Influence of Composition and Structure on the Properties of Metals

and Polymers
Introduction
This report is designed to provide a detailed understanding of how the properties and behaviours of
engineering materials impacts on the material selection process, during the design of products and
components.

Relating Material Properties to Engineering Applications

1. Physical Properties:

a. Density:

Density is a fundamental physical property that quantifies the level of compactness

exhibited by a material. it is defined as mass of a material per unit volume, expressed as
kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m³). A material that possess a greater density demonstrate a
higher degree of atom packing, resulting in an elevated ratio of mass to volume. This
particular property has a substantial influence on other aspects, including buoyancy,
structural integrity, and heat conductivity. The demand for lightweight structures in the
manufacturing of airplanes necessitates the employment of aluminum alloys. The selection
of this particular material enables enhanced fuel efficiency and performance optimization.
In contrast, lead is frequently utilized in the context of radiation shielding owing to its
notable density, which enables efficient obstruction and absorption of radiation.

b. Color and appearance

The visual features of a material, such as color and appearance, are influenced by various factors,
which includes chemical composition, surface polish, and interaction with light. The chromatic
attributes of a material are contingent upon its capacity to either absorb or reflect particular
wavelengths of light. Metals frequently have a characteristic metallic luster due to their electron
configuration. The physical attributes of a product can influence consumer preferences, the
establishment of a product's brand identity, and the overall visual appeal of architectural designs.

The use of polymers for aesthetic purposes in consumer electronics casings and the application of
architectural stainless-steel facades are two prominent examples in materials engineering.

c. Melting Point:
The melting point refers to the specific temperature at which solid undergoes a phase transition and
transitions into a liquid state. The phenomenon is subject to the effect of atomic or molecular forces
present within the material. Materials that possess robust intermolecular or atomic bonds exhibit
elevated melting temperatures, necessitating a substantial amount of energy to induce a transition
from one phase to another. This property holds significant importance in many operations such as
casting, welding, and applications that are exposed to elevated temperatures. Tungsten is commonly
used as the filament material in lightbulbs because to its high melting point. Aluminum is often
chosen as the material for cooking pots due to its intermediate melting point.

1. Mechanical Properties
a. Tensile Strength

Tensile strength is the ability of a material to resist an external force attempting to cause it to
separate. The ultimate tensile strength refers to the highest stress that a material can endure before
fracture and is influenced by atomic bonds strength, crystal structure, and presence of defects
within the material. The significance of possessing a high level tensile strength is crucial in situations
where considerable mechanical loads are applied. Titanium is frequently employed in aerospace
components because of its remarkable tensile strength, rendering it well-suited for enduring
significant stress and pressures. Bulletproof vests frequently integrate Kevlar due to its
exceptional strength to weight ratio, enabling effective protection while maintaining a lightweight
design.

b. Hardness

Hardness refers to material's resistance to deformation, scratching, or abrasion. It is a result of the

material's microstructure and bonding. Various methods of hardness testing, such as the Rockwell or
Vickers tests, evaluate distinct characteristics pertaining to the hardness of a given material. As an
illustration, the extraordinary hardness of diamond can be attributed to the strength of its covalent
bonds. Cutting tools are commonly made from tool steel due to its high hardness, whereas grinding
wheels often utilize diamond abrasives for their exceptional hardness.

c. Young's Modulus

It is a measure of a material's stiffness and its ability to deform elastically under stress. It dwelves
into the relationship between stress and strain. The modulus of a material is influenced by the
strength of the interatomic or intermolecular bonds present within it. it can be observed that
crystalline materials exhibit higher moduli in comparison to amorphous materials. The consideration
of this parameter is of utmost importance in the design of load-bearing structures. The utilization of
steel in bridge construction is mostly due to its high modulus, while carbon fiber is commonly
employed in the manufacturing of aerospace components owing to its high modulus-to-weight ratio.

2. Electrical Properties
a. Electrical Conductivity

It refers to a material's ability to conduct an electric current. It depends on the availability of free
charge carriers and their mobility. Metals possess exceptional conductivity as a result of their
substantial quantity of unbound electrons. Semiconductors, such as silicon, have a moderate level of
conductivity, whereas insulators possess a low number of free charge carriers. The selection of
materials for electrical wire is often based on their conductivity properties. Copper is preferred due
to its high conductivity. Silver is commonly used for electrical contacts due to its low contact
resistance.

b. Dielectric Strength

It is maximum electric field that a material may withstand before it experiences electrical
breakdown, resulting in a change from an insulator to a conductor. The property plays a critical
role in the development of insulators for electrical systems. Ceramics, which possess a high dielectric
strength, are utilized in high-voltage applications as a means of averting electrical discharge. Power
cables often utilize ceramic insulators to prevent the flow of electrical current. Capacitors employ
dielectric materials to store electric energy.

c. Resistivity

Resistivity is the inherent property of a material to impede flow of an electric current. It is influenced
by factors like temperature, impurities, crystal structure etc. Semiconductors, characterized by their
moderate resistance, play an integral part in electrical devices due to their ability to regulate
conductivity. silicon is utilized as a regulated resistivity material in integrated circuits and rubber as
an insulation material for electrical devices.

3. Thermal properties
a. Thermal Conductivity

It is a measure of a material’s capacity to conduct heat. The behavior of a material is contingent

upon its atomic or molecular structure and the interactions that occur within it. Materials that
possess a high degree of atomic or molecular packing density generally exhibit elevated levels of
heat conductivity. Metals, particularly those possessing a regular crystal lattice structure,
exhibit high thermal conductivity. Heat sinks are commonly used in electrical devices to efficiently
dissipate heat. Copper due to its high thermal conductivity is chosen as a material for heat sink,
which allows for effective heat transfer and dissipation. Diamond is a preferred material for cutting
tools because of its exceptional thermal conductivity. This property enables diamond cutting tools to
efficiently dissipate heat generated during the cutting process, hence enhancing their performance
and durability.

b. Specific Heat Capacity

It refers to the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a material
by one degree Celsius. Water plays a critical role in thermal regulation in many natural and industrial
processes due to its high specific heat capacity. Heat exchangers are commonly employed in various
industrial processes. High specific heat capacity of water enables it to effectively absorb and transfer
thermal energy, making it an ideal medium for heat exchange applications. Cooking utensils often
utilize aluminum due to its excellent heat distribution characteristics. The rapid and uniform heat
transfer provided by aluminum facilitates efficient cooking processes, ensuring even heat
distribution across the utensil's surface.

c. Thermal Expansion Coefficient

Refers to the measure of how a material's dimensions change with temperature variations.
Ceramics, which possess a low coefficient of thermal expansion, are well-suited for use in scenarios
where maintaining dimensional stability across a broad range of temperatures is of utmost
importance. Steels possessing regulated coefficients of thermal expansion are employed in scenarios
that need a harmonious combination of strength and thermal stability. Railway tracks are
constructed using steel due to its regulated expansion properties. Glass-to-metal sealing are utilized
in electronic devices.

Part 2

A. Crystalline structures

The arrangement of crystal formations can be effectively described by characterizing the

organization of a compact subset of atoms or molecules, known as the 'unit cell,' within the
solid. The determination of the spatial arrangement of all particles within a crystal is
achieved through the process of multiplying identical unit cells in three dimensions.

The significance of crystalline structure lies in its contribution to the material's qualities. For
instance, the ease of atomic plane sliding is enhanced when said planes exhibit a high
degree of packing density. Hence, lattice structures exhibiting a high degree of plane packing
density facilitate more plastic deformation compared to systems with lower plane packing
density.

I. Body-Centered Cubic (BCC)

In the BCC structure, there are atoms positioned at all eight corners of a cube, with an additional
atom situated at the center of the cube. Each corner atom is shared among eight unit cells, as it
serves as the corner for another cube. This arrangement results in a coordination number of 8 for
BCC.

The BCC unit cell comprises a total of two atoms: one located in the center and eight
eighths atoms positioned at the corners.

The BCC crystal structure possesses approximately 48 more slip systems compared to the FCC
crystal structure. While BCC materials possess a greater quantity of slip systems compared to FCC
materials, the arrangement of slip planes is less compact than in FCC. Consequently, FCC materials
exhibit higher deformability and greater ductility compared to BCC materials. Conversely, BCC
materials display higher strength and are less prone to deformation than FCC materials. The BCC
arrangement has a lower degree of atom packing compared to the FCC or HCP arrangements. The
BCC structure is commonly observed as the high-temperature phase of metals that exhibit close-
packed arrangements at lower temperatures. The unit cell has a packing factor of 0.68. This means
that atoms occupy only 68% of the available space in the crystal lattice, whereas FCC structures have
a higher packing factor of 0.74, implying that atoms occupy 74% of the available space in the crystal
lattice. As a result, BCC structures are less dense than FCC structures.

Metals possessing a BCC crystal structure typically exhibit high strength, hardness and ductility e.g
tungsten. Steel is widely used in structural applications.

II. Face-Centered Cubic (FCC)

The FCC structure is characterized by the presence of atoms located at the corners and centers of all
the cubic faces.

Each of the atoms located at the corners of the unit cell also serves as a corner for another cube,
resulting in the sharing of these corner atoms among eight neighboring unit cells. Additionally, each
of its six face centered atoms is shared with an adjacent atom. Since 12 of its atoms are shared, it is
considered to have a coordination number of 12. The FCC unit cell is composed of a total of four
atoms. These atoms are distributed as follows: eight atoms located at the corners, each contributing
one-eighth to the unit cell, and six atoms located at the faces, each contributing one-half to the unit
cell.
In the FCC structure, the atoms exhibit a higher degree of close packing compared to the BCC
structure. The atoms of one layer arrange themselves into the interstitial spaces between the atoms
of the adjacent layer.

Slip in FCC crystals is observed to take place along the close-packed plane. The slip plane is
specifically identified as the {111} plane, whereas the slip direction is categorized as <110>.
In diagram below, the specific plane is denoted as (111), while the orientation is shown as [110].

FCC crystals possess a total of 12 slip systems, resulting from the various combinations of slip plane
types and direction types. The packing factor is 0.74 for FCC crystals. The higher atomic packing
(0.74) compared to BCC structures (0.64) leads to higher density for FCC, improving density and
electrical conductivity for the FCC structure. Several metals have FCC crystal structure, including
aluminum, copper, gold, iridium, lead, nickel, platinum, and silver. They ductile and their strength
decreases with increasing temperature. Copper is use manufacture of cables for power transmission.

III. Hexagonal Close Packed (HCP)

The hexagonal structure of alternating layers undergoes a change, resulting in the alignment of its
atoms with the gaps present in the preceding layer. The atoms of one layer are positioned within the
interstitial spaces between the atoms of the subsequent layer, resembling the arrangement
observed in the FCC crystal structure. Contrary to a cubic structure, the pattern exhibits a hexagonal
arrangement.

The HCP crystal structure consists of three distinct layers of atoms. In both the upper and lower
layers, a hexagonal arrangement of six atoms is observed, with an additional atom located at the
center of the hexagon. The intermediate layer comprises three atoms that are positioned within the
triangle "grooves" of the upper and lower planes. It is important to acknowledge that there exist six
"grooves" encompassing each atom within the hexagonal plane, although only three of these
grooves have the capacity to accommodate atoms.

As depicted in the picture below, the HCP unit cell consists of six atoms. The contribution of each
atom in the unit cell is as follows: the 12 atoms located at the corners of the top and bottom levels
each contribute 1/6 of an atom, the two atoms situated at the center of the hexagon in both the top
and bottom layers each give one half of an atom, and each of the three atoms in the middle layer
contributes 1 whole atom.
HCP metals exhibit three distinct slip systems; basal, prismatic, and pyramidal. At room temperature,
the only mechanism of plastic deformation observed in magnesium is basal slip. Basal slip, which is
the primary mechanism of slip in magnesium alloys, and prismatic slip, which is active in other HCP
metals, both occur on dislocations with a Burgers vector. HCP metals have fewer slip systems
compared to FCC metals and BCC metals. The fewer slip systems makes them less ductile and more
likely to undergo brittle fracture. They are less capable of plastic deformation under stress compared
to both BCC and FCC metals.

HCP structures have a higher packing factor (similar to FCC) at 0.74 compared to BCC structures at
0.68. This means that approximately 74% of the available space in the crystal lattice is occupied by
atoms, thus HCP structures tend to be denser compared to BCC structures.

HCP metals exhibits unique properties such as high melting point, low density and high strength-to-
weight ratio. HCP titanium alloys are widely employed in the fabrication of various jet engine
components, including compressor blades.

B. Polymer structure
1. Amorphous Structure

Polymer chains in amorphous polymer structure are arranged irregularly and and lack a well-defined
crystalline pattern. The atoms and molecules exhibit a random arrangement, resulting in a
disordered structure.

Amorphous polymers are characterized by the presence of covalent bonds, which provide structural
integrity, and weak van der Waals forces that facilitate interactions between the chains.

Amorphous polymers exhibit a low density and possess transparent or translucent properties. These
materials exhibit a glass transition temperature at which they undergo a transition from a rigid,
amorphous state to rubbery, elastomeric one. At Glassy State, amorphous polymers are hard,
brittle, and have low flexibility.They are not easily deformed. They are used in Transparent Packaging
Films. Polystyrene is used to create rigid, transparent packaging materials that retain their shape and
protect products. At rubbery State, amorphous polymers have lower modulus, higher elongation,
and better toughness. They can deform and stretch more easily. They are used in tires and seals.
Styrene Butadiene Rubber is used to make flexible products like tires and seals, where elasticity and
resilience are crucial.

An example is polystyrene. Polystyrene finds extensive application in the field of packaging

materials, food containers, and insulation. The material possesses an amorphous structure that
imparts both clarity and rigidity, rendering it well-suited for applications requiring transparency and
stiffness.

2. Crystalline Structure

The polymer chains within a crystalline polymer structure exhibit a well-defined and repetitive
arrangement, hence material exhibits distinct regions of crystallinity.

The bonding in crystalline polymers is comparable to that of amorphous polymers, as both include
covalent bonds within the polymer chains. However, in crystalline polymers, the arrangement of the
chains enables the establishment of strong intermolecular forces, resulting in the formation of
distinct crystalline regions.

Crystalline polymers exhibit higher density compared to amorphous polymers. These materials
exhibit enhanced mechanical characteristics, including elevated tensile strength and stiffness.
Polyethylene is a thermoplastic polymer that is widely used in various industries due to its versatile
properties and applications.

Polyethylene finds extensive use in many technical applications, including manufacturing of pipes,
packaging films, and automobile components. The material's crystalline structure imparts upon it
favorable mechanical strength and chemical resistance.

C. Influence of Composition and Microstructure on Alloys

The Eutectoid Composition in Steel (iron-carbon):

 Eutectoid phase diagram

The eutectoid composition refers to a combination of phases that is dictated by eutectoid point
within the solid region of an equilibrium diagram. The constituents of this composition are created
through an eutectoid reaction. The eutectoid composition observed in steel(iron-carbon) about 0.8%
carbon , at which the material experiences a phase transition upon cooling. These Steels with 0.8%
carbon are known as Eutectoid Steels.

The eutectoid composition of steel undergoes a phase transformation resulting in the formation of a
microstructure known as pearlite. The structure is comprised of successive layers of ferrite, which is
a specific phase of iron, and cementite, an iron carbide compound.

An alloy possessing a carbon content higher than the eutectoid composition will result in the
formation of an increased amount of cementite, hence resulting in steel that is characterized by
enhanced hardness and increased brittleness. While a reduction in carbon content leads to a
decrease in the formation of cementite, hence yielding steel that possesses enhanced softness and
ductility.
The hardness of a steel alloy has a positive correlation with its carbon content, however, an increase
in carbon content leads to a decrease in ductility. Higher carbon content contributes to increased
strength, especially during compression. Toughness and ductility are enhanced by reducing its
carbon content. Higher carbon content increases wear resistance.

High carbon steels possessing composition above the eutectoid threshold, find application in several
industries such as cutting tool manufacturing, gear production, and blade fabrication. These steels
are specifically chosen for their exceptional hardness and resistance to wear, which are crucial
factors in these respective applications.

Low carbon steels, possessing composition below the eutectoid threshold, are commonly utilized in
industries such as structural engineering, automobile manufacturing, and construction. These steels
are preferred because of their desirable properties of toughness and formability.

The qualities of an alloy are significantly influenced by its microstructure, which is governed by its
composition. The presence of different carbon levels in steel results in the formation of varied
microstructures, which subsequently gives rise to a range of mechanical properties. An increased
carbon content facilitates the development of a harder and more brittle microstructure, which is
well-suited for situations where the ability to withstand wear is of utmost importance. A decrease in
carbon content results in a microstructure that is softer and more ductile, making it well-suited for
applications that prioritize toughness and formability.
References
1. https://www.nde-ed.org/Physics/Materials/Structure/metallic_structures.xhtml
2. https://www.e-education.psu.edu/matse81/node/2132
3. https://www.e-education.psu.edu/matse81/node/2133
4. https://www.corrosionpedia.com/definition/1586/slip-system-material-science
5. https://weldingtech.net/eutectoid-composition/
6. https://my.eng.utah.edu/~lzang/images/lecture-19.pdf
7. https://www.britannica.com/science/chemistry-of-industrial-polymers#ref608550
8. https://www.mcpolymers.com/library/amorphous-vs-crystalline-polymers
9. https://blog.eaglegroupmanufacturers.com/overview-of-physical-properties-of-metals
10. https://blog.eaglegroupmanufacturers.com/metal-properties-conductivity#:~:text=One
%20of%20the%20main%20characteristics,range%20in%20levels%20of%20conductivity
11. http://www-g.eng.cam.ac.uk/mmg/teaching/typd/addenda/eutectoidreaction1.html
12. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/hypereutectoid-steel