Science, Technology, and Society

Lesson 2: Intellectual revolutions that defined society

Learning Outcomes:
a. Explain how the ideas postulated by Copernicus, Darwin, and Freud contributed to
the spark of scientific revolution.
b. Enumerate at least 3 developments of science in Mesoamerica, Asian, Middle
East and African.

Science is defined as a systematized body of knowledge based on facts and pieces of evidence
gathered through observation and experimentation. This definition is very common and can be
considered as a piece of common knowledge. We were thought by this definition of science since the
elementary years where in science is introduced is considered one of the major or important subjects.

How old Science is it?

If we will be asked how old science is? Well, there‘s no individual that can exactly define or
identify when and where science began. Science is said to be as old as the world itself. From the
beginning or genesis of time science has already existed. Science is always interwoven with society
and so thus, society defined science in different ways.

Human beings have embarked on scientific activities in order to know and understand
everything around them. They have persistently observed and studied the natural and the physical
world in order to find meanings and seek answers to many questions. They have developed noble
ideas, later known as philosophy, to provide alternative or possible explanations to certain phenomena.
Humans also used religion to rationalized the origins of life and lifeless forms.

Scientific Revolution
The scientific revolution is defined as the period of enlightenment of where and when the
developments in the fields of science of mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology, and chemistry
transformed the views of society about nature. It explained the emergence or birth of modern science
as a result of these developments from the disciplines mentioned. The ideas generated during this
period enabled the people to reflect, rethink, and reexamine their beliefs and their way of life. There is
no doubt that it ignited a vast human interest to rethink how they do science and view scientific
processes.

The scientific revolution was the golden age for the people committed to scholarly life in science
but it was also a deeply trying moment for some scientific individuals that led to their painful death or
condemnation from the religious institutions who tried to preserve their faith, religion, and theological
views. Some rulers and religious leaders did not accept many of the early works of scientists. But this
did not stop people especially scientists to satisfy their curiosity of the natural and physical world.
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 Science, Technology, and Society
The scientific revolution is very significant in the development of human beings, the
transformation of society, and in the formulation of scientific investigations, experiments, and
observations. The scientific revolution also led to the creation of new research fields in science and
prompted the establishment of the natural world and the world of ideas.

When did Scientific Revolution begin?

The idea of the scientific revolution is claimed to have started in the early 16th century up to the
18th century in Europe. Why in Europe? The probable answer is the invention of the printing machine
and the blooming intellectual activities are done in various places of learning, and the growing number
of scholars in various fields of human interests. This does not mean, however, that science is a foreign
idea transported from other areas of the globe. Anyone who can examine the history of science,
technology, medicine, and mathematics is aware that all great civilizations of the ancient world had their
own sophisticated traditions and activities related to these disciplines.

Some Intellectuals and their Revolutionary Ideas

There were many intellectuals who had contributed to the spark of a scientific revolution. These
intellectuals/revolutionary individuals contributed their empirical ideas which have shaken and
contested the dominant theories and ideas of which are considered as the truths of their time.

This lesson will discuss three notable scientists who are considered very important for their
ideas that had shaken the minds of the world. There were many scientists who worked before and after
these individuals and are also considered essential or significant. During these times, Scientific
individuals lead to their painful death or condemnation from the religious institution who tried to
preserve their faith, religion, and theological views. Some rulers and religious leaders did not accept
many of the works of the early scientists. Scientific Revolution led to the creation of new research fields
in science and prompted the establishment of a strong foundation for modern science.

The following are the three notable scientists with their biography and notable contributions:
Nicolaus Copernicus

Nicolaus Copernicus is one of the Most important scientists in

history, Span many fields of knowledge, although most studies of the
character commonly revolve only around the heliocentric theory. From
heliocentrism came a radical change in the way of understanding the
universe and gave rise to the so-called "Scientific Revolution.― whose
implications have been fundamental to understand the modern world. In
Image Source: Britanica
one opportunity way, Copernicus resembled the Greek ancient Nicolaus+Copernicus&sxsr
Philosophers or thinkers. He did not do anything extensive such as f=ALeKk01Dzr8wSorkN9O
AlXxiQA--SEYWIQ:
observing heavenly bodies or inviting people to test his ideas. His ideas

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 Science, Technology, and Society

were an example of what is presently called a thought experiment.

Copernicus Life Story

By the time he finished his doctorate degree, Copernicus had been appointed as a canon at
Frombork Cathedral in Poland. Despite his duty as canon, he had plenty of time to sustain his interest
in astronomy. Copernicus was strongly influenced by a book entitled Epitome published in 1496 by a
German author, Johannes Mueller; which contains Mueller‘s observations of the heavens and some
commentary on earlier works especially that of Ptolemy.

Copernicus‘s idea and model of the universe were essentially complete in 1510. The Publication
of his book De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) in 1543
of which is often cited as the start of a scientific revolution. In his book, he wanted a model of the
universe of which everything moved around a single center at unvarying rates (Gribbin, 2003).
Copernicus placed the sun to be the centerpiece of the universe. The Earth and all the planets are
surrounding or orbiting the Sun each year. In his model, Copernicus outlined two kinds of planetary
motion: (1) The orbits of Venus and Mercury lay inside the orbit once around the Sun. (2) The orbits of
Mars, Saturn, and Jupiter lay outside the Earth‘s orbit, thus farther from the Sun. From this model he
would work on the length of time it will take for each planet to orbit once around the Sun. The result
would be from a sequence from Mercury, with the shortest year. He placed the planets in order of
increasing distance from the Sun. One of the great problems in the Copernicus model (Heliocentric
Model), however, was the position of the stars. The stars cannot be placed in a fixed position like
crystals in a distance sphere.

Copernicus is also a courageous man. Although the Copernican model makes sense now,
during those times, it was judge to be a heretic and therefore it was an unacceptable idea to be taught
to Catholics. The church banned the Copernican model and was ignored by Rome for the rest of the
16th century.

Charles Darwin
Famous for his theory of Evolution. He Changed
our concept of the world‘s creation. A genius who came
from a line of an intellectually gifted and wealthy family.
As a student in Shrewsbury School, he developed his
interest in natural history. Darwin spends his time taking
long walks to observe his surroundings while collecting
Image Source: Galapagos Safari Camp
specimens and he poured over books in his father‘s Charles+Darwin&sxsrf=ALeKk00PKgAk
library (Gribbin, 2003). WuqWldYILBQX46jmj1MCHw:15949643

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 Science, Technology, and Society
Darwin was sent to the best schools but was observed as a mediocre student. Struggled in his
study in medicine and ministry as imposed on him by his father. Life was changed when he was
recommended to join in a 5-year voyage through HMS Beagle in Galapagos Island by his professor.
After the Voyage, Darwin Published his book ―The Origin of Species ― in 1589. The book was
considered one of the most important works in Scientific Literature. Darwin collected many significant
materials in order to present his theory with overwhelming evidence. His book presented evidence on
how species evolved over time and presented traits and adaptations that differentiate species. His
observational skills were extraordinary that moved beyond the realms of plants and animals into the
realms of humans.

Darwin‘s book ―The Descent of Man‖ was so impressive yet very controversial. In this book, he
introduced the idea of all organic life, including human beings, under the realm of evolutionary thinking.
Darwin was truly remarkable was his courage to challenge religious and unscientific ideas that are
deemed to be prominent during those days. His unorthodox way of pursuing science gave more value
to evidence-based science. It is a Science marked by observation and experiment.

Sigmund Freud

Sigmund Freud Was born in a much later period from the scientific
revolution but his contribution to knowledge can be seen in many
aspects of the human scene, including art, literature, philosophy,
politics, and psychotherapy.

A famous figure in the field of Psychology.

Describe as a towering literary figure and a very talented
communicator who did share to raise the consciousness of the
civilized world in psychological matters. Image Source: Sigmund+Freud&
tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwiW-

He also made a significant contribution to the scientific world through the development of an
important observational method to gather reliable data to study human's inner life. Known as
Psychoanalysis. For him, Psychoanalysis is a scientific way to study the human mind and neurotic
illness. In the midst of all questions and academic controversy, his method of psychoanalysis had a
great impact on the scientific way of understanding human nature. Freud is not a traditional Thinker. His
method of psychoanalysis had a great impact on the scientific way of understanding human nature.
Psychoanalysis was proven to be effective in understanding some neurological conditions that were not
understood by medicine at that time. Freud‘s method was considered unorthodox. Focusing on human
sexuality and the evil nature of man.

Freudian ideas and theories are still considered nowadays as the great inspiration to examine the
human mind and behavior in a more scientifically accepted way.
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 Science, Technology, and Society

Cradles and Development of Early Science

Incan Civilization was also famous in Mesoamerica There are developments in science in
different parts of the world: Asia, Europe, Mesoamerica, and Africa. People in these continents invented
tools to help them in everyday life, discovered medicines to cure diseases observed heavenly bodies,
build structures, discovered many things, and invented mathematics as a tool and as a discipline.
Science Provided different ancient civilizations the means to survive and understand nature and the
physical world. It also enabled human beings to develop various technologies that help them in their
everyday tasks.

Mesoamerica
Includes the entire area of Central America from Southern Mexico up to the border of South
America. The mesoamerican region is rich in culture and knowledge before the arrival of its European
colonizers. Mesoamerica has many civilizations, but in this section, three civilizations will be discussed:
the Mayan, Inca, and Aztec civilizations. These civilizations have a considerable amazing contribution
to science and technology.

Mayan Civilization
Mayan is one of the famous civilizations that lasted for 2, 000 years. Mayan knowledge and
understanding of celestial bodies were advanced for their time. They predict an eclipse and use
astrological cycles in planting and harvesting. They incorporated their advanced understanding of
astronomy in the temples and other religious structures. It allows them to use their temples for
astronomical observation.

Mayans are known for measuring time using two complicated calendar systems:
• The Haab is a 365-day solar calendar divided into 18 months of 20 days each and one month,
which is only five days long. The calendar has an outer ring of Mayan glyphs (pictures)
representing each of the 19 months.
• The Tzolkin, meaning ―the distribution of the days,‖ is also called the Divine Calendar and the
Sacred Round. It is a 260-day calendar with 20 periods of 13 days, and it is used to
determine the time of religious and ceremonial events. The days in each period are
numbered from one to 13.
Mayan Civilizations also built a Hydraulics system with sophisticated waterways to supply water
to different communities. Uses various tools and adapts themselves to innovation especially in the field
of arts. They built looms for weaving cloth and devised a rainbow of glittery paints made from the
mineral called Mica. They are also believed to be one of the first people to produce rubber products
3,000 years before Goodyear received its patent in 1844. The first civilization to use writing system
called Mayan Hieroglyphics and are skilled in mathematics. Mayans are considered one of the most
scientifically advanced societies in Mesoamerica.
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 Science, Technology, and Society

Incan Civilization
The Inca Empire was short-lived. They made advanced scientific ideas considering their
limitations as an old civilization. The following were scientific ideas and tools that they developed to
help them in everyday life:

1. Roads paved with stones.

2. Stone buildings surmounted earthquakes and
other disasters.

3. Irrigation system and technique for storing

water for their crops to grow in all types of land.

4. Calendar with 12 months to mark their religious

festivals and prepare their planting season.

5. The first suspension bridge.

6. Quipo - a system of knotted ropes to keep
records that only experts can interpret.

7. Inca textiles since cloth were one of the

especially prized artistic achievements.

Aztec Civilization
Aztec civilization made a substantial contribution to science and technology and to society as a
whole. Some of their contributions are the following:

1. Mandatory Education - The Aztecs put a value on education; that is why their children are
mandated to get an education regardless of their social class, gender, or age. It is an early form of
universal or inclusive education.
2. Chocolates - The Aztecs in Mexico developed chocolate during their time. In the Mayan culture,
they used it as currency. Aztec valued the cacao beans highly and made them as part of their tribute to
their gods.

3. Antispasmodic medication - They used the typed of antispasmodic medication that could prevent
muscle spasms and relax muscles, which could help during surgery.

4. Chinampa - a form of Aztec technology for agricultural

farming in which the land was divided into rectangular areas
and surrounded by canals.
5. Aztec calendar. This enabled them to plan their activities,
rituals, and planting season.

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 Science, Technology, and Society
6. The invention of the canoe. A light narrow boat used for
traveling in water systems.

Development of Science in Asia

Asia is the biggest continent and in the world and the home of many civilizations. It is the host of many
cultural, economic, scientific, and political activities of all ages. In the field of science, technology, and
mathematics, great civilizations have stood out: India, China, and the Middle East civilizations. These
civilizations were incomparable in terms of their contributions to the development of knowledge during
their time.

Development of Science India

Is a huge peninsula surrounded by vast bodies of water and fortified by huge mountains in its northern
borders. Known for manufacturing iron and metallurgical works. Iron steel production in India is
considered to be the best and held with high regard in the whole of the roman empire.

India’s Contribution in Medicine

1. Ayurveda is the -a system of traditional medicine that originated in ancient India before 2500bc.
-still practiced as a form of alternative medicine. They discovered some medicinal properties of
plants to cure various illnesses;

2. Susruta Samhita - describes different surgical and other medical procedures famous in ancient
India.

Ancient India is notable in the field of astronomy

1. Develop theories in configuration

2. Spherical self-supporting earth

3. The year of 360 days with 12 equal parts of 30 days each.

Siddhanta Shiromani - written in the 12th century. it is noted in its 12 chapters of this ancient text
evidences of their interest in astronomy. This ancient text covering topics such as:

(1) Mean longitudes of the planets, (2) Rising and settings,(3)The moon‘s crescent, (4) Conjunctions of
the planets with each other, (5) Conjunction of the planets with the fixed stars, (6) The paths of the sun
and moon.

India is also Known for its Mathematics The earliest knowledge in Indian Subcontinent appeared in the
Indus Valley Civilization. The following are the prof about India‘s contribution in the field of mathematics
according to Clifford (2008) and Bose (1998):

Aryabhata (476-550) -an Indian astronomer and mathematician. In his Aryabhatiya it was introduced a
number of trigonometric functions, tables, and techniques, as well as Algorithms of algebra.

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 Science, Technology, and Society
Brahmagupta (In 628 AD) -another Indian suggested that Gravity was a force of attraction, and lucidly
explained the use of zero as both a placeholder and a decimal digit, along with the Hindu-Arabic
numeral system now used universally throughout the world.

Madhava of Shangamagrama -another Indian considered as the Founder of mathematical analysis.

Development of Science in China

China is one of the ancient civilizations with

substantial contributions in many areas of life.
1. Medicine 5.Arts
2. astronomy 6.Philosophy
3. Science 7.Music
4.Mathematics and among others.
Image Source: pinterest
great+wall+of+china&tbm=isch&ved

Chinese civilizations have greatly influenced many of its neighboring countries such as Korea,
Japan, the Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, Myanmar, and other countries that belong to
the old silk road.

Chinese are known for traditional medicines:

a product of centuries of experiences and discovery of the Chinese people. They discovered various
medical properties and uses of different plants and animals to cure human illness. An example is the
practice of acupuncture.

Chinese are known to develop many tools:

Among the famous discoveries and inventions of
the Chinese civilizations were:

 compass
 paper making
 gunpowder
 printing tools
Which became known in the west only by the end
of the middle ages.

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 Science, Technology, and Society

China also invented tools such as:

1. Iron plow

2. Wheelbarrow

3. Propeller

4. developed a design of different bridges

5. Invented the first seismological detector

6. developed a dry dock facility

Image Sources: China.org

chinas+invention&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwirn
ZGZztPqAhUP5ZQKHSuVAyAQ2-

China's Contribution to Astronomy

Chinese also made vital records on supernovas, lunar and solar eclipses, and comets, which were
carefully recorded and preserved to understand better the heavenly bodies their effects on our world.

 They observed the heavenly bodies to understand weather changes and seasons that may
affect their daily activities.
 The Chinese are also known for seismology. This technology made the Chinese more prepared
in times of natural calamities.
 China made substantial contributions in various fields. The list of their discoveries and
inventions was overwhelming.

Cultural factors prevented these Chinese achievements from developing into modern science.
According to Needham(1986), it may have been the religious and philosophical framework of Chinese
intellectuals that made them unable to accept the ideas of laws of nature.

Science and Technology in the Middle East

The Middle East is dominantly occupied by

Muslims. With the spread of Islam in the 7th and
18th centuries A Period of Muslim scholarship, or
what is called the Golden Age of Islam lasted until
the 13th century.

The common language of Arabic, access to Greek

texts from the Byzantine Empire, Their proximity to
India were contributory to the intellectualizations of
Image Source: The Saudi expat
Maccah&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwjemcr20dPqAh 20
 Science, Technology, and Society

the Muslims and provided their scholar knowledge

to create innovations and developed new ideas.

Contrary to the Greeks, Muslim scientists placed more value on science experiments rather
than Greeks who were more on plain-thought experiments. This led to the development of the scientific
method in the Muslim world and made significant improvements using experiments to distinguish
between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation.

Ibn al-Haytham
Considered the Father of optics for his empirical
proof of the intromission theory of light.

This theory has been replaced by intromission

theory, which states that visual perception comes
from something representative of the object (later
established to be rays of light reflected from it)
entering the eyes.

Muhammad ibn al-khwarizmi

He gave his name to the concept of an algorithm.
While algebra is derived from al-Jaber, the
beginning of the title of one of his publications.
What is now known as the Arabic numeral system
originally came from India. Still, Muslim
mathematicians made several refinements to the
number system, such as decimal point notation.

Jabir ibn Hayyan

Muslim chemists and alchemists also played an
important role in the foundation of modern
chemistry.
Some scholars considered Jabir ibn Hayyan to be
the ―Father of Chemistry.‖

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 Science, Technology, and Society

Ibn Sina
- Pioneered the science of experimental medicine
and was the first physician to conduct clinical
trials.
Made two most notable works in medicine: Book
of Healing and The Canon of medicine

Discovery of the contagious nature of infectious

diseases and the introduction of clinical
pharmacology.

The decline of the Golden Age

The decline of this golden age of Islam started in the 11th and 13th centuries due to the conquest of
Mongols whereby libraries, observatories, and other learning institutions were destroyed.

Development of Science in Africa

The development of geometry was a product of necessity to preserve the layout and ownership of

Africa is blessed with natural and mineral

resources. Science also emerged in this part of the
planet long before the Europeans colonized it. The
History of science and mathematics shows that
similar to other ancient civilizations, the early
civilizations in Africa are knowledge producers too.

The Ancient Egyptian civilization has contributed

immensely and made significant advances in the
Image Source: CNN.com
field of astronomy, science, mathematics, and
africa+landmarks&sxsrf=ALeKk035Pvo0 g7aiI
medicine. GGL9ypyX9Y_1CrsKw
farmlands of the Egyptians living along the Nile River. The rules of geometry were developed and used
to build rectilinear structures, the post-lintel architecture of Egypt. These early science activities in
Egypt were developed to improve the quality of life of the Egyptians especially in building their homes
and cities. The great structures of the Egyptian pyramids and the early damns built to divert water from
the Nile River are some proof of their advanced civilization.
Egypt was known to be the center of alchemy. which is also known as the medieval forerunner
of chemistry. They tried to study human anatomy and pharmacology and applied important components
such as examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis for the treatment of diseases. These
components displayed strong parallels to the basic empirical method of studying science.

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 Science, Technology, and Society
Astronomy was also famous in the African region. African use three types of calendars: lunar,
solar, and stellar, or a combination of three.

Metallurgy was also known in the African regions during ancient times. North Africa and the Nile
valley imported iron technology from the Near East region that enabled them to benefit from the
developments during the bronze Age until the Iron Age. They invented metal tools used in their homes,
in agriculture, and in building their magnificent architectures.
Mathematics was also known to be prominent in the life of the early people in the African
continent. The Lebombo Bone from the mountains between Swaziland and South Africa, which may
have been a tool for multiplication, division, and simple mathematical calculations or a six-month lunar
calendar, is considered to be the oldest known artifact dated from 35,000 BCE.
They have knowledge of the basic concepts of algebra and geometry. The Islamic regions in
Africa during the medieval period were also benefiting from mathematical learning, which is considered
advanced during those times, such as algebra, geometry, and trigonometry.

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Work Sheets

Name: Date :

Course & Section:

No Answer (no pt.) Needs Improvement Adequate (10 pt.) Quality (12 pt.) Exemplary(15 pt)
(8 pts)
Did not answer the Answers are partial Answers are not Answers are Answers are
question. or incomplete. Key comprehensive or accurate and comprehensive,
points are not clear. completely stated. complete. Key accurate, and
Question not Key points are points are stated complete. Key ideas
adequately addressed, but not and supported. are clearly stated,
answered. well supported. explained, and well
supported.
Activity 1.2a Essay (15 points)
1. Explain how the ideas postulated by Copernicus, Darwin, and Freud contributed to the spark of
the scientific revolution.

Activity 1.2b Enumeration (15 points)

Direction: Enumerate at least 3 developments of science in Mesoamerica, Asia, the Middle East, and
African.
Mesoamerica (3 pts.) Asian (India and Middle East (3 pts.) African (3 pts.)
China) (6 pts.)

India

China

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 Science, Technology, and Society

Work Sheets

Name: Date :

Course & Section:

No Answer (no pt.) Needs Improvement Adequate (6 pt.) Quality (8 pt.) Exemplary(10 pt)
(4 pts)
Did not answer the Answers are partial Answers are not Answers are Answers are
question. or incomplete. Key comprehensive or accurate and comprehensive,
points are not clear. completely stated. complete. Key accurate, and
Question not Key points are points are stated complete. Key ideas
adequately addressed, but not and supported. are clearly stated,
answered. well supported. explained, and well
supported.
Independent Learning 1.2: (10 points)

1. Make research and discuss ways by which society is transformed by science and technology.

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