MENTALISM

MENTALISM: Thinking as rule-governed activity

Questions for reading:

–What is behaviorist view about language learning?

 Language learning = the result of imitation, practice, feedback on success, and habit
information.
–Do children learn L1 only by imitating?

 No their acquisition of the more complex grammatical structure of the language requires a
different sort of explanation.
–Did Chomsky agree with Skinner’s theory? Why?/ Why not?
 No, if all language is learnt in the behaviorist way, how come children and adults frequently
say things they have never heard before?
Behaviorist view could not explain how from a finite of experience, the human mind was
able to cope with an infinite range of poss. situations.
–What is Chomsky’s view about learning?
 They need to be given input which will allow their "processors" to work.
–Give examples of some hypotheses that Vietnamese learners formulate in their language learning.

Chomsky: an American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, political activist, author &
lecturer (1959) at argues that human behaviour is much more complex than animal behaviour.

According to Chomsky, language is not a form of behaviour, it is an intricate rule-based system

and a large part of language acquisition is the learning of this system.

Lg. is not a set of habits. If all lg is learnt behaviouristly, how come children & adults frequently
say things they have never heard before? How is it poss. to create whole new sent. in conversation
& poetry?

Behaviourist view could not explain how from a ……………………. range of experience, the human
mind was able to cope with an ………………………. range of poss. situations.

Set of rules & Vocab..= finite

Individual utterances = ìnfinite

What does that mean?

- There are a finite number of grammatical rules in the system and with knowledge of these rules an
infinite of sentences can be produced. A language learner acquires language competence, which
enables him to produce language.
 Nếu như hiểu được những rule đó, có thể produce lại những cái goal, những cái khác
- We can do these things b/c we have mental ability to process what we hear. Thinking must be rule-
governed: a finite set of rules enables the mind to deal with the potentially range of experiences it may
encounter.
 Từ những rule nhưng mình nói ra được rất nhiều câu khác nhau nói hàng ngày. Tư duy cần phải
có những quy luật, chi phối bởi những rule. Ex: S + V + O mà có thể nói vô vàng câu khác nhau
- Children’s minds are not blank slates to be filled in by imitating the language they hear from the
environment. Children are born with an innate capacity for language learning which allows them to
discover for themselves the rules underlying the language.
- This innate ability is called Language acquisition device (LAD) or black box; later on Chomsky
referred to this as innate knowledge of the principles of Universal Grammar (UG).
 Trẻ em nghe hằng ngày, nó sẽ tự hình thành dduoc cái rule
How does the language acquisition device work?
- The language acquisition device contains all the principles which are ……………… to all languages.
- For language acquisition device to work the child needs …………………. of natural language
which activate the device.
- Once activated, the child is able to discover the structure of the language by matching the
innate knowledge of grammatical principles with the structures of the particular language.
Language Acquisition Device = ………………………………

PERFORMANCE AND COMPETENCE

Chomsky put forth his own model of competence & performance.
• Competence: a person’s internalized grammar of a lg./knowing what is grammatically correct.
• Performance: is the actual use of lg. by individuals in speech & writing.

IN A WORD:
• Principle: Learning is acquiring rules, i.e individual experiences are used by the mind to find
the underlying pattern or system.
• Implication:
• Inductive teaching of grammar
• Facilitating Ss’ learning by showing them rules and let them have a go on their
own. Making up their own sentences is the objective.

TASKS:
What rules/ patterns will you, as the teacher, show your students when teaching them the following
sentences? Also, give 2 more examples so that your students can work out the correct rules when grammar
is taught inductively.
1. If you have any query, call and ask us.
Rule: if + S + V, Vbare…
2. It is your presence that enlivens the party.
It is + Noun phrase + that…
3. By saving water we also reduce the amount of chemicals and energy used in water and sewage treatment.
Rút gọn mệnh đề quan hệ:
4. Having kids around seems to bring out the best in adult behavior.
5. The more words you know, the more ideas you can express and the more precise you can be about their
exact meaning.
6. During a long dry summer, Harina notices that every time she opens the door of the car she receives a
shock, and she pulls her hand back reflexively.
7. Heavy rain would not only wash away the soil but would cause serious floods as well.
8. Although chicken always appeal to me, I still feel uncomfortable with fish.
Rule: Athough + S + V…, S + V….
9. In contrast, the United States was the major supplier of imports, accounting for 21% of imports last year.
10. Argentina has a strong economy based on its rich agricultural and mineral resources and in thriving
service industry.

Qua 2 theories trước:

HCMC University of Education Lecturer: Bui Tri Vu Nam (MA)
Department of English – ELT1

From the previous lecture:

• According to Mentalism, language is not a form of behavior, it is an intricate rule-based system.
• One influential idea of this theory is that students should be allowed to create their own
sentences based on their understanding of certain rules.

I. WHY CONSTRUCTIVISM?
The traditional teaching method:
• T= sole info.-giver; Ss = passive (the mind is a blank
tablet) => outdated b/c:

• emphasis is on
- learning …………………………(instead of exploring questions)
- ………………………….. pieces of information (instead of understanding in context)
- reading (instead of doing => fail to encourage students to work together, to share ideas and information
freely with each other, or to use modern instruments to extend their intellectual capabilities.)
• even ss who score well on standardized tests: unable to successfully integrate or contrast
memorized facts & formulae with real-life applications outside the school room.

Proposed solution for this prob.:

During the 1930’s and 40’s, Constructivism was the leading view of Public school educators in the U.S.

II. WHAT IS CONSTRUCTIVISM?

• Based on the work of Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner, Lev Vygotsky.
• Constructivism views learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas
or concepts.
Constructivism has roots in philosophy, psychology, sociology, and education.
This is an educational theory that places emphasis on the learner.
 a theory about How people learn
 learning is constructed, not received = kiến thức được xây dựng hơn chứ k 1 chiều từ gv
=> Learners build new knowledge on the basis of old knowledge
=> They don’t receive it

What it means is ….
 In order to understand something, we MUST be able to relate it to something else
 If at all possible, Apply this knowledge during the lesson to foster concrete connections
 Differs from traditional view in which the mind is a slate Constructivism views knowledge as
“assimilated”=incorporated into ……………………………………….
2 types of C.:
• cognitive constructivism which is about how the individual learner understands things, in terms of
developmental stages and learning styles,
• social constructivism, which emphasises how meanings and understandings grow out of social encounters.
Some historical figures who influenced constructivism:

Some principles
of learning
derived from
constructivism

In the Classroom:
Philosophical founder:
• John Dewey: (October 20, 1859 – June 1, 1952): an American philosopher, psychologist, & ed. reformer
whose thoughts and ideas have been greatly influential in the United States & around the world.
Chief theorists:
• Jean Piaget: (9 August 1896 – 16 September 1980): a Swiss philosopher & natural scientist, well known for
his work studying children, his theory of cognitive development, suggested that through processes of
accommodation and assimilation, individuals construct new knowledge from their experiences.
• Jerome Bruner: (1915 -1990) an American Psychologist, most recent
contributor, has incorporated social and cognitive aspects.
• Lev Vygotsky: the major theorist among the social constructivists
• Russian psychologist & philosopher in 1930’s usually associated with
Social constructivism
• Social Constructivism emphasized the effects of one’s environment (family, friends, culture
& background) have on learning
• Today, Co-constructivism Seems to prevail, incorporating Cognitive and Social aspects
Zone of proximal development
 Lev Vygotsky's notion of zone of proximal development, often abbreviated ZPD, is the gap between a
Learners’ current or actual development level determined by independent problem-
solving and the learner's emerging or potential level of development.

task gv cho được khuyên nên nằm trong vòng màu trắng vì nếu
cho trong vòng màu xám ( cái ng học biết r). Ngoài màu trắng (ng học khó quá..)
Scafolding: - xây giàn gáo

Màu xanh lá cây: những gì ng học có thể tự làm đc k cầ hỗ

trợ
Xanh dương: scaffolding, gv cung cấp những thông tin hỗ
trợ tất tần tật.

The teacher:
 provided the conditions which allowed children to complete the activity
 reminding, prompting, encouraging, drawing attention, modelling –
 These things helped to structure the activity for learners so they could carry it out.
This teacher support is called scaffolding. Scafolding will:
• temporary help which will enable a learner to carry out a task he/she cannot manage alone.
• designed to bring a learner to a stage where he/she can do similar tasks independently.

III. PRINCIPLES
III.1. A CONSTRUCTIVIST VIEW OF LEARNING
 Learning is active (mental or physical)
 People learn to learn as they learn
 Learning involves
language
 Learning is a social
activity
 Learning is contextual
 Learning needs knowledge
 Learning takes time

III.2. CONSTRUCTIVISM APPLIED TO TEACHING

In a constructivism class: the emphasis is placed on the learner rather than the T.
• The constructivist T sets up probs. & monitors ss’ exploration, guides the direction of st’s inquiry
& promotes new patterns of thinking.
 • T asks open- ended Qs & allows wait time for responses.
• St autonomy and initiative are accepted & encouraged. (The learner constructs his/her
own conceptualizations & solutions to probs.)
• Higher-level thinking is encouraged.
• Ss are engaged in dialogue with T and with each other.
• Ss are engaged in experiences that challenge hypotheses & encourage discussion.
• The class uses raw data, primary sources, manipulative, physical, and interactive materials.
Important roles of the Teacher
T becomes one of many resources that the Ss may learn from, not the primary source of info.
• Watching & Listening: Having the ability to observe and listen to students and their
experiences in the classroom.
• Encouraging the spirit of questioning by asking thoughtful, open-ended
  Encouraging thoughtful dicussion among ss. It usually means encouraging students to use active
techniques (experiments, real-world problem solving) to create more knowledge and then to reflect on
and talk about what they are doing and how their understanding is changing. The teacher makes sure
she understands the students' pre-existing conceptions, and guides the activity to address them and then
build on them, prompt ss to formulate their own Qs (inquiry).
• Encouraging & accepting st autonomy & initiative: allow multiple interpretations & expressions of
learning. Engaging ss in experiences that challenge previous conceptions of their existing knowledge.
• Using cognitive terminology such as "classify," "analyze", & "create" when framing tasks.
• encouraging group work & the use of peers as resources (collaborative learning)
• Insisting on clear expression from ss. When ss can communicate their understanding, then they have
truly learned.

How does the constructivist teacher make this style work?

• He/she is flexible.
• She/he creatively incorporates ongoing experiences with real-life situations.
• Students work in small groups.
• Students work individually.
• Interactive activities become main focus (if materials can be related to an interest of the child, they
are more apt to remember them).

In conclusion: Constructivism:
1. Allows for students to become engaged with one another =>Work in groups. (cho làm gr nhiều)
2. Ss learn through own experiences based on their lives.=> Learning is active. ( chủ động học nhiều hơn)
3. Ss remember information down the road of life instead of memorization.=> Engage the students on their
own cognitive level.

Active learning & Task-based teaching are the application of this theoretical background

VI. HOW CONSTRUCTIVISM IMPACTS LEARNING

Constructivism represents one of the big ideas in education. If our efforts in reforming education for all students are to
succeed, then we must focus on students. To date, a focus on student-centered learning may well be the most
important contribution of constructivism.

In its strict sense, CONSTRUCTIVISM:

Curriculum – Constructivism calls for the elimination of a standardised curriculum. Instead, it promotes
using curricula customized to the students’ prior knowledge. Also, it emphasizes hands-on problem
solving.

Instruction – Under the theory of constructivism, educators focus on making connections between
facts and fostering new understanding in students. Instructors tailor their
teaching strategies to student responses and encourage students to analyse, interpret, and predict
information. Teachers also rely heavily on open-ended questions and promote extensive dialogue among
students.

Assessment – Constructivism calls for the elimination of grades and standardized testing.
Instead, assessment becomes part of the learning process so that students play a larger role in judging
their own process.

THE END

3
HCMC University of Education
Department of English
THEORY 4
THE AFFECTIVE FACTORS
The Theory:
• Learners as emotional beings: People think, but they also have …………………………………. . Lrs are
……………………………….
• Learning as an emotional process: Before lrs. actually ……………… a/b sth., they must …………….. to think
a/b it.

I. A POSITIVE LEARNING CYCLE

 Affective factors = emotional factors which influence learning.
 They can have a negative or positive effect.
 Negative affective factors = affective filters

II. LEARNER CHARACTERISTICS

Learner characteristics can influence SLA both positively & negatively.
Lr characteristics are differences b/t lrs which influence
o ……………………….. to learning a lg & how they learn it (A lr's attitude to English, to the T, to other
lrs in the group & to herself are all affective factors & have impact on how well she learns.)
o ……………..………… to different learning styles & approaches in the classroom,
o ………………………… they are at learning a lg.

What are the differences included?

The differences include:
 age
 language level
 past language learning experience
 personality (introverted/extroverted)
 learner’s ………………………
 …………………………. (right/left-brain dominance)
 …………………………..

III. MOTIVATION
 Motivation is the set of reasons that determines a person’s desire to do sth. According to the writer,
motivation is the relationship between the cognitive and emotional aspects of learning.

Two forms of motivation

1.
2.
Instrumental/External motivation
Definition: Extrinsic motivation refers to motivation that comes from outside an individual.
The motivating factors are external, or outside such as money or grades. These rewards provide satisfaction &
pleasure that the task itself may not provide.
e.g.: Lrs want to learn a lg. because it will be useful for certain “instrumental” goals: getting a job, passing an
exam, getting a scholarship, …
Integrative/Internal/Intrinsic motivation
Definition: Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation that comes from inside an individual rather than from any external
or outside rewards, such as money or grades.
Intrinsic motivation drives sb to do things just for the fun of it, or because s/he believes it is a good or right thing to do.
In other words, Intrinsically motivating activities are those in which people will engage for no reward other than the
interest and enjoyment that accompanies them.
Example:
 Most people's hobbies are intrinsically motivated: people collect little bits of china or build detailed model ships.
With , it is much easier to stay academically motivated.
It is often the case that the lr in fact has a mixture of the two.

1
 3. Ways to enhance motivation:
 the tasks that learners are asked to carry out,
 the way the syllabus is presented
 the way the teacher interacts with her pupils can also influence motivation

so that classes that begin with very low motivation can be persuaded to change their minds. Where learners are offered
the opportunity to communicate, where learners are asked to take responsibility for their own learning, where learners
are treated with respect, they will acquire higher motivation, and will make more progress.

Teaching recommendations
• Where possible, ask learners to choose what activities they want to do.
• Encourage parents to motivate their children to learn English.
• Remind learners how important English is for getting jobs.
• Choose activities and materials that are motivating
• Bring to the classroom any materials (e.g. brochures, photos, souvenirs) you have collected on your trip to
English – speaking countries.
• Praise learners frequently but honestly
• Give learners opportunities to use English to talk about their own lives.

Motivation is very important in language learning, so teachers should do all they can to motivate learners

IV. LEARNING STYLES: Your preferred styles guide the way you learn.
1. Definition: personal, preferred ways to take in, process & remember info. & skills.
2. Learning styles relates to
 the physical sense we prefer to use to learn,
 our way of interacting with other people (personality: extroverted/ introverted)
 our style of thinking = cognitive style (Right / Left Brain Dominance)
 Left brain Hemisphere controls language.

3. Common learning styles:

• …………………: learn best through seeing (You prefer using pictures, images, and spatial understanding.)
• …………………….: learn best through hearing. (You prefer using sound and music.)
• ……………………..: You prefer using words, both in speech and writing.
• Physical/………………….. /ˌkɪnɪs'θi:tɪc/: learn best through handling materials & doing sth. (You prefer using
your body, hands and sense of touch.)
• …………………..: You prefer using logic, reasoning and systems.
• …………………………..: learn best through working with others You prefer to learn in groups or with
other people.
• Solitary/……………………… : learn best through working alone. You prefer to work alone and use self-study.
• Reflective: learn best when given time to consider choices.

Note: Lrs with different learning styles learn in different ways & need to be taught in different ways.
Christison (1996) and Armstrong (1994) give us examples of activities that fit each type of learning styles:
• Logical/mathematical =>
• Visual/spatial =>
• body/kinesthetic =>
• Musical/rhythmic =>
• Group/ Interpersonal =>
• Individual/Intrapersonal =>
• Verbal/linguistic => .

4. Differences Between Left and Right Hemisphere

One way of looking at learning styles is to determine your hemispheric dominance.

2
 Brain Dominance:
Are You Left Brain / Right Brain Oriented?

♦ I remember names / faces

♦ I respond better to verbal instructions / demonstrated, illustrated instructions
♦ I prefer talking, writing/ drawing, using objects
♦ I get easily distracted trying to read a book in noisy or crowded places / I can
easily concentrate on reading in noisy places
♦ I ‘m good at paying attention to people’s words/interpreting body language
♦ I prefer open ended questions/ multiple choice tests

Which Type of Learner Are You?

LEFT (Analytic) RIGHT (Global)
1. Verbal 1. Visual
2. Responds to word meaning 2. Responds to tone of voice
3. Sequential 3. Random
4. Processes information linearly 4. Processes information in varied order
5. Responds to logic 5. Responds to emotion
6. Plans ahead 6. Impulsive
7. Recalls people's names 7. Recalls people's faces
8. Speaks with few gestures 8. Gestures when speaking
9. Punctual 9. Less punctual
10. Prefers formal study design 10. Prefers sound/music background while studying
11. Prefers bright lights while studying 11. Prefers frequent mobility while studying

In short
 both sides of the brain are involved in nearly every human activity.
 the left side of the brain is the seat of language and processes in a logical & sequential order.
 The right side is more visual & processes intuitively, holistically, & randomly.

V. LEARNING STRATEGIES
 The way chosen & used by lrs to learn language.
 Using the right strategy at the right time helps us learn the lg better & become more independent / autonomous.
Examples of learning strategies
• Use flashcards to remember new E words • Write notes, reports, messages in E
• Review E lessons often • Try not to translate word-for- word
• Use new words in a sent so I can remember • Read without looking up every new word
them • Practise E with other ss
• Think of relationships b/t what known & new • Ask for help from E speakers
things learnt • Ask Qs in E
• Say or write new words several times • Try to learn about culture of E speakers
• Try to talk to NS • Look for pp to talk to in E
• Practise the sounds of E • Have clear goals for improving E skills
• Read for pleasure in E
Conclusion:
• Different learners use different strategies.
• The strategies that lrs use successfully depend on
 their personality
 learning styles
=> there are no best strategies.
- Using strategies definitely making learning more successful
- Lrs can be trained to use strategies.
VI. GOOD LANGUAGE LEARNERS …
♦ find their own way, taking charge of their learning
♦ are creative, experiment with language
♦ practice using language inside and outside the classroom
♦ learn to live with uncertainty and continue to talk or listen without understanding every word
♦ make errors work for them and not against them

3
 ♦ use knowledge of L1 to learn L2
♦ use contextual cues to help them in comprehension
♦ learn to make intelligent guesses
♦ learn certain tricks that help to keep conversations going
Ten commandments for Good Language Learning:
Teacher’s Version Learner’s Version
 Lower inhibitions • Fear not
 Encourage risk taking • Dive in
 Build self- confidence • Believe in yourself
 Develop intrinsic motivation • Seize the day
 Engage in cooperative learning
• Love your neighbor
 Use right –brain processes
• Get the BIG picture
 Promote ambiguity tolerance
• Cope with the chaos
 Practice intuition
• Go with your intuitive feeling
 Process error feedback
• Make mistakes work for you
 Set personal goals
• Set your own goals

VII. IMPLICATION
Ways of motivating Ss/ making them want to learn
 Find out Lrs’ motivation/needs through formal interview / questionnaire / survey or informal talk.

- Affective factors/ lrs’ feelings (being relaxed, feeling positive & unthreatened): as important as their
mental/cognitive abilities. (The input alone is not sufficient; the input must be experienced under
conditions which lower the anxiety, and raise the motivation and the self-image of the learner.)
- Lrs need to feel that:
* what they are learning is personally relevant to them,
* they have to experience learning.
* their self-image needs to be enhanced.
 Ts can do a lot of things to lower anxiety, to raise motivation & to encourage a positive self-image.
 Ts can reduce negative factors & develop positive ones by:
 choose the materials that are relevant to their needs so that they can achieve their goals in
language learning/ get satisfaction from the actual experience of learning.
 doing activities to build a positive group dynamic.
 including ss in deciding aspects of the course & choosing activities that are motivating for the age
& interests of the lrs.
 providing varied and interesting input.
 paying attention to error-correction.
 providing meaningful communication.
 creating a learner-centred classroom that encourages learning, rather than punishing failure, keep
criticism to a minimum, encouraging them.
 Lrs are encouraged to reflect on how learning has happened so that their creativity is fostered.

AFFECTIVE FACTORS – REMEMBER:

 Principle:
- Learners as ………………………………..
 Implication:
- Language teachers must consider all the factors that can ……………….. their Ss in
language learning and use appropriate techniques to ……………… learners in classroom.
 Techniques:
- to find out their ……

- to teach them learning strategies ………….

4
ELT Methodology – Module 1 Lecturer: Bui Tri Vu Nam (MA)

THEORY 5:

LEARNING & ACQUISITION

Revision:
1. Discuss what young teachers like you should do to motivate students in learning English. (Grad 2009)
2. List four characteristics of good language learners that you think are important for their success in
language learning. Support your answer with your own learning experience. (Suggested Q, midterm 2010)
3. Explain the two forms of motivation and their application in language teaching. (Midterm 2008)
4. Select four out of the most common learning styles, explain what they are and then tell what the teacher
should bear in mind when teaching the students of these learning styles.

Questions
1. State the difference between acquisition and learning.
2. What does Krashen think about acquisition?
3. What is comprehensible input? What does Krashen think about this concept?
4. What is modified input? What is it called in L1 / L2 learning? Point out the features of these types of speech.
5. What is baseline talk? State its features.
6. Discuss the essential factors for acquisition to take place.

7. 6. Discuss the essential factors for acquisition to take place.

8. According to Stephen Krashen’s input hypothesis, L2 acquisition takes place when a learner
understands input that contains grammatical forms that are ‘ i+I ’(i.e. are a little more advanced than
the current state of the learner’s interlanguage) Krashen suggests that the right level of input is
attained automatically when interlocutors succeed in making themselves understood in
communication. Success is achieved by using the situational context to make messages clear and
through the kinds of input modifications found in foreigner talk. According to Krashen, then, L2
acquisition depends on comprehensible input.

9. Krashen saw the successful acquisition by students of a second language as being bound up
with the nature of the language input they received. It had to be comprehensible, even if it was
slightly above their productive level, and the students had to be exposed to it in a relaxed setting.
This roughly-tuned input is in stark contrast to the finely-tuned input of much language instruction,
where specific graded language has been chosen for conscious learning. Roughly-tuned input aids
acquisition, Krashen argued, whereas finely-tuned input combined with conscious learning does not.

* SOME CONCEPTS:
st
1 language.: ……………………………
nd
2 language.: …………………………….

Foreign language.:………………………….

I. ACQUISITION & LEARNING – A DISTINCTION:

I.1. Acquisition:
st
1 lg. acquisition:
How children acquire L1:
 The main way that children acquire L1: by ___________________ to it, i.e. by hearing and / or reading
it all around us and without saying it. Then they _________________________ automatically, i.e. learn
it without realizing.

nd
2 lg. acquisition: A process: We acquire lg. when we are exposed to samples of the
 nd st
2 lg. that we understand. This happens in much the same way that children pick up 1 lg.=
The 'acquired system' or 'acquisition' is the product of a ……………………………….. very similar to the process
children undergo when they acquire their first language.
Language acquirers are not consciously aware of the grammatical rules of the language, but rather develop a "feel"
for correctness. It requires meaningful interaction in the target language - natural communication - in which
speakers concentrate not in the form of their utterances, but in the communicative act. In non-technical
language, acquisition is 'picking-up' a language.
Acquisition = more important for ………………………………
Lrs. are quite fluent without ever having learned rules.
Lrs should be exposed to ………………………………….
I.2. Learning
• A conscious process of study and attention to
• Lrs. are ……………………………………………… , they may know rules but fail to apply them.
Learning - on the other hand, refers to the 'learned system' or 'learning' is the product of formal instruction of a
second language and it comprises a ………………………………… which results in conscious knowledge 'about'
the language: knowing the rules, being aware of them, and being able to talk about them." Thus language
learning can be compared to learning about a language.
According to Krashen, 'learning' is less important than 'acquisition'.
1
ELT Methodology – Module 1 Lecturer: Bui Tri Vu Nam (MA)

CHARACTERISTICS:

Acquisition Learning
 subconscious
 natural
 long lasting
 successful
 attention to meaning
 fluent

II. THE INPUT HYPOTHESIS

- Input: What students hear or read.

- Comprehensible/roughly-tuned input: forms and structures which are just beyond the learner’s current
level of competence in the lg.

- Output: what Ss speak or write.

The Input hypothesis is Krashen's attempt to explain how the learner acquires a second language. In other words,
this hypothesis is Krashen's explanation of how second language acquisition takes place. So, the Input hypothesis
is only concerned with 'acquisition', not 'learning'. According to this hypothesis, the learner improves and
progresses along the 'natural order' when he/she receives second language 'input' that is one step beyond his/her
current stage of linguistic competence. For example, if a learner is at a stage 'i', then acquisition takes place when
he/she is exposed to 'Comprehensible Input' that belongs to level 'i + 1'. Since not all of the learners can be at the
same level of linguistic competence at the same time, Krashen suggests that natural communicative input is the key
to designing a syllabus, ensuring in this way that each learner will receive some 'i + 1' input that is appropriate for
his/her current stage of linguistic competence.

Evidences for the input hypothesis can be found in the effectiveness of caretaker speech, of teacher talk, and of
foreigner talk.

One result of this hypothesis is that language students should be given an initial "silent period" where they are
building up acquired competence in a language before they begin to produce it.

Whenever language acquirers try to produce language beyond what they have acquired, they tend to use the rules
they have already acquired from their first language, thus allowing them to communicate but not really progress
in the second language.

II.1. Baseline talk

• the kind of talk a speaker addresses other speakers.

e.g.: People who are deprived of sleep lose energy and become quick-tempered.

II.2. Modified input/ Adjusted speech

st
• 1 lg.:
nd
• 2 lg.:

A. Caretaker talk/motherese/mother talk/baby talk

• the way talk to
• Features of caretaker talk:
- rate of speech
- higher
2
ELT Methodology – Module 1 Lecturer: Bui Tri Vu Nam (MA)

- more intonation
- , sentence patterns
- frequent
- paraphrase
- topic of conversation are

B. Foreigner talk/teacher talk

• NS modify their speech when communicating with NNS
• Two types of FT:
Base line talk
You won’t forget to buy the ice cream on your way home, will you?

UGFT
No forget buying ice cream, eh?

GFT
The ice cream – you will not forget to buy it on your way home – get it when you are coming home. All
right?

1. Ungrammatical FT
•
• NS’s lack of
• Features:
* deletion of “be”/ modal verbs/articles
* using base form for past tense form
* using special construction like “no + V”

2. Grammatical FT
•
• Features:
* delivered at a
* the input is (shorter sent., no subordinate clauses, no tag Qs.)
* (regular/basic forms= full not contracted forms)
* elaborated lg. use (lengthening phrases & sent.)

IV. Role of input & interaction in L2 acquisition

• comprehensible input ( i+1) [ right level of input is attained automatically when interlocutors succeed
in making themselves understood in com. , using context + kinds of input modifications found in FT]
• interactional modifications
• negotiation of meaning

- Formal instruction & Learning process:

= enough?
- Acquisition: exposure, motivation, opportunities for use (real tasks to do outside class, games, drawing
pictures, arranging objects => verbal com.)
Implication
• make learning like acquisition by:
– giving learners both and input (= using authentic
materials)
– modifying this input like the way parents talk to little children (teacher talk, foreigner talk)
– increasing&

Teaching
Young lrs.: Avoid grammar teaching, children subconsciously acquire lg.
Adult lrs.: Focused lg. study= useful, desirable + activities that match motivational drive, level,
situational contexts
3
ELT Methodology – Module 1 Lecturer: Bui Tri Vu Nam (MA)

=> Lg. study: helpful for adults > teenagers; using authentic materials + interaction
L2 learners need to be exposed to a rich variety of language, use it to communicate and interact, and have
opportunities to focus on form. This helps to make the circumstances of L2 learning more similar to those in L1
learning and allows L2 learners (who are usually older than L1 learners) to use their different abilities to process
language.

Acquisition and Learning – Remember

 Principle:
◦ acquisition is more important than learning
◦ only acquired language is readily available for natural, fluent communication
 Implication: make learning like acquisition by:
◦ giving learners
◦ this input (like the way parents talk to young children - teacher talk, foreigner talk)

◦ Ensuring

PRACTICE:
Modify the following baseline talk
Advances in medicine and public sanitation mean that infectious diseases no longer
kill • millions of children and adults as they did in the past.
Pronunciation practice is an important matter when studying a new language, as incorrect
• pronunciation can cause misunderstandings.
The automatic noises and gestures that had formerly sufficed would eventually have to
be • replaced by words.
Conservation conflicts arise when natural-resource shortages develop in the face of steadily
• increasing demands from a growing human population.
Whether or not we should place much reliance on trying to interpret their meaning is a
• matter for debate, as dream interpretation is usually no more than inspired guesswork –
with the interpreter fantasising more than the dreamer.
• You may be ill-advised to put all your eggs in one basket.
 Lecturer: Bui Tri Vu Nam (MA)

Mother tongue
HCMC University of Education
Department of English- ELT Module 1

A BRIEF ‘METHODICAL’ HISTORY OF LANGUAGE TEACHING

Phase 1: Traditional Approaches (up to the late 1960s)
Phase 2: Classic Communicative Language Teaching (1970s to
1990s) Current Trends In Communicative Language Teaching

I. SOME BASIC CONCEPTS:

METHODOLOGY: A general term for the study of the teaching of languages encompassing many methods,
procedures and techniques and based on certain theoretical frameworks.

APPROACH: A set of beliefs based on certain theories of learning and theories of language. e.g. the aural-oral
approach, the cognitive code approach, the communicative approach etc.

METHOD: A term to refer to the way a language is taught and the principles behind the procedures used. e.g. The
Audio-Lingual Method ( a specific set of procedures), The Direct Method etc.

TECHNIQUES: Specific procedures used to accomplish an immediate objective e.g. concept questions, oral drills,
dialogue-building etc.

The Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics (Richards, Platt and Weber, 1985) sums up these definitions as:
=> Different theories about the nature of language and how languages are learned ( the approach) imply different
ways of teaching language (the method) and different methods make use of different kinds of classroom activity ( the
technique).

II. APPROACHES AND METHODS:

Approaches= theories about the nature of language & language learning
- how language components/items
- how people use language
- how people acquire knowledge
Difference approaches => different methods

In this course, four major methods will be analysed:

- Grammar-Translation Method
- Direct Method
- Audio-lingual Method
- Communicative Lang. Teaching
…
=> The following approach is usually the reaction to the previous one.

QUESTIONS
1- What is another name for GTM? Why does it have this name?
2- When did it come into being?
3- State its purposes.

I. Introduction
GTM was also called classical method since it was languages, Latin and Greek.
Beginning at century, it was used in the teaching of Latin and Greek.

II.Aims:
- to help Ss and appreciate L2 literature,

1
- to make Ss more familiar with the of L1 through studying Gr. of L2
• they can speak and write L1 better,
- Ss become /

III. EXPERIENCE

IV. OBSERVATIONS & PRINCIPLES

V. REVIEWING THE PRINCIPLES

1. Goals
Be able to read LITERATURE in L2
• Develop ss’ mind
Techniques:
Learn gram. rules + vocab. & good mental exercises
• Roles of T. & Ss
• Traditional: T = AUTHORITY
Ss= DO AS TOLD
3. Teaching/learning process
A. READ the passage aloud
B. TRANSLATE the passage into (the native language) L1
C. EXPLAIN the new vocabulary
D. ASK and answer questions

Ask and answer questions:

1. COMPREHENSION Qs: information contained within the reading passage.
2. INFERNCE Qs: based on their understanding of the passage.
← Referential Qs: Qs related to their own experience.
E. Practice on new vocabulary
1. TRANSLATE a list of new vocabulary into the native language.
2. Antonyms/synonyms
• COGNATES : the similarities of two languages

F. Practice on grammar: DEDUCTIVE (DIỄN DỊCH) application of grammar

rules – RULES => EX (BY L1)
a. Statements of grammar rules
b. Application of the rules in language expression: fill-in-the-banks

• Homework:
1. the vocabulary with the native language translation (MEMORIZE)
2. the translation of the reading passage into the native langue (WRITE OUT THE TRANSLATION)
3. the grammar rules (SSTATE THE GRAMMAR RULE)
4. a composition

4. Interaction
Most of the time: T Ss
Ss Ss = NO

• Ss’ feelings: No principles

6 & 7 Language & culture

JJ. Literary language
KK. Vocab. = gram.

2
 ← Reading & writing, no spoken & listening skill, no pronun.
← Culture: Literature + fine arts

 Role of L1: L1 for translating text; for instructions

 Evaluation
← Written tests: translation
← Questions for comprehension, Qs for applying gram. Rules

VI. TYPICAL TECHNIQUES

• TRANSLATE of a lit. passage
 Reading comprehension Qs
• ANTONYMYS /synonyms
• Cognates
• Deductive application of rule
• Fill-in-the-blanks
• MEMORIZATION
• Use words in sentences
• COMPOSITION

SUMMARY
Content & Characteristics:
1. Classes are taught in the , with little active use of the target language.
• Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words.
• Long, elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given.
4. provides the rules for putting words together, and often
focuses on the form and inflection of words.
5. Reading of text is begun early.
 Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in grammatical analysis.
 Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target language into
the mother tongue.
8. Little or no attention is given .

Questions for discussion & application:

 What are the underlying theories of linguistics & lg. learning for the GTM? Justify your answer.
 Why can most VN lrs. do written tests well but their listening & speaking skills are not good?
 Although this method is traditional, many VN teachers still prefer it. Give specific examples to explain
their preferences.
 Describe some teaching situations in which you may use GTM.
 What are the contributions of GTM to modern language teaching?
 Ask Reading comprehension questions (Finding information in a passage, making inferences and
relating to personal experience) for these short texts:
 Beaches are filled with plastic bags, pieces of glass and cigarettes butts. This makes the sea
polluted and endangers sea plants and animals.
 When she opened the envelop and read the letter, she found she had won the first prize: £
5,000! She wondered whether to spend it or save it.
 Mr. Smith hates getting up early. He loves to stay in bed late. During the week he gets up at 8
o’clock but at weekends he sometimes stays in bed until 10
 After you retire, you can learn new things such as a foreign language or painting. You also have
more time for hobbies. In addition, young people respect you more and take your advice more
seriously. Therefore, old age has some advantages.

3
SOME QUESTIONS FOR REVISION (MIDTERM):
JJJ. Discuss the differences between Behaviorism and Mentalism and their application in language
teaching and learning.
KKK. Discuss how the Affective Factors and Acquisition and Learning are applied to language teaching.
LLL. Explain the two forms of motivation and their application in language teaching.
MMM. What is “base line talk”? What is modified speech? What should be borne in mind when modifying
base line talk to address non - native speakers?
NNN. What are the five names of the adjusted speech for first language and its features? State its
features. // What are some different names of the adjusted speech for first language acquisition and
what are its features?
OOO. List four characteristics of good language learners that you think are important for their
success in language learning. Support your answer with your own learning experience.
PPP. Discuss how languages are taught according to behaviorist view.
QQQ. Discuss the role of behaviorism and cognitivism in the teaching and learning of a language.
RRR. How would you modify the following input to address a group of pre-intermediate learners:
• The livelihood of each species in the vast and intricate assemblage of living things depends on the existences
of other organisms; this interdependence is sometimes subtle, sometimes obvious.
• Positive stress, as it is known, can spur us on to greater heights by increasing awareness which, in turn, helps
us to lead a fuller, more satisfying life.
• Drivers often have an over-inflated opinion of their own driving abilities and think that most other people on
the road fall well below their own high standards.
• “For employees whose jobs involve sitting at a terminal or word processor entering data or typing reports,
the location of the computer is of no consequence.”
• “A 24-year-old bank clerk has begun a week-long stay in a “microflat’ specially constructed in a shop
window on London’s Oxford Street.”
SSS. Discuss the essential factors for acquisition to take place.
TTT. Distinguish between learning and acquisition and tell what the teacher should do to help the sts
acquire the target language.
UUU. What are the principles and implication of Mentalism in language teaching and learning?

MIDTERM TEST (2B)

Date: 14th April, 2013
Time limit: 60 minutes

BRIEFLY ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS:

 Discuss the importance of problem solving activities and patterned drills in language
teaching. (2 pts)
 Write down the rules/ patterns that you, as the teacher, show your students when teaching
them the following sentences as well as three good examples to help the students correctly
induce these structures: (2 pts)
← Hard as he worked, he never earned enough money.
 Form/rule: adv/adj + as + S + V…, S + V …
 Three good examples:

← The reason for this is the manufacturers have to include a lot of vitamins to satisfy the
law.
 Form/rule: S + be + clause/ S + V…
 Discuss the values of teacher talk in English Language Teaching. What are some
characteristics of this kind of adjusted speech? How would you modify the following baseline
talk to a group of elementary students? (1 pt)
The Eden Project shows the importance of plants and how we depend on them for the
air we breathe, the clothes we wear, and for our food and medicine.
 In what ways do the Grammar Translation Method (GTM) and the Direct Method (DM)
supplement each other?
(1.5 pts)
Questions 5 and 6 are based on the following passage:
These days most people, especially young girls like to look slim. Our grandparents’
tastes were different from ours but nowadays nobody seems to enjoy looking at fat
people. The only thing that is wrong with this is what a friend of mine said to me the
other day: “I don’t mind eating these foods if they help me to lose weight but why do
they taste so awful?” The reason for this is the manufacturers have to include a lot of
vitamins to satisfy the law, so the only sensible advice I could give my friend was: “Eat
normal food, but eat less”.
 Make 2 factual questions, 1 inferential question, and 1 referential question for the short text
above. (1 pt)
 inferential question: 1.
 How would a teacher of the Direct Method show the meanings of these words: slim, lose
weight? Comment on this way of teaching vocabulary in terms of its advantages and
disadvantages. (1.5 pts)
THE END

4
 ELT Methodology - Module 1 Lecturer: Bui Tri Vu Nam (MA)

THE DIRECT METHOD (DM)

QUESTIONS
← What is the underlying theory of the DM?
← When & Why did the DM come into being?
← State its basic rule.

I. INTRODUCTION
– At the turn of century, this method became widely known.
nd
– By , advocates believed that 2 lg. learning should be more like
.
– basic rule: , no ; meaning is conveyed directly in
through use of demonstrations and visual aids.

DIRECT METHOD: ASSUMPTIONS

1. Second language learning must be an of first language learning.
2. Knowing a language was being able to it.
3. Printed word: from second language learner for as long as possible.
4. The learning of skills should be avoided.

II. AIMS
- to help lrs. use in commu.

III. EXPERIENCE

IV. OBSERVATIONS & PRINCIPLES

• The teacher places a big map of the united States in the front of the classroom.


• At the beginning of the class, the teacher asks students to read aloud a passage about the United
States geography first and he points to a part of the map after each sentence is read.
← will be developed through the practice with speaking.


• Then the teacher uses the target language to ask students if they have any question. If the students
have some, they are asked to use the target language to ask the teacher, too.
← is prohibited.

• The teacher answers the students’ questions by drawing on the blackboard or giving examples.
No &

4. The teacher asks questions about the map in the target language and the students are asked to reply in
a full sentence in the target language, too.
Ask students to in the as quickly as possible.

J. The teacher encourages his students to ask questions about the map.


K.The teacher will work with students on their wrong pronunciation, and he will also help them to
correct grammar errors by asking them questions to let them choose.
•

L. The students are asked to practice using prepositions in the lesson by filling in blanks because the
teacher won’t directly teach explicit grammar rules to them.
• be taught inductively.

1
 ELT Methodology - Module 1 Lecturer: Bui Tri Vu Nam (MA)

JJ.In order to develop students’ writing abilities, the teacher dictates a paragraph about the geography of
the United States.
 is an important skill.

KK. All of the lessons of the week involve the geography of the United States.
Syllabus focus on

p A proverb is used to discuss in the classroom in order to help students learn how speakers of that
language live.
Learning

V. REVIEWING THE PRINCIPLES

1. Goals: Be able in L2.

To do this, Ss should learn to think in L2.

2. Roles of T. & Ss
Ss = less passive
T – ss: like partners (T. directs)

3. Teaching/learning process
- Means of : L2
- Presenting meanings using .
p Ss use L2 a great deal.
- Situational syllabus: based on .
- taught inductively.

p Interaction T Ss
St T
Ss
Ss

q Ss’ feelings No principles

6 & 7 Language & culture

• language, not written
JJJ. Vocab. & gram. of everyday speech, Vocab > gram.

• & people of the target lg. community • occurs from the

start.
 Pronun. paid much attention to from start.

8. Role of L1 No L1 at all

9. Evaluation
• Not focussing on .
• Communicating in both & written skills.

10. T’s response to ss’ errors

• Employing :
- say the correct word
- stop right away & use Or Q. for ss to self-correct.

VI. TYPICAL TECHNIQUES:

•
Students take turns reading. At the end of each student’s turn, the teacher uses gestures, pictures,
realia, examples, or other means to make the meaning clear.
2
 ELT Methodology - Module 1 Lecturer: Bui Tri Vu Nam (MA)

 Q – A exercise
← only in target language
← Students ask questions and answer in full sentences

 Getting ss to
← by asking them to make a choice
←using a questioning voice
←stopping before the error

 Conversation practice
← Teacher asks students some questions in the target language
← questions contained a particular grammar structure (T→S; S→S)

• exercise
← all the items are in the target language
← no explicit grammar rules would be applied

• Dictation
← Teacher reads the passage 3 times
← normal speed
← phrase by phrase with pausing long
← normal speed again

• Paragraph writing

VII. SUMMARY
This approach was developed initially as a reaction to the grammar-translation approach in an attempt
to integrate more use of the target language in instruction.
• Lessons were conducted exclusively in L2.
• Only simple vocabulary and sentences about everyday activities were taught.
• Oral communication skills were developed on the basis of the question- and-answer exchanges
between teachers and students in small, intensive classes.
• Grammar was taught inductively, that means rules are generalized from the practice and experience
with the target language.
• New teaching points were introduced orally.
• Concrete vocabulary was taught through demonstration, objects and pictures

e.g : - teacher says to students : “Look at my face. I am smiling,” to show the meaning of the word
“smile” (demonstration)
♦ teacher points to his eyes and says: “here are my eyes” (real object)
♦teacher shows a picture of a river and says: “ this is a river” (picture)
Abstract vocabulary was taught by association of ideas:
e.g to teach the word: lazy, the teacher says: “Nam is a lazy boy. He does nothing all day. He only eats
and sleeps.”
 Both speaking and listening comprehension were taught.
 Great attention was given to correct pronunciation.

=> These principles are seen in the following guidelines for teaching oral language :
 Never translate: demonstrate.
 Never explain: act
 Never make a speech: ask questions
 Never imitate mistakes: correct
 Never speak with single word: use sentences
 Never speak too much: make students speak much.
 Never use the book: use your lesson plan.
 Never jump around: follow your plan.
 Never go too fast: keep the pace of the students

3
 ELT Methodology - Module 1 Lecturer: Bui Tri Vu Nam (MA)

• Never speak too slowly: speak normally.

• Never speak too quickly: speak naturally.
• Never speak too loudly: speak naturally.
• Never be impatient: take it easy.

VIII. MERITS & DEFECTS

The weakness in the Direct Method is its assumption that a second language can be learnt
in exactly the same way as a first, when in fact:

L1 LEARNERS L2 LEARNERS

No command of another language before learning Have command of another language before
the target language learning the target language

Immature mother tongue is not fixed Mature mother tongue is fixed

Recognises and copes with reality through the Recognises and copes with reality through the
target language mother tongue, not the target language

High contact-frequency with the target language Already know that all things have names
to learn that all things have names

QS FOR DISCUSSION
- Why is this method not popular in Vietnamese high schools?
- Describe some teaching situations in which you may use the DM.
- Is this method appropriate for teaching in International schools? Why?
- Compare the Grammar Translation Method with the Direct Method. How do they supplement
each other?

4
HCMC University of Education Lecturer: Bui Tri Vu Nam (MA)
Department of English
ELT – Module 1

Questions
♦ When & Why did the ALM come into being?
♦ State its basic approach & differences compared with DM.
♦ What is the ALM’s point of view in developing learners’ fundamental communicative skills?

♦ INTRODUCTION:
th
– In the first half of the 20 century, the DM did not take hold in the U.S. as it did in Europe.
– Two reasons:
←Native speaking Ts were easily found in Europe but not in U.S. & Ss in Europe had more oppor. to use oral
skills.
← U.S ed. institutions believed that reading approach was more useful than an oral approach.

Then WW2 broke out, the U.S. was thrust into a worldwide conflict.
 need for Americans to be orally proficient in lgs. of both their allies & enemies.
soldiers needed to learn foreign languages for military purposes. Therefore this method was also called Army

Method .

This method came into being in early years of WW2.

- widely used in the United States and other countries in the 1950's
and 1960’s
 still used in some programs today.
- an approach
- focusing on
- having a strong theoretical base in (structural) &
(behaviorism - lg. is a set of habit established by constant practice - reinforcement)

Structural syllabus
• A syllabus in which form the central organizing feature.
• A structural syllabus proceeds from grammatical structure to more
grammatical structure.

e.g.: Present Simple -> Present progressive -> Comparatives -> Simple past -> Past progressive

II. EXPERIENCE
“As we enter the classroom … native lg. is uttered.” - T introduces a dialogue.
- Only L2 in class.
“ After she acts out the dialogue … This time … - T introduces the situation & models the dialogue in
understand all that I am saying”. L2.
“Now she has the whole class repeat… or phrase - T. conducts choral repetition.
begins and ends in the sent.” - T. uses a back- chaining technique/ backward build-
up/expansion drill.
“After the Ss have repeated the dialogue several times, - T conducts choral repetition drill (T= model, Ss=
… all the girls take Sally’s”. mimic)
- T – whole class
- group - group
“She then initiates a chain drill … The last st directs - T conducts a chain drill around the class.
the greeting to the T.”
“Finally the T selects two ss … some time this week”. - pairs of ss. perform the dialogue in the front.
“The T moves next to …. the cue”. - Teacher conducts a substitution drill, using cues.
“ The T. begins by reciting a line . … in the picture in - Teacher conducts a substitution drill, using
the appro. slot in the sent.”. pictures.
“A similar procedure … to elicit the use of ‘they’. - T conducts a single-slot substitution drill using real
situations in class. (Sub. pronouns)
1
“Finally, the T. increases the complexity … other - T conducts a multi-slot substitution drill using real
times naming a location”. situations in class. (Sub. Pronouns + locations)
“ The substitution drills are followed … move on to a - T conducts a transformation drill.
Q -A drill”. (Affir. Sent. Yes/No Q)
“ The T holds up one of the pictures …to respond very - T conducts a Q - A drill, using actions & e.g.
quickly, without pausing” (Yes/No Q Yes
T whole class
T indi. ss)
“The Ss are able to keep up the pace … to the café’, - T conducts a Q - A drill, using actions & e.g.
the class answer”. (Yes/No Q No
T whole class
T indi. ss)
“Very good’, exclaims the T … until his pro. is closer - T conducts a Q - A drill, using actions & e.g.
to her own.” (Yes/No Q Yes + No
T whole class
T indi. Ss
correcting ss’ pronun.)
“ For the final few minutes … Class dismissed”. - Dialogue practice:
- T reads once.
- Ss role-play the dialogue in chorus.

Comments
• Both & worked hard.
• Ss listened & spoke only in quickly & fluently.
• T is tired from but pleased.

Next classes
1. the dialogue
5. the dialogue by adding a few more lines.
6. the new lines & introduce new vocab.
4. Work on inductively: no rules given.
5. Pro. drill using .

Minimal pairs

/p/ /f/ /i:/ /I/

• pin fin sheep ship
• peel feel bean bin
• pail fail eat it
• pine fine seat sit
• harp half leek lick
cheek chick

6. A & expanding game

7. applying knowledge in L2 with real -life situations.

III. THEORY OF LEARNING

Behaviorism, including the following principles:
10. language learning is
• are bad and , as they make bad habits
• are learned more effectively if they are presented , then in written form
• the of words can be learned only in a linguistic and cultural context.

A. Objectives
Some of the objectives of the audio-lingual method:
• pronunciation and grammar
• ability to quickly and accurately in speech situations
• knowledge of sufficient to use with grammar patterns

2
 B. The syllabus
Audio-lingualism uses a

C. Types of learning techniques and activities

 dialogues
 drills

D. Procedure
A typical procedure in an audio-lingual course:
• Students
• Students of the dialogue.
• Certain or may be changed in the dialogue.
• Key from the dialogue serve as the basis for pattern drills of different kinds.
• The students practice in the pattern drills.

IV. OBSERVATIONS & PRINCIPLES

- REVIEWING THE
PRINCIPLES 1. Goals
← Be able to communicate in L2.
To do this, Ss should L2 without stopping to think in order to form new habits.
• Roles of T. & Ss
← T: an orchestra leader, director, controller, model provider
← Ss: imitators, following T’s directions, responding accurately & rapidly
• Teaching/learning process
• Means of instructions:
• New vocab. & gram. patterns: presented thru .
- : learnt thru imitation & rep
- : conducted upon patterns in dialogs.
- taught inductively.
- Ss’ are reinforced.
- Cultural info.: in dialogs & by T.
- Reading & writing: work.

- Interaction (T directs)
T Ss
Ss Ss
St – St

- Ss’ feelings No principle

- Language & culture

• influenced by linguistics.
• is emphasised.
• complexity of speech: .
• & lifestyle of people of target lg. community.

C.Areas of Lg. & Lg. skills

- LSRW;L&S>R&W
- Pronun.: taught from start, using minimal pairs & lg. labs.
- V < sound system & gram. patterns

8. Role of L1 No L1 at all

9. Evaluation
• -point tests.
(each Q on test focuses on only one point of lg. at a time.)

3
10. T’s response to ss’ errors
• Errors are at all costs.
(T stops St right away & corrects him/her.)

VI. Typical Techniques

• Dialog Memorization (Students memorize an opening dialog using mimicry
• Backward Build-up (Expansion Drill) (Teacher breaks a line into several parts, students repeat each
part starting at the end of the sentence and "expanding" backwards through the sentence, adding each
part in sequence)
• Repetition Drill (Students repeat teacher's model as quickly and accurately as possible)
• Chain Drill (Students ask and answer each other one-by-one in a circular chain around the classroom)
• Single Slot Substitution Drill (Teacher states a line from the dialog, then uses a word or a phrase as a
"cue" that students, when repeating the line, must substitute into the sentence in the correct place)
• Multiple-slot Substitution Drill (Same as the Single Slot drill, except that there are multiple cues to be
substituted into the line)
• Transformation Drill (Teacher provides a sentence that must be turned into something else, for example
a question to be turned into a statement, an active sentence to be turned into a negative statement, etc)
• Question-and-answer Drill (Students should answer or ask questions very quickly)
• Use of Minimal Pairs (Using contrastive analysis, teacher selects a pair of words that sound
identical except for a single sound that typically poses difficulty for the learners - students are to
pronounce and differentiate the two words)
• Complete the Dialog (Selected words are erased from a line in the dialog - students must find and insert)
• Grammar Games (Various games designed to practice a grammar point in context, using lots of
repetition)

VII. MERITS & DEFECTS

SUMMARY:
In the ALM classroom:
 Correct of the teacher is the focus.
 Correct is expected.
 Correct is given attention to.
 Correct is stressed
 No instruction is given.
3. Only the target language is used in the classroom.
 Ss are expected to produce language with few errors
 Accuracy is more emphasized than Fluency (Form is more important than Meaning)

Questions:
• Do you think drills or other forms of repetitive practice should play any role in language teaching?
• Why is it true that learners taught with the ALM are well-trained parrots? What techniques are used to
achieve this purpose?
• Discuss why Vietnamese learners are afraid of making errors in the classroom and consequently
become reluctant in classroom participation.
• Point out some similarities between the DM and the ALM.
• What are minimal pairs? What is their use in the ALM? Work out 10 pairs (5 pairs for consonant sounds, 5
for vowel sounds).
• Describe four techniques of the ALM do you like to use in your future teaching situations? Justify your choice.
• Why is it true that ALM requires a lot from both the teacher & students?

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HCMC University of Education Lecturer: Bui Tri Vu Nam (MA)
Department of English ELT1

Questions
- When & Why did the CLT come into being?

- What is the goal of CLT?

- INTRODUCTION:
Late & early , a shift from a linguistic structure-centred approach =>
.
(lrs could produce correct sent. but could not use them appropriately => Commu. Competence = knowing
& how to say to whom.)
• Teaches the language needed to express and understand different kinds of functions
• Also emphasizes the processes of communication.
e.g. - using language appropriately in different types of situations
- using language to perform different kinds of tasks, e.g. to solve puzzles, to get information, etc.
- using language for social interaction with other people.

SOME DEFINITIONS:
Forms & Functions:

II. EXPERIENCE

 OBSERVATIONS & PRINCIPLES IV.

REVIEWING THE PRINCIPLES

1. Goals Be able to appropriately.

To do this, Ss need + social knowledge (relationship b/t
speakers, contexts,…)

2. Roles of T. & Ss T:
Presentation/ Pre- stage:
, controller, , motivator …
Practice/ While-stage:
facilitator, , participant, ,…
Production/ Post-stage:
, corrector.
Ss:
- communicators.
- in classroom.

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3. Teaching/learning - Ss use L2 a lot.
process - a lot of : games, role-plays, info. gap activities,
prob. solving tasks.
- use of
- a lot of
- Truly communicative activities have three features:

4. Interaction (T establishes situations)

T Ss
Ss Ss (group work)
St – St (pair work)
TTT < STT
5. Ss’ feelings • Ss are
• Ss have
• Ss feel thanks to group work.

6. Language & culture • + + functions. (different forms –

same func.; same form – diff. func.)
•
• : everyday lifestyle of people of target lg.
community & non-verbal comm.

7. Areas of Lg. & Lg. • Func. > (functional syllabus; simple complex forms)
skills • Ss learn at discourse level. (cohesion & coherence)
• are taught right from beginning + integrated.

8. Role of L1 • Judicious use of

• is used most of the time
( presenting, giving instructions, during comm. activities)

9. Evaluation • accuracy +
• T can informally evaluate ss’ performance during group work.
• (fml) an having a real communicative function.
10. T’s response to ss’ • Errors of are tolerated during fluency-based activities.
errors • T. notes ss’ errors & deals with them with an accuracy-
based activity.

* INFORMATION GAP EXERCISE

Ask your partner to find out the missing information, then report back to your class. Remember to use the past tense
correctly.
Student A Student B
Prince Albert was German, and they married in London in Prince Albert was German, and they married in
1840. ___________ ____ (Where?) in 1840.
Soon after they married, they visited the French
Soon after they married, they visited the French king, Louis
king, Louis Philippe. They visited him in (When?).
Philippe. They visited him in 1843.
Unfortunately, Prince Albert died in 1861when he
Unfortunately, Prince Albert died in 1861 when he was only
was only_____________ (How old?)
42.

Queen Victoria was terribly unhappy, and she never

lived in London again. She lived in Windsor and Queen Victoria was terribly unhappy, and she never
Scotland. She loved Scotland because __________ lived in London again. She lived in Windsor and
(Why?). Scotland. She loved Scotland because she often went
there on holiday with her family.
She died in 1901. She was _________ (How old?).
She died in 1901. She was 81.

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* Information gapes – Choice – feedback:
Activities that are truly communicative, according to Morrow (in Johnson and Morrow 1981), have three
features in common: information gap, choice, and feedback.
An information gap exists when one person in an exchange knows something the other person does not.
In communication, the speaker has a choice of what she will say and how she will say it. If the exercise
is tightly controlled so that students can only say something in one way, the speaker has no choice and the
exchange, therefore, is not communicative.
True communication is purposeful. A speaker can thus evaluate whether or not his purpose has been
achieved based upon the information she receives from his listener. If the listener does not have an
opportunity to provide the speaker with such feedback, then the exchange is not really communicative.

*Linguistic variation/ authentic materials:

Newspaper headlines / articles
Short stories / novel extracts / film review
Advertisement / reports / fax / memos / leaflets / company profiles/ maps/
photos Postcard / notes / diaries/ messages
Songs/ radio broadcast / recorded announcements / mono talks / dialogs / discussion/ news / films /
instructions

* Types of questions

COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS AND CONVERSATION QUESTIONS

* Comprehension Qs = Display Qs= Questions that the questioner knows the answer.
E.g. Where is Hanoi? Is
Paris in France?
* Conversation Qs = Referential Qs= Qs that the questioner doesn’t know the answer.
E.g. Where is your hometown?
Is your family big?
=> What to do with these two types of Qs?
Usually the comprehension questions are display questions. They make the text remote and rather boring.
Referential questions involve individuals but do not keep the class moving together. When these 2 kinds of questions are
combined, the lesson develops with every one involved, and individuals personally involved.

IV. TYPICAL TECHNIQUES

• Use of
• sentences
• game
• strip story
• Role play

V. MERITS & DEFECTS

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QUESTIONS & TASKS:
Task 1: Which of statements below characterize CLT?
1. People learn a language best when using it to do things rather than through studying how language works
and practicing rules.
2. Grammar is no longer important in language teaching.
3. People learn a language through communicating in it.
4. Errors are not important in speaking a language.
5. CLT is only concerned with teaching speaking.
6. Classroom activities should be meaningful and involve real communication.
7. Dialogs are not used in CLT.
8. Both accuracy and fluency are goals in CLT.

Task 2: The following are the statements used to make an apology. Which forms seem to be appropriate to teach
the students of these levels: elementary, pre-intermediate, intermediate and advanced? Explain your grading.
- I’m awfully sorry, I’m late. The traffic was terrible.
- I’m not quite sure how to put this, but….
- I’ve got a bit of an apology to make, you see….
- I’m afraid I’ve got something to tell you….
- I apologized for my being late for class….
- I’ve got a confession to make….
Task 3: Describe the following utterances in terms of their grammatical form and their communicative function
a- We should leave for the concert soon.
b- Excuse me. Is there a supermarket near here?
c- Could you tell me the way to the nearest bus station, please?
d- I wonder if you could lend me your dictionary, I’m doing my home work.
e- Would you like me to get it for you?
f- See you sometime soon, I hope.
g- Put everything in front of you.
Pour ¼ cup of milk in each cup.
Add food coloring to every cup,…

Task 4: For each of the following activities, name the technique and explain whether it mirrors the
three features of a truly communicative activity or not.
1. Sit in small groups. Choose one of the sports below. Describe the sport but don’t mention its name. Let the
other students guess which sport you are talking about.
skiing tennis golf sailing badminton

2. Work in pairs. Complete the following dialog and practice it.

Tom: So where you? We for an , but then we to have lunch
you.
Mike: I to help my move of her . Tom:
was her ?
Mike: Right round the . Just minutes away from .

3. Here are two apartment ads. They do not give very much information. Choose one and make up at least
5 questions to ask the house owners on the phone.

Beautiful apartment, walk to campus. Call Two-bedroom apartment. $500. good location.

555-2009 for more information. Call 555-1828.

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 4. Work with a partner. Use the cues given in the box.
A: What tine does the movie - concert 8 p.m /10.30 p.m.
start? B.: 7.30 pm - play 7 p.m. / 9.00 p.m.
A: And when does it end?
B: 10 o’clock. - game show 09 a.m. / 11.am.

5. Practice saying these pairs of words or sentences.

a) lip – leap b) hit – heat c) live – leave d)

Look at that ship / sheep. e) They bit / beat him.
6. Make a survey by asking at least 3 students in your class what they like or don’t like eating (or drinking).

7. Fill in the missing words.

a) Tom is older Richard.

b) This book is not good that.
8. Make the following sentences plural.

a) A rose is a flower.
b) A table is a piece of furniture.
9. What are the names of the three tenses you have learned so far?
10. Put these sentences in the correct order.
Finally, bake it in the oven for 20 minutes.
To make a cake, you need five eggs, some flour, some sugar, and a little butter.
Then, break the eggs and mix them well.
…
11. Learn the dialog by heart and say it before class.
12. Go around the class and ask five classmates about what their family members are doing
for the time being. Then report back to the class.
1- father
2- mother
3- elder / younger brother
4- elder / younger sister

Task 5: Qs for discussion

1. Work in groups and find out what benefits Vietnamese learners of English could get if they were taught
by CLT.
2. Discuss the problems / difficulties Vietnamese teachers and students might face when following CLT in
their teaching and learning situations.
3. List three forms used to express the function of advising at three levels of elementary, intermediate
and advanced (i.e. one form for one level). Explain your answer.
4. Is there any significant difference in the goal between the Audio-Lingual Method and the
Communicative Approach? Use your own words to justify your answer.
5. Why do some language teachers in our country still hesitate to employ the more advanced methods of teaching?
6. Are you in favour of the idea that all errors should be corrected?

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SOME QUESTIONS FOR REFERENCE:
1. Discuss the importance of drills (of all kinds) in ALM and suggest how the drawbacks of drills are
overcome by CLT.
2. Describe two techniques of the Direct Method you like to employ in your future teaching situation,
and then explain your choice.
3. State how the Direct Method and Grammar Translation Method supplement each other. (2pts)
4. Describe the following utterances in terms of their grammatical form and their
communicative function.
a. Nice weather, isn’t it?
b. I definitely will not talk to him again.
c. I am wondering if you are kind enough to give me a lift.
d. Does 7 o’clock work for you?
5. For each of the following activities, name the technique and explain whether it mirrors the three
features of a truly communicative activity or not. (2pts)
[a] Go around the class and find out who ... ? [b] Fill each gap with one word.
1 often eats in restaurants 1 I always ask ___ steak when we eat __.
2 eats quite a lot of sweet things 2 What do you usually have __ lunch?
3 eats ready-prepared food 3 It's a good idea to warm __ before you start
4 cooks big meals at home running.
5 enjoys eating 4 Who do you get ____ with best in your family?

6. Suggest two shortcomings of the Audio Lingual Method and state how these weaknesses are overcome
by Communicative Language Teaching.
7. Describe the following utterances in terms of their grammatical form and their
communicative function.
Will you close that window, please? Peter will never go back to this shop.
Have I made myself clear? Sally, you have been quite silent!
You can say that again. Sorry! I can’t agree with you there. I
Work harder or you will fail the exam. won’t eat at this restaurant again!
8. List 5 linguistic forms you can use for ONE of the functions you have identified. Which would you
teach to beginners? To intermediates? To an advanced class? Explain your choice. (2 pts)

Questions 9 and 10 are based on the following passage:

Yesterday the government announced that road pricing may be introduced in many major cities next year
and on all major UK routes within the next ten years. Motorists would then have to pay to use the roads
that take them to work, on holiday, or even to their children’s schools, in an attempt to reduce the
number of cars on our roads.
9. Make 2 factual questions, 1 inferential question, and 1 referential question for the short text above.
10. How would a teacher of the Direct Method show the meanings of these words: motorist, attempt?

Questions 11 and 12 are based on the following passage:

These days most people, especially young girls like to look slim. Our grandparents’ tastes were
different from ours but nowadays nobody seems to enjoy looking at fat people. The only thing
that is wrong with this is what a friend of mine said to me the other day: “I don’t mind eating
these foods if they help me to lose weight but why do they taste so awful?” The reason for this
is the manufacturers have to include a lot of vitamins to satisfy the law, so the only sensible
advice I could give my friend was: “Eat normal food, but eat less”.
11. Make 2 factual questions, 1 inferential question, and 1 referential question for the short text above.
12. How would a teacher of the Direct Method show the meanings of these words: slim, lose weight?
13. Choose a grammar point in the text and illustrate how it should be taught in GTM/ should be taught
deductively.
GOOD LUCK