Automatic Field Monitoring and Detection of Plant Diseases Using IoT

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL ON ORANGE TECHNOLOGY
https://journals.researchparks.org/index.php/IJOT e-ISSN: 2615-8140 | p-ISSN: 2615-7071

Volume: 5 Issue: 8 | Aug 2023
Automatic Field Monitoring and Detection of Plant Diseases Using IoT
Akila Begum H
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Dhaanish Ahmed College of Engineering,
Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
Yasmin A
Bachelor of Engineering, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Dhaanish
Ahmed College of Engineering, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
T. Ashmi
Assistant Professor, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Dhaanish Ahmed
College of Engineering, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
--------------------------------------------------------------***-------------------------------------------------------------
Annotation: This research presents a GSM-based system for automatic plant disease diagnosis and describes its
use in the creation of ACPS. Traditional farming methods were largely ineffective against microbial diseases. In
addition, farmers can't keep up with the ever-changing nature of infections, so a reliable disease forecasting
system is essential. To circumvent this, we employ a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) model that has been
trained to examine the crop image recorded by a health maintenance system. The solar sensor node is in charge of
taking pictures, sensing continuously, and automating smartly. An agricultural robot is sometimes known as an
agribot or agbot. An autonomous robot with agricultural applications. It helps the farmer improve crop
productivity while decreasing the need for manual labour. In the future, these agricultural robots could replace
human labour in a variety of farming tasks, including tilling, planting, and harvesting. These agricultural robots
will manage pests and diseases as well as perform tasks like weeding. In order to keep an eye on the crops and
streamline the irrigation process, this system is equipped with disease prediction technology for plants and
intelligent irrigation controls. The energy required to provide disease prediction and irrigation systems separately
is reduced by combining them in this project.
Keywords: Automatic Field Monitoring, Detection of Plant Diseases, Internet of Things.
Introduction
Due to rising populations and subsequent food demands, agriculture will continue to use the vast majority of the
world's freshwater resources [12]. Due to the shortage of water and advances in technology, we have developed a
wide variety of methods for efficiently and effectively using water for agricultural purposes. With automatic
irrigation scheduling based on direct soil water readings, cotton yields and water use efficiency have both been
optimised [13-15]. Estimating plant evapotranspiration is an alternate metric for watering requirements in
agriculture (ET). Solar radiation, temperature, relative humidity, and wind speed are some of the climatic
characteristics that influence ET, along with crop aspects like growth stage, variety, plant density, management
elements, soil properties, and pest and disease control. To reduce water use by 53% compared to sprinkler watering
in 1000 m2 of pasture, a system based on an electromagnetic sensor to assess soil moisture was developed. By
adjusting irrigation to daily changes in weather or volumetric substrate moisture content, a soil sensor and an
evaporimeter have helped reduce water use in scheduled systems as well [16-19]. Using decision-support software
and its connection with an infield wireless sensor network (WSN) operating a modified irrigation machine with
programmable spray nozzles, a system was designed to optimise irrigation for large-scale malting barley
cultivations [20-24].
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Objective
 Everyone needs food to live, so access to it is a precious commodity.
 With the help of this project, agricultural land may produce more with less inputs.
 In this way, farmers can keep up with the ever-changing threats posed by viruses and plant diseases.
 The farmer can discover crop diseases sooner with the help of the crop disease prediction system.
Assembling and coordinating all parts to carry out a task or set of tasks in accordance with a predetermined set of
rules is the hallmark of an embedded system [25]. A washing machine or a wristwatch are both embedded systems.
A computer system in which the software is directly integrated into the hardware is called an embedded system. It
creates a subsystem that is solely responsible for one function within a bigger application or product [26-29]. The
embedded system could be programmable or non-programmable, depending on the task at hand. Appliances like
dishwashers, microwaves, cameras, printers, and even cars all use embedded systems [30]. Digital signal
processors, microprocessors, and other specialised processors are used (DSP). Components of embedded systems,
embedded system types, and defining features are all covered in the introduction to embedded systems (fig.1).
Figure 1: Embedded System Block Diagram [8]

Hardware, Embedded system software, and an Operating System are the three pillars upon which an embedded
system rests [31-33]. An embedded system, like any other electronic system, must have a hardware platform on
which to run. A microprocessor or microcontroller is typically used in the construction of embedded system
hardware [34]. The embedded system's hardware consists of the processor, memory, display, and user interfaces.
Embedded systems often run on specialised software designed to carry out a given task. The code is often written in
a high-level language and compiled into an executable form before being stored in the hardware's non-volatile
memory [35-39]. Because of these three constraints, embedded system software must be carefully crafted. A system
is considered real-time if its timely operation and provision of the service it provides are critical. The application
programme is controlled and the processor is allowed to run thanks to the real-time operating system [40-44]. The
Real-Time OS is the software layer between the computer's hardware and the programmes that use that hardware.
An RTOS is optimised to run time-sensitive programmes with a large degree of consistency [45-49]. In
measurement and industrial automation systems, where downtime can be expensive or a delayed programme can
pose a safety risk, this can be especially useful (fig.2).

Figure 2: Various Forms of Systems Memory [8]

Several varieties of storage can be found in an embedded system. Remembering can take many shapes, and this
chart shows them all [50-55]. Microprocessors (DSP), Digital Signal Processors (DSP), microcontrollers, RISC
processors, Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIP) processors, Arm processors, and ASSP processors are
only few of the processor types utilised in embedded systems [56-61]. The microprocessor is a versatile processor
that can be integrated onto a very large-scale integrated circuit. The following table lists the many microprocessor
families seen in embedded systems [62-67].
Embedding a DSP:
When it comes to embedded systems, a processor like a digital signal processor is a crucial component. Audio,
video, multimedia, image processing, a DSP modem, high-definition television, and telecommunications processing
systems are all examples of DSP applications [68-71]. These processors are also employed in DNA sequence and
picture pattern recognition systems. In the following table, we list the many DSP families utilised in embedded
systems (fig.3) [72-75].
Figure 3: Classification of Embedded Systems

The microcontroller in a small-scale embedded device typically has 16 bits of memory and can run on a single AA
battery. The primary programming tools for creating embedded software for these systems are an editor, an
assembler, a (IDE) integrated development environment, and a cross-assembler [76-81].
Medium-Scale Embedded Systems are built around a single or small number of 16- or 32-bit microcontrollers,
digital signal processors, or RISCs. The hardware and software in these systems are very sophisticated. When
creating embedded software for these systems, the following programming tools are utilised. These include a C
compiler, a C++ compiler, Visual C++, Java, an RTOS, a debugger, a simulator, and an IDE (integrated
development environment) [82-85].

Complex Embedded Systems Complex embedded systems may require PLAs, Ips, ASIPs, and scalable or
adjustable processors due to the large amount of hardware and software complexity involved. They are put to use in
state-of-the-art applications that need for a unified design of hardware and software [86].
Embedded systems can be used for a variety of purposes. Smart cards, communications, satellites, missiles, digital
consumer electronics, computer networking, etc. are just a few examples of where embedded systems are put to
use. Fundamentals and practical uses of embedded systems are discussed. Regardless of the circuit complexity,
embedded systems are fantastic and necessary in many gadgets, industrial instrumentation, equipment, and
appliances [87-94].
The agricultural practises of today are evolving at a lightning pace. Food product pricing, supply chain, and
distribution are all impacted by the world's expanding population and ever-changing trade policies. Organic food
and sustainably produced vegetables and fruits are becoming increasingly popular among consumers, especially in
Western countries [95-97]. In India, agriculture employs over 53% of the population. Labor shortages and rising
expenses for farm work are a result of the agriculture industry's need to respond to growing and shifting demands.
Automation in agriculture is a solution to the aforementioned issues, which is why agricultural modernisation has
emerged. By using automation in several steps of agricultural production, this technique accomplishes its primary
purpose of minimising the need for man labour [98-101]. To do tasks like ploughing, planting, and pruning, an
autonomous vehicle is built and controlled to do so. Controlling a car from a distance is possible because to the
employment of high-tech sensors and communication systems. An irrigation system is planned that watered the
field depending on the weather forecast and the soil moisture level in order to minimise water waste. In order to
accomplish this, a technique is developed to select the appropriate crop for the season based on weather forecasts.
In this study, we create a prototype tractor specifically for ploughing. A DC motor operated by an H-bridge allows
the vehicle to be steered in any direction [102-105]. The motor is remotely operated by the farmer from his mobile
device in the field via Bluetooth connection. This research study introduces automated planter and cultivator
vehicles [1].
Today, farmers do much more than just provide food for their communities' expanding populations. It's significant
everywhere, not just in the 70% of Asian countries where the majority of the population works in agriculture. That's
a wide variety of people it's able to nourish. Reduced crop quality due to illness must be the top priority. The ability
to detect disease could be crucial in preventing agricultural losses. The ultimate goal of this project is to create a
computer programme that can automatically detect and categorise sickness. Illness detection entails a number of
steps, including image loading, preprocessing, segmentation, extraction, and classification. The images of the
leaves are then utilised to identify afflicted plants. Therefore, the image processing method is effective in
agricultural applications for detecting and categorising illnesses [2].
One area where machine learning has found use is in the creation of an automatic detector for plant diseases. Expert
laboratory methods for diagnosing plant diseases are generally impractical for rapid, low-cost rollouts. Images of
leaves and fruits are utilised as input data in machine learning methods. We create data-driven, disease-
classification-optimal features that are discriminatory. Because of the considerable intra- and inter-variability of the
data, extracting useful features from the photos might be difficult. This work introduces a convolutional
autoencoder-based unsupervised feature learning system for disease detection in plants. There are two primary
benefits to employing a convolutional autoencoder. To begin with, the network may eventually learn to develop
discriminative features on its own, rendering the need of handcrafted features redundant. Second, there is no need
to label any data because the process is unsupervised. Here, we feed the results from the autoencoder into SVM-
based classifiers to identify plant illnesses automatically. When compared to an autoencoder with fewer hidden
layers, this technique performs better [3].

Agriculture provides a significant means of subsistence. Rural residents of developing countries like India might
find enough work in the agricultural sector. There are many different crops grown in India, and a recent assessment
found that this sector of the economy supports the livelihoods of about 70% of the country's people. Because of a
lack of access to technology training, most Indian farmers now practise manual farming methods. Farmers typically
don't know much about what crops work best on their land. There will be a decrease in both the quantity and quality
of agricultural products when plants are infected by diverse illnesses through their leaves. The rapid development of
plants and the increased yield of crops are both dependent on their leaves. It is difficult for both farmers and
scientists to recognise plant illnesses in the leaves. When farmers spray pesticides on crops, it has repercussions for
human health and the economy. Many quick methods need to be adopted to detect these plant diseases. In this
study, we provide a comprehensive overview of plant diseases and the state-of-the-art methods currently available
for diagnosing them [4].
In addition to humans, all other forms of life require water to function as a vital natural resource. Water resources
such as rivers, lakes, and reservoirs affect how much water can be used. Water contamination has made water a
scarce resource, that's for sure. We design an Internet-of-Things-based environmental water management
monitoring system to collect data on water quality, which is essential for ensuring water's continued usefulness as a
natural resource. Raspberry Pi as an embedded system will facilitate the production of sensing devices, and remote
communications technology will facilitate the exchange of data between objects. As a result, the Internet of Things
water quality monitoring system can be used as a fully automated, web-based surface water monitoring system [5].
A healthy and sustainable ecosystem depends on green plants, which are essential to human well-being. This
highlights the need of cultivating robust vegetation. If the plant illness could be diagnosed early on, it might be
treated. In this study, we propose using a Raspberry Pi to monitor a farm for signs of plant health and send alerts to
the farmer through email when problems are found. We have performed numerical calculations using the tensor
flow tool. It has the ability to detect indications in farms with a regulated environment [6].
Rapid advancement in food production technologies is necessary to keep up with the growing demand for food.
Many different kinds of crops and plants exist. Plants and crops have varying needs for moisture, nutrients, and
sunshine. In a country like India, agriculture is a major economic driver. India's economy depends heavily on its
farmers, who put in long hours to ensure maximum agricultural yields [106-111]. However, natural disasters might
cause agricultural difficulties, which can disrupt the regularly scheduled irrigation of crops. The primary cause is
the dry weather and inadequate supply of water in land reservoirs. The water level on Earth is falling due to
humankind's relentless thirst for water. Therefore, this causes more land to become unusable for farming. Wasted
water is another major issue on the global agenda. As the global population grows, so does the need for water,
making water conservation an increasingly urgent issue today. In order to ensure that plants and crops receive water
at the optimal moment [7], smart irrigation systems have been proposed and developed [112-116].
Methodology Dataset
In order to detect leaf diseases in plants, we have used our dataset to collect photos of plant leaves. There are
hundreds of RGB photos in the collection, divided into eight groups that represent different states of health for plant
leaves.
Data Collection
The data is captured and stored as images of the plant's leaves. Infected leaves of various plants are photographed
with mobile phones or digital cameras. The photos are processed using image analysis methods to extract
information. The leaves of a rose plant were harvested for this purpose [117].

Image Acquisition
The first step is to gather information from the plants. The image is read in as data for analysis. We have
implemented support for common image file types such as.bmp,.jpg, and.gif. Here, our software is given images of
plant leaves in order to detect the disease. JPEG is the most common image file format, and higher resolution
photographs will be used for analysis [118-121].
Image Pre Processing
Dust, spores, and water spots are all examples of noise that could be present in field-collected photos. In order to
change the pixel values, data must first be preprocessed, which involves removing noise from the image. The image
is improved as a result. Normalizing an image is a common procedure that modifies the intensity range of
individual pixels. Its usual function is to normalise the pixel values of an input image so that they appear more
consistent to the human eye. The vein picture from each leaf is extracted by converting the original RGB image into
a black-and-white image. Image editing is the practise of improving upon an existing image for use in a particular
context. The purpose of picture enhancement is to draw attention to specific parts of an image that could otherwise
be overlooked [122-129].
Median filtering is a common method of digital noise reduction [130]. It is a non-linear filtering technique. Noise
reduction like this is a common preprocessing procedure used to boost post-processing outcomes (for example,
edge detection on an image). Images and transmissions can have noise removed using the median filter method.
When removing noise from images, the median filter is essential because of its reputation for maintaining image
edges (fig.4).
Figure 4: Image Pre Processing [9]

Segmentation
The third and last stage of our proposed strategy is image segmentation. Using the convolutional neural network
(CNN) technique, the segmented images are grouped into distinct regions. The photos' RGB colour space is
converted to the Lab colour space before clustering. The Lab colour model was developed to facilitate the
organisation of segmented images into groups. Image Segmentation refers to the process of breaking down a
digital picture into its constituent parts, or groups of pixels (also known as superpixels). When an image is
segmented, it is broken up into smaller pieces that work together to form a boundary around the full picture, or it
is reduced to a series of outlines. When it comes to distinguishable or predetermined characteristics like colour,
form, and texture, every pixel in a region is quite near [131-139].

The next step is to apply some fundamental Morphological operations to the image in order to fill up any gaps.
Filling in gaps or empty areas in an image is a morphological process. Furthermore, it does what its name implies
and fills hollow shapes [140]. These voids, or holes, are represented by a set of background pixels that are
surrounded by a boundary of foreground pixels [141].
Next, the picture gets binarized, or transformed into binary. Then, if the binary pixel value is 0, the associated
RGB picture value is transformed (fig.5).
Figure 5: Segmentation
Feature Extraction
In this study, we focus on extracting four different types of form features: solidity, extension, minor axis length,
and eccentricity. The affected area of the leaf is isolated using these characteristics.
The paper uses contrast, correlation, and energy to extract texture information. Using these characteristics, we may
pinpoint the affected area of the leaf under analysis. Finally, we'll figure out how much each pixel and its
neighbours differ from one another.
Color feature extraction has a special manner of demonstrating image representation with respect to translation,
scaling, and rotation. Mean, skewness, and kurtosis are the features employed in the colouring process. In this
process, we go from RGB to LAB.
Model Creation and Prediction Classification
Training sets and testing sets are the two types of data used in categorization. Each instance or piece of data in the
training set has numerous properties in addition to the single target value. The primary focus here is on pinpointing
the dividing hyperplane that separates these points into the positive and negative categories, respectively.
Convolutional Neural Network
In order to conduct convolution operations, CNNs, or convolutional neural networks, have a complex network
topology. Input, convolution, pooling, full connection, and output layers make up the convolutional neural network
model. In one model, the convolution layer and the pooling layer switch places multiple times, and partial
connections between the neurons in the convolution layer and the pooling layer are sufficient. In the realm of deep
learning, CNN is a common model. The core structural qualities of CNN provide it an edge in picture identification
because to its large model capacity and complicated information. Meanwhile, deep learning's rising popularity can
be attributed to CNN's achievements in computer vision tasks. When a test image is sent into a classification
network, it performs analysis on the data and then outputs a label indicating how the image should be categorised.
CNN classification networks use a complete connection layer (or average pooling layer) followed by a softmax
structure for classification, with the feature extraction comprising a cascaded convolution layer + pooling layer.

GSM Modem Applications
Figure 6: GSM Modem Applications [10]

The AT command interface is used to manage the GSM/GPRS modem via its serial interface (fig.6). A power
supply and antenna are included. The modem's basic operational separation is described below. Calls over the
phone are not a desirable target application. If interfaces like a microphone and speaker are made available in the
future for certain software, this may become a viable option. Short Message Service (SMS) messages can also be
used to send brief texts. It's possible for the transmitter to be a vending machine, a collection machine, or a
navigation system that constantly sends out SMS messages at predetermined intervals. In areas without access to
GSM data calls or GPRS services, SMS may be a viable alternative. Through short message service (SMS), access
control devices can talk to servers and security personnel. Without requiring physical connection, the central server
has immediate access to the whole history of all transactions. In event of danger, the device can immediately
contact security staff via their cell phones. All of RaviRaj Technologies' Fingerprint Access control and time
attendance products will soon feature this innovation. Transaction confirmations from centralised servers can be
sent through SMS to EDC machines and POS terminals. The key perk is that the main server can be located
anywhere in the world. Local servers in each city with numerous phone lines are necessary now. Both the upfront
investment and the transaction fees you incur are greatly reduced. Nowadays, supply chain management
necessitates a sizable IT infrastructure consisting of leased lines, networking devices, data centres, and
workstations; nonetheless, significant downtimes and excessive prices persist. With GSM M2M technology, you
can accomplish all of this at a fraction of the usual cost. You can receive real-time transaction data from all of your
branch offices, warehouses, and business partners with zero downtime, low cost, and a central server in your
headquarters that has GSM capabilities.
Applications Suitable for GSM Communication
GSM will be less expensive than other communication systems if your application requires one or more of their
functionalities. Each transaction should only require one to three lines of data. Financial data, purchase/sale figures,
consignment tracking info, etc. SMS messaging, which costs less than a local phone call and is sometimes free
worldwide, can be used to transmit these brief but crucial bits of transaction data. As a result, you can deliver vital
data to your headquarters from different locations around the world at little cost. While GSM allows for the
transport of faxes and huge data files, the price is comparable to, if not more than, that of traditional landline
networks. Having access to data from a wide variety of locations across your city, state, country, or planet will give
you the most insight. Your company's satellite offices, partners, warehouses, and agents can all contribute data via
GSM modems connected to personal computers, GSM electronic terminals, and mobile phones. Even though many
businesses, such as warehouses, are located in outlying areas with limited or no landline or internet access, they will
still have access to a GSM network. GSM mobile networks have higher uptime than landlines, the internet, and
other communication mediums, making them an ideal choice for businesses that depend on constant connectivity.
GSM is also reliable when you know that someone is going to try to disrupt your communication by, for example,
cutting wires or tape landlines.
Several GSM SMS messages can be processed in a short amount of time. Similar to email, your server can store a
large number of incoming SMS messages even when disconnected from the internet. When time is of the essence,
SMS texts are much more reliable than e-mails. Store owners who accept credit cards using GSM networks rather
than traditional landlines is just one example. Whereas local transaction servers are busy, it's because they're using
numerous phone lines to process transactions at once, when in reality, a single GSM connection can handle
hundreds. Unlike traditional phone lines, GSM terminals and modems can be easily relocated to a new place. In
addition, GSM terminals enable mobile access to the server via a mobile phone. GSM modems, terminals, and
mobile phones can be bought, SIM cards installed, and software set up in order to initiate GSM communication.
When referring to a device or system that provides electrical or other types of energy to an output load or group of
loads, the term "power supply" (often shortened to "PSU") is commonly used. The term is most generally used to
describe electrical energy sources, occasionally referring to mechanical ones, and never to any others.
The input line voltage is transformed by the transformer, which also isolates the power source from the power line.
The input signal of alternating current is changed into a direct current that pulses in the rectifier section. The last
part, the regulator, controls the output. It keeps the power output stable regardless of the load current or the line
voltage input. Now that you know your way around, you may use an AC signal to follow the power supply as it is
being generated. At this stage, you need inspect each component of the power supply to determine how this signal
is modified there. The transformer is a step-up type with a 1:3 turn ratio. The output voltage of this transformer is
345 volts ac (peak-to-peak) and may be calculated by multiplying the input voltage by the ratio of the primary turns
to the secondary turns. Rectifier output is roughly 173 volts of alternating current (DC) due to the fact that each
diode in the section conducts for just 180 degrees of the full 360-degree input. The rising and falling times of the
changing signal are regulated by the filter section, which is a network of resistors, capacitors, or inductors. This
results in a more stable DC level for the signal. When we talk about filter circuits, the filtration process will become
clearer. The filter puts out a 110-volt dc signal with ac ripple superimposed on it. The average voltage drop will be
discussed and its cause identified. The electronic devices run on a steady 110-volt dc supply, which is maintained
by the regulator (more commonly called the load). When tinkering with digital devices, this compact +5V power
supply circuit comes in handy. These transformers are widely accessible, although they typically have poor voltage
regulation. This design's +5V output can be boosted to 1 A with proper cooling of the 7805-regulator chip. The
current drawn by the circuit is currently around 150 mA. The input voltage to the circuit must be well above the
capacitors' safe operating voltage. The circuit can be easily constructed on a single Vero board. What each pin does
on a 7805 regulator IC.
The +5V output of the 7805 chips can be changed to any other voltage within the range of the regulator 78xx chip
family by simply swapping out the chips. The output voltage is shown by the chip's final digit. For the regulator's
output voltage to be stable, the input voltage must be at least 3 volts higher (figs. 7 and 8).

Figure 7: Non-Affected Accuracy -99.67%
Figure 8: Blackspot Affected Accuracy -99.67% [11]

Conclusion
In this paper, we proposed a fully autonomous system to assist in watering a path of indoor potted plants. The
mobile robot is capable of detecting when plants need watering and then watering them without any assistance from
a human. An Arduino microcontroller, a water pump, a relay, a wireless temperature and humidity sensor, and soil
information all make up the system. When a leaf disease is found, an alert will be sent to the appropriate person. An
agricultural robot is sometimes known as an agribot or agbot. An autonomous robot with agricultural applications.
It helps the farmer improve crop productivity while decreasing the need for manual labour. In the future, these
agricultural robots could replace human labour in a variety of farming tasks, including tilling, planting, and
harvesting. These agricultural robots will manage pests and diseases as well as perform tasks like weeding. This
system has a disease prediction system and a sophisticated irrigation system.
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL ON ORANGE TECHNOLOGY

https://journals.researchparks.org/index.php/IJOT e-ISSN: 2615-8140 | p-ISSN: 2615-7071

Automatic Field Monitoring and Detection of Plant Diseases Using IoT

Figure 1: Embedded System Block Diagram [8]

© 2023, IJOT | Research Parks Publishing (IDEAS Lab) www.researchparks.org | Page 6

Figure 2: Various Forms of Systems Memory [8]

Figure 3: Classification of Embedded Systems

© 2023, IJOT | Research Parks Publishing (IDEAS Lab) www.researchparks.org | Page 7

© 2023, IJOT | Research Parks Publishing (IDEAS Lab) www.researchparks.org | Page 8

© 2023, IJOT | Research Parks Publishing (IDEAS Lab) www.researchparks.org | Page 9

Figure 4: Image Pre Processing [9]

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© 2023, IJOT | Research Parks Publishing (IDEAS Lab) www.researchparks.org | Page 11

GSM Modem Applications

Figure 6: GSM Modem Applications [10]

© 2023, IJOT | Research Parks Publishing (IDEAS Lab) www.researchparks.org | Page 13

Figure 7: Non-Affected Accuracy -99.67%

Figure 8: Blackspot Affected Accuracy -99.67% [11]

Computer Vision,” Design Engineering (Toronto), vol. 8, pp. 832–844, 2021.

© 2023, IJOT | Research Parks Publishing (IDEAS Lab) www.researchparks.org | Page 17

Engineering Congress and Exposition, 2015.

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vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 31–40, 2023.

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