by the stator is also fixed. This in turn means that
e.m.f. E2 induced in the rotor will be constant.

K1 R 2 K1 R2
∴ Ts = =
R22 + X22 Z2

where K1 is another constant.

It is clear that the magnitude of starting torque would

depend upon the relative values of R2 and X2 i.e., rotor
resistance/phase and standstill rotor reactance/phase.
3
It can be shown that K = 2πNs .

3 E22 R2
∴ Ts = ×
2πNs R22 + X22
82 CHAPTER 6. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

6.11 Condition for Maximum Starting Torque

It can be proved that starting torque will be maximum when rotor

resistance/phase is equal to standstill rotor reactance/phase.
K1 R 2
Ts = (6.2)
R22 + X22

Differentiating eq. 6.2 w.r.t. R2 and equating the result to

zero, we get,
 
dTs 1 R2 (2R2 )
= K1 − =0
dR2 R22 + X22 (R22 + X22 )2

or R22 + X22 = 2R22

or R2 = X2

Hence starting torque will be maximum when:

Rotor resistance/phase = Standstill rotor reactance/phase

Under the condition of maximum starting torque, φ2 = 45o

and rotor power factor is 0.707 lagging [See Fig. (6.14 (ii))].

Figure 6.14: Variation of Starting Torque with rotor resistance

6.12. EFFECT OF CHANGE OF POWER SUPPLY 83

Fig. (6.14 (i)) shows the variation of starting torque with

rotor resistance. As the rotor resistance is increased from a
relatively low value, the starting torque increases until it becomes
maximum when R2 = X2 . If the rotor resistance is increased
beyond this optimum value, the starting torque will decrease.

6.12 Effect of Change of Power Supply

KE22 R2
Ts = 2
R2 + X22

Since E2 ∝ Supply voltage V

K2 V 2 R 2
∴ Ts = 2
R2 + X22

where K2 is another constant.

Ts ∝ V 2

Therefore, the starting torque is very sensitive to changes in

the value of supply voltage. For example, a drop of 10 % in supply
voltage will decrease the starting torque by about 20 %. This could
mean the motor failing to start if it cannot produce a torque greater
than the load torque plus friction torque.

6.13 Starting Torque of 3-phase Induction Motor

The rotor circuit of an induction motor has low resistance and

high inductance. At starting, the rotor frequency is equal to the
stator frequency (i.e., 50 Hz) so that rotor reactance is large
compared with rotor resistance. Therefore, rotor current lags the
84 CHAPTER 6. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

rotor e.m.f. by a large angle, the power factor is low and

consequently the starting torque is small. When resistance is
added to the rotor circuit, the rotor power factor is improved
which results in improved starting torque. This, of course,
increases the rotor impedance and, therefore, decreases the value
of rotor current but the effect of improved power factor
predominates and the starting torque is increased.

1 Squirrel-cage motors : Since the rotor bars are permanently

short circuited, it is not possible to add any external
resistance in the rotor circuit at starting. Consequently, the
stalling torque of such motors is low. Squirrel cage motors
have starting torque of 1.5 to 2 times the full-load value with
starting current of 5 to 9 times the full-load current.

2 Wound Rotor Motors : The resistance of the rotor circuit of

such motors can be increased through the addition of external
resistance. By inserting the proper value of external resistance
(so that R2 = X2 ), maximum starting torque can be obtained.
As the motor accelerates, the external resistance is gradually
cut out until the rotor circuit is short-circuited on itself for
running conditions.

6.14 Motor Under Load

1 When we apply mechanical load to the shaft of the motor,

it will begin to slow down and the rotating flux will cut the
rotor conductors at a higher and higher rate. The induced
voltage and resulting current in rotor conductors will increase
progressively, producing greater and greater torque.

2 The motor and mechanical load will soon reach a state of

equilibrium when the motor torque is exactly equal to the
load torque. When this state is reached, the speed will cease
to drop any more and the motor will run at the new speed at
6.14. MOTOR UNDER LOAD 85

a constant rate.

3 The drop in speed of the induction motor on increased load

is small. It is because the rotor impedance is low and a small
decrease in speed produces a large rotor current. The
increased rotor current produces a higher torque to meet the
increased load on the motor. This is why induction motors
are considered to be constant-speed machines. However,
because they never actually turn at synchronous speed, they
are sometimes called asynchronous machines.

Note that change in load on the induction motor is met

through the adjustment of slip. When load on the motor
increases, the slip increases slightly (i.e., motor speed
decreases slightly). This results in greater relative speed
between the rotating flux and rotor conductors.
Consequently, rotor current is increased, producing a higher
torque to meet the increased load. Reverse happens should
the load on the motor decrease.

4 With increasing load, the increased load currents I2′ are in

such a direction so as to decrease the stator flux (Lenz’s law),
thereby decreasing the counter e.m.f. in the stator windings.
The decreased counter e.m.f. allows motor stator current (I1 )
to increase, thereby increasing the power input to the motor.
It may be noted that action of the induction motor in
adjusting its stator or primary current with changes of
current in the rotor or secondary is very much similar to the
changes occurring in transformer with changes in load.
86 CHAPTER 6. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Figure 6.15: 3-phase induction motor under load

6.15 Torque Under Running Conditions

Let the rotor at standstill have per phase induced e.m.f. E2 ,

reactance X2 and resistance R2 . Then under running conditions at
slip s,

Rotor e.m.f./phase, E2′ = sE2

Rotor reactance/phase, X2′ = sX2
q
′
Rotor Impedance / phase, Z2 = R22 + (sX2 )2
E2′ sE2
I2′
Rotor current/phase, = ′ = p 2
Z2 R2 + (sX2 )2
R2
Rotor p.f., cos φ′m = p 2
R2 + (sX2 )2
6.15. TORQUE UNDER RUNNING CONDITIONS 87

Figure 6.16:

Running Torque, Tr ∝ E2′ I2′ cos φ′2

∝ φI2′ cos φ′2
sE2 R2
∝φ× p 2 ×p 2
R2 + (sX2 )2 R2 + (sX22 )2
φsE2 R2
∝ 2
R2 + (sX2 )2
KφsE2 R2
= 2
R2 + (sX2 )2
K1 sE22 R2
= 2
R2 + (sX2 )2

If the stator supply voltage V is constant, then stator flux and

hence E2 will be constant.

K2 sR2
∴ T2 =
R22 + (sX2 )2

where K2 is another constant.

It may be seen that running torque is:

1 directly proportional to slip i.e., if slip increases (i.e., motor

speed decreases), the torque will increase and vice-versa.
88 CHAPTER 6. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

2 directly proportional to square of supply voltage (∵ E2 ∝ V )

.

3
It can be shown that value of K1 = 2πNs where Ns is in r.p.s.

3 sE22 R2 3 sE22 R2
∴ Tr = × = ×
2πNs R22 + (sX2 )2 2πNs R22 + (sX2 )2
At starting, s = 1 so that starting torque is

3 E22 R2
Ts = ×
2πNs R22 + X22

6.16 Maximum Torque under Running Conditions

K2 sR2
Tr = (6.3)
R22+ s2 X22

In order to find the value of rotor resistance that gives

maximum torque under running conditions, differentiate exp. 6.3
w.r.t. s and equate the result to zero i.e.,

K2 R2 (R22 + s2 X22 ) − 2sX22 (sR2 )

 
dTr
= =0
ds (R22 + s2 X22 )2

or (R22 + s2 X22 ) − 2sX22 = 0

or R22 = s2 X22
or R2 = sX2

Thus for maximum torque (Tm) under running conditions :

Rotor resistance/phase = Fractional slip×Standstill rotor reactance/phase

6.17. TORQUE-SLIP CHARACTERISTICS 89

Now,
sR2
T ∝
R22 + s2 X22

For maximum torque, R2 = sX2 . Putting R2 = sX2 in the

above expression, the maximum torque Tm is given by;
1
Tm ∝
2X2

Slip corresponding to maximum torque, s = R2 /X2 .

It can be shown that:
3 E22
Tm = × N-m
2πNs 2X2

It is evident from the above equations that:

1 The value of rotor resistance does not alter the value of the
maximum torque but only the value of the slip at which it
occurs.
2 The maximum torque varies inversely as the standstill
reactance. Therefore, it should be kept as small as possible.
3 The maximum torque varies directly with the square of the
applied voltage.
4 To obtain maximum torque at starting (s = 1), the rotor
resistance must be made equal to rotor reactance at
standstill.

6.17 Torque-Slip Characteristics

The motor torque under running conditions is given by;

K2 sR2
T =
R22+ s2 X22
90 CHAPTER 6. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

If a curve is drawn between the torque and slip for a

particular value of rotor resistance R2 , the graph thus obtained is
called torque-slip characteristic. Fig. (6.17) shows a family of
torque-slip characteristics for a slip-range from s = 0 to s = 1 for
various values of rotor resistance.

Figure 6.17: Torque-Slip Characteristics

The following points may be noted carefully:

1 At s = 0, T = 0 so that torque-slip curve starts from the origin.

2 At normal speed, slip is small so that sX2 is negligible as

compared to R2 .
s
∴T ∝
R2
∴T ∝s ∵ ... as R2 is constant

Hence torque slip curve is a straight line from zero slip to a

slip that corresponds to full-load.

3 As slip increases beyond full-load slip, the torque increases

and becomes maximum at s = R2 /X2 . This maximum torque
in an induction motor is called pull-out torque or break-down
torque. Its value is at least twice the full-load value when the
motor is operated at rated voltage and frequency.
6.18. COMPARISON OF INDUCTION MOTOR AND TRANSFORMER 91

4 At lower slip, the induction motor is subjected to maximum

torque, the term s2 X22 s increases very rapidly so that R22 may
be neglected as compared to s2 X22 .
s
∴T ∝ 2 2
s X2
1
∴T ∝ ∵ ... as X2 is constant
s
Thus the torque is now inversely proportional to slip. Hence
torque-slip curve is a rectangular hyperbola.
5 The maximum torque remains the same and is independent
of the value of rotor resistance. Therefore, the addition of
resistance to the rotor circuit does not change the value of
maximum torque but it only changes the value of slip at
which maximum torque occurs.

6.18 Comparison of Induction Motor and

Transformer

An induction motor may be considered to be a transformer with

a rotating shortcircuited secondary. The stator winding
corresponds to transformer primary and rotor winding to
transformer secondary. However, the following differences
between the two are worth noting:

1 Unlike a transformer, the magnetic circuit of a 3-phase

induction motor has an air gap. Therefore, the magnetizing
current in a 3-phase induction motor is much larger than
that of the transformer. For example, in an induction motor,
it may be as high as 30-50 % of rated current whereas it is
only 1- 5 % of rated current in a transformer.
2 In an induction motor, there is an air gap and the stator and
rotor windings are distributed along the periphery of the air
gap rather than concentrated on a core as in a transformer.
92 CHAPTER 6. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Therefore, the leakage reactances of stator and rotor

windings are quite large compared to that of a transformer.
(iii) In an induction motor, the inputs to the stator and rotor
are electrical but the output from the rotor is mechanical.
However, in a transformer, input as well as output is
electrical. (iv) The main difference between the induction
motor and transformer lies in the fact that the rotor voltage
and its frequency are both proportional to slip s. If f is the
stator frequency, E2 is the per phase rotor e.m.f. at standstill
and X2 is the standstill rotor reactance/phase, then at any
slip s, these values are:
Rotor e.m.f./phase, E2′ = sE2
Rotor reactance/phase, X2′ = sX2
Rotor frequency, f ′ = sf

6.19 Speed Regulation of Induction Motors

Like any other electrical motor, the speed regulation of an

induction motor is given by:
N0 − NF.L.
% age speed Regulation = × 100
NF.L.
where,
N0 = no-load speed of the motor NF.L . = full-load speed of the
motor

If the no-load speed of the motor is 800 r.p.m. and its fall-
load speed in 780 r.p.m., then change in speed is 800 - 780 = 20
r.p.m. and percentage speed regulation = 20 × 100/780 = 2.56 %.

At no load, only a small torque is required to overcome the

small mechanical losses and hence motor slip is small i.e., about 1
%. When the motor is fully loaded, the slip increases slightly i.e.,
motor speed decreases slightly. It is because rotor impedance is
low and a small decrease in speed produces a large rotor current.
The increased rotor current produces a high torque to meet the
6.20. SPEED CONTROL OF 3-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS 93

full load on the motor. For this reason, the change in speed of the
motor from noload to full-load is small i.e., the speed regulation of
an induction motor is low. The speed regulation of an induction
motor is 3 % to 5 %. Although the motor speed does decrease
slightly with increased load, the speed regulation is low enough
that the induction motor is classed as a constant-speed motor.

6.20 Speed Control of 3-phase Induction Motors

120f
N = (1 − s)Ns = (1 − s) (6.4)
P

An inspection of eq. 6.4 reveals that the speed N of an

induction motor can be varied by changing (i) supply frequency
f (ii) number of poles P on the stator and (iii) slip s. The change
of frequency is generally not possible because the commercial
supplies have constant frequency. Therefore, the practical
methods of speed control are either to change the number of
stator poles or the motor slip.

1 Squirrel cage motors :

The speed of a squirrel cage motor is changed by changing
the number of stator poles. Only two or four speeds are
possible by this method. Two-speed motor has one stator
winding that may be switched through suitable control
equipment to provide two speeds, one of which is half of the
other. For instance, the winding may be connected for either
4 or 8 poles, giving synchronous speeds of 1500 and 750
r.p.m. Four-speed motors are equipped with two separate
stator windings each of which provides two speeds. The
disadvantages of this method are:

(a) It is not possible to obtain gradual continuous speed

control.
94 CHAPTER 6. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

(b) Because of the complications in the design and

switching of the interconnections of the stator winding,
this method can provide a maximum of four different
synchronous speeds for any one motor.

2 Wound Rotor Motors :

The speed of wound rotor motors is changed by changing the
motor slip. This can be achieved by;

(a) varying the stator line voltage

(b) varying the resistance of the rotor circuit
(c) inserting and varying a foreign voltage in the rotor circuit

6.21 Power Stages in an Induction Motor

The input electric power fed to the stator of the motor is converted
into mechanical power at the shaft of the motor. The various losses
during the energy conversion are:

1 Fixed Losses :

(a) Stator iron loss

(b) Friction and windage loss

The rotor iron loss is negligible because the frequency of rotor

currents under normal running condition is small.

2 Variable Losses :

(a) Stator copper loss

(b) Rotor copper loss
6.22. INDUCTION MOTOR TORQUE 95

Figure 6.18: Power Stages in an induction motor

The following points may be noted from the above diagram:

• Stator input, Pi = Stator output + Stator losses

Stator input, Pi = Stator output + Stator Iron loss + Stator Cu
loss
• Rotor input, Pr = Stator output
It is because stator output is entirely transferred to the rotor
through airgap by electromagnetic induction.
• Mechanical power available, Pm = Pr - Rotor Cu loss
This mechanical power available is the gross rotor output and
will produce a gross torque Tg .
• Mechanical power at shaft, Pout = Pm - Friction and windage
loss
Mechanical power available at the shaft produces a shaft
torque Tsh .
Clearly, Pm − Pout = Friction and windage loss

6.22 Induction Motor Torque

The mechanical power P available from any electric motor can be

expressed as:
2πN T
P = watts
60
96 CHAPTER 6. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

where,
N = speed of the motor in r.p.m.
T = torque developed in N-m

60 P
∴T = N-m
2π N
If the gross output of the rotor of an induction motor is Pm and its
speed is N r.p.m., then gross torque T developed is given by:

Pm
Tg = 9.55 N-m
N
Similarly,
Pout
Tsh = 9.55 N-m
N
Note : Since windage and friction loss is small, Tg = Tsh .
This assumption hardly leads to any significant error.

6.23 Rotor Output

If Tg newton-metre is the gross torque developed and N r.p.m. is

the speed of the rotor, then,
2πN Tg
Gross Rotor Output = watts
60
If there were no copper losses in the rotor, the output would equal
rotor input and the rotor would run at synchronous speed Ns .
2πNs Tg
∴ Rotor input = watts
60
∴ Rotor Copper Loss = Rotor Input − Rotor Output
2πTg
= (Ns − N )
60

1
Rotor Cu Loss Ns − N
= =s
RotorInput Ns
6.23. ROTOR OUTPUT 97

∴ Rotor Cu Loss = s × Rotor Input

Gross Rotor Output, Pm = Rotor Input − Rotor Cu Loss

= Rotor Input − s × Rotor Input
∴ Pm = Rotor Input(1 − s)

3
Gross Rotor Output N
=1−s=
Rotor Input Ns

4
Rotor Cu Loss s
=
Gross RotorOutput 1 − s

It is clear that if the input power to rotor is Pr then sPr is lost

as rotor Cu loss and the remaining (1 − s)Pr is converted into
mechanical power. Consequently, induction motor operating
at high slip has poor efficiency.

Note:
Gross Rotor Output
=1−s
Rotor Input
If the stator losses as well as friction and windage losses arc
neglected, then,

Gross Rotor Output = Useful Output

Rotor Input = Stator Input
Useful Output
∴ = 1 − s = Efficiency
Stator Output

Hence the approximate efficiency of an induction motor is 1 − s.

Thus if the slip of an induction motor is 0.125, then its approximate
efficiency is = 1 - 0.125 = 0.875 or 87.5 %.
98 CHAPTER 6. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

6.24 Equivalent Circuit of 3-Phase Induction Motor

at Any Slip

In a 3-phase induction motor, the stator winding is connected to

3-phase supply and the rotor winding is short-circuited. The
energy is transferred magnetically from the stator winding to the
short-circuited, rotor winding. Therefore, an induction motor
may be considered to be a transformer with a rotating secondary
(short-circuited). The stator winding corresponds to transformer
primary and the rotor finding corresponds to transformer
secondary. In view of the similarity of the flux and voltage
conditions to those in a transformer, one can expect that the
equivalent circuit of an induction motor will be similar to that of
a transformer. Fig. (6.19) shows the equivalent circuit (though not
the only one) per phase for an induction motor. Let us discuss the
stator and rotor circuits separately.

Figure 6.19: Equivalent Circuit Per Phase of Induction Motor

Stator circuit: In the stator, the events are very similar to

those in the transformer primal y. The applied voltage per phase
to the stator is V1 and R1 and X1 are the stator resistance and
leakage reactance per phase respectively. The applied voltage V1
produces a magnetic flux which links the stator winding (i.e.,
primary) as well as the rotor winding (i.e., secondary). As a
result, self induced e.m.f. E1 is induced in the stator winding and
6.24. EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF 3-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR AT ANY SLIP99

mutually induced e.m.f. E2′ (= sE2 = sKE1 where K is

transformation ratio) is induced in the rotor winding. The flow of
stator current I1 causes voltage drops in R1 and X1 .

∴ V1 = −E1 + I1 (R1 + jX1 ) ...phasor sum

When the motor is at no-load, the stator winding draws a

current I0 . It has two components viz., (i) which supplies the
no-load motor losses and (ii) magnetizing component Im which
sets up magnetic flux in the core and the airgap. The parallel
combination of Rc and Xm , therefore, represents the no-load
motor losses and the production of magnetic flux respectively.

I0 = Iw + Im

Rotor circuit : Here R2 and X2 represent the rotor resistance

and standstill rotor reactance per phase respectively. At any slip
s, the rotor reactance will be sX2 The induced voltage/phase in
the rotor is E2′ = sE2 = sKE1 . Since the rotor winding is short-
circuited, the whole of e.m.f. E2′ is used up in circulating the rotor
current I2′ .
∴ E2′ = I2′ (R2 + jsX2 )

The rotor current I2′ is reflected as I2 ”(= KI2′ ) in the stator.

The phasor sum of I2 ” and I0 gives the stator current I1 .

It is important to note that input to the primary and output

from the secondary of a transformer are electrical. However, in
an induction motor, the inputs to the stator and rotor are
electrical but the output from the rotor is mechanical. To facilitate
calculations, it is desirable and necessary to replace the
mechanical load by an equivalent electrical load. We then have
the transformer equivalent circuit of the induction motor.

It may be noted that even though the frequencies of stator

and rotor currents are different, yet the magnetic fields due to
them rotate at synchronous speed Ns . The stator currents
100 CHAPTER 6. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

produce a magnetic flux which rotates at a speed Ns. At slip s,

the speed of rotation of the rotor field relative to the rotor surface
in the direction of rotation of the rotor is

120f ′ 120sf
= = = sNs
P P

But the rotor is revolving at a speed of N relative to the stator core.

Therefore, the speed of rotor field relative to stator core

= sNs + N = (Ns − N ) + N = Ns

Thus no matter what the value of slip s, the stator and rotor
magnetic fields are synchronous with each other when seen by an
observer stationed in space. Consequently, the 3-phase induction
motor can be regarded as being equivalent to a transformer
having an air-gap separating the iron portions of the magnetic
circuit carrying the primary and secondary windings.

Fig. (6.20) shows the phasor diagram of induction motor.

Figure 6.20: Phasor Diagram of Induction Motor

6.25. EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF THE ROTOR 101

6.25 Equivalent Circuit of the Rotor

Fig. (6.21 (i)) shows the equivalent circuit per phase of the rotor at
slip s. The rotor phase current is given by;
sE2
I2′ = p 2
R2 + (sX2 )2
Mathematically, this value is unaltered by writing it as:
E2
I2′ = p
(R2 /s)2 + (X2 )2

As shown in Fig. (8.25 (ii)), we now have a rotor circuit that

has a fixed reactance X2 connected in series with a variable
resistance R2 /s and supplied with constant voltage E2 . Note that
Fig. (6.21 (ii)) transfers the variable to the resistance without
altering power or power factor conditions.

Figure 6.21:

The quantity R2 /s is greater than R2 since s is a fraction.

Therefore, R2 /s can be divided into a fixed part R2 and a variable
part (R2 /s − R2 ) i.e.,
 
R2 1
= R 2 + R2 −1
s s

1 The first part R2 is the rotor resistance/phase, and represents

the rotor Cu loss.
102 CHAPTER 6. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

2 The second part R2 1s − 1 is a variable-resistance load. The

power delivered to this load represents the total mechanical

power developed in the rotor. Thus mechanical load on the
induction motor can

be replaced by a variable-resistance load
1
of value R2 s − 1 . This is
 
1
∴ RL = R2 −1
s

Fig. (6.21 (iii)) shows the equivalent rotor circuit along with
load resistance RL .

6.26 Transformer Equivalent Circuit of Induction

Motor

Fig. (6.22) shows the equivalent circuit per phase of a 3-phase

induction motor. Note that mechanical load on the motor has
been replaced by an equivalent electrical resistance RL given by;
 
1
∴ RL = R2 −1
s

Note that circuit shown in Fig. (6.22) is similar to the

equivalent circuit of a transformer with secondary load equal to
R2 given by eq. 6.26. The rotor e.m.f. in the equivalent circuit
now depends only on the transformation ratio K(= E2 /E1 ).

Figure 6.22: Equivalent Circuit per phase of a 3-phase induction motor

6.26. TRANSFORMER EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF INDUCTION MOTOR103

Therefore; induction motor can be represented as an

equivalent transformer connected to a variable-resistance load RL
given by eq. 6.26. The power delivered to RL represents the total
mechanical power developed in the rotor. Since the equivalent
circuit of Fig. (6.22) is that of a transformer, the secondary (i.e.,
rotor) values can be transferred to primary (i.e., stator) through
the appropriate use of transformation ratio K. Recall that when
shifting resistance/reactance from secondary to primary, it
should be divided by K2 whereas current should be multiplied
by K. The equivalent circuit of an induction motor referred to
primary is shown in Fig. (6.23).

Figure 6.23: Equivalent circuit of induction motor as referred to primary side

Note that the element (i.e., R2′ ) enclosed in the dotted box is
the equivalent electrical resistance related to the mechanical load
on the motor. The following points may be noted from the
equivalent circuit of the induction motor:

1 At no-load, the slip is practically zero and the load RL′ is

infinite. This condition resembles that in a transformer
whose secondary winding is open-circuited.
2 At standstill, the slip is unity and the load RL′ is zero. This
condition resembles that in a transformer whose secondary
winding is short-circuited.
3 When the motor is running under load, the value of RL′ will
104 CHAPTER 6. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

depend upon the value of the slip s. This condition resembles

that in a transformer whose secondary is supplying variable
and purely resistive load.
4 The equivalent electrical resistance RL′ related to mechanical
load is slip or speed dependent. If the slip s increases, the load
RL′ decreases and the rotor current increases and motor will
develop more mechanical power. This is expected because
the slip of the motor increases with the increase of load on
the motor shaft.

6.27 Approximate Equivalent Circuit of Induction

Motor

As in case of a transformer, the approximate equivalent circuit of

an induction motor is obtained by shifting the shunt branch
(Rc − Xm )to the input terminals as shown in Fig. (6.24). This step
has been taken on the assumption that voltage drop in R1 and X1
is small and the terminal voltage V1 does not appreciably differ
from the induced voltage E1 . Fig. (6.24) shows the approximate
equivalent circuit per phase of an induction motor where all
values have been referred to primary (i.e., stator).

Figure 6.24: Approximate Equivalent Circuit of 3-phase Induction Motor

The above approximate circuit of induction motor is not so

6.28. STARTING OF 3-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS 105

readily justified as with the transformer. This is due to the

following reasons:

1 Unlike that of a power transformer, the magnetic circuit of

the induction motor has an air-gap. Therefore, the exciting
current of induction motor (30 to 40 % of full-load current) is
much higher than that of the power transformer.
Consequently, the exact equivalent circuit must be used for
accurate results.

2 The relative values of X1 and X2 in an induction motor are

larger than the corresponding ones to be found in the
transformer. This fact does not justify the use of approximate
equivalent circuit

3 In a transformer, the windings are concentrated whereas in

an induction motor, the windings are distributed. This affects
the transformation ratio.

6.28 Starting of 3-phase Induction Motors

The induction motor is fundamentally a transformer in which the

stator is the primary and the rotor is short-circuited secondary. At
starting, the voltage induced in the induction motor rotor is
maximum (∵ s = 1). Since the rotor impedance is low, the rotor
current is excessively large. This large rotor current is reflected in
the stator because of transformer action. This results in high
starting current (4 to 10 times the full-load current) in the stator at
low power factor and consequently the value of starting torque is
low. Because of the short duration, this value of large current
does not harm the motor if the motor accelerates normally.
However, this large starting current will produce large
line-voltage drop. This will adversely affect the operation of
other electrical equipment connected to the same lines. Therefore,
it is desirable and necessary to reduce the magnitude of stator
106 CHAPTER 6. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

current at starting and several methods are available for this

purpose.

6.29 Methods of Starting of 3-phase Induction

Motors

The method to be employed in starting a given induction motor

depends upon the size of the motor and the type of the motor.
The common methods used to start induction motors are:

1 Direct-on-line starting

2 Stator resistance starting

3 Autotransformer starting

4 Star-delta starting

5 Rotor resistance starting

Methods (1) to (4) are applicable to both squirrel-cage and

slip ring motors. However, method (5) is applicable only to slip
ring motors. In practice, any one of the first four methods is used
for starting squirrel cage motors, depending upon, the size of the
motor. But slip ring motors are invariably started by rotor
resistance starting.

6.30 Methods of Starting Squirrel-Cage Motors

Except direct-on-line starting, all other methods of starting

squirrel-cage motors employ reduced voltage across motor
terminals at starting.
6.30. METHODS OF STARTING SQUIRREL-CAGE MOTORS 107

6.30.1 Direct-on-line starting

This method of starting in just what the name impliesÐthe motor

is started by connecting it directly to 3-phase supply. The
impedance of the motor at standstill is relatively low and when it
is directly connected to the supply system, the starting current
will be high (4 to 10 times the full-load current) and at a low
power factor. Consequently, this method of starting is suitable for
relatively small (up to 7.5 kW) machines.

Relation between starling and F.L. torques :

We know that:
Rotor Input = 2πNs T = kT

But, Rotor Cu Loss = s × Rotor Input

∴ 3(I2′ )2 R2 = s × KT
(I2′ )2
or T ∝
s
(I1 )2
or T ∝ (∵ I2′ ∝ I1 )
s

If Ist is the starting current, then starting torque (Tst ) is

T ∝2st (∵ at startings = 1)

If If is the full-load current and sf is the full-load slip, then,

If2
Tf ∝
sf
 2
Tst Ist
∴ = × sf
Tf If

When the motor is started direct-on-line, the starting current

108 CHAPTER 6. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

is the short-circuit (blocked-rotor) current Isc .

 2
Tst Isc
∴ = × sf
Tf If

Suppose Isc = 5If and full-load slip sf = 0.04. Then,

 2  2
Tst Ist 5If
∴ = × sf = × 0.04 = 1
Tf If If
∴ Tst = Tf

Note that starting current is as large as five times the

full-load current but starting torque is just equal to the full-load
torque. Therefore, starting current is very high and the starting
torque is comparatively low. If this large starting current flows
for a long time, it may overheat the motor and damage the
insulation.

6.30.2 Stator Resistance Starting

In this method, external resistances are connected in series with

each phase of stator winding during starting. This causes voltage
drop across the resistances so that voltage available across motor
terminals is reduced and hence the starting current. The starting
resistances are gradually cut out in steps (two or more steps) from
the stator circuit as the motor picks up speed. When the motor
attains rated speed, the resistances are completely cut out and full
line voltage is applied to the rotor.

This method suffers from two drawbacks. First, the reduced

voltage applied to the motor during the starting period lowers
the starting torque and hence increases the accelerating time.
Secondly, a lot of power is wasted in the starting resistances.
6.30. METHODS OF STARTING SQUIRREL-CAGE MOTORS 109

Figure 6.25: Stator Resistance Starting

Relation between starting and F.L. torques:

Let V be the rated voltage/phase.
If the voltage is reduced by a fraction x by the insertion of resistors
in the line, then voltage applied to the motor per phase will be xV .

Ist = xIsc
 2
Tst Ist
Now, = × sf
Tf If
 2
Tst 2 Isc
or, =x × sf
Tf If

Thus while the starting current reduces by a fraction x of

the rated-voltage starting current (Isc ), the starting torque is
reduced by a fraction x2 of that obtained by direct switching. The
reduced voltage applied to the motor during the starting period
lowers the starting current but at the same time increases the
accelerating time because of the reduced value of the starting
torque. Therefore, this method is used for starting small motors
only.
110 CHAPTER 6. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

6.30.3 Autotransformer Starting

This method also aims at connecting the induction motor to a

reduced supply at starting and then connecting it to the full
voltage as the motor picks up sufficient speed. Fig. (6.26) shows
the circuit arrangement for autotransformer starting. The tapping
on the autotransformer is so set that when it is in the circuit, 65 %
to 80 % of line voltage is applied to the motor.

Figure 6.26: Autotransformer starting

At the instant of starting, the change-over switch is thrown

to ªstart” position. This puts the autotransformer in the circuit
and thus reduced voltage is applied to the circuit. Consequently,
starting current is limited to safe value. When the motor attains
about 80 % of normal speed, the changeover switch is thrown to
ªrun” position. This takes out the autotransformer from the
circuit and puts the motor to full line voltage. Autotransformer
starting has several advantages viz low power loss, low starting
current and less radiated heat. For large machines (over 25 H.P.),
this method of starting is often used. This method can be used for
both star and delta connected motors.

Relation between starting And F.L. torques :

Consider a star-connected squirrel-cage induction motor. If V is
the line voltage, then voltage across motor phase on direct
6.30. METHODS OF STARTING SQUIRREL-CAGE MOTORS 111
√
switching is V / 3 and starting current is Ist = Isc . In case of
autotransformer, if a tapping of transformation ratio√ K (a
fraction) is used, then phase voltage across motor is KV / 3 and
Ist = KIsc .

Now,
2
  2  2
Tst Ist KIsc Isc
= × sf = × sf = K 2 × sf
Tf If If If
 2
Tst 2 Isc
∴ =K × sf
Tf If

Figure 6.27:

The current taken from the supply or by autotransformer is

I1 = KI2 = K 2 Isc . Note that motor current is K times, the supply
line current is K 2 times and the starting torque is K 2 times the
value it would have been on direct-on-line starting.

6.30.4 Star-delta starting

The stator winding of the motor is designed for delta operation

and is connected in star during the starting period. When the
machine is up to speed, the connections are changed to delta. The
circuit arrangement for star-delta starting is shown in Fig. (6.28).
112 CHAPTER 6. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Figure 6.28: Star-Delta Starting

The six leads of the stator windings are connected to the

changeover switch as shown. At the instant of starting, the
changeover switch is thrown to ªStart” position which connects
the√stator windings in star. Therefore, each stator phase gets
V / 3 volts where V is the line voltage. This reduces the starting
current. When the motor picks up speed, the changeover switch
is thrown to ªRun” position which connects the stator windings
in delta. Now each stator phase gets full line voltage V. The
disadvantages of this method are:

1 With
√ star-connection during starting, stator phase voltage is
1/ √3 times the line voltage. Consequently, starting torque is
(1/ 3)2 or 1/3 times the value it would have with
△-connection. This is rather a large reduction in starting
torque.

2 The reduction in voltage is fixed.

This method of starting is used for medium-size machines

(upto about 25 H.P.).

Relation between starting and F.L. torques :

In direct delta starting,
Starting current/phase, Isc = V /Zsc where V = line voltage
6.31. STARTING OF SLIP RING MOTORS 113
√
Starting line current = 3Isc In star starting, we have,

√
V/ 3 1
Starting Current/phase, Ist = = √ Isc
Zsc 3

Now,

 2 !2
Tst Ist Isc
= × sf = √ × sf
Tf If 3 × If
 2
Tst 1 Isc
∴ = × sf
Tf 3 If

where,
Isc = starting phase current (delta) If = F.L. phase current (delta)

Note that in star-delta starting, the starting line current is

reduced to one-third as compared to starting with the winding
delta connected. Further, starting torque is reduced to one-third of
that obtainable by direct delta starting. This method is cheap but
limited to applications where high starting torque is not necessary
e.g., machine tools, pumps etc.

6.31 Starting of Slip Ring Motors

Slip-ring motors are invariably started by rotor resistance starting.

In this method, a variable star-connected rheostat is connected in
the rotor circuit through slip rings and full voltage is applied to
the stator winding as shown in Fig. (6.29).
114 CHAPTER 6. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Figure 6.29: Starting of Slip Ring Motors

1 At starting, the handle of rheostat is set in the OFF position so

that maximum resistance is placed in each phase of the rotor
circuit. This reduces the starting current and at the same time
starting torque is increased.
2 As the motor picks up speed, the handle of rheostat is
gradually moved in clockwise direction and cuts out the
external resistance in each phase of the rotor circuit. When
the motor attains normal speed, the change-over switch is in
the ON position and the whole external resistance is cut out
from the rotor circuit.

6.32 Slip-Ring Motors Versus Squirrel Cage

Motors

The slip-ring induction motors have the following advantages

over the squirrel cage motors:

1 High starting torque with low starting current.

2 Smooth acceleration under heavy loads.
3 No abnormal heating during starting.
4 Good running characteristics after external rotor resistances
are cut out.
6.33. INDUCTION MOTOR RATING 115

5 Adjustable speed.

The disadvantages of slip-ring motors are:

1. The initial and maintenance costs are greater than those of

squirrel cage motors.
2. The speed regulation is poor when run with resistance in the
rotor circuit

6.33 Induction Motor Rating

The nameplate of a 3-phase induction motor provides the

following information:

1 Horsepower
2 Line voltage
3 Line current
4 Speed
5 Frequency
6 Temperature rise

The horsepower rating is the mechanical output of the motor

when it is operated at rated line voltage, rated frequency and rated
speed. Under these conditions, the line current is that specified
on the nameplate and the temperature rise does not exceed that
specified.

The speed given on the nameplate is the actual speed of the

motor at rated fullload; it is not the synchronous speed. Thus, the
nameplate speed of the induction motor might be 1710 r.p.m. It is
the rated full-load speed.
116 CHAPTER 6. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
Chapter 7

Single Phase Induction Motors

7.1 Types of Single Phase Motors

Single-phase motors are generally built in the

fractional-horsepower range and may be classified into the
following four basic types:

1 Single-phase induction motors

(a) split-phase type

(b) capacitor type
(c) shaded-pole type

2 A.C. series motor or universal motor

3 Repulsion motors

(a) Repulsion-start induction-run motor

(b) Repulsion-induction motor

4 Synchronous motors

(a) Reluctance motor

(b) Hysteresis motor

117
118 CHAPTER 7. SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

7.2 Single Phase Induction Motors

A single phase induction motor is very similar to a 3-phase

squirrel cage induction motor. It has (i) a squirrel-cage rotor
identical to a 3-phase motor and (ii) a single-phase winding on
the stator.

Unlike a 3-phase induction motor, a single-phase induction

motor is not selfstarting but requires some starting means. The
single-phase stator winding produces a magnetic field that
pulsates in strength in a sinusoidal manner. The field polarity
reverses after each half cycle but the field does not rotate.
Consequently, the alternating flux cannot produce rotation in a
stationary squirrel-cage rotor. However, if the rotor of a
single-phase motor is rotated in one direction by some
mechanical means, it will continue to run in the direction of
rotation. As a matter of fact, the rotor quickly accelerates until it
reaches a speed slightly below the synchronous speed. Once the
motor is running at this speed, it will continue to rotate even
though single-phase current is flowing through the stator
winding. This method of starting is generally not convenient for
large motors. Nor can it be employed fur a motor located at some
inaccessible spot.

Figure 7.1: Single Phase Induction Motor having squirrel cage rotor

Fig. (7.1) shows single-phase induction motor having a

7.3. MAKING SINGLE PHASE MOTORS SELF STARTING 119

squirrel cage rotor and a single phase distributed stator winding.

Such a motor inherently docs not develop any starting torque
and, therefore, will not start to rotate if the stator winding is
connected to single-phase a.c. supply. However, if the rotor is
started by auxiliary means, the motor will quickly attain me final
speed. This strange behaviour of single-phase induction motor
can be explained on the basis of double-field revolving theory.

7.3 Making Single Phase Motors Self Starting

The single-phase induction motor is not self starting and it is

undesirable to resort to mechanical spinning of the shaft or
pulling a belt to start it. To make a single-phase induction motor
self-starting, we should somehow produce a revolving stator
magnetic field. This may be achieved by converting a
single-phase supply into two-phase supply through the use of an
additional winding. When the motor attains sufficient speed, the
starting means (i.e., additional winding) may be removed
depending upon the type of the motor. As a matter of fact,
single-phase induction motors are classified and named
according to the method employed to make them self-starting.

Figure 7.2:

1 Split-phase motors-started by two phase motor action

through the use of an auxiliary or starting winding.
120 CHAPTER 7. SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

2 Capacitor motors-started by two-phase motor action through

the use of an auxiliary winding and a capacitor.

3 Shaded-pole motors-started by the motion of the magnetic

field produced by means of a shading coil around a portion
of the pole structure.

7.4 Split-Phase Induction Motor

The stator of a split-phase induction motor is provided with an

auxiliary or starting winding S in addition to the main or running
winding M . The starting winding is located 90o electrical from
the main winding [See Fig. (7.3 (i))] and operates only during the
brief period when the motor starts up. The two windings are so
resigned that the starting winding S has a high resistance and
relatively small reactance while the main winding M has
relatively low resistance and large reactance as shown in the
schematic connections in Fig. (7.3 (ii)). Consequently, the currents
flowing in the two windings have reasonable phase difference c
(25o to 30o as shown in the phasor diagram in Fig. (7.3 (iii)).

Figure 7.3: Split Phase Induction Motor

Operation :
7.4. SPLIT-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR 121

1 When the two stator windings are energized from a

single-phase supply, the main winding carries current Im
while the starting winding carries current Is . (ii) Since main
winding is made highly inductive while the starting
winding highly resistive, the currents Im and Is have a
reasonable phase angle a (25o to 30o ) between them as shown
in Fig. (7.3 (iii)). Consequently, a weak revolving field
approximating to that of a 2-phase machine is produced
which starts the motor. The starting torque is given by;

Ts = kIm Is sin α

where k is a constant whose magnitude depends upon the

design of the motor.

2 When the motor reaches about 75 % of synchronous speed,

the centrifugal switch opens the circuit of the starting
winding. The motor then operates as a single-phase
induction motor and continues to accelerate till it reaches the
normal speed. The normal speed of the motor is below the
synchronous speed and depends upon the load on the
motor.

Characteristics :

1 The staring torque is 15 to 2 times the full-load torque mid (lie

starting current is 6 to 8 times the full-load current.

2 Due to their low cost, split-phase induction motors are most

popular single phase motors in the market.

3 Since the starting winding is made of fine wire, the current

density is high and the winding heats up quickly. If the
starting period exceeds 5 seconds, the winding may burn out
unless the motor is protected by built-in-thermal relay. This
motor is, therefore, suitable where starting periods are not
frequent.
122 CHAPTER 7. SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

4 An important characteristic of these motors is that they are

essentially constant-speed motors. The speed variation is 2-5
% from no-load to fullload.
5 These motors are suitable where a moderate starting torque
is required and where starting periods are infrequent e.g., to
drive:
(a) Fans
(b) Washing Machines
(c) Oil Burners
(d) Small Machine Tools etc.

The power rating of such motors generally lies between 60

W and 250 W.

7.5 Capacitor-Start Motor

The capacitor-start motor is identical to a split-phase motor except

that the starting winding has as many turns as the main winding.
Moreover, a capacitor C is connected in series with the starting
winding as shown in Fig. (7.4 (i)).

Figure 7.4: Capacitor Start Motor

The value of capacitor is so chosen that Is leads Im by about

80o (i.e., α ≈ 80o ) which is considerably greater than 25o found in
7.5. CAPACITOR-START MOTOR 123

split-phase motor [See Fig. (7.4(ii))]. Consequently, starting

torque (Ts = kIm Is sin α) is much more than that of a split-phase
motor Again, the starting winding is opened by the centrifugal
switch when the motor attains about 75 % of synchronous speed.
The motor then operates as a single-phase induction motor and
continues to accelerate till it reaches the normal speed.

Characteristics :

1 Although starting characteristics of a capacitor-start motor

are better than those of a split-phase motor, both machines
possess the same running characteristics because the main
windings are identical.

2 The phase angle between the two currents is about 80o

compared to about 25o in a split-phase motor. Consequently,
for the same starting torque, the current in the starting
winding is only about half that in a split-phase motor.
Therefore, the starting winding of a capacitor start motor
heats up less quickly and is well suited to applications
involving either frequent or prolonged starting periods.

3 Capacitor-start motors are used where high starting torque is

required and where the starting period may be long e.g., to
drive:

(a) compressors
(b) large fans
(c) pumps
(d) high inertia loads

The power rating of such motors lies between 120 W and 7-5
kW.
124 CHAPTER 7. SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

7.6 Capacitor-Start Capacitor-Run Motor

This motor is identical to a capacitor-start motor except that

starting winding is not opened after starting so that both the
windings remain connected to the supply when running as well
as at starting. Two designs are generally used.

Figure 7.5: Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Motor

1 In one design, a single capacitor C is used for both starting

and running as shown in Fig.(7.5 (i)). This design eliminates
the need of a centrifugal switch and at the same time
improves the power factor and efficiency of the motor.
2 In the other design, two capacitors C1 and C2 are used in the
starting winding as shown in Fig. (7.5 (ii)). The smaller
capacitor C1 required for optimum running conditions is
permanently connected in series with the starting winding.
The much larger capacitor C2 is connected in parallel with C1
for optimum starting and remains in the circuit during
starting. The starting capacitor C1 is disconnected when the
motor approaches about 75 % of synchronous speed. The
motor then runs as a single-phase induction motor.

Characteristics :

1 The starting winding and the capacitor can be designed for

perfect 2-phase operation at any load. The motor then
7.7. SHADED POLE MOTOR 125

produces a constant torque and not a pulsating torque as in

other single-phase motors.
2 Because of constant torque, the motor is vibration free and
can be used in: (a) hospitals (b) studios and (c) other places
where silence is important.

7.7 Shaded Pole Motor

popular for ratings below 0.05 H.P. (≈ 40W ) because of its

extremely simple construction. It has salient poles on the stator
excited by single-phase supply and a squirrel cage rotor as shown
in Fig. (7.6). A portion of each pole is surrounded by a
short-circuited turn of copper strip called shading coil.

Figure 7.6: Shaded Pole Motor

Operation :
The operation of the motor can be understood by referring to Fig.
(7.6) which shows one pole of the motor with a shading coil.

1 During the portion OA of the alternating-current cycle [See

Fig. (7.7)], the flux begins to increase and an e.m.f. is
induced in the shading coil. The resulting current in the
shading coil will be in such a direction (Lenz’s law) so as to
oppose the change in flux. Thus the flux in the shaded
126 CHAPTER 7. SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

portion of the pole is weakened while that in the unshaded

portion is strengthened as shown in Fig. (7.7 (ii)).
2 During the portion AB of the alternating-current cycle, the
flux has reached almost maximum value and is not
changing. Consequently, the flux distribution across the pole
is uniform [See Fig. (7.7 (iii))] since no current is flowing in
the shading coil. As the flux decreases (portion BC of the
alternating current cycle), current is induced in the shading
coil so as to oppose the decrease in current. Thus the flux in
the shaded portion of the pole is strengthened while that in
the unshaded portion is weakened as shown in Fig. (7.7 (iv)).

Figure 7.7:

3 The effect of the shading coil is to cause the field flux to shift
across the pole face from the unshaded to the shaded portion.
This shifting flux is like a rotating weak field moving in the
direction from unshaded portion to the shaded portion of the
pole.
7.8. A.C. SERIES MOTOR OR UNIVERSAL MOTOR 127

4 The rotor is of the squirrel-cage type and is under the

influence of this moving field. Consequently, a small starting
torque is developed. As soon as this torque starts to revolve
the rotor, additional torque is produced by single-phase
induction-motor action. The motor accelerates to a speed
slightly below the synchronous speed and runs as a
single-phase induction motor.

Characteristics :

1 The salient features of this motor are extremely simple

construction and absence of centrifugal switch.
2 Since starting torque, efficiency and power factor are very
low, these motors are only suitable for low power
applications e.g., to drive: (a) small fans (b) toys (c) hair
driers (d) desk fans etc.

The power rating of such motors is upto about 30 W.

7.8 A.C. Series Motor or Universal Motor

A d.c. series motor will rotate in the same direction regardless of

the polarity of the supply. One can expect that a d.c. series motor
would also operate on a single-phase supply. It is then called an
a.c. series motor. However, some changes must be made in a d.c.
motor that is to operate satisfactorily on a.c. supply. The changes
effected are:

1 The entire magnetic circuit is laminated in order to reduce the

eddy current loss. Hence an a.c. series motor requires a more
expensive construction than a d.c. series motor.
2 The series field winding uses as few turns as possible to
reduce the reactance of the field winding to a minimum.
This reduces the voltage drop across the field winding.
128 CHAPTER 7. SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

3 A high field flux is obtained by using a low-reluctance

magnetic circuit.

4 There is considerable sparking between the brushes and the

commutator when the motor is used on a.c. supply. It is
because the alternating flux establishes high currents in the
coils short-circuited by the brushes. When the short-circuited
coils break contact from the commutator, excessive sparking
is produced. This can be eliminated by using high-resistance
leads to connect the coils to the commutator segments.

Construction : The construction of en a.c. series motor is very

similar to a d.c. series motor except that above modifications are
incorporated [See Fig. (7.8)]. Such a motor can be operated either
on a.c. or d.c. supply and the resulting torque-speed curve is
about the same in each case. For this reason, it is sometimes
called a universal motor.

Figure 7.8: A.C. Series Motor

Operation : When the motor is connected to an a.c. supply, the

same alternating current flows through the field and armature
windings. The field winding produces an alternating flux φ that
reacts with the current flowing in the armature to produce a
7.9. SINGLE PHASE REPULSION MOTOR 129

torque. Since both armature current and flux reverse

simultaneously, the torque always acts in the same direction. It
may be noted that no rotating flux is produced in this type of
machines; the principle of operation is the same as that of a d.c.
series motor.

Characteristics : The operating characteristics of an a.c. series

motor are similar to those of a d.c. series motor.

1 The speed increases to a high value with a decrease in load. In

very small series motors, the losses are usually large enough
at no load that limit the speed to a definite value (1500 - 15,000
r.p.m.).
2 The motor torque is high for large armature currents, thus
giving a high starting torque.
3 At full-load, the power factor is about 90 %. However, at
starting or when carrying an overload, the power factor is
lower.

Applications : The fractional horsepower a.c. series motors have

high-speed (and corresponding small size) and large starting
torque. They can, therefore, be used to drive:

1 High-speed Vacuum Cleaners

2 Sewing Machines
3 Electric Shavers
4 Drills
5 Machine Tools etc.

7.9 Single Phase Repulsion Motor

A repulsion motor is similar to an a.c. series motor except that:

130 CHAPTER 7. SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

1 brushes are not connected to supply but are short-circuited

[See Fig. (7.9)]. Consequently, currents are induced in the
armature conductors by transformer action.

2 the field structure has non-salient pole construction.

By adjusting the position of short-circuited brushes on the

commutator, the starting torque can be developed in the motor.

Construction :

Figure 7.9: Single Phase Repulsion Motor

The field of stator winding is wound like the main winding

of a split-phase motor and is connected directly to a single-phase
source. The armature or rotor is similar to a d.c. motor armature
with drum type winding connected to a commutator (not shown
in the figure). However, the brushes are not connected to supply
but are connected to each other or short-circuited.
Short-circuiting the brushes effectively makes the rotor into a
type of squirrel cage. The major difficulty with an ordinary
single-phase induction motor is the low starting torque. By using
a commutator motor with brushes short-circuited, it is possible to
vary the starting torque by changing the brush axis. It has also
better power factor than the conventional single-phase motor.
7.9. SINGLE PHASE REPULSION MOTOR 131

Principle of Operation :
The principle of operation is illustrated in Fig. (7.9) which shows
a two-pole repulsion motor with its two short-circuited brushes.
The two drawings of Fig. (7.9) represent a time at which the field
current is increasing in the direction shown so that the left-hand
pole is N-pole and the right-hand pole is S-pole at the instant
shown.

1 In Fig. (7.9 (i)), the brush axis is parallel to the stator field.
When the stator winding is energized from single-phase
supply, e.m.f. is induced in the armature conductors (rotor)
by induction. By Lenz’s law, the direction of the e.m.f. is
such that the magnetic effect of the resulting armature
currents will oppose the increase in flux. The direction of
current in armature conductors will be as shown in Fig. (7.9
(i)). With the brush axis in the position shown in Fig. (7.9(i)),
current will flow from brush B to brush A where it enters the
armature and flows back to brush B through the two paths
ACB and ADB. With brushes set in this position, half of the
armature conductors under the N-pole carry current inward
and half carry current outward. The same is true under
S-pole. Therefore, as much torque is developed in one
direction as in the other and the armature remains stationary.
The armature will also remain stationary if the brush axis is
perpendicular to the stator field axis. It is because even then
net torque is zero.

2 If the brush axis is at some angle other than 0o or 90o to the

axis of the stator field, a net torque is developed on the rotor
and the rotor accelerates to its final speed. Fig. (7.9 (ii))
represents the motor at the same instant as that in Fig. (7.9
(i)) but the brushes have been shifted clockwise through
some angle from the stator field axis. Now e.m.f. is still
induced in the direction indicated in Fig. (7.9 (i)) and current
flows through the two paths of the armature winding from
brush A to brush B. However, because of the new brush
132 CHAPTER 7. SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

positions, the greater part of the conductors under the N

pole carry current in one direction while the greater part of
conductors under S-pole carry current in the opposite
direction. With brushes in the position shown in Fig. (7.9 (ii),
torque is developed in the clockwise direction and the rotor
quickly attains the final speed.

Figure 7.10:

3 The direction of rotation of the rotor depends upon the

direction in which the brushes are shifted. If the brushes are
shifted in clockwise direction from the stator field axis, the
net torque acts in the clockwise direction and the rotor
accelerates in the clockwise direction. If the brushes are
shifted in anti-clockwise direction as in Fig. (7.10). the
armature current under the pole faces is reversed and the net
torque is developed in the anti-clockwise direction. Thus a
repulsion motor may be made to rotate in either direction
depending upon the direction in which the brushes are
shifted.

4 The total armature torque in a repulsion motor can be shown

to be
T a ∝ sin 2α

where α = angle between brush axis and stator field axis.

For maximum torque, 2α = 90o or α = 45o Thus adjusting
a to 45o at starting, maximum torque can be obtained during
7.10. REPULSION-START INDUCTION-RUN MOTOR 133

the starting period. However, a has to be adjusted to give a

suitable running speed.

Characteristics :

1 The repulsion motor has characteristics very similar to those

of an a.c. series motor i.e., it has a high starting torque and a
high speed at no load.

2 The speed which the repulsion motor develops for any given
load will depend upon the position of the brushes.

3 In comparison with other single-phase motors, the repulsion

motor has a high starring torque and relatively low starting
current.

7.10 Repulsion-Start Induction-Run Motor

Sometimes the action of a repulsion motor is combined with that

of a single phase induction motor to produce repulsion-start
induction-run motor (also called repulsion-start motor). The
machine is started as a repulsion motor with a corresponding
high starting torque. At some predetermined speed, a centrifugal
device short-circuits the commutator so that the machine then
operates as a single-phase induction motor.

The repulsion-start induction-run motor has the same

general construction of a repulsion motor. The only difference is
that in addition to the basic repulsion motor construction, it is
equipped with a centrifugal device fitted on the armature shaft.
When the motor reaches 75 % of its full pinning speed, the
centrifugal device forces a short-circuiting ring to come in contact
with the inner surface of the commutator. This snort-circuits all
the commutator bars. The rotor then resembles squirrel-cage type
and the motor runs as a single-phase induction motor. At the
134 CHAPTER 7. SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

same time, the centrifugal device raises the brushes from the
commutator which reduces the wear of the brushes and
commutator as well as makes the operation quiet.

Characteristics :

1 The starting torque is 2.5 to 4.5 times the full-load torque and
the starting current is 3.75 times the full-load value.

2 Due to their high starting torque, repulsion-motors were used

to operate devices such as refrigerators, pumps, compressors
etc.

However, they posed a serious problem of maintenance of

brushes, commutator arid the centrifugal device. Consequently,
manufacturers have stopped making them in view of the
development of capacitor motors which are small in size, reliable
and low-priced.

7.11 Repulsion-Induction Motor

The repulsion-induction motor produces a high starting torque

entirely due to repulsion motor action. When running, it
functions through a combination of induction-motor and
repulsion motor action.

Construction : Fig. (7.113) shows the connections of a 4-pole

repulsion-induction motor for 230 V operation. It consists of a
stator and a rotor (or armature).
7.11. REPULSION-INDUCTION MOTOR 135

Figure 7.11: Repulsion Induction Motor

1 The stator carries a single distributed winding fed from

single-phase supply.
2 The rotor is provided with two independent windings
placed one inside the other. The inner winding is a
squirrel-cage winding with rotor bars permanently
short-circuited. Placed over the squirrel cage winding is a
repulsion commutator armature winding. The repulsion
winding is connected to a commutator on which ride
short-circuited brushes. There is no centrifugal device and
the repulsion winding functions at all times.

Operation :

1 When single-phase supply is given to the stator winding, the

repulsion winding (i.e., outer winding) is active.
Consequently, the motor starts as a repulsion motor with a
corresponding high starting torque.
2 As the motor speed increases, the current shifts from the
outer to inner winding due to the decreasing impedance of
the inner winding with increasing speed. Consequently, at
running speed, the squirrel cage winding carries the greater
part of rotor current. This shifting of repulsion motor action
to induction-motor action is thus achieved without any
switching arrangement.
136 CHAPTER 7. SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

3 It may be seen that the motor starts as a repulsion motor.

When running, it functions through a combination of
principle of induction and repulsion; the former being
predominant.

Characteristics :

1 The no-load speed of a repulsion-induction motor is

somewhat above the synchronous speed because of the effect
of repulsion winding. However, the speed at full-load is
slightly less than the synchronous speed as in an induction
motor.

2 The speed regulation of the motor is about 6 %.

3 The starting torque is 2.25 to 3 times the full-load torque; the

lower value being for large motors. The starting current is 3
to 4 times the full-load current.

This type of motor is used for applications requiring a high

starting torque with essentially a constant running speed. The
common sizes are 0.25 to 5 H.P.

7.12 Single-Phase Synchronous Motors

Very small single-phase motors have been developed which run at

true synchronous speed. They do not require d.c. excitation for the
rotor. Because of these characteristics, they are called unexcited
single-phase synchronous motors.

The most commonly used types are:

1 Reluctance motors

2 Hysteresis motors
7.13. RELUCTANCE MOTOR 137

The efficiency and torque-developing ability of these motors

is low; The output of most of the commercial motors is only a few
watts.

7.13 Reluctance Motor

It is a single-phase synchronous motor which does not require

d.c. excitation to the rotor. Its operation is based upon the
following principle:
Whenever a piece of ferromagnetic material is located in a magnetic
field; a force is exerted on the material, tending to align the material so
that reluctance of the magnetic path that passes through the material is
minimum.

Figure 7.12: Reluctance Motor

Construction : A reluctance motor (also called synchronous

reluctance motor) consists of:

1 a stator carrying a single-phase winding along with an

auxiliary winding to produce a synchronous-revolving
magnetic field.
2 a squirrel-cage rotor having unsymmetrical magnetic
construction. This is achieved by symmetrically removing
138 CHAPTER 7. SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

some of the teeth from the squirrel cage rotor to produce

salient poles on the rotor. As shown in Fig. (7.12 (i)), 4 salient
poles have been produced on the rotor. The salient poles
created on the rotor must be equal to the poles on the stator.

Operation :

1 (i) When single-phase stator having an auxiliary winding is

energized, a synchronously-revolving field is produced. The
motor starts as a standard squirrel-cage induction motor and
will accelerate to near its synchronous speed.

2 As the rotor approaches synchronous speed, the rotating

stator flux will exert reluctance torque on the rotor poles
tending to align the salient-pole axis with the axis of the
rotating field. The rotor assumes a position where its salient
poles lock with the poles of the revolving field [See Fig. (7.12
(ii))]. Consequently, the motor will continue to run at the
speed of revolving flux i.e., at the synchronous speed.

3 When we apply a mechanical load, the rotor poles fall

slightly behind the stator poles, while continuing to turn at
synchronous speed. As the load on the motor is increased,
the mechanical angle between the poles increases
progressively. Nevertheless, magnetic attraction keeps the
rotor locked to the rotating flux. If the load is increased
beyond the amount under which the reluctance torque can
maintain synchronous speed, the rotor drops out of step
with the revolving field. The speed, then, drops to some
value at which the slip is sufficient to develop the necessary
torque to drive the load by induction-motor action.

Characteristics :

1 These motors have poor torque, power factor and efficiency.

7.14. HYSTERESIS MOTOR 139

2 These motors cannot accelerate high-inertia loads to

synchronous speed.

3 The pull-in and pull-out torques of such motors are weak.

Despite the above drawbacks, the reluctance motor is

cheaper than any other type of synchronous motor. They are
widely used for constant-speed applications such as timing
devices, signaling devices etc.

7.14 Hysteresis Motor

It is a single-phase motor whose operation depends upon the

hysteresis effect i.e., magnetization produced in a ferromagnetic
material lags behind the magnetizing force.

Construction : It consists of:

1 a stator designed to produce a synchronously-revolving field

from a single-phase supply. This is accomplished by using
permanent-split capacitor type construction. Consequently,
both the windings (i.e., starting as well as main winding)
remain connected in the circuit during running operation as
well as at starting. The value of capacitance is so adjusted as
to result in a flux revolving at synchronous speed.

2 a rotor consisting of a smooth cylinder of magnetically hard

steel, without winding or teeth.

Operation :
140 CHAPTER 7. SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

Figure 7.13: Hysteresis Motor

1 When the stator is energized from a single-phase supply, a

synchronously revolving field (assumed in anti-clockwise
direction) is produced due to split-phase operation.

2 The revolving stator flux magnetizes the rotor. Due to

hysteresis effect, the axis of magnetization of rotor will lag
behind the axis of stator field by hysteresis lag angle a as
shown in Fig. (7.13). Thus the rotor and stator poles are
locked. If the rotor is stationary, the starting torque produced
is given by:
Ts ∝ φs φr sin α
where φs = stator flux, φr = rotor flux.
From now onwards, the rotor accelerates to synchronous
speed with a uniform torque.

3 After reaching synchronism, the motor continues to run at

synchronous speed and adjusts its torque angle so as to
develop the torque required by the load.

Characteristics :
7.14. HYSTERESIS MOTOR 141

1 A hysteresis motor can synchronize any load which it can

accelerate, no matter how great the inertia. It is because the
torque is uniform from standstill to synchronous speed.
2 Since the rotor has no teeth or salient poles or winding, a
hysteresis motor is inherently quiet and produces smooth
rotation of the load.
3 The rotor takes on the same number of poles as the stator
field. Thus by changing the number of stator poles through
pole-changing connections, we can get a set of synchronous
speeds for the motor.

Applications :
Due to their quiet operation and ability to drive high-inertia toads,
hysteresis motors are particularly well suited for driving

1 Electric Clocks
2 Timing Devices
3 Tape-Decks
4 from-tables and other precision Audio-Equipment.
142 CHAPTER 7. SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS
Chapter 8

ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

8.1 Wire and Cable

The use of Conductors and their insulation is regulated by Indian

Electricity (IE) regulation and Indian Standard (IS) Code Of
Practice. Wires and cables are the most common forms of
conductors. They carry electric current through all types of
circuits and systems. A conductor is a wire or cable or any other
form of mental, suitable for carrying current from generating
station the point where it is used.

8.1.1 Difference between Wire and Cable

According to Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), wire and cable can

be defined as follows :

1 Bare Conductors :They have no covering. The best example

is overhead transmission and distribution lines.
2 Wire: If bare conductors are provided with Insulation, then
it is known as a wire. The insulation separates the conductor
electrically from other conductors.
3 Cable: It consists of two or more conductors covered with

143
144 CHAPTER 8. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

suitable insulation and surrounded by a protecting cover. The

necessary requirements of a cable are that it should conduct
electricity efficiently, cheaply, and safely. This should neither
be so small that it has a large internal voltage drop nor be too
large so that it costs too much. Its insulation should be such
that it prevents leakage of current in unwanted direction to
minimize risk of fire and shock.
The cable essentially consists of three parts :

(a) Conductor or core- the metal wire, or strand of wires,

carrying the current
(b) insulation of dielectric- a covering of insulating material
to avoid leakage of current from the conductor and
(c) protective covering for protection of insulation from
mechanical damage

Basically, there is no difference between a cable and a wire.

It is a relative term. The term cable is used for all heavy section
insulated conductors, whereas a wire means a thin (i.e., smaller)
section insulated conductor used for carrying current from one
point to another point.

8.1.2 Classification of Wires and Cables

The wires/ cables used for domestic or industrial wiring are

classified into different groups as follows :

1 According to the conductor material used

(a) Copper conductor cables

(b) Aluminium conductor cable

2 According to number of cores

(a) Singles core cable (SCC)

8.1. WIRE AND CABLE 145

(b) Double core or twin core cables (DCC)

(c) Three core cables
(d) four core cables
(e) Two core with earth continuity conductor cables
3 According to type of insulation
(a) Vulcanized Indian rubber (VIR) insulated wires/cables
(b) Tough rubber sheathed (TRS) or cable tyre sheathed
(CTS) cables
(c) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) cables
(d) Lead sheathed cables
(e) Weather proof cables
(f) Flexible cords and cables
(g) XLPE cables
4 According to the voltage at which they are manufactured
(a) Low tension (LT) cables ± up to 1000V
(b) High tension (HT) cables ± up to 11kV
(c) Super tension (ST) cables ± from 22-33kV
(d) Extra high tension (EHT) cables ± from 33-66kV
(e) Extra super voltage cables ± beyond 132 kV

8.1.3 Specifications of Cables

Cables are specified by providing

1 Size of the cable in metric system (e.g., 19/2.24, 7/1.70,

7/2.24, 7/2.50 etc) giving the Number of strands used and
diameter of each strand, or giving the area of cross- section
of conductor used.
2 Type of conductor used in cables (copper or aluminium)
146 CHAPTER 8. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

3 Number of cores that cable consists of e.g. single core, twin

core, three core, four core etc.

4 Voltage grade (240/415V or 650/1100V grade)

5 Type of cable with clear description regarding insulation,

shielding, armouring, bedding etc.

A few specifications of a cable are given below:

• 7/20, VIR, aluminium conductor, twin core,650/1100 grade.

In this case, the numerator 7 indicates the number of stands
in cable and denominator 20 represents the gauge number of
each strand. The cable has two cores made with Aluminium,
With VIR insulation and is used for 650/1100 voltage

• 19/1.12, aluminium conductor, 3 12 core, 1100V, PVC cable,

PVC sheathed. In this case, the cable consists of 19 strands,
each strand has a diameter of 1.12mm. The conductor is
made with aluminium, insulation is made with PVC, is
covered with PVC sheathing, and is used for 1100V supply
system.

8.2 Earthing or Grounding

The process of connecting the metallic frame (i.e., non- current carrying
part) of electrical equipment or some electrical part of the system (e.g.,
neutral point in a star-connected system, one conductor of the
secondary of a transformer, etc.) to the earth (i.e., soil) is called
grounding or Earthing. The potential of the earth is to be
considered zero for all practical purposes. Earthing is to connect
any electrical equipment to earth with a very low resistance wire,
making it to attain earth’s potential, This ensures safe discharge
of electrical energy due to failure of the insulation line coming in
contact with the casing, etc. Earthing brings the potential of the
8.2. EARTHING OR GROUNDING 147

body of the equipment to zero i.e., to the earth’s potential, thus

protecting the operating personnel against electrical shock.

The earth resistance is affected by the following factors :

1. Material properties of the earth, wire and the electrode

2. Temperature and moisture content of the soil
3. Depth of the pit
4. Quantity of the charcoal used

8.2.1 Necessity of Earthing

The requirement for provision of earthing can be listed as follows

:

1 To protect the operating personnel from the danger of shock.

2 To maintain the line voltage constant, under unbalanced load
condition.
3 To avoid risk of fire due to earth leakage current through
unwanted path.
4 Protection of the equipments.
5 Protection of large buildings and all machines fed from
overhead lines against lighting.

8.2.2 Methods of Earthing

The various methods of earthing in common use are :

1 Plate earthing
2 Pipe earthing
148 CHAPTER 8. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

3 Rod earthing

4 Strip or wire earthing

Plate earthing

In this method either a copper plate of 60cm × 60cm × 3.18 or GI

plate of 60cm × 60cm × 6.35 is used for earthing. The plate is
buried into the ground not less than 3m from the ground level.
The earth plate is embedded in alternate layers of coal and salt
for a thickness of 15cm as shown in figure (8.1). In addition,
water is poured for keeping the earth’s electrode resistance value
below a maximum of 5Ω. The earth wire is securely bolted to the
earth plate.

A cement masonry chamber is built with a cast iron cover for

easy regular maintenance.

Figure 8.1: Plate Earthing

8.2. EARTHING OR GROUNDING 149

Pipe Earthing

Earth electrode made of a GI (galvanized iron) pipe of 38mm in

diameter and length of 2 m (depending on the current) with 12
mm holes on the surface is placed upright at a depth of 4.75 cm in
a permanently wet ground. To keep the value of the earth
resistance at the desired level, the area (15 cm) surrounding the
GI pipe is filled with a mixture of salt and coal. The efficiency of
the earthing system is improved by pouring water through the
funnel periodically. The GI earth wires of sufficient
cross-sectional area are run through a 12.7 mm diameter pipe (at
60 cm below) from the 19 mm diameter pipe and secured tightly
at the top as shown in figure 8.2.

Figure 8.2: Pipe Earthing

When compared to the plate earth system the pipe earth

system can carry larger leakage currents due to larger surface
area is in contact with the soil for given electrode size. This
system also enables easy maintenance as the earth wire
connection is housed at the ground levels.
150 CHAPTER 8. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

Rod Earthing

It is the same method as pipe earthing, A copper rod of 12.5 cm

(1/2 inch) diameter or 16 mm (0.6 inch) diameter of galvanized
steel or hollow section 25mm (1 inch) of GI pipe of length above
2.5 m (8.2 ft) are buried upright in the earth manually or with the
help of a pneumatic hammer. The length of embedded electrodes
in the soil reduces earth resistance to a desired value.

Figure 8.3: Rod Earthing

Strip or Wire Earthing

In this method of earthing strip electrodes of cross- section not less

than 25mm×1.6mm(1in×0.06in) is buried in a horizontal trenches
of a minimum depth of 0.5m. If copper with a cross-section of
25mm × 4mm(1in × 0.15in) is used and a dimension of 3.0 mm2 if
it’s a galvanized iron or steel.

If at all round conductors are used, their cross-section area

should not be too small, say less than 6.0 mm2 if it’s a galvanized
iron or steel. The length of the conductor buried in the ground
would give a sufficient earth resistance and this length should not
be less than 15m. The electrodes shall be as widely distributed
as possible in a single straight or circular trenches radiating from
a point. This type of earthing is used where the earth bed has a
8.2. EARTHING OR GROUNDING 151

rocky soil and excavation work is difficult.

8.2.3 Selection of Earthing

The type of earthing to be provided depends on many factors such

as type of soil, type of installation, etc. The following table helps
in selecting a type of earthing for a particular application.

S.N. Type of Application

Earthing
1 Plate Large installations such as transmission
earthing towers, all substations generating stations
2 Pipe earthing
1. For domestic installations such as
heaters, coolers, refrigerators, geysers,
electric iron, etc.
2. For 11kV/400V distribution
transformers
3. For induction motors rating upto 100HP
4. For conduit pipe in a wall, all wall
brackets

3 Rod earthing In areas where the soil is loose or sandy

4 Strip of wire In rocky ares
earthing

8.2.4 Earth Resistance

The earth resistance should be kept as low as possible so that the

neutral of any electrical system, which is earthed, is maintained
almost at the earth potential. The earth resistance for copper wire
is 1 Ω and that of GI wire less than 3 Ω. The typical value of the
earth resistance at large power stations is 0.5 Ω , major substations
152 CHAPTER 8. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

is 1 Ω, small sub-stations is 2 Ω and in all other cases 5 Ω.

The resistance of the earth depends on the following factors

:

1 Condition of soil.

2 Moisture content of soil.

3 Temperature of soil.

4 Depth of electrode at which it is embedded.

5 Size, material and spacing of earth electrode.

6 Quality and quantity of coal and salt in the earth pit.

8.2.5 Difference Between Earth Wire and Neutral Wire

1. Neutral Wire :

1 In a 3-phase 4-wire system, the fourth wire is a neutral

wire.
2 IT acts a return path for 3-phase currents when the load
is not balanced.
3 IN domestic single phase AC circuit, the neutral wire acts
as return path for the line current.

2. Earth Wire :

(a) Earth wire is actually connected to the general mass of

the earth and metallic body of the equipment
(b) It is provided to transfer any leakage current from the
metallic body to the earth.
8.3. FUSE 153

8.3 Fuse

The electrical equipment are designed to carry a particular rated

value of current under normal conditions. Under abnormal
conditions such as short circuits, overload, or any fault; the
current rises above this value, damaging the equipment and
sometimes resulting in fire hazard. Fuses come into operation
under fault conditions.

A fuse is short piece of metal, inserted in the circuit, which melts

when excessive current flows through it and thus breaks the circuits.
Under normal operating conditions it designed to carry the full
load current. If the current increases beyond this designed value
due to any of the reasons mentioned above, the fuse melts,
isolating the power supply from the load.

8.3.1 Desirable Characteristics of Fuse Element

The material used foe fuse wires must have the following
characteristics:

1 Low melting point e.g., tin, lead.

2 High conductivity e.g., copper.

3 Free from deterioration due oxidation e.g., silver.

4 Low cost e.g., tin, copper.

8.3.2 Materials

Material used are tin lead or silver having low melting points. Use
of copper or iron is dangerous, though tinned copper may be used.
154 CHAPTER 8. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

8.3.3 Types of Fuses

Fuses are classified into following types -

1 Re-wireable or kit-Kat fuse and

2 High rupturing capacity (H.R.C) cartridge fuse

Re-wireable or Kit-Kat Fuse:

Re-wireable fuse is used where low values of fault current are to

be interrupted. These fuses are simple in construction, cheap and
available up to a current rating of 200 A.They are erratic in
operation and their performance deteriorates with time. An
image of re-wireable fuse is as shown in figure 8.4

Figure 8.4: Re-wireable or Kit-Kat fuse

High Rupturing Capacity (HRC) Cartridge Fuse :

Figure 8.5 shown an image of HRC cartridge fuse and figure 8.6
shown the essential parts of a typical HRC cartridge fuse. It
consists of a heat resisting ceramic body having metal end-caps
to which a silver current-carrying element is welded. The space
within the body surrounding the elements is completely packed
with a filling powder. The filling material my be chalk, plaster of
Paris, quartz or marble dust and acts as an arc quenching and
8.4. CIRCUIT BREAKER 155

cooling medium. Therefore, it carries the normal current without

overheating.

Under normal loading conditions, the fuse element is at a

temperature below its melting point. When a fault occurs, the
current increases and the fuse element melts before the fault
current reaches its first peak. The heat produced in the process
vaporizes the melted silver element. The chemical reaction
between the silver vapors and the filling powder results in the
formation of a high resistance substance which helps in
quenching the arc.

Figure 8.5: HRC Cartridge Fuse

Figure 8.6: Cross section of HRC Cartridge Fuse

8.4 Circuit Breaker

Electrical circuits breaker is a switching device which can be

operated manually and automatically for the controlling and
protection of electrical power system, respectively. The modern
156 CHAPTER 8. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

power system deals with a huge power network and huge

numbers of associated electrical equipments. During shirt circuits
fault or any other type of electrical fault, these equipments, as
well as the power network, suffer a high stress of fault current,
which in turn damage the equipment and networks permanently.
For saving these equipment and the power networks, the fault
current should be cleared from the system as quickly as possible.
Again after the cleared, the system must come to its normal
working condition as soon is possible for supplying reliable
quality power to the receiving ends. The circuits breaker is the
special device all the required switching operations during
current carrying condition.

A circuits breaker essentially consists of fixed and moving

contacts, called electrodes. Under normal operating conditions,
these contacts remain closed and will not open automatically
until and unless the system becomes faulty. The contacts can be
opened manually or by remote control whenever desired. When
a fault occurs in any part of the system, the trip coils of the
breaker get energized and the moving contacts are pulled apart
by some mechanism, thus opening the circuits.

The main types of circuits breakers are :

1 Miniature circuits breakers (MCB)

2 Earth leakage circuits breakers (ELCB) or Residual Current

Breaker (RCCB)

3 Air blast Circuits Breaker (ACB)

4 Molded Case Circuits Breakers (MCCB)

5 Vacuum Circuits Breaker (VCB)

6 SF6 Circuits Breaker

8.4. CIRCUIT BREAKER 157

8.4.1 Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)

Minimum circuits breakers are electromechanical devices which

protect an electrical circuits from over currents. Over currents in
an electrical circuits may results from short circuits overload, or
faulty design. An MCB is better alternative than fuse, since it
does not require replacement once an overload is detected. An
MCB functions by interrupting the continuity of electrical flow
through the circuits once a fault is detected. In simple terms,
MCB is a switch which automatically turns off when the current
flowing through it passes the maximum allowable limit.
Generally MCB is designed to protect against over current and
over temperature faults (over heating).

Working Principle :
There are two contact - one is fixed and the other is moveable.
When the current exceeds the predefined limit, a solenoid forces
the moveable contact to open (i.e., disconnect from the fixed
contact) and the MCB turns off, thereby stopping the current
from flowing in the circuits.

Operation :
An image of MCB is shown in figure (8.7) and internal parts of
an MCB are shown in figure (8.8). It mainly consists of one bi-
metallic strip, one trip coil and one hand operated on-off lever.
Electric current carrying path of a MCB is as follows - first left
hand side power terminal-then bimetallic strip - then current coil
- then moving contact - then fixed contact and - lastly right hand
side power terminal, and all are arranged in series.
158 CHAPTER 8. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

Figure 8.7: Miniature Circuit Breaker

Figure 8.8: Cross section of MCB

If circuits is overload for a long time, the bi -metallic strip

becomes over heated and deformed. This deformation of
bi-metallic strip causes displacement of latch point. The moving
contact of the MCB is so arranged by means of spring, with this
latch point, that a little displacement of latch causes releases of
spring and makes the moving contact to move for opening the
MCB. The current coil or trip coil placed in such a manner that
during SC faults, the MMF of that coil causes its plunger to hit
the same latch point and force the latch to be displaced. Hence,
the MCB will open in the same manner. Again when operating
lever of the MCB is operated by hand, that means when we make
the MCB at off position manually, the same latch point is
displaced as a result moving contact separated from fixed contact
in same manner. So, whatever may be the operating mechanism,
8.4. CIRCUIT BREAKER 159

i.e., may be due to deformation of bi-metallic strip or may be due

to increased MMF of trip coil or may be due to manual operation
- actually the same latch point is displaced and the deformed
spring is released, which is ultimately responsible for movement
of the moving contact. When the moving contacts is separated
from fixed contact, there may be a high chance of arc. This are
then goes up thorough the arc runner and enters into arc splitters
and is finally quenched. When we switch on the MCB, we
actually reset the displaced operating latch to its previous on
position and make the MCB ready for another switch off or trip
operation.

These are available in single pole, double pole, triple pole,

and four pole versions with neutral poles, if required. The
normal current ratings are available from 0.5-63 A with a
sym-metrical short circuits rupturing capacity of 3-10kA, at a
voltage level of 230/440v. MCBs are generally designed to trip
within 2.5 millisecond when an over current fault arises. In case
of temperature rise or over heating it may take 2 seconds to 2
min. For the MCB to trip.

Advantages :

1 MCBs are replacing the re-wireable switch i.e., fuse units for
low power domestic and industrial applications.

2 The disadvantages of fuses, like low SC interrupting

capacity (say 3kA), Etc. Are overcome with high SC breaking
capacity of 10kA. iii. MCB is combination of all three
functions in a wiring system like switching, overload and
short circuits protection. Overload protection can be
obtained by using bi-metallic strips where as shorts circuits
protection can be obtained by using solenoid
160 CHAPTER 8. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

8.4.2 Earth Leakage Circuits Breaker (ELCB)

None of the protection devices like MCB, MCCB, etc. Can protect
the human life against electric shocks or avoid fire due to leakage
current. The human resistance noticeably drops with an increase
in voltage. It also depends upon the duration of impressed
voltage and drops with increase in time. As per IS code, a contact
potential of 65V is within tolerable limit of human body for 10
seconds, where as 250V can be withstood by human body for 100
milliseconds. The actual effect of current thorough human body
varies from person to person with reference to magnitude and
duration. The body resistance at 10V is assessed to be 19 kΩ for 1
second and 8 kΩ for 15 min. At 240V, 3 to 3.6 kΩ for dry skin and
1-1.2 kΩ for wet skin.

An Earth Leakage Circuits Breakers (ELCB) is a device used

to directly detect currents leaking to earth from an installation and
cut the power. There are two types of ELCBs :

1. Voltage Earth Leakage Circuits Breaker (voltage -ELCB)

2. Current Earth Leakage Circuits Breaker ( Current -ELCB)

Voltage Earth Leakage Circuits Breaker (voltage -ELCB)

Voltage ±ELCB is a voltage operated circuits breakers. The device

will function when the current passes thorough the ELCB.
Voltage-ELCB contains relay coil and one end of the coil is
connected to metallic load body and the other end is connected to
ground wire as shown in figure 8.9. If the voltage of the
equipment body rises (by touching phase to metal part or
insulation failure of equipment), which could cause the difference
between earth and load body voltage and the danger of electric
shock will occur. This voltage difference will produce an electric
current from the load metallic body and phase through the loop
to the Earth. When voltage on the equipment metallic body rises
8.4. CIRCUIT BREAKER 161

to danger level i.e., which exceed to 50V, the flowing current

through relay loop could move the relay contact by disconnecting
the supply current avoid from any danger electric shock. The
ELCB detects fault currents from line to the earth (ground) wire
within the installation it protects. If sufficient voltage appears
across the ELCB’s sensing coil, it will switch off the power, and
remain off until manually reset. A voltage ± sensing ELCB does
not sense fault current from line to any other earthed body.

Figure 8.9: Voltage earth leakage circuit breaker

Current Earth Leakage Circuits Breaker ( Current -ELCB)

Current ±ELCB is a current operated circuits breaker which is a

commonly used ELCB. Current-ELCB consists of a 3- winding
transformer, which has two primary windings and 1 secondary
winding as shown in figure (8.10). Neutral and line wires act as
the two primary windings. A wire wound coil is the secondary
winding. The current thorough the secondary winding is zero at
the balanced condition. In the balanced condition, the flux due to
current through the phase wire will be neutralized by the current
through the neutral wire, since the current which flows from the
phase will be returned back to the neutral. When a fault occurs, a
small current will flow to the ground also. This makes an
unbalanced between line and neutral currents and creates an
unbalanced magnetic filed. This induces a current through the
secondary winding, which is connected to the sensing circuits.
162 CHAPTER 8. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

This will sense the leakage and send a signal to the tripping
system and trips the contact.

Figure 8.10: Current- earth leakage circuit breaker

8.4.3 Molded Case Circuits Breaker(MCCB)

Molded case circuits breakers are electromechanical devices

which protect a circuits from over current and short circuits.
They provide over current and short circuits protection for
circuits ranging from 63 A up to 3000 A. Their primary function
are to provide a means to manually open a circuits and
automatically open a circuits under overload or short circuits
conditions respectively. The over current, in an electrical circuits,
may result from short circuits, overload of faulty design.

MCCB is an alternative to a fuse, since it does not require

replacement once an overload is detected. Unlike a fuse, an
MCCB can be easily reset after a fault and offer improved
operational safety and convenience without incurring operating
cost.

Molded case circuits breakers generally have a -

1 Thermal element for over current and

2 Magnetic element for short circuits release which has to
operate faster.
8.4. CIRCUIT BREAKER 163

The MCCBs are comprised of five major components such

as molded case or frame operating mechanism, arc extinguishers,
contacts and trip components as shown in figure (8.11).

Figure 8.11: Moulded Case Circuit Breaker

MCCB are manufactured such that the end user will not
have access to internal workings of the over-current protection
device. Generally constructed of two pieces of heavy-duty
electrically insulated plastic, these halves are riveted together to
form the whole. Inside the plastic shell is series of thermal
elements and a spring-loaded trigger. When the thermal element
gets too warm, from an over current situation, the spring trips,
which in turn will shut off the electrical circuits.

Operating Mechanism : At its core, the protection mechanism

employed by MCCBs is based on the same physical principles
used by all type of thermal ± magnetic circuits breakers.

Overload protection is accomplished by means of a thermal

mechanism. MCCBs have a bimetallic contact that expands and
contacts in response to changes on temperature. Under normal
operating conditions, the contact allows electric current through
the MCCB. However as soon as the current exceeds the adjusted
164 CHAPTER 8. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

trip value, the contact will start to heat and expend until the
circuits the circuit is interrupted. The thermal protection against
overload is designed with a time delay to allow short duration
over current,which is a normal part of operation for many
devices. However, any over current conditions that last more
than what is normally expected represent an overload, and the
MCCB is tripped to protect the equipment and personnel.

On the other hand, fault protection is accomplished with

electromagnetic induction, and the response is instant. Fault
currents should be interrupted immediately, no matter if their
duration is short or long. Whenever a fault occurs, the extremely
high current induces a magnetic field in a solenoid coil located
inside the breaker ± this magnetic induction trips a contact and
current it interrupted. As a complement to the magnetic
protection mechanism, MCCBs have internal arc dissipation
measure to facilitate interruption. As with all types of circuits
breakers, the MCCB includes a disconnection switch which is
used to trip the breaker manually. It is used whenever the electric
supply must be disconnected to carry out field work such as
maintenance or equipment upgrades.

Applications :
Molded case circuits breakers can have very high current ratings,
which allows them to be used in heavy duty applications such as
main electric feeder protection, capacitor bank protection,
generator protection, welding applications, low current
application that require adjustable trip setting and motor
protection.
8.5. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS IN HANDLING ELECTRICAL APPLIANCE165

8.5 Safety precautions in Handling Electrical

Appliance

It is essentially important to take precautions when we are

working with electricity and using electrical appliances. Here,
some of the basic precautions are mentioned for safe usage of
electrical appliance :

1 Follow the manufacture’s instructions : Always read the

manufacture’s instructions carefully before using a new
appliance.
2 Replace or repair damaged power cords : Exposed wiring
is a danger that cannot be ignored. If you see the protective
coating on a wire is stripped away, be sure to replace it or
cover it with electrical tape as soon as possible.
3 Keep electrical equipment or outlets away from water :
Avoid water at all times when working with electricity.
Never touch or repairing any electrical equipment or circuits
with wet hands. It increases the conductivity of electrical
current. Keep all electrical appliance away from water such
as sinks, bathtubs, pools or overhead vents that may drip.
4 Use insulated tools while working : Always use
appropriate insulated rubber gloves, goggles, protective
clothes and shoes with insulated soles while working on any
branch circuits or any other electrical circuits. Use only tools
and equipment with non-conducting handles when working
on electrical devices. Never use metallic pencils or rulers or
wear rings or metal watchbands when working with
electrical equipment as they cause a strong electric shock.
5 Don’t overload your outlets : Every outlet in your home is
designed to deliver a certain amount of electricity; by
plugging too many devices into it at once, you could cause a
small explosion or a fire. If you have a lot of things to plug
166 CHAPTER 8. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

in, use a power strip that can safely accommodate your

needs.

6 Shut-off the power supply : Always make sure that the

power source should be shut-off before performing any
work related to electricity. For example; inspecting,
installing, maintaining or repairing.

7 Avoid extension cords as much as possible : Running

extension cords through the house can trip up residence; this
can cause injury and damage to the wire or outlet if it cause
the cord to be ripped out of the wall. If you find yourself
using extension cords very often, consider having an
electrician install new outlets throughout your home.

8 When to repair : Everyone want to have the safe electrical

environment. Equipment producing ªtingle” sound should
be disconnected and reported promptly for repair.

9 Avoid the usage of flammable liquids : Never use highly

flammable liquids near electrical equipment. Never touch
another person’s equipment or electrical control devices
unless instructed to do so.

10 Use electric tester : Never try repairing energized equipment.

Always check that it is de-energized first by using a tester.
When an electric tester touches a live or hot wire, the bulb
inside the tester lights up showing that an electrical current is
flowing through the respective wire. Check all the wires, the
outer metallic covering of the service panel any other hanging
wires with an electrical tester before proceeding with your
work.

11 In case of electric shock : If an individual comes in contact

with a live electrical conductor, do not touch the equipment,
cord person. Disconnect the power source from the circuits
breaker or pull out the plug using a leather belt. By enclosing
all electric conductors and contacts can save people from
8.5. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS IN HANDLING ELECTRICAL APPLIANCE167

getting the electric shock. Use three-pin plugs, which have

earth wire connection which prevents electrical shock.

12 Display danger board : Danger board should be displayed

at the work place. We should not allow any unauthorized
person to enter in the working place and we should not put
any new equipment into the service without necessary testing
by the concern authority.

13 Usage of proper ladder : Never use an aluminium or steel

ladder if you are working on any receptacle at height in your
home. An electrical surge will ground you and the whole
electric current will pass through your body. Use a bamboo,
wooden or a fibreglass ladder instead.

14 Usage of circuits breaker or fuse : Always use a circuits

breaker or fuse with the appropriate current rating. Circuits
breakers and fuses are protection devices that automatically
disconnect the live wire a condition of short circuits or over
current occurs. The selection of the appropriate fuse or
circuit breaker is essential. Normally for protection against
short circuits a fuse rated of 150 % of the normal circuit
current is selected. In the case of a circuit with 10 amperes of
current, a 15 ampere fuse will against direct short circuits a
9.5 amperes fuse will blow out.

15 Use ceiling on live wire : Always put a cap on the hot/live

wire while working on an electric board or service panel as
you could end up short circuiting the bare ends of the live
wire with the neutral. The cap insulates the copper ends of
the cable thus preventing any kind of shock even if touched
mistakenly.

16 Precaution during soldering : Always take care while

soldering your circuits boards. Wear goggles and keep
yourself away from the fumes. Keep the solder iron in its
stand when not in use; it can get extremely hot and can
easily cause burns.
168 CHAPTER 8. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

17 Things to remember : The circuits is bad, electricity

appliances are not working well, and lights are fluctuating.
It means you need an electrical inspection or repair. In this
case, either you’ll call an electrician or do it yourself. So if
you are trying to repair, always remember that your hands
are well dry, you have essential tools, rubber gloves & shoe
are good, As all these acts as an insulator. Do not wear loose
clothing or tied near electrical equipment.

18 Keep heaters away from bedclothes, clothing and curtains to

avoid risk fire. Be extra careful when using electrical
appliances attached to power outlets near kitchen or
bathroom sinks, tubs, swimming pools, and other wet areas.
Don’t cover an electric heater with clothing or other items.

8.6 Battery

A battery is a devices which converts chemical energy into

electrical energy and is made up of a number of cells. Batteries
consists of two or more voltaic cell that are connected in series to
provide a steady DC voltage at the battery’s output terminals.
The voltage is produced by a chemical reaction inside the cell.
Electrodes are immersed in an electrolyte, which forces the
electric charge to separate in the from of ions and free electrons.
A battery’s voltage output and current rating are determined by
the elements used for the electrodes, the size of the electrodes,
and the type of electrolyte used. Whether a battery may be
recharged or not depends on the cells used to make up the
battery.

Batteries are classified into two types such as primary batteries

and secondary batteries.

1 Primary Batteries :
As the name indicates, these batteries are meats for single
8.6. BATTERY 169

usage. Once these batteries are used they cannot be

recharged as the devices are not easily reversible and active
material may not return to their original forms. Other name
for these batteries is disposable batteries. Some of the
example for the disposable batteries are the normal AA,
AAA batteries which we use in wall clocks, television
remote, etc.

2 Secondary Batteries :
Secondary batteries are also known as rechargeable batteries.
These batteries can be used and charged simultaneously. A
secondary battery or storage battery can be recharged
because its chemical reaction is reversible. Rechargeable
batteries are (re) charged by applying electric current, which
reverses the chemical reactions that occur during
discharge/use. Some of the examples for rechargeable
batteries are the batteries used in mobile phones MP3
players, etc.

8.6.1 Types of Primary Cells / Batteries

There are several types of primary cells in use today, such as

1 Carbon- zinc dry cell

2 Alkaline cell

3 Zinc chloride cell

4 Mercury cell

5 Silver oxide cell

6 Lithium cell
170 CHAPTER 8. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

Carbon- zinc dry cell

1 This is one the most popular primary cells (often used for
type AAA, AA, D)

2 The negative electrode is made of zinc

3 The positive electrode is made of carbon.

4 The output voltage of a single cell is about 1.5 V.

5 Performance of the cell is better with intermittent operation.

Alkaline cell

1 The alkaline cell is another popular type also used for type
AA, C, D, etc.

2 It has the same 1.5V output as carbon- zinc cells, but they are
longer -lasting.

3 It consists of a zinc anode and manganese dioxide cathode in

an alkaline electrolyte (potassium hydroxide )

4 It works with high efficiency even with continuous use, due

to low internal resistance.

Zinc chloride cell

1 This cell is also referred to as a ªheavy-duty” type battery.

2 It is modified zinc-carbon cell.

3 It has little chance of liquid leakage because the cell consumes

water along with the chemically active materials. The cell is
usually dry at the end of its useful life.
8.6. BATTERY 171

Mercury cell

1 This cell consists of a zinc anode, mercury compound

cathode, and potassium or sodium hydroxide electrolyte.
2 It is becoming obsolete due to the hazards associated with
proper disposal of mercury.

Silver oxide cell

1 This cell consists of a zinc anode, silver oxide cathode, and

potassium of sodium hydroxide electrolyte.
2 It is typically available as 1.5V, miniature button form.
3 Applications include hearing aids, cameras, and watches

Lithium cell

1 This cell offers high output voltage, long shelf life, low
weight, and small volume.
2 It comes in two forms of 3V output in widespread use:
(a) (a) Lithium-sulfur dioxide(LiSO2 ).
(b) Lithium- thionyl chloride.
3 LiSO2 type batteries contain methyl cyanide liquid solvent; if
its container is punctured
4 Safe disposal of these cells is critical.

8.6.2 Types of Secondary Cells/Batteries

There are several types of secondary cells in use today, such as

1 Lead-acid cell
172 CHAPTER 8. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

2 Nickel cadmium (NiCd) cell

3 Lithium-ion battery
4 Nickel-metal- hydride (NiMH) cell
5 Nickel-iron (Edison) cell
6 Fuel cell
7 Solar cell

Lead-acid cell

1 This cell is a widely applied type of secondary cell, used

extensively in automobiles inverters, backup power system,
etc. Requiring high values of load current.
2 Anode: Porous lead
3 Cathode: Lead-dioxide
4 Electrolyte: Sulfuric acid, 6 molar H2 SO4
5 The output is about 2.1 V per cell.
6 Cells are typically used in series combinations of 3 (6V
battery) or 6 (12V battery)

Nickel cadmium (NiCd) cell

1 This type of cell delivers high current.

2 It can be recharged many times.
3 Anode: Nickel hydroxide N i(OH)2 (d) Cathode: Cadmium
hydroxide, Cd(OH) 2 (e) Electrolyte : Cadmium hydroxide,
KOH (f) Maintain a steady voltage of 1.2V per cell until
completely depleted (g) It can be stored for long periods of
times. (h) Its specific gravity does not charge with the state
8.6. BATTERY 173

of charge. (I) Applications include portable power tools,

alarm systems, portable radio and TV equipment.

Lithium-ion battery

1 Li-based cells are most compact ways of storing electrical

energy.

2 Lower in energy density than lithium metal, lithium-ion is

safe.

3 Anode: Graphite

4 Cathode: Lithium manganese dioxide

5 Electrolyte : mixture of lithium salts

6 Energy density is twice of the standard nickel-cadmium.

7 No memory and no scheduled cycling is required to prolong

battery life.

Nickel-metal- hydride (NiMH) cell

1 These cells are used in applications demanding

long-running battery performance (e.g., high-end portable
electrical or electronic products like power tools).

2 They offer 40 % more capacity over a comparably-sized NiCb

cell.

3 They contain the same components as a NiCd cell, expect for

the negative electrode.

4 They are more expensive than NiCd cells, self-discharge more

rapidly, and cannot be cycled as frequently as NiCd cells.
174 CHAPTER 8. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

Nickel-iron (Edison) cell

1 Anode: Nickel hydroxide, Ni(OH)2

2 Cathode: iron
3 Electrolyte: potassium hydroxide
4 The specific gravity of electrolyte remains unaffected during
the charging and discharging process.
5 They are now almost obsolete due to lead-acid batteries.
6 These are used in emergency lamps in hospitals and at places
where the rate of discharge and charge are rapid.

Fuel cell

1 A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that converts

chemicals (such as hydrogen and oxygen)into water and
produces electricity in the process.
2 As long as the reactants (H and O) are supplied to the fuel
cell, it will continually produce electricity and never go dead,
unlike conventional batteries.
3 Fuel cells are used extensively in the space program as
sources of DC power.
4 They are very efficient, capable of providing hundreds of
kilowatts of power.

Solar cell

1 Solar cells convert the sun’s light energy into electric energy.
2 They are made of semiconductor materials.
3 They are arranged in modules that are assembled into a large
solar array to produce the required power.
8.6. BATTERY 175

4 An applied voltage higher than the voltage of one cell can be

obtained by connecting cells in series.
5 The total voltage available across the battery of cells is equal
to the sum of the individual values for each cell.
6 Parallel cells have the same voltage as one current capacity, To
provide a higher output voltage and more current capacity,
cell can be connected in series-parallel combinations.

8.6.3 Comparison of Primary and Secondary Cells

S.N. Primary Cell Secondary Cell

1 If discharged once cannot If discharged once can be
be charged again charged again
2 Light in weight Heavy in weight
3 Used for intermittent use Used for continuous rating
with low load current with high load current
rating rating
4 Short life Long life
5 Low cost High Cost
6 Low efficiency High efficiency
7 Low power output High power output
8 Less maintenance More maintenance

8.6.4 Battery Characteristics

There are many characteristics that can help to identify a battery

that can help to identify a battery and we can distinguish the three
main ones as; chemistry, battery capacity and voltage. However,
if the battery is only a starter, it also delivers cold cranking amps
(CCA), which permits to offer high current at cold temperatures.

1 Chemistry
The main battery chemistries are lead, nickel and lithium.
176 CHAPTER 8. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

They all need a specific designated charger, this is why

charging these batteries on a different charger from their
own might cause an incorrect charge, despite it seeming to
work at first. This happens because of the different
regulatory requirement of each chemistry.

2 Battery Capacity
Battery capacity is a measure (typically in Amp-hr) of the
charge stored by the battery, and is determined by the mass
of active material contained in the battery. The battery
capacity represent the maximum amount of energy that can
be extracted from the battery under certain specified
conditions. However, the actual energy storage capabilities
of the battery can vary significantly from the ªnominal”
rated capacity, as the battery capacity depends strongly on
the age and past history of the battery, the charging or
discharging regimes of the battery and the temperature.
The energy stored in a battery, called the battery capacity, is
measured in either watt-hours (Wh), kilowatthours (kWh),
or ampere-hours (Ahr). The most common measure of
battery capacity is Ah, defined as the number of hours for
which a battery can provide a current equal to the discharge
rate at the nominal voltage of the battery. The unit of Ah is
commonly used when working with battery systems as the
battery voltage will vary throughout the charging or
discharging cycle.

3 Voltage
A battery feature a nominal voltage. Along with the amount
of cells connected in series, chemistry provides the open
circuits voltage (OCV), which is about 5-7 % higher on a
fully charged battery. It is important to check the correct
nominal voltage of a battery before connecting it.

4 Cold Cranking Amps (CCA)

Every starter battery is marked with cold cranking amps, also
8.7. ENERGY CONSUMPTION CALCULATION 177

abbreviated CCA. The number denotes the amount of amps

that the battery is able to provide at −18o C.

8.7 Energy Consumption Calculation

Energy and power are closely related. Electrical energy can be

measured only when electrical power is known. So first we
understand the electrical power. Electrical power it the amount of
electrical current that results from a certain amount of voltage or
we can say that power is the rate which energy is delivered. It is
measured in watts. Mathematically it is written as
Power = Voltage × Current
The measurement of electrical energy is completely dependent on
power which is measured in watt, kilowatts, megawatts,
gigawatts, and time which is measured in an hour. Joule is the
smallest unit of energy. But for some bigger calculation, some
better unit it required. So, the unit used for electrical energy is
watt - hour.

Electrical energy is the product of electrical power and time,

and it measured in joules. It is defined as ª1 joule of energy is
equal to 1 watt of power is consumed for 1 second”. i.e.,
Energy = Power × Time1 Joule = 1 watt × 1 second
Watts are the basic unit of power in which electrical power is
measured or we can say that rate at which electrical current is
being used at a particular moment.

Watt-hour is the standard unit used for measurement of

energy, describing the amount of watts used over a time. It shows
how fast the power is consumed in the period of time.
Energy in watt hours = Power in watts × Time in hours

Kilowatt-hour is simply a bigger unit of energy when large

appliance drawn power in kilowatts. It can be described as one
178 CHAPTER 8. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

kilowatt hour is the amount of energy drawn by the 1000 watts

appliance when used for an hour. Where, One kilowatt = 1000
watts,

Energy in kilowatt hours = Power in kilowatts × Time in hours

The electrical supply companies take electric energy charges from

their consumer per kilowatt hour unit basis.

This kilowatt hour is board of trade (BOT) unit.

Illustration for Energy Consumption :

A consumer uses a 10 kW geezer, a 6 kW electric furnace and

five 100 W bulbs for 15 hours. How many units (kWh) of electrical
energy have been used?
Explanation : Given that
Load ± 1 = 10 kW geezer
Load ± 2 = 6 kW electric furnace
Load ± 3 = 500 watt (five 100 watt bulbs)
Total load = 10kW + 6kW + 0.5kW = 16.5kW
Time taken = 155 hours

Energy consumed = Power in kW × Time in hours = 16.5 × 15 = 247.5kW h

For above electrical energy consumption, the tariff can be

calculated as follows :
1 unit = 1kWh
So, the total energy consumption = 247.5 units
If the cost per unit is 2.5, then the total cost of energy consumption
= 247.5 × 2.5 = Rs. 618.75