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ASSESSING SOIL EROSION DYNAMICS IN THE RMEL WATERSHED,

NORTHERN MOROCCO BY USING THE RUSLE MODEL, GIS, AND REMOTE
SENSING INTEGRATION

Article in The Journal Agriculture and Forestry · December 2023

DOI: 10.17707/AgricultForest.69.4.11

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 Agriculture & Forestry, Vol. 69 Issue 4: 173-194, 2023, Podgorica 173
Bouayad, F.E., El Idrysy, M., Ouallali, A., El Amrani, M., Courba, S., Hahou, Y., Benhachmi, M.K., Spalevic,
V., Kebede F. Briak, H. (2023). Assessing soil erosion dynamics in the Rmel watershed, northern Morocco by
using the RUSLE model, GIS, and remote sensing integration. Agriculture and Forestry, 69 (4): 173-194.
doi:10.17707/AgricultForest.69.4.11
DOI: 10.17707/AgricultForest.69.4.11
Fatima Ezzahraa BOUAYAD, Majda EL IDRYSY, Abdessalam OUALLALI,
Mohamed EL AMRANI, Said COURBA, Youssef HAHOU, Mohammed Karim
BENHACHMI, Velibor SPALEVIC, Fassil KEBEDE, Hamza BRIAK 1
ASSESSING SOIL EROSION DYNAMICS IN THE RMEL WATERSHED,
NORTH-WESTERN MOROCCO BY USING THE RUSLE MODEL, GIS,
AND REMOTE SENSING INTEGRATION
SUMMARY
Soil erosion induced by water constitutes a challenge with far-reaching
environmental and socioeconomic implications across diverse global regions.
This phenomenon detrimentally affects agricultural yield, accelerates dam
siltation, and amplifies the susceptibility to flooding. Consequently, a prerequisite
for any land development initiative is the meticulous identification and mapping
of areas prone to erosion. The Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) is
the predominant method for evaluating soil erosion, encompassing climate
erosivity, topography, vegetation cover, soil erodibility, and anti-erosion
interventions. This study integrated RUSLE with Geographic Information
Systems (GIS) to delineate soil losses within the Rmel watershed in north-
western Morocco. The outcomes unveiled an average annual erosion rate of
approximately 15.8 tons per hectare, a comparatively modest figure with adjacent
regions. Merely 9% of the watershed exhibits vulnerability to soil erosion,
surpassing the threshold of 15 tons per hectare annually. These vulnerable areas
are predominantly influenced by anthropogenic activities in the basin's central
region and adverse climatic conditions downstream. The insights from this
research can inform decision-makers in developing strategic action plans and
policies for effective soil erosion management in the region. Additionally, the
integration of magnetic susceptibility could serve as a complementary tool to
enhance the robustness of this analysis.
Keywords: Soil erosion, RUSLE model, GIS, Rmel watershed, Morocco.

1
Fatima Ezzahraa Bouayad (corresponding author: [email protected]), Abdessalam
Ouallali, Mohammed Karim Benhachmi, Process Engineering and Environment Laboratory,
Faculty of Sciences and Techniques of Mohammedia, Hassan II University of Casablanca, BP 146,
Mohammedia 28806, MOROCCO; Majda El Idrysy, Mohamed El Amrani, Said Courba, Youssef
Hahou, Laboratory of Geosciences, Water and Environment, Department of Geology, Faculty of
Sciences, Mohammed V University in Rabat, 4 Avenue Ibn Batouta, BP. 1014 R.P., 10000, Rabat,
MOROCCO; Velibor Spalevic, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Montenegro, Podgorica,
MONTENEGRO; Fassil Kebede, Hamza Briak, Center of Excellence for Soil and Fertilizer
Research in Africa (CESFRA), Mohammed VI Polytechnic University, 660 Lot, Ben Guerir 43150,
MOROCCO.
Note: The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest. Authorship Form signed online.
Received: 05/10/2023 Accepted: 27/11/2023
174 Bouayad et al.

INTRODUCTION
Water erosion, resulting from the degradation of surface soil layers and the
displacement of constituent materials (Rodrigues Neto, 2022; Spalevic, 2011,
Kavian et al. 2018), occurs due to energy release induced by raindrop impact,
wind, glaciers, and soil particle transportation (Bhat et al. 2019). This widespread
phenomenon inflicts significant environmental damage, profoundly affecting
ecological and socioeconomic aspects (Moukhchane et al. 1998; Spalevic et al.,
2013; Saikumar et al. 2022; Sabri et al. 2022). Globally, erosion poses a serious
threat, particularly in Mediterranean countries where factors such as irregular
rainfall, elevated temperatures, and a topography characterized by hills and
mountains exacerbate soil vulnerability (García-Ruiz et al. 2013; Ouallali et al.
2020; Salhi et al. 2023). A 1977 FAO study revealed that 12.6 million hectares of
crops and rangelands in Morocco were at risk of water erosion (El Jazouli et al.
2019; Fartas et al. 2022). A subsequent 1990 FAO study indicated a worsening
scenario, with water erosion affecting 40% of the land area.
Water erosion is the foremost menace to soil degradation in Morocco, with
annual soil loss generally exceeding 50 t/ha/y (Salhi et al. 2021). The Moroccan
mountains present complex erosion challenges, including sheet erosion, gullying,
soil movement, bank undermining, solifluction, and mudflows (Roose, 2002).
The Rif region experiences a more insidious form of erosion, impacting soil
fertility and dam reservoir water volume due to silting (Ouallali et al. 2020).
Despite the topographical, lithological, and climatic characteristics of the
Oued Rmel watershed, it is not impervious to water erosion phenomena.
Integrating remote sensing and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) emerges
as crucial tools in interactive decision support and operational planning for risk
management operations.
Soil erosion modelling is one of the steps used to plan suitable soil
protection measures and detect erosion hotspots (Bezak et al. 2021). Various
methods exist to determine erosion rates or states, including hydrological
modelling methods (Briak et al. 2016), geochemical tracers (Guzmán et al. 2013),
surface geophysical techniques (Ibrahim et al. 2020), magnetic susceptibility
(Ouallali et al. 2023), and empirical modelling (Spalevic et al. 2013; Sakuno et
al. 2020), with the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE), its modified version
(MUSLE), and its revised version (RUSLE) being the most widely employed
(Zhang et al. 2009; Gwapedza et al. 2018; Djoukbala et al. 2019). The optimal
model selection depends on the study area's variability and data availability
(Stefanidis et al. 2022).
The USLE/RUSLE model, grounded in mathematical equations applied in
field observations and laboratory analyses, stands among the foremost
mathematical models for predicting soil erosion losses (Römkens et al. 2015; Ed-
daoudy et al. 2023). The RUSLE model computes the long-term average annual
erosion rate by factoring in rainfall, soil type, topography, vegetation cover, and
erosion control practices, allowing for a thorough assessment of erosional impact
over time.
 Assessing soil erosion dynamics in the Rmel watershed, northern Morocco… 175

This study's primary objective is to determine and map sediment-producing

areas in the Rmel watershed. The study also looked into the repercussions of
erosion on the water potential of the Rmel dam. The dam, pivotal in providing
irrigation and potable water, is also crucial in flood protection for the Tangier-
Med port and Ksar Essghir. Through this investigation, we aim to show the
complex interaction between erosion dynamics and the essential functions of the
Rmel dam in sustaining agricultural, residential, and industrial needs in the
region.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Study area
The Oued Rmel watershed is situated in northwest Morocco, within the
province of Ksar Essghir in the Rif region, approximately 44 km northeast of
Tangier (Figure 1).

Fig 1: Localization map of the study area

A prominent hydraulic structure in this area is the Rmel dam, constructed

in 2008 along the main river. This dam is paramount for hydroelectric power
generation, irrigation, water supply, and flood prevention. Boasting a storage
capacity of up to 400 million cubic meters, it plays a pivotal role in regional
water resource management.
176 Bouayad et al.

The hydrographic network of the Rmel basin spans a total length of 12.7km
and is nourished by rainwater and mountain streams. The primary river within the
basin is the Oued Rmel. The climate in the Rmel watershed is categorized as
subhumid. Climatic data reveals an average annual rainfall of approximately
400mm, with notable variability from one year to the next, occasionally leading
to severe drought conditions. The heaviest rainfall typically occurs in January and
February. The region experiences an average temperature of around 17.8°C, with
peak temperatures reaching 29.3°C in summer and minimum temperatures
averaging 6.3°C in winter. Geologically, the Rmel watershed is characterized by
sedimentary deposits, primarily composed of limestone, sandstone, marl, and
clay, spanning from the Paleozoic to the Quaternary age. This geological
composition contributes to the diverse landscape and environmental dynamics
observed in the region.

Model implementation
Various models, differing in complexity and data prerequisites, offer the
capability to estimate soil erosion (Karydas et al. 2014). These models are
versatile in forecasting soil erosion rates across diverse temporal and spatial
scales. Notably, the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) model underwent
refinement, evolving into the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE)
(Millward & Mersey, 1999).
This updated model facilitates the assessment of the average annual rate of
soil loss and allows for the determination of the spatial distribution of an erosion
risk map (Mukanov et al. 2019). Widely recognized as the preeminent model for
estimating soil loss, the RUSLE guides efforts toward soil conservation to
mitigate water erosion. The successful application of this novel model hinges on
incorporating diverse data types that accurately capture field conditions. We
employed the RUSLE model to pursue our research goals, following the outlined
protocol depicted in Figure 2.
According to the RUSLE model (Eq. (1)), soil loss (A) is a multiplicative
function based on five elements: topography factor (LS), vegetation cover factor
(C), soil erodibility (K) (t.h/MJ.mm), rainfall erosivity (R) (MJ.mm/ha.h.year),
and erosion control practices factor (P) interrelated according to the equation:

A=R*K*LS*C*P Eq. (1)

with:
A: is the average soil erosion per surface unit (t/h/year);
R: is the rainfall and runoff erosivity factor (Mjmm/ha-H-year);
LS: is the slope length (L) and slope steepness (S)factor;
K: is the soil erodibility factor (t-ha-h/ha-MJ-mm);
C: is vegetation cover, management, and culture practices factor;
P: is the conservation practice factor.
We used different data from several sources to evaluate water erosion in
the study area. We describe these data in Table 1.
 Assessing soil erosion dynamics in the Rmel watershed, northern Morocco… 177

Fig 2: The RUSLE methodology flowchart.

Table 1: Description of datasets used for the RUSLE model.

Datasets Data source
Rainfall data for the 2010-2022 period ABHL
recorded at the Tanger Med, Ksar
Essghir, Oued Rmel, Alian, Elhorra
Data on vegetation cover extracted Earth explorer
from Landsat 8 Oli satellite image (no.
201035), downloaded on 05/31/2022
Topographic data from ASTER 30m Earthdata
digital terrain model (DEM)
Field observations and laboratory Sample analysis at the laboratory
analysis of soil samples. Field observations

To acquire the foundational data essential for constructing maps of water

erosion variables in the Oued Rmel watershed, a series of analysis and processing
activities are imperative for each component. To estimate soil erosion, a
comprehensive dataset of rainfall spanning 12 years (2010-2022) was procured
from five stations—Tangier Med, Ksar Essghir, Oued Rmel, Alian, and
Elhorra—courtesy of the Loukkos Water Basin Agency. This dataset was
instrumental in calculating the rainfall-runoff erosion factor (R factor).
178 Bouayad et al.

In crafting a rainfall erosion map for the watershed, the rainfall erosion
point data underwent interpolation using the Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW)
method. This deterministic interpolation method, reliant on the influence of
distance for climate station sites, was scrutinized and deemed effective for
computing the erosion factor. The resulting R-factor elucidates the spatial
distribution of rainfall aggression across the entire area.
Soil type data were employed to assess the soil erodibility factor K. A total
of 48 soil samples were meticulously collected in the field and subsequently
subjected to physical (particle size analysis) and chemical (organic matter, pH,
and electrical conductivity) analyses. These analytical procedures were conducted
at the soil chemistry and physics laboratory of the "Environnement et
Conservation des Ressources Naturelles" research unit at the Rabat Regional
Agricultural Research Centre (INRA), contributing to the production of the soil
erodibility information layer. The Rmel basin encompasses four primary soil
types: vertisol, fluviosol, lithosol, and calcimagnesic soil, as illustrated in
Figure3. Each soil type contributes to the basin's diverse and complex soil
composition, influencing the local ecosystem and land use characteristics.

Fig 3: Soil map of the Rmel basin.

On 05/31/2022, a Landsat 8 satellite image was acquired and subsequently
subjected to supervised classification using ENVI image processing software.
 Assessing soil erosion dynamics in the Rmel watershed, northern Morocco… 179

This process yielded a map illustrating land use unit distribution and the
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) calculation. The Rmel
watershed exhibits diverse land uses, showcasing rocky outcrops, forests,
cultivated land, bare lands, and regions with varying degrees of reforestation, as
depicted in Figure 4. This variety in land use contributes to the ecological
richness and complexity of the watershed, highlighting the coexistence of natural
and anthropogenic elements in the region.

Fig 4: Map of land use in the Rmel basin.

A Digital Terrain Model (DTM) with a spatial resolution of 30m was

utilized to augment our understanding of the study area. This DTM facilitated the
generation of both a slope map and a flow accumulation map, critical components
for the subsequent preparation of the LS factor map in ArcGIS (Rodriguez and
Suarez, 2012) (figure 5). The LS factor map, derived from these inputs, serves as
a valuable tool in assessing the impact of terrain on soil erosion dynamics,
enhancing our capacity to analyse and manage erosion risk within the study
region.
180 Bouayad et al.

Fig 5. Slope map of the Rmel watershed.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Assessing water erosion factors
The principal objective of this study is to forecast the long-term average
annual erosion rate in the Rmel watershed by employing the Revised Universal
Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) model. This predictive model considers various
variables, encompassing rainfall patterns, topography, vegetation cover, and
agricultural practices.

Rainfall erosivity factor (R)

The kinetic energy of rain plays a substantial role in the removal of solid
particles. It is intricately linked to the intensity of the rainfall, influenced by both
drop size and velocity (Bartolomé and Teuwen, 2019). The computation of the
 Assessing soil erosion dynamics in the Rmel watershed, northern Morocco… 181

climatic aggressivity factor, as proposed by Wischmeier and Smith (1978), relies

on the understanding of rain kinetic energy and the average rainfall intensity over
a 30-minute duration, expressed by the following formula:

R=K*EC*I30 Eq. (2)

where:
R: climatic aggressiveness
K: coefficient depending on the unit of measurement
EC: kinetic energy
I30: average intensity of precipitation over 30 min.

The rainfall erosivity factor is expressed in its of M. mm / ha. h. (Rango

and Arnoldus, 1987) devised the most widely utilized formula for estimating the
R factor, incorporating monthly and annual rainfall. The formulation is
articulated as follows:
logR= 1.74* log(Pi2 /P)+1.29 Eq. (3)

where
Pi represents monthly rainfall and P annual rainfall in mm. It is calculated using
data from 5 rainfall stations after the results were interpolated over the rest of the
basin. The calculation of the erosivity factor R is applied to a series of twelve
(12) years of precipitation.

As illustrated in Figure 5, the R-factor values for the Oued Rmel watershed
vary between 95.14 and 118.09 M.mm/ha. H (Table 2). The northeastern region
exhibits the highest values, whereas the central and southern regions record the
lowest values. This spatial pattern indicates increased precipitation
aggressiveness from the south to the northeast. This observed gradient is
attributed to the altitudinal fluctuations within the watershed, resulting in an
elevation-related increment in precipitation levels from the southern to the
northeastern regions (Figure 6).
The R-factor values observed in the Oued Rmel watershed ranged from
95.14 to 118.09 M.mm/ha. h, are consistent with findings Ouallali et al. (2016)
reported for the Oued Arbaa Ayacha watershed in the Western Rif, where values
range from 116.633 to 122.615. Comparable patterns are also evident in the Oued
Khmis watershed (Western Rif), as reported by Issa et al. (2014), with values
ranging from 87 to 113. However, the R-factor values in the Oued Rmel
watershed surpass those documented in the Oued Leben watershed (central Rif)
by Rahhou (1999), where values range from 43 to 87. Dhman et al. (1997)
identified elevated R-factor values ranging from 215 to 228 in the Telata
catchment, and 198.5 to 213 was found in the El Kharoub watershed (Ammari et
al. 2023).
182 Bouayad et al.

Table 2: Average annual precipitation (mm) and average R value for 2010-2022.

Station Average annual R-value

precipitation (mm)
Alian 719.86 112.30
Tanger Med dam 745.69 118.09
Oued Rmel 583.71 96.13
Ksar Essghir 756.78 97.25
El Horra 511.80 95.14

Fig 6: Map of rainfall erosivity factor (R) in the Rmel watershed.

Soil Erodibility Factor (K)

The analysis of pedological properties in the study area facilitated their
classification within the Wischmeier and Smith (1978) abacus. This classification
was instrumental in estimating the K factor, which is a function of organic matter,
structure, texture, and permeability parameters. The K factor holds paramount
significance in the Wischmeier and Smith (1978) erosion equation (Eq. 4) as it
signifies the degree of soil erodibility, determined through compositional
characteristics. The K factor was derived using the following equation (Eq. 4)
based on the analysis of soil samples collected within the study area:

100K=2.1*M1.4*10-4(12-a)+3.25(b-2)+2.5(c-3) Eq. (4)

 Assessing soil erosion dynamics in the Rmel watershed, northern Morocco… 183

with, K: Soil erodibility in ha.H/ha.MJ.mm; M: (% Fine sand +% Silt) *(100-%

Clay); a: % organic matter; b: soil structure code (1 to 4): 1: very fine; 2: fine; 3:
medium and coarse; 4: very coarse c: permeability code (1 to 6): 1 rapid; 2
medium to rapid; 3 moderate; 4 slow to moderate; 5 slow and 6 very slow.

Determining the K factor in the Oued Rmel watershed involved a

comprehensive soil sampling study. This study was conducted within the Rmel
watershed, encompassing 16 sites where soil samples were collected at three
distinct depths. A meticulous methodology, guided by a geological map, guided
the sampling process, resulting in 48 carefully preserved and labeled samples.
Subsequently, these samples were analyzed at the INRA Rabat laboratory to
ensure precision in assessing the soil parameters essential for calculating the K
factor.
In the laboratory, the initial processing of samples involved air-drying,
followed by grinding and sieving to obtain particle sizes of 2 mm and 0.2 mm,
respectively (Figure 7). Subsequently, these prepared samples underwent a
comprehensive series of chemical and physical analyses to ascertain their
composition and characteristics. This analytical approach was employed to obtain
a thorough understanding of the soil properties necessary to determine the K
factor in the Oued Rmel watershed.

Fig 7: Soil sample preparation steps

(1: Air drying, 2: Grinding, 3: 2mm sieving, 4: 0.2mm sieving).
184 Bouayad et al.

Total carbon and organic matter

The soil samples' organic matter content was assessed using the Walkley
and Black (1934) method. This method entails the cold oxidation of the organic
carbon fraction using 1N potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7). An initial sulfuric
acid (H2SO4) treatment is conducted to mitigate potential chloride interference
that might influence results. Following a 2-hour resting period, the surplus
dichromate is titrated using 0.5N Mohr's salt solution (Table 3). The organic
matter content (%MO) can then be calculated using the following equation:

MO%=%C*1.724 Eq. (5)

Table 3: Standards for interpreting organic matter (Walkley and Black, 1934).
Class of MO% <1.5 1.5-3 >3

Interpretation Low content Medium content High content

Particle size analysis

The physical analysis, known as granulometry, evaluates the sample's size
and weight proportions of distinct particle categories (Pye and Blott, 2004). This
method classifies soil components based on their diameter, providing valuable
insights into the particle distribution within the soil sample (Table 4).

Table 4: Granulometric soil texture scale.

Clays Fine silts Coarse Fine sands Coarse sands Gravel Pebbles
silts

< 2μm 2-20μm 20-50μm 50-200μm 200μm-2mm 2-20mm >20mm

Particle size analysis followed the O.R.S.T.O.M (Office of Scientific and

Technical Research Outre-Mer, 1937) standard method. This protocol is a well-
established procedure designed to ascertain the particle size distribution within a
given sample, providing a standardized and reliable approach for characterizing
the soil's granulometric composition.
The determined K factor values for the Rmel watershed vary from
0.088t.ha.h/ha.MJ.mm for the most resistant soils to 0.65 t.ha.h/ha.MJ.mm for the
most erodible soils. The resulting map illustrates that the soils exhibiting the
highest susceptibility to water erosion (K > 0.36 t.ha.MJ.mm/ha) predominantly
belong to the class of Vertisols (Table 5).
Vertisols are fertile clay soils known for their high water retention
capacity, and they form a distinct band in the central region, roughly oriented
from northeast to southwest (Figure 8).
 Assessing soil erosion dynamics in the Rmel watershed, northern Morocco… 185

Table 5: Results of the particle size analysis of the samples and value of the K
factor
Texture
X Y %OM(a) Texture K value
% Sand % Silt % Clay

-5.44618 35,86744 4.3 21.9 34.1 44.0 Clayey 0.17

-5.48867 35,84242 0.1 14.6 40.0 45.4 Clayey 0.25
-5.4896 35,8463 3.4 11.9 52.3 35.8 Clay silt 0.28
-5.48581 35,84874 5.0 18.2 35.6 46.1 Clayey 0.14
-5.48333 35,85681 2.7 8.1 42.9 49.1 Clay sand 0.16
-5.48179 35,86209 3.2 64.5 20.7 14.8 Silt sand 0.62
-5,46294 35,86211 0.6 19.6 34.9 45.6 Clay sand 0.23
-5.46856 35,85608 3.7 21.6 34.6 43.8 Clayey 0.19
-5.47238 35,85372 0.2 27.9 47.0 25.1 Silt 0.58
-5.46551 35,84751 2.0 24.4 56.0 19.6 Silt 0.60
-5,47196 35,84555 0.4 18.1 44.8 37.1 Clay silt 0.35
-5.48735 35,83083 4.1 12.4 47.1 40.5 Clay silt 0.21
-5.47319 35,81139 5.3 9.9 36.0 54.1 Clayey 0.088
-5.47435 35,82016 0.5 54.3 24.4 21.3 Sand 0.65
-5.48655 35,82375 4.9 25.4 30.9 43.7 Clayey 0.16
-5.45976 35,86665 3.5 21.2 35.3 43.5 Clayey 0.19

Fig 8: Map of Soil erodibility factor (K) in the Rmel watershed.

186 Bouayad et al.

Topographic Factor (LS)

The LS factor, commonly known as the "topographic factor," serves as a
measure of how the erosion process is influenced by the length of the slope (L)
and the steepness of the slope (S) (Anjitha et al. 2019). As expressed by the LS
factor, these slope-related variables play a pivotal role in shaping the generation
and movement of sediment on slopes (Roose 1994). Notably, there is a
concurrent increase in soil erosion when development occurs along a slope. The
slope's steepness further intensifies this escalation. Moreover, the quantity of
vegetation and the size of soil particles influence the dynamics of this soil erosion
relationship. The LS factor is mathematically expressed by the following equation
(Wischmeier and Smith, 1978):

𝐿S = 𝐿÷22.13m × (0.065 + 0.045S + 0.0065S2) Eq. (6)

where L: slope length, S: slope (%), m: constant dep. on slope value (Tab. 6).

Table 6: The relationship between the parameter m and slope.

Slope (%) S ≤1 1<S ≤3 3<S ≤5 S>5
m 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

The multiplication of flow accumulation and resolution, derived from a

digital terrain model, yields slope length (Bircher et al. 2019). The ArcGIS
Spatial Analyst tool performed slope and flow accumulation computations on the
ASTER digital model.
The LS factor calculation reveals a range from 0 to 609.9 (Figure 9) across
altitudes spanning 12m to 408m and slopes from 15% to 48%. Elevated LS
values predominantly correspond to specific river segments and high-altitude
regions characterized by steep slopes. These regions are primarily situated in the
central and peripheral zones of the watershed.

Fig 9. Map of Topographic Factor (LS).

 Assessing soil erosion dynamics in the Rmel watershed, northern Morocco… 187

Vegetation cover factor (C)

The influence of vegetation cover is quantified through a dimensionless
factor obtained from the normalized vegetation index (NDVI) derived from
satellite imagery. This index translates vegetation reflectance into a percentage of
vegetation cover (Khunrattanasiri, 2023). However, in response to seasonal
canopy variations, our study employs an alternative method, replacing the
traditional C-factor with the NDVI vegetation index (Macedo et al. 2021).
For our investigation, NDVI is computed from Landsat 8 OLI images at a
spatial resolution of 30m. It is utilized to assess the spectral signature,
encompassing the near-infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum and the
red reflection in the upper visible spectrum. The relationship between NDVI and
C is expressed by the following equation (Prasannakumar et al. 2012):

C= exp(-a NDVI/(β-NDVI)) Eq. (7)

The C factor spans from 0.1 to 1 (Figure 10). The spatial distribution of
these values reveals that 43% of the catchment area exhibits a vegetation cover
ranging from low to moderate, with a C factor greater than 0.2. In contrast, 57%
of the area seems adequately protected, featuring C values below 0.2, indicating a
high level of preservation. These areas encompass virtually the entire basin.

Fig 10. Distribution map of C factor in the watershed

188 Bouayad et al.

Pratique de gestion des terres factor (P)

The soil conservation practice factor, also called the support practice,
indicates the proportion of soil loss assigned to each cultivation method based on
its ability to conserve soil from erosion (Panagos et al. 2015). This includes
contour plowing, ridging, slope terracing, and alternating strip crops. The P factor
evaluates the impact of conservation tillage on reducing soil loss (Araya et al.
2011). If adequately maintained, erosion control measures influence water flow
and land topography, reducing soil loss. The P factor is assigned a value between
0 and 1, where 1 signifies the absence of conservation features.
This metric facilitates the assessment of soil losses in watersheds by
considering the effectiveness of existing erosion control techniques. Each
measure has a protective degree, with its coefficient determined by how well it
minimizes runoff and mitigates erosion causes (Benzougagh et al. 2020).
Cultivation practices such as contour farming, alternating strips or terraces,
reforestation on terraces, and ridging are identified as highly effective soil
conservation strategies (Zettam et al. 2022). These strategies are evaluated based
on the soil loss ratio with specific support on agricultural land compared to the
corresponding loss with parallel slope plowing (Zouagui et al. 2018).
It is essential to highlight that in our study, areas with low to moderate
slopes exhibit the lowest and average P-factor values. Specifically, the P factor
ranges between 0.2 and 0.5 for areas with low slopes, while it varies between 0.6
and 0.9 for areas with steep slopes (Figure 11).

Fig 11: Map of the anti-erosion factor (P) in the watershed Rmel
 Assessing soil erosion dynamics in the Rmel watershed, northern Morocco… 189

Erosion rate estimation

The erosion rate, as determined by the RUSLE model, results from the
interplay of various factors, with climatic aggressiveness (R), soil erodibility (K),
and the combined impact of slope degree and slope length (LS), vegetation cover
(C), and erosion control practices (P) being the most influential. Calculating the
erosion rate provides insights into the distribution of erosion risk attributable
solely to natural factors.
The results indicate a range of soil losses in the region, spanning from less
than 7 to over 45 t/ha/year, with an average of approximately 16 t/ha/year.
Approximately 60% of the basin area falls within the loss class below 7 t/ha/year,
signifying relatively low losses. About 30% of the area is categorized as having
moderate losses, falling between 7 and 20 t/ha/year. Areas experiencing high
water erosion, exceeding 20 t/ha/year, constitute only 10% of the total Rmel
watershed area. These vulnerable zones to water erosion are predominantly
situated in the central and north-eastern portions of the watershed (Figure 12).

Fig 12: Resulting map of soil losses in t/ha/yr

The areas with a high potential for erosion are typically associated with
soils in the central basin regions characterized by steep slopes and intense human
activity, particularly quarrying. In the northeastern part, precipitation (climatic
aggressiveness) emerges as the primary factor driving water erosion despite
relatively abundant vegetation.
190 Bouayad et al.

On the Rif scale, the Rmel watershed stands out for having the best
protection against water erosion. Specifically, the Sania and Arbaa Ayacha
watersheds in the western Rif exhibit an average annual loss of approximately
47.18 t/ha (Tahiri et al. 2015) and 25.8 t/ha (Ouallali et al. 2016), respectively.
Comparable values were observed in the eastern Rif, with the Oued Sahla basin
recording 22 t/ha/yr and the Oued Boussouabl basin registering 55 t/ha/yr (Sadiki
et al. 2009).

CONCLUSION
The RUSLE approach for assessing soil water erosion indicates that the
Rmel watershed faces a relatively low erosion risk compared to other regions in
the Rif. Areas with susceptible soils encompass only 9% of the basin area,
exhibiting an average annual erosion rate exceeding 15 t/ha. These vulnerable
zones, predominantly situated in the central and downstream parts of the basin,
show that human activities and climatic aggressiveness are the primary
contributors to soil erosion. On the other hand, areas with low erosion potential,
as inferred from land loss estimates, are mainly characterized by cultivated land
featuring a topography dominated by low slope classes and experiencing low
rainfall erosivity.
The optimized RUSLE equation developed in this analysis could be a
valuable resource for future regional land-use planning and management
activities; however, caution is advised in its application. Furthermore, it provides
a framework for potential soil erosion studies in the study area and other similarly
conditioned regions. To calculate the rate of soil loss in the watershed, alternative
techniques such as radioactive markers like Caesium 137 (137Cs), PAP/CAR, the
SWAT model (Soils Water Assessment Tools), the IntErO model (Spalevic,
2011), River Basins model (Spalevic, 1999) and the SAM model (Spectral Angel
Mapper) could also be considered.

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