Contourite Depositional System After The Exit of A Strait 2021

Sedimentology (2021) 68, 2996–3032 doi: 10.1111/sed.
12882
Contourite depositional system after the exit of a strait: Case

study from the late Miocene South Rifian Corridor, Morocco
DEZ-MOLINA*,
W O U T E R D E W E G E R * , F R A N C I S C O J A V I E R H E R N AN
OLMO MIGUEZ-SALAS†, SANDRA DE CASTRO* , MIGUEL BRUNO‡,
DOMENICO CHIARELLA* , FRANCISCO JAVIER SIERRO§,
G R A H A M B L A C K B O U R N ¶ and M O H A M E D A M I N E M A N A R * *
*Department of Earth Sciences, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham, Surrey, TW20 0EX, UK
(E-mail: [email protected])
†Departamento de Estratigrafıa y Paleontologıa, Universidad de Granada, Avd. Fuentenueva s/n,
Granada, 18002, Spain
‡CACYTMAR, Universidad de C adiz, Campus de Puerto Real S/N, Puerto Real, C
adiz, 11510, Spain
§Departamento de Geologıa, Universidad de Salamanca, Plaza de los Caıdos, Salamanca, 37008,
Spain
¶Blackbourn Geoconsulting, 26 East Pier Street, West Lothian, Bo’ness, EH51 9AB, UK
**Office National des Hydrocarbures et de Mines (ONHYM), 34, Avenue Al Fadila, Rabat, BP 99,
Morocco
Associate Editor – Christian Betzler
ABSTRACT
Idealized facies of bottom current deposits (contourites) have been established
for fine-grained contourite drifts in modern deep-marine sedimentary environ-
ments. Their equivalent facies in the ancient record however are only scarcely
recognized due to the weathered nature of most fine-grained deposits in out-
crop. Facies related to the erosional elements (i.e. contourite channels) of con-
tourite depositional systems have not yet been properly established and
related deposits in outcrop appear non-existent. To better understand the sedi-
mentary facies and facies sequences of contourites, the upper Miocene con-
tourite depositional systems of the South Rifian Corridor (Morocco) is
investigated. This contourite depositional system formed by the dense palaeo-
Mediterranean Outflow Water. Foraminifera assemblages were used for age-
constraints (7.51 to 7.35 Ma) and to determine the continental slope deposi-
tional domains. Nine sedimentary facies have been recognized based on lithol-
ogy, grain-size, sedimentary structures and biogenic structures. These facies
were subsequently grouped into five facies associations related to the main
interpreted depositional processes (hemipelagic settling, contour currents and
gravity flows). The vertical sedimentary facies succession records the tectoni-
cally induced, southward migration of the contourite depositional systems
and the intermittent behaviour of the palaeo-Mediterranean Outflow Water,
which is mainly driven by precession and millennial-scale climate variations.
Tides substantially modulated the palaeo-Mediterranean Outflow Water on a
sub-annual scale. This work shows exceptional examples of muddy and sandy
contourite deposits in outcrop by which a facies distribution model from the
proximal continental slope, the contourite channel to its adjacent contourite
drift, is proposed. This model serves as a reference for contourite recognition
both in modern environments and the ancient record. Furthermore, by estab-
lishing the hydrodynamics of overflow behaviour a framework is provided that
improves process-based interpretation of deep-water bottom current deposits.
2996 © 2021 The Authors. Sedimentology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of
International Association of Sedimentologists
This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial License, which permits use,
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Tidal modulated laterally migrating contourite depositional system 2997
Keywords Bottom currents, channels, contourites, deep-water sedimenta-

tion, Late Miocene, Morocco, Rifian corridors, tides.
INTRODUCTION by the action of bottom currents. These sandier

sediments are mainly found within contourite
Over the last decade there has been a significant erosional elements, such as, channels (Hern an-
increase in published evidence of deep-marine dez-Molina et al., 2014a,b; Capella et al., 2017a;
bottom current processes and associated deposits, Brackenridge et al., 2018; de Weger et al., 2020),
contourites. Most of these works however are contourite terraces (Viana et al., 1998; Hern an-
based on two-dimensional and three-dimensional dez-Molina et al., 2009, 2016a,b, 2018; Mutti
seismic profiles (Faug eres et al., 1999; Paulat et al., 2014; de Castro et al., 2021b) or in mixed
et al., 2019), some from wells and cores (Gonthier turbidite and contourite depositional systems
et al., 1984; de Castro et al., 2020, 2021a; Hovi- (Rebesco et al., 2002; Creaser et al., 2017; San-
koski et al., 2020), but there is still very little som, 2018; Fonnesu et al., 2020; Fuhrmann et al.,
information from the exposed ancient record. 2020; Rodrigues et al., 2021).
Sedimentation in deep-marine environments The natural evolution of a CDS comprises the
is predominantly controlled by pelagic, gravita- lateral migration of both depositional and ero-
tional and contouritic processes, or their mixed sional elements. This implies that, for example,
occurrence (Fonnesu et al., 2020; Shanmugam, drifts develop on top of channels (Chen et al.,
2020; Stow & Smillie, 2020). When bottom cur- 2020) or channels erode into drifts (Llave et al.,
rents represent the dominant depositional pro- 2001; Hernandez-Molina et al., 2008, 2014b;
cess, a contourite depositional system (CDS) Chen et al., 2020). This migration has been iden-
develops (Hern andez-Molina et al., 2008). Cur- tified using seismic data, but the sedimentary
rently, there is no widely accepted model for facies and facies sequences related to these
such systems, but they are generally composed migrating environments are currently not estab-
of a combination of depositional (related to low lished. This is a partial consequence of the lack
current velocities) and erosional (related to high of recognized CDS in outcrop which show lat-
current velocities) elements. Both elements eral and vertical facies variability.
result from the hydrodynamic behaviour of Contourite outcrops, as mentioned earlier,
water masses that reach and interact with the have however only been scarcely recognized.
seafloor and are conditioned by bathymetry This likely results from the lack of distinct diag-
(Hern andez-Molina et al., 2006). nostic contourite features, hindering the scien-
As a result of the differentiation between areas tific community to identify these deposits in
prone to low current and high current velocities, outcrop (H€ uneke & Stow, 2008; Rebesco et al.,
contourite deposits are generally divided into 2014; Shanmugam, 2017). Furthermore, the
muddy contourites (fine-grained) or sandy con- problematic identification of muddy contourites
tourites (coarse-grained) (Stow & Faug eres, 2008). in outcrop, for which most diagnostic criteria
Most of the evidence used to identify contourites (the bi-gradational model and morphological fea-
is based on the large morphological features of tures) exists, results from their relatively homo-
depositional elements (Faug eres et al., 1999; geneous and severely bioturbated nature
Hern andez-Molina et al., 2008), particularly on (Gonthier et al., 1984), but also because most
the large depositional contourite drifts, with less fine-grained outcrops are usually severely
attention on the possible erosional contourite ele- weathered. The recognition of sandy contourites,
ments. Accordingly, the only generally accepted for which no true diagnostic criteria exist, is
contourite facies model is the bi-gradational mainly hindered by the process-based interpre-
model (Faug eres et al., 1984; Gonthier et al., tation of deep-marine sediments. There is a gen-
1984; Stow & Faug eres, 2008) defined for fine- eral idea that sandy deposits only enter the
grained contourite drifts. Therefore, it is often deep-marine realm by gravitational processes,
wrongly assumed that bottom currents only gen- and it is regularly wrongly assumed that deep-
erate muddy contourite deposits, disregarding marine bottom currents are only related to ther-
the fact that some authors highlighted the occur- mohaline circulation, not reaching current
rence of sandier sediments deposited or reworked velocities capable of reworking, transporting and
© 2021 The Authors. Sedimentology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of
International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 68, 2996–3032
2998 W. de Weger et al.
depositing sandy sediment. The poorly under- central portion of the Taza Strait was character-
stood hydrodynamic properties of deep-marine ized by a sill (the Taza Sill) (Flecker et al., 2015;
water masses that reach and interact with the Capella et al., 2017a; de Weger et al., 2020),
seafloor stand in the way of such process-based which formed a submerged topographic high
interpretation of bottom current deposits. related to the east–west oriented thrust-front
This paper investigates the sedimentary record overlying the north-east/south-west oriented
of a well-exposed late Miocene CDS in the Saiss Middle Atlas. The Taza Strait separated the
Basin, associated with the South Rifian Corridor Taza–Guercif and the Saiss basins and the Taza
of Morocco (Fig. 1). The main objectives of this Sill controlled the water mass exchange between
study are to: (i) determine the geometries, sedi- the Mediterranean and the Atlantic during the
mentary facies and facies sequences related to the late Miocene (Capella et al., 2017a; de Weger
lateral migration of the CDS; (ii) interpret its evo- et al., 2020). The westernmost part of the Rifian
lution; (iii) investigate the dynamics of overflow corridors was in the Gharb Basin where both the
behaviour in a confined basin; and (iv) provide Rifian Intramontane and Saiss basins merged
the much-needed clarification on the role of bot- (Sani et al., 2007). The Gharb Basin was located
tom currents to improve process-based interpreta- just west of the Prerifian Ridges (Figs 1A and 2)
tion for deep-marine contourites. The results which form the arcuate shaped southernmost
presented herein will thus also serve as a refer- leading edge of the Rif Chain.
ence for the recognition of contourite deposits. The development of the Prerifian Ridges mainly
took place during two phases (Roldan et al., 2014).
The initial development occurred during the mid-
STUDY AREA AND GEOLOGICAL dle to late Miocene, accompanied by the south-
SETTING westward gravitational emplacement of the accre-
tionary wedge (Capella et al., 2017b). The second
The studied sections are exposed in the Saiss phase of compressional deformation happened
Basin in northern Morocco (Fig. 1). This basin is during the late Tortonian to early Messinian dur-
part of the external zone of the Rif-Betic Arc, or ing which the Prerifian Ridges were formed. These
Gibraltar Arc which forms an arc-shaped oro- ridges represented a tectonically uplifting, likely
genic belt surrounding the Alboran Sea in the subaqueous relief on the northern margin of the
westernmost Mediterranean region. South Rifian Corridor during the Tortonian
The Betic and Rifian corridors were late Mio- (Roldan et al., 2014; de Weger et al., 2020).
cene marine gateways that allowed Mediter-
ranean–Atlantic water exchange (Fig. 1). The
Lithostratigraphy of the Saiss Basin
Rifian corridors evolved during the latest stage of
Africa–Iberia collision in the late Tortonian (ca The middle Miocene–late Pliocene Saiss Basin
8 Ma) as south-westward migrating foreland fill stratigraphy (Fig. 3) overlies a major angular
basins (Feinberg, 1986; Wernli, 1988; Sani et al., unconformity. The basal foredeep sediments are
2007). These foreland basins were limited north- mainly divided into two formations: (i) the
ward by the earlier exhumed Rif orogenic wedge Benni Ammar White Marl Formation, which
(Iribarren et al., 2009) and southward by the pre-dates the emplacement of the accretionary
Atlas Mountains (Barbero et al., 2011). The corri- wedge (Fig. 3); and (ii) the Blue Marl Formation,
dor is generally divided into two strands mainly post-dating its emplacement. Within the
(Fig. 1A); the North Rifian Corridor (NRC) related Blue Marl Formation up to 120 m thick sands
to the Rifian Intramontane basins, and the South were locally deposited (Capella et al., 2017a; de
Rifian Corridor (SRC) related to the Taza-Guercif Weger et al., 2020). The accretionary wedge,
and Saiss basins (Wernli, 1988). Both strands consisting of Triassic to late Miocene tectono-
were separated by the chaotic complex of the stratigraphic units, developed in the study area
accretionary wedge (Fig. 2), the emplacement of during the late Tortonian to Messinian (Sani
which over the African foreland started during et al., 2007) coinciding with the onset of Rifian
the early Tortonian (Feinberg, 1986; Flinch, Corridor sedimentation that started around 8 Ma
1993; Chalouan & Michard, 2004; Michard et al., (Wernli, 1988; Krijgsman et al., 1999; Gelati
2008). Since the accretionary wedge is locally et al., 2000; Hilgen et al., 2000; Barhoun & Taou-
overlain by Upper Miocene marine sediments, fio, 2008; Achalhi et al., 2016). On top of the
the Rifian corridors were at times a single wide Tortonian Blue Marls, mainly limited to the
gateway westward of the Taza Strait (Fig. 1). The south Saiss Basin but also locally along the
Fig. 1. (A) Satellite terrain image of the westernmost Mediterranean region, southern Spain and north-west
Africa. The globe on the right-hand corner shows the location of the study area and depicts the thermohaline cir-
culation pattern (red – shallow; blue – deep), the orange arrow indicates the pathway of the Mediterranean Out-
flow Water (MOW). In transparent blue a late Miocene palaeogeographic overlay of the Betic and Rifian corridors,
NRC = North Rifian Corridor and SRC = South Rifian Corridor, after de Weger et al. (2020). The location of the
main geological features, such as the Gharb, Saiss and Taza–Guercif basins, the Prerifian Ridges and the Taza
Strait are indicated. (B) Satellite image showing the location of the study areas. The abbreviations stand for the
section names; FN = Fes-north and EA = El Adergha. (C) Late Miocene reconstruction through the SRC, cross-
section A–A’, of which the location is indicated in (A). The SRC accommodated Atlantic–Mediterranean exchange
of surficial Atlantic and Mediterranean Deep Water.
northern margin of the Saiss basin, early Messi- the external Betic and Rif fold–thrust belts lar-
nian to middle Pliocene shelfal and nearshore gely came to a halt in the late Tortonian (van
marine marls and sandstones are deposited Hinsbergen et al., 2014), tectonic uplift first took
(Capella et al., 2018). These shallow-marine over in the Betic at ca 7.8 Ma (Betzler et al.,
deposits are in turn locally truncated by an ero- 2006; Krijgsman et al., 2006) and slightly later,
sional unconformity and overlain by lacustrine by ca 7 Ma, in the Rif orogeny (Capella et al.,
limestones (Taltasse, 1953; Capella et al., 2018). 2017b; Tulbure et al., 2017). All the Betic –
Atlantic – Mediterranean connections were
closed due to Africa–Iberia convergence by the
PALAEOCEANOGRAPHIC SETTING early Messinian (Spakman et al., 2018). By ca
7.2 Ma the North Rifian Corridor was closed
During the late Miocene, an Atlantic – Mediter- (Tulbure et al., 2017) but the South Rifian Corri-
ranean connection existed through the Betic dor was still open during the earliest Messinian
Corridor in southern Spain and the Rifian corri- recording a transition to continental and lacus-
dors in northern Morocco (Fig. 1A). After sub- trine deposits by ca 6.9 Ma (Capella et al.,
duction of the accretionary wedge, as well as of 2017a). Since there is no evidence of a
Fig. 2. Regional geological map of the study area including the locations of the studied Upper Miocene outcrops;
El Adergha (EA), Fes-north (FN) and Ain Kansera (EA) (modified after Saadi et al., 1980). Carb. Fact = carbonate
factory, L = late, M = middle and E = early. Satellite images are derived from Google Earth©.
Fig. 3. Middle Miocene to late

Pliocene lithostratigraphy of the
Saiss Basin. The intercalated
sandstone bodies in the late
Tortonian to Messinian Blue Marl
Formation belong to the sections
studied herein.
Mediterranean–Atlantic gateway through the whereas the South Rifian Corridor maintained
Betic and Rifian corridors during the Messinian, Atlantic–Mediterranean water exchange similar
the Gibraltar Corridor arguably became the sole to what is currently occurring in the Strait of
Atlantic gateway during this period (Krijgsman Gibraltar (de Weger et al., 2020). The South
et al., 2018). Between ca 5.97 Ma, the time of Rifian Corridor likely accommodated inflow of
the onset of the Mediterranean Salinity Crisis the North Atlantic Surficial Water (NASW) and
(Hs€u et al., 1973; Ryan & Hs€ u, 1973), and ca the Eastern North Atlantic Central Water
5.6 Ma, the Gibraltar Corridor accommodated a (ENACW) into the Mediterranean, overriding a
two-way connection (Simon & Meijer, 2017) warm and highly saline water mass associated
after which it only facilitated Mediterranean with the palaeo-Mediterranean Outflow Water
inflow until ca 5.33 Ma (Krijgsman et al., 2018). (MOW). The water mass of the palaeo-MOW
After the closure of all but one of the Betic was formed due to net evaporation and cooling
corridors in the late Miocene, the North Rifian in the eastern Mediterranean (Fig. 1B). This net
Corridor maintained the inflow of Atlantic water evaporation and cooling increased the density of
in the Mediterranean (Tulbure et al., 2017) Mediterranean surface water (Straume et al.,
2020) which was ‘continuously’ replenished by of trace fossils were characterized to describe
cold and less saline Atlantic water. Subse- stratigraphic trends throughout the sections. Ich-
quently, this increase in density forced this nological observations focused on orientation,
water to sink and ventilate the water column, a shape, length and diameter of individual burrow
process known as intermediate and deep-water segments, configuration of burrow systems and
formation (Millot, 1999; Candela, 2001). The for- taphonomy, allowing for ichnotaxonomical
mation of Mediterranean Deep Water (MDW) assignation.
(and thus the formation of water masses related Seven samples for petrographic analysis
to the palaeo-MOW) resulted in a significant (Table S1; Figs S1 and S2) were derived from
density gradient, or water mass stratification, indurated sand beds. Two sets of thin sections
between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic. were prepared for each sample, one of which
This density gradient drove water mass was impregnated with dyed resin to highlight
exchange by two-way flow (Rohling et al., 2015; porosity. The samples were examined under a
Simon et al., 2017). During the late Miocene a Nikon Optiphot-pol petrographic microscope
dense palaeo-MOW flowed over the Taza Sill (Nikon, Tokyo, Japan) with integral Canon EOS-
through the Taza Strait (Fig. 1) downward into 50D camera system (Canon Inc., Tokyo, Japan).
and through the South Rifian Corridor towards Modal analysis was carried out on three samples
the Atlantic (de Weger et al., 2020). (EA3, FN1 and EA5) by determining the compo-
sition at 300 points using a stepping stage and
associated PETROGTM software (Table S1).
METHODOLOGY Eight samples for biostratigraphy, derived
from marls that were more than 50 cm below
Two well-exposed late Miocene outcrops, El the rock’s exposed surface, were analyzed. Three
Adergha and Fes-north (Figs 1, 2, 4A and 4B), samples for the El Adergha section were com-
from the South Rifian Corridor are described in pared to what has been published by Capella
detail in this paper to unravel the facies succes- et al. (2017a) to integrate their results. Five new
sions and their vertical and lateral changes. The samples from the Fes-north section were com-
El Adergha section has previously partly been pared to the biostratigraphic framework pub-
described by Capella et al. (2017a) and their lished in Capella et al. (2017a) and Tulbure
results have been taken into consideration. The et al. (2017) to date these samples based on
El Adergha section has been however re- quantitative changes in abundance of keeled and
interpreted and has been put into a new palaeo- unkeeled Globorotalids.
geographic framework based on the results of The palaeowater-depth was inferred from the
this study. A third section, Ain Kansera (Fig. 2), benthic foraminifera assemblages of the
previously studied by Capella et al. (2017a), has biostratigraphic samples. The specific assem-
also been reviewed and considered for discus- blages and relative abundance of benthic species
sion. Because present observations and interpre- were associated with depth ranges identified in
tations do not significantly divert from those the existing literature (Perez-Asensio et al.,
made previously, the Ain Kansera section is not 2012). The mixed occurrence of shallow-water
described in detail in this work. and deep-water species is considered the result
The sedimentary successions were studied by of downslope transport and, hence, the deeper-
standard field techniques which include bed- water species are deemed most reliable in depo-
scale characterization of sedimentological and sitional depth estimates.
stratigraphic elements. Two stratigraphic sec-
tions were measured at centimetre to metre-
scale to document the key features such as RESULTS
lithology, grain-size and sorting, sedimentary
structures, bedding thickness, nature of bed con-
Studied sections
tacts and palaeocurrent indicators. These fea-
tures form the basis for the facies analysis. The sections, El Adergha and Fes-north, com-
Sixty-four palaeoflow indicators (cross- prise sandstone-rich intervals intercalated within
stratification, ripple lamination and sole marks) the Blue Marl Formation (Figs 4 and 5). The sec-
were recorded across both outcrops. tions are located 9.6 km apart (Figs 2 and 5). The
A bed-by-bed ichnological analysis was con- El Adergha outcrop (34.076402 4.860522) is
ducted. The distribution, types and abundance located on the northern flank of the Saiss Basin
Fig. 4. Panoramic view of the El Adergha (A) and Fes-north (B) outcrops. These pictures highlight the general
exposed geometries and the scale of the outcrops. Due to the location of the Fes-north section being far away from
the nearest vantage point no better pictures are currently available.
(Figs 1 and 2B), 10 km ENE of the city of Fes and (Fig. 4B). The present-day shape of this outcrop
7.5 km south-east of the westernmost expression is due to the soil and vegetation cover and does
of the Prerifian Ridges Jbel Zalagh. The section not represent the primary lithosome profile of
forms a topographic high with an up to 15 m the outcrop in cross-sectional view. The sand-
thick sandstone body at its peak (Fig. 4A). Below stone ridge overlies a succession of marlstone
the sandstone an up to 1000 m thick fine-grained pertaining to the Blue Marl Formation.
succession related to the Blue Marl Formation
occurs. The south-western flank is steeply
Age and depositional domain
inclined to near vertical whereas the north-
eastern flank shows a much shallower inclina- The studied outcrops show a range of facies
tion. The upper sandy part of the outcrop forms a related to different depositional environments,
gently sloping concave geometry which measures as such, the age and depositional domain esti-
roughly 330 m (west–east) by 100 m (north– mates will be treated individually for each sec-
south) in a horizontal plane (Fig. 4A). tion. The biostratigraphic results from the El
The Fes-north section (34.076337 4.964840) Adergha section indicate a depositional period
is located north of the city of Fes, 3 km south of between 7.51 Ma and 7.25 Ma for the uppermost
Jbel Zalagh and ca 7 km west of the El Adergha 100 m of the section (Fig. 5). The sand-rich
section (Figs 2B and 4B). The Fes-north section interval at the top, consisting of the uppermost
forms a north-east/south-west striking topo- 28 m (Figs 5 and 6) has been dated between
graphic sandy ridge that is well-exposed for 7.35 Ma and 7.25 Ma based on the common
roughly 100 m horizontally and 7 m vertically occurrence of Globorotalia menardii 5. This
miotumida at 7.25 Ma (Sierro, 1985; Sierro

et al., 1993, 2001; Hilgen et al., 2000; Capella
et al., 2017a). Benthic foraminifer assemblages
indicate a depositional domain in the slope for
the blue marl package (250 to 400 m water
depth) and an upper slope depositional domain
(300 to 140 m water depth) for the sand pack-
age. These results are supported by the findings
of Capella et al. (2017a).
Most of the collected samples in the Fes-north
section contain abundant planktonic foramini-
fera. In general, keeled globorotalid forms are
scarce, but Globorotalia menardii 5 is common in
some samples and Globorotalia menardii 4 is usu-
ally rarer. Based on this, this section is dated as
being between the last common occurrence of
Globorotalia menardii 4 at 7.51 Ma and the
replacement of Globorotalia menardii by Globoro-
talia miotumida at 7.25 Ma (Sierro, 1985; Sierro
et al., 1993, 2001; Hilgen et al., 2000; Capella
et al., 2017a; Tulbure et al., 2017). The continu-
ous presence of dominant sinistral specimen of
Globorotalia scitula, including Globorotalia
suterae led to a determination of an age older
than 7.28 Ma, which is the age at which coiling
in this group changed from sinistral to dextral
(Sierro et al., 1993). The benthic foraminifer
assemblages indicate a depositional domain in
the slope with abundant deeper water taxa such
as Lagena, Syphonina, Gyroidina, Melonis, etc.,
mixed with shallow water benthic species such
as Elphidium, Ammonia, Nonion, Lobatula, etc.
The percentage of planktonic foraminifera rela-
tive to benthic foraminifera is on average higher
than 60%. Some samples contain reworked speci-
mens from the Eocene to middle Miocene.
Palaeogeographic reconstruction based on

obtained ages and depositional domains
de Weger et al. (2020) recently described a con-
Fig. 5. Sedimentary logs for the Ain Kansera (modified
after Capella et al., 2017a), Fes-north and El Adergha tourite channel system and the intermittent
sections. Their location is provided in Fig. 2, and their behaviour of palaeo-Mediterranean Outflow
relative distance, and distance to the Prerifian Ridges is Water (palaeo-MOW). The system described
indicated. Palaeocurrents are divided in two major therein is located north of the Prerifian Ridges,
components, along-slope Pc 1 (red) and down-slope Pc compared to the outcrops described here (Figs 1
2 (green). The main sedimentary features are indicated and 2). Furthermore, the deposits on which their
next to the log. HCS = hummocky cross-stratification,
interpretation is based are dated between 7.8 Ma
CS = cross-stratification, BG = bi-gradational and TD =
turbidite (see text for interpretation). and 7.51 Ma and are thus older than the depos-
its described in this study (7.51 to 7.25 Ma).
Although attributed to a different stratigraphic
interval, they are thought to have likely been
species appears frequently between its first com- formed by similar deep-marine processes con-
mon occurrence at 7.35 Ma and the replacement trolled by the overflow of the late Miocene
of Globorotalia menardii by Globorotalia palaeo-MOW.
Fig. 6. Palaeogeographic
reconstruction of the late Miocene
South Rifian Corridor (7.51 to
7.25 Ma). The Prerifian Ridges
(grey) might still have been
submerged at this time. Red dots
indicate sections studied herein.
Yellow dots indicate sections
previously studied, publications of
these sections studied previously
are denoted by superscript numbers
(1Tulbure et al., 2017, 2de Weger
et al., 2020, 3Capella et al., 2018).
Green squares indicate the relative
location of major cities in the area.
The geographical offset between the con- and the depositional domain obtained from ben-
tourite depositional system north of the Preri- thic foraminifer assemblages, the Prerifian
fian Ridges (de Weger et al., 2020) and the El Ridges most likely formed a north–south ori-
Adergha and Fes-north sections (Figs 1 and 2) ented slope on the northern margin of the South
has been related to the tectonic emplacement of Rifian Corridor (Fig. 6). The southern boundary
these ridges. As described by Rold an et al. of the South Rifian Corridor was located near
(2014), the Prerifian Ridges evolved since the the city of Sefrou (Capella et al., 2018), roughly
late Miocene to the present. The northern chan- 30 km south of the Ain Kansera section, indicat-
nels were located on the frontal part of the ing that between 7.51 Ma and 7.25 Ma the corri-
accretionary wedge and recorded sedimentation dor was approximately 30 km wide. The Taza
until 7.51 Ma; however, once the Prerifian Sill was located 90 km eastward of the studied
Ridges became more prominent during the late sections and the westernmost expression of the
Tortonian, around 7.51 Ma, the main palaeo- Prerifian Ridges is located roughly 85 km
MOW pathway was forced south of these ridges towards the west. This implies that the steeply
(Fig. 5), abandoning the northern channels. Fur- flanked South Rifian corridor measured roughly
ther evidence for these changes is found in the 30 km in width and 175 km in length, westward
Ain Kansera section described by Capella et al. of Taza Strait (Fig. 6).
(2017a). The Ain Kansera section, dated
between 7.51 Ma and 7.35 Ma, consists of
Sedimentary facies
shallow-marine infralittoral deposits, and is
located near the easternmost physical expres- Nine different sedimentary facies (F1 to F9) and
sion of the Prerifian Ridges, closer compared to associated trace fossils have been distinguished
the El Adergha and Fes-north sections (Fig. 5). in the two studied sections (Table 1; Figs 7 to
The Ain Kansera section has previously been 9). The sedimentary facies include: (i) F1 –
interpreted as a north-eastward prograding lin- fossil-rich blue marlstone; (ii) F2 – sandy marl-
ear clastic coast with depositional water-depths stone; (iii) F3 – bi-gradational sandstone; (iv) F4
ranging between 15 m and 100 m (Capella – heterolithic mudstone and sandstone; (v) F5 –
et al., 2017a). heterolithic, cross-stratified and rippled sand-
Based on the palaeogeographic reconstruction stone; (vi) F6 – cross-stratified sandstone; (vii)
performed by Capella et al. (2017a), the thick- F7 – sigmoidal, mud-draped sandstone; (viii) F8
ness of underlying deposits for each section to – amalgamated, normal graded mudstone and
the nearest expression of the orogenic/accre- sandstone; and (ix) F9 – deformed, heterolithic
tionary wedge and the African margin (Fig. 5), mudstone and sandstone.
Facies F1 – Fossil-rich blue marlstone more blueish-grey in colour. The coarser and
Description more light-brownish grey intervals are regularly
Facies F1 consists of blueish marls, the sedi- banded or laminated. Starved ripples of fine-
ments after which the Blue Marl Formation is grained sand are scarce. Changes in grain-size
named (Table 1; Fig. 7A to E). The intervals distribution are generally gradational, but sharp
containing these dominantly structureless, basal contacts have been observed between
fossil-rich marlstones (containing bivalves up to muddy and more sandy deposits. Laminae with
a centimetre in size) range in thickness from sharp basal bounding surfaces and ripples coin-
decimetres to hundreds of metres forming a con- cide with an increased abundance of fine-
tinuous succession. Despite being dominantly grained, imbricated shell fragments (Fig. 7I)
blueish in colour, modest gradational changes indicating palaeo-flow directions towards the
ranging on average from 0.5 to 2.0 m in thick- west. The muddier intervals regularly contain
ness from dark blueish-grey to more brownish- well-preserved bivalves up to 1.5 cm in diame-
grey are common. This colour change results ter. The trace fossil assemblage consists of abun-
from slight increases in the biogenic and silici- dant undifferentiated structures and scarce
clastic fraction consisting of up to fine-grained Planolites-like and Thalassinoides-like traces
and very fine-grained sand, respectively. F1 only (Fig. 9A and C).
shows scarce discrete trace fossils.
Interpretation
Interpretation Facies F2 represents a sand-enriched equivalent
The late Miocene blue marls of F1, are widely of facies F1, reflecting deposition under higher-
recognized in northern Morocco and other parts energy conditions and/or a change in sediment
of the Mediterranean region where they are gen- supply. This facies generally lacks sharp bound-
erally associated with open deep-marine condi- ing surfaces and traction structures, although
tions (DiGeronimo et al., 1981; Bernini et al., the presence of the occasional bioclast enriched
1992; Krijgsman et al., 1999; Mansour & Saint- laminae may represent the remnants of traction
Martin, 1999; Barbieri & Ori, 2000; Gelati et al., carpets. Furthermore, the occasionally observed
2000; van Assen et al., 2006; Capella et al., sharp lower bounding surfaces and sand lenses,
2017a). F1 represents a low energy depositional which are likely remnants of starved ripples,
environment where sedimentation is dominated rule out a pure hemipelagic origin.
by the vertical settling and lateral advection of Since sedimentary structures and other fea-
both fine-grained biogenic and terrigenous parti- tures related to turbiditic processes are lacking,
cles through the water column, or hemipelagic it is likely that the change in sediment supply
sedimentation (Hesse, 1975; Stow & Piper, 1984; primarily resulted from hemipelagic settling of a
O’Brien et al., 1991; Einsele, 2000). turbidite suspension cloud also known as a
The common increases in silt and sand con- hemiturbidite (Stow & Wetzel, 1990). However,
tent suggest fluctuations in carbonate productiv- the gradual (consecutive inverse and normal-
ity, terrigenous sediment supply and/or in the graded) trends in grain-size distribution might
hydrodynamic regime. These alterations in silt reflect the presence of – and subtle changes in –
and sand content might reflect the presence of bottom current velocities (Gonthier et al., 1984;
low-density turbidity currents (Lowe, 1982), in H€uneke et al., 2021).
which case they reflect Bouma divisions Td and If hemiturbiditic processes were active, bottom
Te (Bouma, 1962), diluted gravity flows and/or currents, induced by the palaeo-MOW, likely
the activity of weak bottom currents (Stow & deflected the turbidite suspension cloud down-
Faug eres, 2008; Rebesco et al., 2014; Stow & current, changing the orientation from down-
Smillie, 2020). slope to along-slope. This deflection might be
inferred from occasionally occurring imbrication
Facies F2 – Sandy marlstone patterns of shells and subtle ripple laminae. Fur-
Description thermore, bottom currents might have been able
Facies F2 consists of fossil-rich sandy marlstone to winnow and rework the sediment, preventing
and very fine-grained muddy sandstone the settling of the finest particles in the coarsest
(Table 1; Fig. 7C, H and I). This facies occurs intervals of facies F2. Winnowing and reworking
over intervals with thicknesses ranging from can also be used to explain the occasional sharp
centimetres to tens of metres. The texture is bounding surfaces that are regularly interpreted
homogeneous for the finest intervals that are to result from peak current velocities in most
3006
Table 1. Sedimentary facies table (F1 to F9) showing the main sedimentological and ichnological characteristics and features of the studied deposits in th-
e El Adergha (EA) and Fes-north (FN) outcrops.
Sedimentary
Facies Lithology Grading Thickness structures Accessories Ichnology
F1 Fossil-rich None or subtle Cm-scale to Structureless with – Scarce discrete trace

W. de Weger et al.
Fossil-rich blue marlstone normal and 100s of m- occasional laminae of fossils

marlstone occasionally inverse grading scale up to very fine-grained
enriched in silt to sand and shell debris
very fine-grained
sand
F2 Fossil-rich sandy None, normal Dm-scale to Structureless, – Abundant
Sandy marlstone marlstone to marly, and inverse 10s of m-scale occasional bioclast undifferentiated trace
fine-grained grading, or enriched traction fossil and scarce
sandstone normal grading carpets and remnants Planolites-like and
with sharp basal of starved, fine- Thalassinoides-like
surface grained sandy ripples
F3 Up to medium- Successive Up to dm- Planar parallel – EA: scarce discrete trace
Bi-gradational grained mixed inverse and scale laminated to fully fossils to abundant
sandstone compositional sand normal grading mottled Macaronichnus and rare
Planolites,
Thalassinoides and
Rosselia
FN: low to moderate
undifferentiated
bioturbation and scarce
Planolites
F4 Heterolithic Normal grading 1 to 15 cm Wavy, lenticular, or Numerous detrital pellets Abundant discrete trace
Heterolithic, mudstone and with graded or discontinuous planar of dark, glauconite and fossils; abundant
thin-bedded mixed sharp basal parallel sand laminae. large planktonic Macaronichnus and
mudstone and compositional up to surfaces Ripple laminae and foraminifera Parahaentzschelinia and
sandstone medium-grained mud flasers. rare Planolites and
sandstone Laminated silty/sandy Rosselia
claystone
Table 1. (continued)
Sedimentary
Facies Lithology Grading Thickness structures Accessories Ichnology
F5 Heterolithic Normal graded 2 to 20 cm Undulatory and Bed boundaries and EA: abundant, increase of
Heterolithic, mudstone and with sharp basal tabular cross-stratified sedimentary structures vertical burrows;
cross-stratified mixed surfaces and and rippled beds with regularly encrusted with abundant
mudstone and compositional, occasionally occasional small (cm- Fe and Mn Parahaentzschelinia and
sandstone moderately-sorted mud-draped scale) basal scours Macaronichnus, rare
to well-sorted, up foreset Planolites and
to coarse-grained boundaries Thalassinoides.
sandstone FN: vertical traces that
are Ophiomorpha-like
and Skolithos-like
F6 Mixed None to normal 10 to 60 cm Tabular, cross- High proportion of Moderate discrete trace
Cross-stratified compositional up to grading stratified beds bioclasts and carbonate fossils; abundant
sandstone medium-grained lithoclasts, muddy rip-up Ophiomorpha, occasional
sandstone clasts are common Skolithos and rare
Planolites, Rosselia-like
and Thalassinoides
F7 Up to granule grade Normal grading Up to 30 cm Sigmoidal, mud- Bed boundaries and Low to moderate
Sigmoidal, mud mixed draped sandstone burrow linings regularly undifferentiated

draped compositional sand bundles show Fe and Mn bioturbation. Occasional
sandstone ‘draped’ by fluid crusting, rip-up clasts are Planolites-like and
muddy marls common Thalassinoides-like
F8 Up to medium- Normal grading 5 to 20 cm Tabular, amalgamated, Occasionally contain rip- Low to moderate
Amalgamated, grained, well-sorted occasionally rippled up clasts undifferentiated
normal graded to very well-sorted beds with basal scour bioturbation. Scarce
mudstone and sandstone capped surfaces discrete trace fossils
sandstone by mudstone
F9 Mixed Normal grading 4 up to 15 cm Deformed, convolute Remnants of original Low to moderate

Deformed, compositional, up and/or contorted beds bedding undifferentiated
amalgamated to coarse-grained with fluid escape bioturbation. Scarce
mudstone and sandstone capped structures discrete trace fossils
sandstone by mudstone
Tidal modulated laterally migrating contourite depositional system
3007
Fig. 7. Sedimentary log for the El Adergha outcrop showing the facies, the facies associations, locations of the
samples (Table S1) and the location of the pictures (see legend). (A) Main overview picture of the El Adergha sec-
tion at an angle perpendicular to the outcrop. (B) Picture perpendicular to part of the outcrop showing facies, ref-
erence location of (F) and (G) and the location of sample EA4. (C) Eastward continuation of (B). (D) Lowermost
sandstone interval consisting of facies F4 in sharp contact with facies F1. (E) Picture of turbidites stratigraphically
located 100 m lower, embedded in the blue marls of facies F1. Collage of examples of facies from the El Adergha
outcrop. Picture letters correspond to those in (A) to (E).
Fig. 7 (continued). (F) Picture and line-drawing of the contact between facies F4 and F5 at 21 m in the log. Facies
F4 is mottled, not easily captured by lines at this scale. (G) Picture and line-drawing of typical facies F5. The low-
ermost right corner is not well-exposed. (H) Top-view picture of bioclast (pecten) hash, imbrication bioclastic
material not visible in picture. Note the 1 cm pecten shell in the middle top-view of the picture. (I) Bi-gradational
stacking of facies F1–F2–F3–F2–F1. The F3 and F2 facies are intensely bioturbated leaving a mottled appearance.
(J) Typical facies F4, consisting of laminated sandstone and mudstone and moderate bioturbation. (K) Turbidite
deposits found roughly 100 m stratigraphically below the main studied interval, embedded in facies F1.
Fig. 8. (A) Panoramic picture of the Fes-north outcrop with the panels indicating the locations of (B) to (E). (B)
and (C) form a collage of the laterally (NW–SE) continuous section. Within these pictures the main facies distribu-
tion are indicated as well as locations for (F) to (K). (D) and (E) Line-drawings of (B) and (C) respectively. These
line-drawings are made to emphasize bed-boundaries and internal structures. (D) Image clearly shows the tectonic
tilt of the beds with respect to the near horizontal horizon. At the 5 m mark of the scale bar (4 m in the log) the
mainly tabular beds with cross-stratification directed towards the left are overlain by S1 (slump 1) which is strati-
fied mainly in the opposing direction. (E) This eastward lateral and upward continuation of panel D (S1 for refer-
ence) shows that lateral facies changes are present. Furthermore, the termination of S1 against facies F6 (C) is
visible. Within facies F6 SSD structures are visible. S2 overlies the more planar stratified facies F8 here.
Fig. 8 (continued). Sedimentary log and picture collage of facies in the Fes-north outcrop. (F) Picture of facies F2 and
F6, corresponding to 11 to 12 m in the log. Cross-stratification of facies F6 is directed towards the left (west). (G) Facies
F8, alternating with facies F2. Facies F2 in this succession represents suspension fallout from a turbidity cloud. (H)
Overview picture of the interval between 5.5 m and 8.0 m in the sedimentary log. The lower field of view shows facies
F6 containing soft sediment deformation structures. This facies is overlain by facies F8. (I) Overview picture of the
interval between 1.0 m and 5.5 m in the log. Here facies F3 and F6 are overlain by slump deposits of facies F9. (J) Pic-
ture showing both facies F3 and F7 and their stratigraphic relationship. On top of facies F7 a sharp basal contact with
facies F6 is present. (K) Westernmost expression of the exposed outcrop with stacked tabular beds of facies F6.
Fig. 9. Overview of recognized ichnospecies: Macaronichnus (Mn), Thalassinoides (Th), Planolites (Pl), Rosselia
(Rs), Ophiomorpha (Op) and undifferentiated (Undif.) traces. The addition of (l) stands for ‘-like’. Facies are indi-
cated with the coloured and labelled circles. (A) to (F) are taken from the El Adergha sections and (G) to (J) from
the Fes-north section.
environments affected by bottom currents (Lucchi facies model proposed by Faugeres et al. (1984),
& Rebesco, 2007; Martın-Chivelet et al., 2008; Gonthier et al. (1984) and Stow & Faug eres
Rebesco et al., 2014; de Castro et al., 2020, 2021a). (2008). The very close resemblance of this bi-
Based on available data, it is hypothesized gradational facies to the C3-division of the ‘diag-
that the subtle compositional changes in facies nostic contourite facies model’ favours the inter-
F2 are the result of the interaction between pretation of a contouritic drift origin. This
hemipelagites, low-density turbidites and weak interpretation is supported by the findings of
bottom currents. Fluctuations in the bottom cur- Capella et al. (2017a).
rent activity related to intensification and weak- Bi-gradational sequences, however, might also
ening of the palaeo-MOW might have reworked be formed in different types of current-
initial turbidite deposits and have caused fluctu- influenced depositional settings where waning/
ations between contouritic and hemipelagic waxing currents are common, such as deltas
dominated periods. Based on grain-size, deposi- with fluctuating river discharge. There is how-
tional texture and according to the bedform- ever no evidence of such current-influenced
velocity matrix proposed by Stow et al. (2009), depositional systems in the surrounding area for
bottom currents never exceeded 20 to 25 cm s 1. the depositional period between 7.51 Ma and
Similar facies have recently been identified in 7.25 Ma. Furthermore, the lack of distinct ero-
the proximal and central sectors of the Gulf of sional surfaces both below and above facies F3
Cadiz CDS, where muddy contourites are usu- in the El Adergha section (Fig. 7I) indicates sub-
ally interbedded with hemipelagites and tur- tle changes in the depositional setting and thus
bidites, forming metre-scale sedimentary the depositional domain did not significantly
deposits (de Castro et al., 2021a). change to that inferred from the benthic forami-
nifer assemblage for facies F1 (i.e. the continen-
Facies F3 – Bi-gradational sandstone tal slope). This thus suggests that facies F3 was
Description formed in the slope depositional domain, a com-
Facies F3 consists of an inverse to normal- mon area for the formation of contourite drift
graded sandstone with a thickness ranging from deposits (Faugeres et al., 1999; Hernandez-
10 to 60 cm (Table 1; Figs 7B, 7J and 8J). This Molina et al., 2008; Rebesco et al., 2014).
bi-gradational pattern consists of very fine- Despite the slight differences in facies F3
grained, fine-grained and up to medium-grained observed between both outcrops, subtle breaks
sand. The sand is of mixed bioclastic–siliciclas- in sedimentation, indicated by the style of bio-
tic composition (Chiarella et al., 2017). Between turbation and the relatively sharp bounding sur-
the El Adergha and Fes-north section, differ- faces in the El Adergha and Fes-north sections,
ences in this facies have been observed. respectively (Figs 7I and 8J), show that the long-
In the El Adergha section, facies F3 (Fig. 7B) term flow fluctuation responsible for the bi-
is more bioclastic, contains glauconite and abun- gradational sequence, was also affected by
dant bioturbation of Macaronichnus (Fig. 9A shorter scale flow variations. These shorter scale
and B), rare Planolites, Thalassinoides and Ros- variations indicate that, at times, flow velocities
selia (Fig. 9E), leaving a severely bioturbated were sufficiently high to cause a break in sedi-
appearance (Fig. 7J). However, despite the mentation, and/or there was a break in sediment
intense bioturbation, planar erosive surfaces supply. Omission surfaces in the central part of
between the inverse-graded and normal-graded the bi-gradational sequence have previously
division have been recognized in places. In the been reported in similar sequences, interpreted
Fes-north section, F3 consists of distinct planar as contourite drift deposits, from the ancient
laminae with the thickest laminae (up to 1.5 cm) record (Rodrıguez-Tovar et al., 2019; H€ uneke
coinciding with the coarsest (medium-grained) et al., 2021).
sand fraction (Fig. 8J). Biogenic structures are
limited to a low to moderate number of undiffer- Facies F4 – Heterolithic, thin-bedded
entiated burrows, and scarce Planolites and mudstone and sandstone
Thalassinoides-like traces (Fig. 9H). Description
Facies F4 consists of heterolithic orange to
Interpretation reddish-grey clay and marlstone and brownish to
The bi-gradational sandstone of facies F3 in the orangish-grey very fine-grained up to medium-
El Adergha section very closely resembles the grained sand (Table 1; Fig. 7J). The finely lami-
C3 division of the bi-gradational contourite nated to thinly bedded sands (<10 cm) are
tabular (Fig. 7D) and occasionally show ripples. explain the development of heterolithic alterna-
The base of the sandstone beds is sharp or grada- tions as a consistent indicator of bottom current
tional and occasionally shows an undulatory fluctuations. The preservation of primary sedi-
geometry. The sand component is of mixed silici- mentary structures within the sandstone beds
clastic–bioclastic composition, enriched in glau- indicates that bottom currents remained suffi-
conite (<10%). Muddy laminae that are ciently strong to winnow away fine-grained sedi-
interbedded with the sands, are often wavy, len- ment and to prevent disruption due to
ticular or discontinuous parallel. Other features bioturbation (de Castro et al., 2020).
include silty mud flasers and muddy rip-up
clasts (Fig. 7F and J). A mottled appearance, pre- Facies F5 – Heterolithic, cross-stratified
dominantly concentrated in the finest sediments, mudstone and sandstone
results from intense, often undifferentiated bio- Description
turbation. The trace fossil assemblage consists of Facies F5 typically consists of heterolithic, dom-
abundant Macaronichnus (Fig. 9D), common inantly thin-bedded (<10 cm) to medium-
Parahentzschelinia and rare Planolites, Rosselia bedded (<20 cm) sandstones draped by mud
(Fig. 8E) and Thalassinoides. (Table 1; Fig. 7G and H) that are part of large
westward migrating foresets (Fig. 7B). These
Interpretation beds, which thus likely present foresets, show
Facies F4, in comparison to facies F1 and F2, unidirectionally westward verging cross-strata
due to its coarser medium grain-size and the (Fig. 7C) with bundles of thickening and thin-
presence of occasional traction structures, is ning foreset-laminae and angular to tangential
related to higher peak current velocities. As this toe-set geometries (Figs 7G and 10A; more
facies unconformably overlies facies F1 and F2 clearly visible in 10A). Beds form 1.0 to 1.5 m
(Fig. 7D and B, respectively), it indicates a thick sets, associated with the previously men-
change in hydrodynamic conditions related to an tioned westward migrating foresets. Cross-sets
increase in maximum flow velocity. Like facies have a planar parallel to undulatory erosive base
F3, the depositional domain was likely in the and regularly show traction carpets of muddy
slope, ruling out a shallow-marine current- rip-up clasts and small (centimetre-scale) scours
dominated setting. The rhythmical variations in at their base (Fig. 7G). The beds occasionally
grain-sizes and co-occurrence of fine-grained contain ripples showing opposing current direc-
sand and mud laminae suggest deposition tions (Fig. 7G). The sand consists of fine-grained
through alternating periods of bedload and sus- up to coarse-grained sand of orangish-brown col-
pension transport. Since facies F4 closely resem- our. Bed boundaries regularly show Fe-Mn
bles the stacked sand sheets described by Martın- crusting. Biogenic structures are dominantly ver-
Chivelet et al. (2008), Rebesco et al. (2014), de tically oriented and consist of an assemblage of
Castro et al. (2020) and Hovikoski et al. (2020) it abundant Parahaentzschelinia (Fig. 9F) and
might have a similar origin related to bottom cur- Macaronichnus, common undifferentiated verti-
rents with alternating flow conditions. During cal structures, and rare traces such as
peak current velocities, the fine-grained sand can Ophiomorpha-like and Skolithos vertical traces.
form ripples whilst the finest fraction of the sedi-
ment is winnowed or re-incorporated as aggre- Interpretation
gates and rip-up clasts (de Castro et al., 2020). The cross-stratified nature and general tabular
H€uneke et al. (2021) suggest that fluctuating bot- bedding of these westward migrating deposits sug-
tom currents characterize deposition for all con- gests them to be relics of deep-marine two-
tourite divisions even though the controlling dimensional (2D) dunes. Based on the presence of
mechanism behind the short-term fluctuation of thickening and thinning foreset-bundles (Allen,
flow strength is unknown. Shanmugam (2008), 1982; Longhitano & Nemec, 2005), gradual
however indicated that short-term oscillating changes between angular to tangential toe-set
energy conditions have been described from ther- geometries (Chiarella, 2016; Fig. 10) and sand–
mohaline and wind-driven bottom currents. Fur- mud couplets (Nio & Yang, 1991; Longhitano
thermore, climatic and tidal induced changes on et al., 2012), the formation of these deposits was
the characteristics of the palaeo-MOW also affect influenced by oscillatory flow. As such, this facies
variability in flow-conditions on shorter, millen- can be related to a tidally modulated current.
nial to sub-annual timescales (de Castro et al., Facies F5, based on dominant palaeocurrent
2021a; de Weger et al., 2020). These processes directions indicating westward flow, is
interpreted as a relic of westward migrating Like facies F5, similar sandy deposits have also
dunes. This interpretation is supported by the been identified in modern contouritic channels
findings of Capella et al. (2017a). These dunes (Nelson et al., 1993, 1999; Hernandez-Molina
migrated under current velocities reaching et al., 2006, 2014b; Stow et al., 2013; Bracken-
more than 1 m s 1 (Stow et al., 2009) in a late ridge et al., 2018; Lozano et al., 2020). The
Tortonian channel in front of a strait. These dominance of vertical biogenic structures in
conditions infer a depositional environment facies F6 also supports energetic environmental
where energy is more concentrated than in conditions.
other sectors, such as the contourite channel.
Similar sandy deposits have also been identi- Facies F7 – Sigmoidal, mud-draped
fied in modern contouritic channels (Nelson sandstone
et al., 1993, 1999; Hern andez-Molina et al., Description
2006, 2014b; Stow et al., 2013; Brackenridge Facies F7 consists of sigmoidal cross-stratified
et al., 2018; Lozano et al., 2020). The domi- sandstone alternating with mudstone (Table 1).
nance of vertical biogenic structures in F5 The sandstone foresets are encapsulated in and
supports the occurrence of energetic environ- draped by up to 1 cm thick, scarcely bioturbated
mental conditions. mud forming distinct up to 30 cm thick bundles
of thickening and thinning foresets (Fig. 8J).
Facies F6 – Cross-stratified sandstone Muddy to marly rip-up clasts are common and
Description mainly occur at the basal bounding surfaces.
Facies F6 consists of sandstones with unidirec- The sand fraction consists of up to granule-sized
tionally westward verging cross-strata which mixed siliciclastic–bioclastic sand. Biogenic
include bundles of thickening and thinning fore- structures are limited to scarce discrete trace fos-
sets that show alternations between angular to sils (for example, Thalassinoides-like and
tangential toe-set geometries (Fig. 8D, F and K). Planolites-like).
Bedding is generally 10 to 100 cm thick and has
sharp basal boundaries with common muddy Interpretation
rip-up clasts. The thickest beds have a subtle The sand–mud couplets recognized in the cross-
concave-up geometry. Sediment is composed of strata of facies F7 suggest a fluctuation in the
moderately to well-sorted, medium-grained to energy of the flow to form heterolithic bundles.
coarse-grained sand represented by mixed bio- The mud drapes and ripped-up muddy clasts
clastic–siliciclastic grains. This facies is moder- are thought to represent fine particles originating
ately bioturbated with Ophiomorpha (Fig. 9G), from high suspended mud concentrations (Faas,
occasional Skolithos and rare Planolites, 1991). Accordingly, the sandy intervals repre-
Rosselia-like and Thalassinoides trace fossils. sent the record of current-dominated processes
Sometimes burrow linings as well as bed bound- while the draping mud reflects a moment of
aries show Fe-Mn crusting. reduced energy, favouring the decantation and
drapes of the fine-grained material previously
Interpretation kept in suspension (Visser, 1980). According to
Like facies F5, the cross-stratified nature and Nio & Yang (1991), a bimodal grain-size with
the presence of tidal signatures of these west- the muds interlayering medium-grained or
ward migrating deposits (Fig. 5) suggests them coarse-grained sandstones is an indication of
to be relics of deep-marine 2D dunes the forma- tide-modulated currents. The lack of sedimen-
tion of which relies on a tidally modulated cur- tary structures referable to wave action and
rent near the seafloor. The lack of mud drapes high-energy environments suggest a depositional
indicates that, despite the tidally modulated environment below the fair-weather wave base
alternating flow conditions, flow velocities never in a current-dominated environment.
dropped below the threshold value to deposit
and/or preserve muddy sediment, indicating Facies F8 – Amalgamated, normal graded
that deposition took place under flow velocities mudstone and sandstone
ranging from ca 50 cm s 1 to over 1 m s 1 Description
(Stow et al., 2009). These conditions also infer Facies F8 consists of heterolithic mudstone and
a depositional environment in the slope domain sandstone intervals (Table 1; Figs 7K and 8G).
where energy is more concentrated than in The tabular, generally thin-bedded, sandstones
other sectors, such as the contourite channel. (up to 20 cm) are normal graded, and regularly
Fig. 10. Examples of cyclic thickening and thinning foreset intervals and cyclic alterations between angular and
tangential toe-sets. These alternations are associated with cross-stratification and interpreted as the record of
sandy bedforms migrating under unidirectional, tidal-modulated accelerating/decelerating currents. N = neap tide;
S = spring tides.
have small (centimetre-deep) basal scours. siliciclastic sand whereas at the Fes-north sec-
Although a semi-gradational transition from sand tion, it consists of medium-grained, immature
to mud occurs, boundaries can be easily distin- siliciclastic sand (Table S1; Fig. S2). This
guished. This facies in El Adergha, consists of implies that facies F8 at the El Adergha section
thin, amalgamated beds presenting basal rip-up represents a more distal sector in respect to the
clasts of up to pebble sized marls, plane-parallel Fes-north section. The composition and stacking
lamination and ripples, capped by a very thin pattern of facies F8 in El Adergha (Fig. 7K) is
marlstone. The sediment is of mixed siliciclastic– most like those observed in base-of-slope or basin
bioclastic composition. The sand is up to wedge settings (Stow, 1985). The tabular thin
medium-grained and well-sorted to very well- bedded nature of facies F8 recognized in the Fes-
sorted. The facies is bioturbated with scarce north section (Fig. 8C, G and H) might also sug-
undifferentiated discrete trace fossils (Fig. 9I). gest a basinal turbidite (silty–sandy distal lobe)
depositional setting. However, here facies F8
Interpretation more likely represents the tail of turbidity current
Facies F8 generally shows basal scours and clear deposits on the slope (Mutti, 1992; Mutti et al.,
bounding surfaces. The well-sorted to very well- 2009; Mulder, 2011; Talling et al., 2012) or very
sorted, normal graded beds and internal struc- low-density turbiditic currents on the slope as
tures typically represent a decelerating turbulent recently discussed by de Castro et al. (2020,
flow from the upper flow regime to suspension 2021a) and H€ uneke et al. (2021).
fallout (Bouma, 1962) and are, as such, inter-
preted as turbidites. The sediment composition Facies F9 – Deformed, amalgamated
of the sand fraction in this facies varies between mudstone and sandstone
both the El Adergha and Fes-north sections Description
(Fig. 10B to D). At the El Adergha section, facies Facies F9 consists of amalgamated, heterolithic,
F8 consists of very fine-grained, relatively mature thin-bedded (up to 10 cm) strata of marlstone and
sandstone up to medium-grained (Table S1; Cruziana ichnofacies which is typical of deeper

Fig. S2A). Strata are convolute and fluid escape and more distal environments. In this context,
structures are common (Fig. 8B, C and I). The pri- the presence of vertical structures could be
mary sedimentary structure is like facies F8, con- related to periods with stronger bottom currents
sisting of amalgamated normally graded tabular, creating higher energetic palaecological condi-
thin-bedded mudstone and sandstone. The base tions like those in shallow marine environments
is sharp, erosive and in many cases seems to have (i.e. upper slope) at more distal and deeper set-
deformed the underlying facies (Fig. 8H). This tings (Miguez-Salas et al., 2020).
facies appears wedge shaped, thinning out north- In the Fes-north section, trace fossil assem-
westward. The preserved primary bedding is blages record low ichnodiversity and a moderate
folded, indicating south to south-eastward defor- to low abundance of traces of dominantly verti-
mational migration. Inclination of the modified cal forms. The main ichnogenus is Ophiomor-
but preserved primary strata varies laterally from pha. Ophiomorpha is generally, but not
high-angle (40°, westward dipping) to opposing exclusively, characteristic of high-energy envi-
angles (20°, eastward dipping) (Fig. 8D and I). ronments (i.e. shoreface) with well-sorted shift-
Biogenic structures are scarce and discrete trace ing sandy substrates, constituting a typical
fossils are difficult to identify, a few Planolites- element of the Skolithos ichnofacies (MacEach-
like traces were observed (Fig. 9J). ern et al., 2007, 2012). However, the appearance
of Ophiomorpha in deep-sea environments with
Interpretation gravity flow sediment supplies confirms the
The convolute and/or contorted nature, accom- Ophiomorpha rudis ichnosubfacies (Uchman,
panied by the erosive basal surface recognized 2009, and references therein). Thus, the pres-
in facies F9 suggest that it represents the pro- ence of Ophiomorpha should not necessarily be
duct of a slump (Leeder, 2009; Reading, 2009; related to the Skolithos ichnofacies, but to
Shanmugam, 2010). Additional evidence of the higher energetic environments at Fes-north than
sudden displacement of large volumes of sedi- that corresponding to El Adergha.
ment is found in the fluid-escape structures
locally present in the underlying sediment.
Although slumps may occur over a wide range DEPOSITIONAL SUB-ENVIRONMENTS
of depositional environments, their formation
relies on slopes. Since the primary bedding of
Depositional elements and facies associations
facies F9 is like F8, F9 represents down-slope,
plastically deformed fine-grained turbidites. The sedimentary facies are linked to form distinct
facies associations (FA) and depositional ele-
ments (Table 2). The fine-grained sediments of
Ichnofacies
facies F1 and F2 are grouped into FA1. FA1
Ichnological analysis from the El Adergha and occurs over intervals of one to hundreds of metres
Fes-north sections reveals, in general, low ichn- thick where both facies regularly grade into one
odiversity in assemblages. El Adergha has a another. FA1 is generally coarsening-upward
higher abundance of traces which are domi- grading from facies F1 to F2. FA2 consists of the
nantly horizontal whereas the structures in Fes- distinct bi-gradational stacking of facies F1, F2,
north are dominantly vertical. This difference is F3, F2 and F1 (Fig. 7J) or F2, F3 and F2 (Fig. 8J).
related to variable palaeoenvironmental condi- FA3 consists of facies F4, which, albeit hetero-
tions, especially with respect to hydrodynamic lithic, is considered an individual facies based on
energy. the regular lack of bounding surfaces. However,
The trace fossil assemblages at the El Adergha the heterolithic occurrence of sandstone and
section are characterized by low ichnodiversity marlstone could be considered the alternation
and a high abundance of traces produced by between fine-grained facies (F1 and F2) and sand-
deposit feeders. The two main ichnogenera (Mac- rich facies somewhat similar in sedimentary com-
aronichnus and Parahaentzschelinia) are typical position as facies F3. FA4, consisting of facies F5,
of proximal, shallow marine environments F6 and F7, typified by the presence of traction
related to the Skolithos ichnofacies (MacEachern structures (mainly cross-stratification). FA5 is
et al., 2007, 2012; Buatois & M angano, 2011; distinguished based on depositional features with
Knaust, 2017). However, being typified by domi- palaeo-transport indicators perpendicular (down-
nantly horizontal traces allows assignation to the slope) to those observed in FA4.
Based on the: (i) palaeogeographic reconstruc- Contourites: drift-channel transitional

tion of the South Rifian Corridor; (ii) the topo- deposits (FA2 and FA3)
graphy of the Prerifian Ridges on the northern Both facies associations FA2 and FA3, due to
margin of this corridor (Fig. 6); (iii) the interpre- their relative increase in grain-size and the pres-
tation that the studied sections have been depos- ence of subtle indicators of bedload transport, are
ited in a slope depositional domain; and (iv) indicative of higher bottom current velocities
evidence suggesting the presence of a late Mio- compared to facies association FA1. This suggests
cene unidirectionally westward migrating, tidal an increase in the palaeo-MOW activity. How-
influenced bottom current (Fig. 10), it is sug- ever, the heterolithic occurrence of sand and
gested that the studied sedimentary successions mud indicates fluctuating energy conditions.
were formed predominantly by the action of the The strength or velocity of bottom currents
late Miocene palaeo-MOW. As such, the facies associated with overflow water decreases both
associations and depositional domains are inter- laterally and down current of the core of the bot-
preted within this framework (Fig. 11). tom current which is generally confined to a con-
tourite channel (Fig. 11) (McCave & Tucholke,
Fine-grained marine sediment (FA1) 1986; Faugeres et al., 1999; Llave et al., 2001;
Based on the available data, the fine-grained Rebesco et al., 2014; de Castro et al., 2021a). The
marine sediment of facies association FA1 and core of the current is influenced by the Coriolis
its subtle changes in composition is interpreted force. In the case of this study, the westward
to result from the interaction between hemipela- flowing palaeo-MOW was forced towards the
gic, low-density turbiditic and bottom current right (north) against the north–south oriented
induced sedimentation. Fluctuations in the palaeo-slope of the northern margin of the South
bottom current activity, related to the intensifica- Rifian Corridor (Fig. 11).
tion and deceleration of the palaeo-MOW Since the highest bottom current velocities are
have primarily caused fluctuations between con- associated with the contourite channel and the
touritic and hemipelagic dominated periods. Sim- weakest bottom currents to the drift (Fig. 12),
ilar facies have recently been identified in the both facies associations FA2 and FA3 represent
proximal and central sectors of the Gulf of Cadiz a transitional depositional environment with
CDS where muddy contourites, associated with weaker currents compared to the core and stron-
the drift, are usually interbedded with hemipela- ger currents compared to the drift. Facies like
gites forming metre-scale sedimentary deposits those described in facies associations FA2 and
(de Castro et al., 2021a). As such, facies associa- FA3 have recently been ascribed to a drift-
tion FA1 has been interpreted to represent the channel transitional domain where energy con-
contourite drift or a zone that is located even ditions are slightly higher than in the drift due
more distally, further down the slope (Fig. 12). to the increased influence of the more closely
Table 2. Sedimentary facies associations (FA) established for sedimentary deposits in the El Adergha and Fes-
north outcrops.
Facies Thickness
Sediment size Orientation association FA Dominant facies (m)
Fine-grained Vertical settling, Contourite drift FA1 F1 – Hemipelagites up to 100s

sediment along-slope and F2 – Fine-grained turbidites
down-slope or contourites
Coarse-grained Along-slope Drift/channel FA2 F3 – Fine-grained sandy 0.6 to 1.5

sediment transition contourites
Channel/drift FA3 F4 – Bottom current 0.1 to 5.0
transition reworked sands
Contourite FA4 F5, F6 and F7 – Coarse-grained 0.2 to 5.0
channel sandy contourites
Down-slope Upper slope FA5 F8 – Turbidites 0.1 to 2.0
F9 – Slumped deposits
Fig. 11. Palaeogeographic reconstruction of the late Miocene Rifian corridors between 7.51 Ma and 7.25 Ma. The
palaeo-Mediterranean Outflow Water (palaeo-MOW) cascaded over the Taza Sill, through the Taza Strait into the
South Rifian Corridor where it was forced against the northern margin by the Coriolis force. The Atlantic surficial
water flowed through the South Rifian Corridor and Taza Strait into the Mediterranean. The studied sections, Fes-
north (FN) and El Adergha (EA) were located closely to or within the contourite channel changing over time. The
red arrow, indicating the core of the palaeo-MOW depicts the trajectory of highest current-velocities confined
within the channel, whereas the palaeo-MOW water mass was less confined.
located core of the bottom current (de Castro the slope side of the contourite channel (Figs 11
et al., 2021a). Also, areas closer to the core of and 12). This implies that the strength of the
the bottom current are more strongly receptive bottom current weakens within the channel
to changes in the palaeo-MOW activity, explain- towards the distally/deeper located drift, but
ing the fluctuating energy conditions. also towards the slope because of increased
shear stress. In this case the coarsest sediment
Contourites: channel fill deposits (FA4) related to facies F6 and F7 would be expected
Facies pertaining to facies association FA4 (F5, in the section closest to the Prerifian Ridges,
F6 and F7) are characterized by a unidirectional Fes-north (Fig. 11) if both of the channel facies
trend of palaeo-current indicators showing a are related to the same channel. Furthermore, as
direction perpendicular to the north–south ori- mentioned in de Weger et al. (2020) the palaeo-
ented palaeo-slope (Figs 11 and 12), indicating a MOW was intermittent on tectonic, orbital, cli-
roughly 90° offset compared to those measured matic and tidal timescales. The explanation of
in facies association FA5 (Fig. 5). As facies asso- processes behind changes in the modern MOW
ciation FA4 shows a slope-parallel trend of dune have recently been described by Sierro et al.
migration related to high energetic conditions, (2020) who found that the MOW strength is
this facies association is ascribed to the con- mainly driven by precession cycles and the
tourite channel. associated freshwater input in the Mediter-
The differences in sedimentary composition ranean. A decrease in Mediterranean freshwater
and structures between F5, F6 and F7 can be input during precession maxima results in an
explained by their relative position within the increase in Mediterranean salinity and thus
contourite channel. As mentioned previously, Mediterranean deep-water formation. Enhanced,
the current velocity decreases away from the dense Mediterranean deep-water formation
core of the bottom current which is also the case results in higher density gradients with Atlantic
within the contourite channel. The palaeo-MOW water and an enhanced, or stronger, palaeo-
core was forced northward by the Coriolis force, MOW. On a millennial scale, the study found
against the palaeo-slope and therefore towards that Greenland stadials have a positive effect on
Fig. 12. Sketch showing the relation between the facies (F1 to F9), facies associations and the different deposi-
tional and erosional elements from the proximal continental slope to the contourite drift. The facies associations
are related to their dominant depositional process and associated current velocities. The panels in the bottom left
corner show examples of observed facies stacking patterns. Soft sediment deformation structures (SSD) are regu-
larly observed below facies F9.
buoyancy loss in the eastern Mediterranean longer period (> seasonal) oscillatory flow beha-
which enhances the density gradient with Atlan- viour. Expansion and collapse of the palaeo-
tic water. This results in a more vigorous MOW likely played an important role in the
palaeo-MOW. Similar controlling factors facies differences of FA4, where, during the
resulted in palaeo-MOW expansion (intensifica- deposition of facies F6 and F7, the palaeo-MOW
tion) and collapse (deceleration) but also in its was stronger compared to F5. However, during
the deposition of facies F5 and F7 the palaeo- Vara et al. (2015) demonstrated that the
MOW intensity fluctuated considerably more on exchange through the Betic – Guadalhorce Corri-
tidal timescales. The heterolithic nature within dor and the South Rifian Corridor depends pre-
these facies, mudstone and sandstone, is likely dominantly on the depth of each corridor with
related to tidally induced flow acceleration and respect to the other. More specifically, both cor-
deceleration where the flow velocity within the ridors present two-way flow unless the shal-
channel most significantly decreases towards the lower gateway is shallower than about the mid-
channel flanks (F5 and F7) with a decelerating depth of the deeper corridor. Based on the
bottom current core. Guadalhorce Corridor having been affected by
tectonic uplift prior to the South Rifian Corridor,
Gravity-driven flow deposits (FA5) it is very likely that the South Rifian Corridor,
As mentioned previously, facies association FA5 or more specifically the Taza Sill, was twice as
is characterized by facies with a dominant deep, only allowing two-way exchange through
downslope, north–south oriented, migration the Taza Sill. This allowed the overflow of the
component. This down-slope migration is palaeo-MOW into the South Rifian Corridor,
induced by gravitational processes, which, due supporting the interpretation of the South Rifian
to these facies occurring interbedded with facies Corridor having been subject to a palaeo-MOW,
association FA4, indicated that the sections have enabling the formation of a contourite deposi-
been deposited on the slope (Fig. 12). tional system like that described in the Gulf of
Cadiz (Llave et al., 2007; Hernandez-Molina
et al., 2016).
DISCUSSION
The proposed facies model
Required two-way exchange
De Castro et al. (2021a) proposed the first inclu-
The South Rifian Corridor is regularly considered sive contourite facies model for contourite chan-
the last remaining gateway before the onset of the nel systems to date. This facies model has been
Mediterranean Salinity Crisis, yet the termination constructed based on a multiple core related data-
of Atlantic–Mediterranean connection through set derived from the Gulf of Cadiz. However, the
the Betic corridors is not fully constrained. core material does not cover most of the sand-rich
Although the Atlantic–Mediterranean connection intervals related to the contourite channel.
through the Betic corridors (Fig. 1) largely came Despite not fully capturing the contourite channel
to a halt in the late Miocene: (i) the North Betic deposits, the proposed model shows many simi-
Strait records continental deposits at ca 7.6 Ma larities but is distinctly more inclusive of the
(Krijgsman et al., 2000); (ii) the Granada Basin coarse-grained channel deposits (Fig. 12). Since
demonstrates a phase of evaporite precipitation currently no other facies models for contourite
between 7.37 Ma and 7.24 Ma (Corbı et al., channel deposits have been proposed, results
2012); and (iii) the Guadix Basin was blocked by from this study cannot be compared any further.
7.8 Ma (Betzler et al., 2006); (iv) the Guadalhorce The most challenging aspect of interpreting
Corridor might have accommodated Mediter- the deposits of facies association FA4 (con-
ranean outflow until 6.3 Ma (Martın et al., 2001). tourite channel deposits) as having a contouritic
Furthermore, the possible role of the Strait of origin arises from the tidal signatures observed
Gibraltar in late Miocene Atlantic–Mediterranean (Fig. 10). The tidal signatures however can be
exchange should also be considered (Krijgsman explained by the tidal modulation of the palaeo-
et al., 2018) but there is no evidence of its role in MOW as has been observed in the present-day
connecting both basins between 7.8 Ma and MOW in the Strait of Gibraltar (Candela et al.,
7.25 Ma. 1990).
The Betic corridors were subject to tectonic
uplift at around 7.8 Ma (Betzler et al., 2006; Kri-
Tidal modulation of the palaeo-
jgsman et al., 2006), roughly 800 kyr earlier than
Mediterranean Outflow Water
in the Rifian corridors where tectonic uplift was
initiated around 7 Ma (Capella et al., 2017b; The late Miocene Taza Strait in the South Rifian
Tulbure et al., 2017). This suggests that the Betic Corridor shows many similarities to the closely
corridors were shallowing long before the Rifian located modern Strait of Gibraltar (SoG) such as
corridors. By means of physical modelling, de la the Atlantic–Mediterranean connection,
geometry, water-depths of a similar range and experimentally confirmed for the SoG (Candela
the presence of a sill (Camarinal Sill and Taza et al., 1990), generates barotropic tidal current
Sill, respectively) located in the narrowest posi- peaks between high tide and low tide (Fig. 13B;
tion of the strait. Due to these similarities, flow ebb phase). The same authors indicated that due
variability through the South Rifian Corridor is to the requirement of geostrophic adjustment in
expected to have behaved in a similar general the across-strait direction maximum westward
fashion as the modern SoG. The flow variability tidal currents are present between low tide and
through the modern SoG is herein discussed to high tide (Fig. 13D; flood phase), diminishing the
explain the tidal signatures recognized in the inflow of Atlantic water and intensifying the
Miocene Rifian deposits (i.e. cyclically thicken- MOW. A maximum eastward tidal current is
ing and thinning foresets, cyclic alterations found in the ebb phase (Fig. 13B; between high
between angular and tangential toe-set geome- tide and low tide), favouring Atlantic water
tries and sand–mud couplets observed in facies inflow and diminishing or occasionally reversing
F5, F6 and F7; Fig. 10). the direction of the MOW. Both at high tide and
Lacombe & Richez (1982) categorized flow low tide, the tidal current is zero, therefore, at
variability through the SoG into three distinct both moments in the tidal cycle the MOW should
types: long-term, subinertial and tidal. The long- approach its mean intensity (Fig. 13A and C).
term flow variability relates to the double layer Based on the analogies between the SoG and
baroclinic exchange between the Atlantic and the Taza Strait it can be expected that during
Mediterranean basins. The exchange, or circula- the late Miocene the Taza Strait was subjected
tion, consists of Atlantic waters flowing into the to a similar hydrodynamic behaviour responsi-
Mediterranean overriding the denser Mediter- ble for the tidally modulated, pulsating beha-
ranean Outflow Water flowing westward into the viour of the palaeo-MOW (Fig. 13E), recorded in
Atlantic (Armi & Farmer, 1988; Fig. 1B). This the sedimentary successions of the El Adergha
long-term flow variability is controlled by sea- and Fes-north sections (Fig. 10). Because the
sonal and interannual fluctuations in the evapo- MOW/palaeo-MOW forms/formed a bottom cur-
ration–precipitation budget over the rent which is/was the dominant process respon-
Mediterranean Sea, affecting Mediterranean sible for the redistribution and deposition of
Deep Water formation. The two-layer exchange sediment, hydraulically modulated by tides, its
is interpreted to be hydraulically controlled at deposits are considered contourites.
the Camarinal and Spartel sills (intensification The signature of cyclic deceleration (ebb
of the MOW) on the western half and at the Tar- phase) and acceleration (flood phase) of the
ifa narrow (intensification of the Atlantic inflow) palaeo-MOW is recognized in FA4 (Fig. 10).
on the eastern side of the strait (Bryden & Stom- These facies are associated with the contourite
mel, 1984; Armi & Farmer, 1988). The subiner- channel, the contourite element which is influ-
tial or interannual mostly barotropic flow enced most severely by hydrodynamic changes
variability, with periods ranging from days to in the palaeo-MOW. Differences in the tidal sig-
months, is forced by the atmospheric pressure nature between F5, F6 and F7 might be related
field over the Mediterranean (Candela et al., to their position within the contourite channel.
1989; Garcıa Lafuente et al., 2002). Tidal flows However, changes in the geometry and physiog-
through the SoG are principally driven by the raphy of the strait margins (due to, for example,
North Atlantic semidiurnal tide. Semidiurnal relative sea-level variations) and changes in
tides within the strait reach large amplitudes water mass properties could potentially affect
relative to subinertial flows, thus forming the the tidal hydrodynamics of the palaeo-MOW as
dominant factor in flow variability (Candela well.
et al., 1990) and strongly modulating the long- The geometry of straits mainly controls the
term seasonal and interannual exchange pattern. amplification of the tidal wave and the ability
On shorter, sub-daily timescales, modifications to transport water from one basin to another
due to internal waves occur (Richez, 1994; (Rocha & Clarke, 1987; Candela et al., 1990).
Vazquez et al., 2008). However, the Taza Strait is not expected to
As indicated by Rocha & Clarke (1987), the have changed geometry significantly over the
tidal wave arriving at a very narrow strait with a period in which the sediments studied herein
central sill is predominantly reflected, creating a were deposited (7.35 to 7.25 Ma) as the main
standing tidal wave inside the strait. This stand- tectonic compressional event in the Rifian cor-
ing wave, whose existence has been ridors took place around 7 Ma (Capella et al.,
Fig. 13. (A) to (D) Influence of a tidal cycle on Atlantic Inflow Water (AIW) and Mediterranean Outflow Water
(MOW) and the interface between the two. At high tide and low tide – (A) and (C), respectively – the tidal current
is zero and the MOW reaches its mean intensity. During the ebb phase [from high tide to low tide (B)] the tidal
current is directed towards the east and the MOW reaches its lowest velocity. Occasionally, the direction of the
MOW can also be reversed. During the flood phase [from low tide to high tide (D)] the tidal current is directed
towards the west and the MOW reaches its highest velocity. (E) Summarizes the water mass characteristics during
one tidal cycle. (F) Shows the long-term effect of a relative sea-level drop, by which the interface is located closer
to the sill. The location of the interface to the sill affects the potential of Mediterranean Deep Water (MDW) to
flow out of the Mediterranean.
2017b; Tulbure et al., 2017). Mud drapes and sill (Fig. 13F) tidal effects on the MOW should
heterolithic muddy and sandy beds are an be amplified, generating larger differences
indicator for significant changes in hydrody- between flood and ebb phases. As overflow
namic conditions, bedload transport and sus- requires a minimum depth to the sill (de la Vara
pension fallout. Such changes recorded on et al. (2015), at times, when the interface is near
foreset-scale and laminae-scale suggest signifi- the sill, the MOW might have even completely
cant tidally induced fluctuations between stopped as the interface reached the Atlantic
‘slack’ water and bottom currents with veloci- side of the sill during the ebb phase. Processes
ties up to 1 m s 1. that would result in an interface close to the sill
The strength of the MOW is mainly a result of are likely related to relative sea-level changes.
the density differences between the overriding Miller et al. (2011) reported however that
Atlantic inflow water and the underlying MOW because of the development of a near-permanent
(Rogerson et al., 2012; Sierro et al., 2020). If the East Antarctic Ice Sheet, the middle Miocene to
density difference between the two water masses early Pliocene glacio-eustatic sea-level changes
is higher, a stronger MOW is expected because were muted. This, however, does not mean that
of an increased effect of acceleration due to relative sea-level changes in the order of tens of
gravity. Tidal effects on the MOW should also metres would have had a profound effect on the
be significantly affected by the average depth of interface–sill characteristics.
the Atlantic–Mediterranean water interface with Here, it is assumed that during the deposition
respect to the sill. If the interface is closer to the of facies F7, consisting of sigmoidal mud-draped
sandstone, the Atlantic–Mediterranean interface Phase 1 – The initiation or intensification of

was located close to the sill. This is explained the palaeo-MOW related to a change from domi-
by the strong tidally induced cyclic acceleration nantly fine-grained deposits (FA1) to coarser
and deceleration changes inferred from the stud- grained deposits associated with FA3 and FA2
ied facies. Facies F6, consisting of cross- for the Fes-north and El Adergha sections,
stratified sandstones lacking any mud, is respectively (Fig. 14A and B). The initiation of
expected to have been deposited when the inter- an active palaeo-MOW in the study area is asso-
face was located well above the sill, decreasing ciated with the uplift of the accretionary wedge
tidal amplification. However, the thick foresets and the Prerifian Ridges. This tectonically dri-
and relatively coarse grain sizes suggest that ven event terminated the palaeo-MOW pathway
density differences between the Atlantic and north of these ridges that was active between
Mediterranean were enhanced, allowing high 7.8 Ma and 7.51 Ma (de Weger et al., 2020). As
velocity bottom currents. Facies F5, consisting the palaeo-MOW was forced southward of the
of heterolithic cross-stratified mudstone and Prerifian Ridges this allowed the intensification
sandstone, is interpreted as an intermediate of bottom current in this region. Over time this
facies with relatively strong tidal fluctuations palaeo-MOW formed a contourite channel sys-
but lower-maximum current velocities. tem in which the Fes-north section constituted
the contourite channel and the El Adergha sec-
tion the transitional channel-drift domain.
Evolution of the contourite channel system
Phase 2 – The northward migration of the con-
The vertical sedimentary facies stacking patterns tourite depositional system is related to facies
observed in the Fes-north and El Adergha sec- stacking patterns that suggest decreasing flow-
tions suggest that, over time, the depositional velocities. These decreasing flow velocities are
processes changed at the site where the sections associated with a northward shift of the con-
were located. The comparison and correlation tourite depositional system where, in El Ader-
between the two sections is used to explain the gha, the depositional setting changes from drift-
lateral migration of the contourite depositional channel transition to drift, and in Fes-north, the
system and the intermittent flow of the palaeo- depositional setting changes from channel to
MOW. As the Fes-north section is located north- channel-flank or slope deposits (Fig. 14C to E).
westward of the El Adergha section, it is As the palaeo-MOW is forced northward by the
assumed that it was located up-slope and down- Coriolis force, the system naturally migrates up-
current with respect to the westward flow- slope or northward (Faugeres et al., 1999; Llave
direction of the palaeo-MOW (Fig. 11). Since the et al., 2001). This migration is stimulated by
down-current facies changes cannot be deduced active erosion on the right (up-slope) flank of
from the vertical stacking of facies, this aspect the channel and highest rates of deposition over
will not be considered in the reconstruction of the left flank, the drift. However, since channel
the system evolution. The relative distance facies overlie drift transitional facies (FA2) in
between both sections has been considered con- the Fes-north section, FA2 in this section might
stant over time. Based on the stratigraphic and be, although highly speculative, related to up-
facies (based on the proposed facies model) cor- slope overbank deposits. These overbank depos-
relation, four main evolutionary phases have its could be drift deposits associated with
been identified (Fig. 14). another water mass as similar features have been
Fig. 14. The logs of the late Miocene Fes-north (FN) and El Adergha (EA) sections show vertical sedimentary
facies changes. The vertical stacking of facies has been correlated based on their depositional ages (7.51 to
7.25 Ma) as well as on facies which, based on the herein proposed facies model, can be correlated in an across
contourite channel system profile. (A) Depicts the transition from blue marls to more sand-rich marls which might
indicate the initiation of a palaeo-Mediterranean Outflow Water (p-MOW) in the area. (B) Shows the clear transi-
tion from FA1 to facies related to bottom current processes. By this time, the palaeo-MOW became the dominant
depositional process. (C) to (E) Depicts the subtle northward migration of the contourite depositional system
(CDS) and a possible intensification of the palaeo-MOW. (F) and (G) Depicts a period with low-velocity bottom
currents associated with a weak palaeo-MOW. During this period, gravitational deposits could be preserved, as
they were not being significantly affected by bottom currents. (H) and (I) Depicts the southward migration of the
CDS, where the channel (FA4) migrated of the drift (FA1).
3025
Tidal modulated laterally migrating contourite depositional system
identified along the middle and upper slope of Implications

the Gulf of Cadiz at the exit of the SoG (Brack-
The main controls on depositional style of con-
enridge et al., 2018; Garcıa et al., 2020). In the
tourite features are flow-velocity and the char-
SoG these deposits are related to a different,
acteristics of sediment availability. Taking this
shallower water mass compared to that of the
into account, the resulting morphology and
contourite channel (Garcıa et al., 2020).
depositional style should not be drastically dif-
Phase 3 – Reduction of the palaeo-MOW
ferent between the studied sections and other
intensity is indicated by the disappearance of
contourite systems. Current velocities generated
contourite facies related to high-velocity bottom
by overflow are however high in comparison to
currents. This allowed the preservation of tur-
thermohaline circulation. Accordingly, the abil-
bidites (F8) in Fes-north and the deposition of
ity of the flow to transport and deposit sandy
fine-grained contourites or hemipelagites (FA1) in
sediment is a function of flow-velocity and
El Adergha (Fig. 14F and G). In the facies stacking
sediment particle characteristics [for example,
pattern of this interval in El Adergha, minor fluc-
the Hjulstr€ om curve (Hjulstrom, 1935)], and
tuations related to flow velocities have been
thus sandy contourite deposits independent of
observed, suggesting the intermittent behaviour of
the style of bottom current generation should
the palaeo-MOW. The reduction of the palaeo-
show similar features. As such, the contourite
MOW intensity is most likely associated with a
channel system and the erosional and deposi-
decrease in the density gradient between Atlantic
tional features are unique due to the morphol-
inflow and Mediterranean outflow water (Rogerson
ogy of the gateway and the effects of this
et al., 2012). This decrease in density could be
morphology on flow characteristics. The gate-
related to subduction of the Taza Strait, enabling
way however was sufficiently wide (ca 30 km)
increased inflow of less-saline Atlantic water, and
not to restrict the palaeo-MOW, allowing it to
reducing the formation of Mediterranean Deep
‘freely’ flow along the slope, controlled only by
Water. Since no evidence was found of eastward
seafloor morphology, density gradients and the
flow related to the inflow of Atlantic water, the
Coriolis force. The morphology of the gateway
palaeo-MOW was likely still present. This strati-
however amplified tidal forces generating a
graphic interval being dominated by gravitational
tidal control on overflow behaviour. Accord-
deposits furthermore suggests that the slope was
ingly, it can be deduced that other contourite
tectonically unstable. This tectonic instability was
systems characterized by similar flow-velocities
a precursor to the tectonically induced southward
and not related to gateway systems, should
migration of the system as indicated in Phase 4.
likely show less pronounced tidal signatures.
The final phase – Phase 4 – is marked by a
significant southward migration of the con-
tourite depositional system (Fig. 14H and I).
CONCLUSIONS
This southward shift is recognized by the
emplacement of contourite channel facies (FA4)
The main findings described and discussed in
over the drift facies (FA1) in El Adergha. The
this manuscript relate to the discovery and
southward migration of the contourite channel
description of sandy contourites and their first
system could be related to intensification of the
ever recognition as being relics of a contourite
density gradient between the Atlantic and the
channel system, cropping out in the ancient
palaeo-MOW, supporting a deeper settling depth
record. As such, they represent a valuable ana-
of the palaeo-MOW. Rogerson et al. (2012) how-
logue for modern contourite depositional sys-
ever suggest that the negative feedback process
tems and ancient subsurface exploration and
of enhanced ambient water entrainment with a
research targets.
denser palaeo-MOW plume counteracts deeper
The findings presented herein elaborate on
settlement of this plume. As such, it is more
the evolution of this system and emphasize the
likely that the palaeo-MOW was forced south-
occurrence of different facies associated with
ward by tectonic uplift resulting in the south-
bottom currents. Facies and facies associations
ward migration of the contourite channel.
have been interpreted as representing the ‘full-
Ongoing tectonic uplift since 7.25 Ma closed the
spectrum’ of contourite depositional and ero-
Atlantic–Mediterranean connection leading to
sional environments, the drift, drift-channel
the Mediterranean Salinity Crisis (Capella et al.,
transition and the contourite channel. The
2020b).
facies changes are predominantly related to
changes in the intensity of the palaeo- the Ministerio de Educacion, Cultura y Deporte
Mediterranean Outflow Water (palaeo-MOW) (Gobierno Espana). Journal reviews by A.R.
which decreases away from its core. The con- Viana and S.G. Longhitano are greatly appreci-
tourites are interstratified with hemipelagites, ated, and their comments helped us to improve
turbidites and slump deposits where their the clarity of the manuscript.
preservation is related to a decrease in palaeo-
MOW intensity.
The vertical sedimentary facies stacking pat-
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
tern records the tectonically induced, southward
migration of the contourite depositional system
The data that support the findings of this study
(CDS) and the intermittent behaviour of the
are available from the corresponding author
palaeo-MOW which is mainly driven by
upon reasonable request.
precessional-scale and millennial-scale climate
variations. The tidal signature in the sandy con-
tourite deposits shows that tides played a key
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Contourite Depositional System After The Exit of A Strait 2021

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Sedimentology (2021) 68, 2996–3032 doi: 10.1111/sed.

Contourite depositional system after the exit of a strait: Case

Associate Editor – Christian Betzler

Keywords Bottom currents, channels, contourites, deep-water sedimenta-

INTRODUCTION by the action of bottom currents. These sandier

Fig. 3. Middle Miocene to late

miotumida at 7.25 Ma (Sierro, 1985; Sierro

Palaeogeographic reconstruction based on

F1 Fossil-rich None or subtle Cm-scale to Structureless with – Scarce discrete trace

Fossil-rich blue marlstone normal and 100s of m- occasional laminae of fossils

International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 68, 2996–3032

F9 Mixed Normal grading 4 up to 15 cm Deformed, convolute Remnants of original Low to moderate

sandstone up to medium-grained (Table S1; Cruziana ichnofacies which is typical of deeper

Based on the: (i) palaeogeographic reconstruc- Contourites: drift-channel transitional

Fine-grained Vertical settling, Contourite drift FA1 F1 – Hemipelagites up to 100s

Coarse-grained Along-slope Drift/channel FA2 F3 – Fine-grained sandy 0.6 to 1.5

sandstone, the Atlantic–Mediterranean interface Phase 1 – The initiation or intensification of

identified along the middle and upper slope of Implications

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