Tectonophysics 662 (2015) 153–166

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Tectonophysics
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tecto

Late Paleoproterozoic–Neoproterozoic multi-rifting events in the North

China Craton and their geological significance: A study advance
and review
Mingguo Zhai a,b,⁎, Bo Hu c, Taiping Zhao d, Peng Peng e, Qingren Meng f
a
State Key Laboratory of Continental Geodynamics, Northwest University, Xi'an, China
b
Key Laboratory of Mineral Resources, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
c
College of Earth Science and Resources, Chang'an University, Xi'an, China
d
Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
e
State Key Laboratory of Lithosphere Evolution, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
f
Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: An important Paleoproterozoic mobile belt event took place in the North China Craton (NCC), termed
Received 1 September 2014 the Hutuo Movement. This event has been interpreted to represent cratonic reworking characterized by
Received in revised form 31 December 2014 rifting–subduction–collision processes. The NCC then evolved into a stable platform or para-platform tectonic
Accepted 10 January 2015
setting in Earth's middle age period more than ~1.0 Ga. Thick Late Paleoproterozoic–Neoproterozoic sedimentary
Available online 11 February 2015
sequences were extensively deposited on the early metamorphic basement. The major sedimentary basins
Keywords:
include the Xiong'er aulacogen system in the south-central NCC, the Yan-Liao aulacogen system in the north-
North China craton central NCC, the Northern marginal rift system in the northwestern NCC and the Eastern marginal rift system
Late Paleoproterozoic–Neoproterozoic in the eastern NCC. The following four stages of magmatic activity are recognized in the Late Paleoproterozoic
Magmatic event to Neoproterozoic interval: (1) ~ 1800 to 1780 Ma Xiong'er igneous province (XIP), (2) ~ 1720 to 1620 Ma
Multi-stage rifting anorogenic magmatic association, (3) ~ 1350 to 1320 Ma diabase sill swarms, and (4) ~ 900 Ma mafic dyke
Long-term stable continent swarms. These four magmatic events suggest that the NCC was situated in an intra-plate setting for a long
Extensional tectonic environment time from ~1.8 Ga to ~0.7 Ga or even younger, and the magmatic events were associated with multi-stage rifting
activities. We document that the NCC was in a long-term extensional tectonic setting during Late
Paleoproterozoic–Neoproterozoic era. The main ore deposits in this period are magmatic type iron deposits relat-
ed to anorthosite-gabbro bodies, REE–Nb–Fe and Pb–Zn–Cu–Fe deposits related to Mesoproterozoic–
Neoproterozoic rifts. Orogenic metal deposits are absent. There is no evidence indicating that the Grenville or
other orogenic events affected the NCC. The reason for the absence of Grenvillian aged events in the NCC is
probably because it was far from the edge of the Nuna supercontinent, if such a supercontinent did exist.
There is another possibility that the Earth's middle age represented a particular tectonic evolution period, during
which the Earth had a stable lithosphere with underlying secular warm mantle that resulted in multi-magmatism
and rifting from the Late Paleoproterozoic to Neoproterozoic.
© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction history and stabilization (Kusky et al., 2007; Liu et al., 2002; Windley,
1995; Zhai, 2011; Zhao, 1993; Zhao et al., 2005) and Mesozoic
The North China craton (NCC) consists mainly of Precambrian lithospheric thinning beneath the eastern NCC (Fan and Hooper, 1991;
metamorphic basement, Late Paleoproterozoic–Paleozoic sedimentary Fan and Menzies, 1992; Kusky et al., 2014; Menzies et al., 1993; Zhai,
sequences, and Mesozoic intrusions. The NCC covers over 300,000 km2 2008; Zhai et al., 2002; Zhai et al., 2007). In contrast, the Proterozoic
and has a complicated evolutionary history recording multi-stage sedimentary basins and their geological significance have been less
crustal growth and imprints of almost all major Precambrian geological investigated. Thick Late Paleoproterozoic–Neoproterozoic sedimentary
events (Zhai and Santosh, 2011). Previous studies of the NCC have paid sequences were developed on the basement of the NCC under a stable
high attention to the early Precambrian geotectonic evolutionary tectonic setting, and experienced minor deformation and metamor-
phism (Zhai et al., 2004). Kusky and Li (2002) suggested that conglom-
⁎ Corresponding author at: Key Laboratory of Mineral Resources, Institute of Geology
erate and sandstone at the base of the Changcheng Series formed in a
and geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China. foreland basin along the northern margin of the NCC possibly due to
E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Zhai). the 1.9–1.85 Ga collision outboard of the Inner Mongolia–Northern

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2015.01.019
0040-1951/© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
154 M. Zhai et al. / Tectonophysics 662 (2015) 153–166

Hebei Orogen and closure of the back arc basin. This period extended The Late Paleoproterozoic–Neoproterozoic (the Earth's middle age)
from ~ 1.8 Ga to ~ 0.7 Ga or even to younger ages. The questions are rifts developed on the metamorphic basements. The main sedimentary
what was going on in the NCC in Earth's long middle age period, and basins include the Xiong'er aulacogen system in the southern-central
what is its geological significance? This paper will address this issue. NCC (Fig. 1), the Yan-Liao aulacogen system in the northern-central
Fig. 1 displays a Precambrian sketch map of the NCC, showing the Ar- NCC, the Northern marginal rift system in the northwestern NCC, and
chean rocks, Paleoproterozoic mobile belts and Late Paleoproterozoic– the Eastern marginal rift system in the eastern NCC and the Korean
Neoproterozoic rifts. The Archean rocks are distributed throughout the Peninsula. All the rift systems occur separately in present, although
NCC except for Phanerozoic basins in the western and eastern-central they might have been linked each other during their evolution
regions of the NCC. The Archean rocks include orthogneisses and meta- (Zhao, 1993). Sedimentary sequences of individual rift systems are dif-
morphosed supracrustal belts (greenstone belts). The cratonization of ferent in both stratigraphy and thickness. However, they show charac-
the NCC was established at the end of the Archean (Chen, 1994; Zhao, teristics of multi-stage rifting and long-term development. Closely
1993; Zhai et al., 2001; Wan et al., 2011; Geng et al., 2012). Three associated with rifting, the following four stages of magmatic activity
Paleo-proterozoic mobile belts are located in the northeastern, central are recognized during the Late Paleoproterozoic–Neoproterozoic:
and northwestern parts, which are, respectively, called the Jiaoliaoji, (1) ~ 1800 to 1780 Ma Xiong'er igneous province (XIP), (2) ~ 1720 to
Central and Fengzhen mobile belts (Fig. 1). The three mobile belts are 1620 Ma anorogenic magmatic association, (3) ~1350 to 1320 Ma dia-
composed of both sedimentary rocks and bi-modal volcanic rocks, base sills, and (4) ~925 Ma mafic dyke swarms and ~900 Ma sills. The
which were metamorphosed to high–moderate grades, and typically four magmatic events imply that the NCC was in an intraplate setting
occur as linear belts, and lie unconformably over the Archean basement. during the period from ~1.8 Ga to ~0.7 Ga or even to younger age. Stud-
These belts formed and evolved within the craton or continental margins ies of both sedimentary basins (Meng et al., 2011) and magmatism
from ca. 2350–2000 Ma. The tectonic evolution of the Paleoproterozoic (Zhai et al., 2014) suggest that the NCC was in a stable tectonic environ-
belts in the NCC is comparable to Phanerozoic orogens in some aspects, ment during Earth's middle age. In another word, the NCC evolved into a
but different from typical Archean granite–greenstone belts. It is, there- platform or paraplatform. The Late Paleoproterozoic–Neoproterozoic
fore, suggested that the NCC experienced rifting–subduction–accretion– sedimentary strata were not metamorphosed or deformed until the
collision processes in the Paleoproterozoic, subsequent to the 2.5 Ga Mesozoic. Geochemical studies of the four stages of magmatism show
cratonization event, thereby providing an example for the operation of the Late Paleoproterozoic–Neoproterozoic NCC was in an extensional
modern style plate tectonics in the Paleoproterozoic (Geng et al., 2012; setting. The temporal distribution of the magmatic rocks appears
Kröner et al., 2005; Kusky et al, 2001; Zhai and Liu, 2003; Zhai and to link with the secular warming of the mantle (Korenaga, 2006;
Santosh, 2011). The pull-apart stage in the NCC probably occurred at Korenaga and Jordan, 2001; Prokoph et al., 2004).
2.3–2.0 Ga, including the formation of rifts and remnant ocean basins In consideration of geology of the blocks adjacent to the NCC, it is
(Zhai and Santosh, 2011). Other tectonic models for arc–continent or possible that the Proterozoic NCC was located far from the edge of the
continent–continent collision were also suggested by some researchers Nuna supercontinent, if such a supercontinent did exist. Therefore, the
(e.g., Zhao et al., 2002a,b, 2005; Kusky and Li, 2002; Santosh et al., Grenville or other orogenic events have not been recognized yet in the
2009). The compressional stage from subduction to collision probably op- NCC (Zhang et al., 2012a,b). Another possibility is that the Late
erated at from 2010 to 1950 Ma in the NCC (Stern et al., 2013; Wang et al., Paleoproterozoic to Neoproterozoic period represents a particular time
2007; Zhai, 2011). interval when the Earth had a stable lithosphere with an underlying

Fig. 1. Sketch of Precambrian map of the NCC.

 M. Zhai et al. / Tectonophysics 662 (2015) 153–166 155

secular warm mantle. The lithospheric mantle was warm enough to ca. 880–820 Ma volcanic rocks have been discovered in the Zhaertai
have resulted in widespread melting of the lower crust and rifting Group in the Northern marginal rift system (Peng et al., 2010, 2014). De-
(Zhai et al., 2014). trital zircons from the sedimentary rocks in the Eastern margin rifts
yield U–Pb ages of 900–800 Ma and ca. 1400 Ma (Hu et al., 2012).
2. Stratigraphic division and detrital-zircon records Meng et al. (2011) argued that the Proterozoic in the Northern marginal
rift system experienced similar basin evolution to that of the Yan-Liao
The Late Paleoproterozoic–Neoproterozoic sedimentary sequences aulacogen system.
are well preserved in the NCC. The Yanshan is a typical area, where The Proterozoic depositional sequences in the Yan-Liao aulacogen
the Late Paleo- and Mesoproterozoic sedimentary sequences are system and Northern marginal rift system are continuous, providing a
assigned as the type section of the Stratigraphic Lexicon of China good sedimentary record for basin analysis. Depositional sequences of
(Chen et al., 2009). Four stratigraphic units are divided in the Yanshan the two Subsystem are both characterized by gradual changes from
area, the Changcheng, Jixian, Await Name and Qingbaikou Systems, lower siliciclastic to upper carbonate rocks, but the Changcheng Subsys-
respectively (Fig. 2, left column, Gao et al., 2009). tem is much thicker than the overlying Nankou Subsystem (Meng et al.,
The lower boundary age of the Changcheng System is traditionally 2011). The tectono-sedimentary evolution of the northern NCC exhibits
approved to be 1.8 Ga. The boundary ages between the Jixian, Await two distinct stages. The Changcheng Subsystem was deposited in rift
Name and the Qingbaikou Systems are, respectively, 1.6 Ga, 1.4 Ga basins that experienced strong subsidence in association with volca-
and 1.0 Ga. The upper boundary age of the Qingbaikou system remains nism, and basin fills include fluvial, deep-marine, and carbonate facies.
unknown. Neoproterozoic sequences are mostly missing in the Yanshan Widely-distributed shallow-marine siliciclastics and carbonates are
area, but well preserved in NE China and the southern margin or characteristic of the Nankou Subsystem, thereby indicating a slow sub-
eastern margin-Korean Peninsula. Neoproterozoic strata include the sidence process over a broad area. A regional diachronous disconformity
Qingbaikou (1000–780 Ma, Pt3 -1), the Nanhua (780–635 Ma, Pt3 -2), exists between the Changcheng and Nankou subsystems, with the
and the Sinian Systems (635–542 Ma, Pt3-3) (cf. Fig. 4). Dahongyu arenite and Gaoyuzhuang carbonate deposited over the
On the basis of sedimentary and structural analyses, Meng et al units of different ages. Slow subsidence and the widespread occurrence
(2011) divided the Changcheng System into two subsystems, the of shallow-marine facies imply that the Nankou Subsystem was formed
Changcheng subsystem composed of the Changzhougou, Chuanlinggou during a postrift period. The transgressive disconformity between the
and Tuanshanzi Formations and Nankou subsystem consisting of the Changcheng and Nankou subsystems might have been generated as a
Dahongyu and Gaoyuzhuang Formations (Fig. 2, right column). Volcanic result of a complete separation of the North China Craton from the adja-
rocks occur present in the Dahongyu and the Tuanshanzi Formations. cent continent. We thus define it as a “breakup disconformity” (Fig. 3).
The magmatic zircons from the Dahongyu volcanic rocks yield U–Pb The boundary age of Late Paleoproterozoic and Mesoproterozoic is
ages of 1680–1620 Ma, and zircons from anorogenic magmatic intrusive 1.8 Ga in the stratigraphic division chart issued by CCOS is different
bodies (rapakivi granites, gabbro-anorthosites and porphyritic granites) from that of international stratigraphic chart. Recent studies have re-
yield U–Pb ages of 1700–1670 Ma (Zhai and Liu, 2003; Zhao et al., ported a lot of detrital zircon U–Pb ages in sedimentary rocks, magmatic
2004a,b). Mafic sills were recently distinguished from the Xiamaling zircon U–Pb ages in volcanic rocks and intrusive rocks from various
Formation, with their zircon U–Pb ages being 1350–1320 Ma (Li et al., Proterozoic depositional basins in the NCC, which helps constrain the
2009; Zhang et al., 2009). A new stratigraphic division has been pro- sedimentary ages of different units, stratigraphic correlation and prove-
posed by the Chinese Commission on Stratigraphy (CCOS) (Fig. 2), pro- nances. Some researchers debated that the bottom boundary age of the
posing a new stratigraphic unit, the Await Name System, composed Changcheng System is considered as young as 1.7 Ga according to the
only of the Xiamaling Formation (Gao et al., 2009, 2011). The boundary zircon age of 1.67 Ga (Li et al., 2011). The dated zircon is from a granitic
between the Await Name System and the Qingbaikou System is still vein that occurs within the Archean gneiss and is unconformably cov-
marked by the Qinyu uplifting disconformity interface. Recent studies ered by quartz sandstone of the Changzhou Formation. It is also report-
reveal that ca. 900 Ma mafic dykes are present in the central and ed that rapakivi granite beneath the Changcheng System yields zircon
eastern NCC and the northern Korea (Peng et al., 2011a,b). Moreover, ages of ~1.708 to 1.68 Ga (He et al., 2011). However, no consensus has

Fig. 2. The Late Paleoproterozoic–Neoproterozoic stratigraphic division in Yanshan area.

Left: based on Chinese Commission on Stratigraphy (CCOS) (Gao et al., 2011); right: based on Meng et al. (2011).
156 M. Zhai et al. / Tectonophysics 662 (2015) 153–166

Fig. 3. Basin evolution model of the Changcheng System.

After Meng et al. (2011).

been reached on the interpretation of the ages. The claimed unconfor- detrital zircon ages from the northern marginal rifts and Yan-Liao
mity beneath the Changcheng system is actually a fault surface. Zhao aulacogen are mainly from ~ 2.5 Ga and ~ 1.85 Ga, and ~ 1.6 Ga and
et al. (2004a,b) reported some magmatic zircon ages of ~ 1.78 Ma of ~1.2 Ga ages are not dominant. The ~ 1.6 Ga and ~ 1.2 Ga sedimentary
the Xiong'er Formation, revealing that the Late Paleoproterozoic sources changed in the Eastern marginal rift system. The characteristics
Xiong'er aulacogen might record a more complete sedimentary succes- of zircons is also consistent with the distribution of the sedimentary
sion, in that it started developing earlier than the Yan-Liao aulacogen. strata on the surface, i.e. the Neoproterozoic sequences, specially the
The Xiong'er Formation is the lowermost part of the Late Paleoproterozoic Nanhua System (up to 635 Ma) and Sinian System (up to 542 Ma),
sequences of the NCC (Fig. 4), and the Ruyang Formation in the Xiong'er mainly occurs in the eastern NCC and northeastern NCC. Fig. 4 provides
aulacogen can be correlated with the Changcheng System in the Yan- a Late Paleoproterozoic to Neoproterozoic stratigraphic chart of the
Liao aulacogen. Here we suggest that the boundary age between NCC.
Paleoproterozoic and Mesoproterozoic in the NCC is 1.6 Ga. The
Changcheng System thus should be Paleoproterozoic in age, whereas 3. Magmatic events
and the Jixian System is the Mesoproterozoic.
Fig. 5 shows detrital zircon U–Pb ages from sedimentary successions Four stages of magmatic activity during the Late Paleoproterozoic–
of the Yan-Liao aulacogen system (Fig. 5A), the Eastern marginal rift sys- Neoproterozoic are well recognized as follows: (1) ~ 1800 to 1780 Ma
tem (Fig. 5B), and the Northern marginal rift system (Fig. 5C). Fig. 5D is a Xiong'er igneous province (XIP), (2) ~ 1720 to 1620 Ma anorogenic
summary histogram plot. Two major peaks of detrital zircons are magmatic association, (3) ~ 1350 to 1320 Ma diabase sills, and (4) a
~ 2.5 Ga and ~ 1.85 Ga, which are consistent with the ages of the NCC ~ 900 Ma mafic dyke swarms (Zhai et al., 2014). The four magmatic
metamorphic basement (Hu et al., 2012). Three other weak peaks are events implies that the NCC should be in an intra-plate setting during
~2.7 Ga, ~1.6 Ga and ~1.2 Ga. Circa 2.7 Ga rocks mainly occur in the east- a period from ~1.8 Ga to ~0.7 Ga, even to a younger age, and associated
ern, southern and northeastern parts of the NCC; ~1.6 Ga igneous rocks with multi-stage rift activities.
are present both in the Changcheng Formation and the Xiong'er Forma-
tion; ~1.2 Ga magmatic rocks are rare in the NCC. Two granitite samples 3.1. ~1.78 Ga dyke swarms and volcanic rocks
yield ~ 1.2 Ga magmatic zircon U–Pb ages that were collected from
northwest Korea near Dandong city of China (Zhao et al., 2006) and The uplift of the crystalline basement of the NCC to upper crustal
from northern Liaoning (unpublished data). Fig. 5 also displays that levels occurred during the period from 1860 to 1780 Ma presumably
 M. Zhai et al. / Tectonophysics 662 (2015) 153–166 157

Fig. 4. Late Paleoproterozoic–Neoproterozoic stratigraphic chart in the NCC.

as a result of the Hutuo Movement. The emplacement of mafic dyke 2001). The ca. 1.78 Ga mafic dyke swarms spatially extend for about
swarms widely affected the basement and the swarmed mafic dykes 1000 km across the North China Craton (NCC), with individual dykes
yield ages ranging from 1800 to 1760 Ma, with a peak at 1780 Ma. Vol- up to 40 km long and 80 m wide (Fig. 6). The mafic dykes are oriented
canic rocks in the lower part of the Xiong'er succession were dated at ca. N–NW and E–W in the central and western NCC, but N–NE and N–W-
1780–1760 Ma (Peng et al., 2005, 2008; Zhao et al., 2001, 2002a,b, directed in the east. The N–NW- and N–W-oriented dykes occur
2004a,b). The isotopic characteristics of Paleoproterozoic metabasites throughout the NCC and radiate from a central region at the Xiong'er
(with 1900–1760 Ma ages from gabbroic bodies and doleritic dykes) triple-junction that was formed at 1.78 Ga along the southern margin
show that their source composition obviously transformed from an of the NCC (Hou et al., 2008; Peng et al., 2005). The geometry of the
enriched to depleted mantle with time, with εNd values ranging from dykes and the rift-arms are well correlated. Peng et al (2008) suggested
+ 5 to − 2 at ca. 2.5 Ga to − 2 to − 10 at ca. 1.9–1.7 Ga (Zhai et al., that the dykes could be the feeders of the Xiong'er volcanic edifice, and
158 M. Zhai et al. / Tectonophysics 662 (2015) 153–166

Fig. 5. Detrital zircon and monazite U–Pb ages form Late Paleoproterozoic–Neoproterozoic sedimentary rocks in the NCC. (A) Yan-Liao aulacogen, (B) Northern marginal rifts, (C) Eastern
marginal rifts, (D) summary for the NCC.

together with volcanic rocks, constitute a large igneous province fractional crystallization from an EM1 type mantle source. Mafic dyke
possibly related to plume tectonics. swarms are widespread in the central NCC with an outcrop area over
The Xiong'er Igneous Province (XIP) consists of 3–7-km-thick volca- 0.1 M km2, and are exposed at variable depths up to 20 km (deepest
nics and some feeder dykes/sills along the southern margin of the NCC, in the north). Several studies have revealed that the mafic dyke
covering an area N 0.06 M (million) km2. The XIP is characterized by swarm records assimilation and fractional crystallization of an EM1
 M. Zhai et al. / Tectonophysics 662 (2015) 153–166 159

Fig. 6. The distribution of the mafic dyke swarms and related igneous rocks.

type magma source, with only minor contribution of depleted mantle The Miyun rapakivi granite has zircon U–Pb ages from 1735–1681 Ma
(DM) in the younger magmas. Spatial and petrogenetic correlations of (Gao et al., 2008; Yang et al, 2005). The average εHf(t) value of zircons
the dykes suggest a cogenetic relationship between the dyke swarm is about −5, and their two-stage TDM2Hf = 2.8–2.6 Ga, indicating that
and XIP, and considered together, they define a Large Igneous Province rapakivi granite magma was derived from partial melting of the
(Fig. 7). The LIP event was considered to have triggered the formation of Neoarchean crust. The Dahongyu Formation and Tuanshanzi Formation
the Xiong'er aulacogen (Peng et al., 2005, 2008). with bimodal volcanic rocks mainly outcrop in Eastern Hebei and the
Beijing–Tianjin areas. Their thickness is up to 700 m. Volcanic rocks of
3.2. ~1.72 to 1.62 Ga anorogenic magmatic association the upper Tuanshanzi Formation and the upper Dahongyu Formation
have zircon ages of 1625 Ma, 1683 Ma, 1637 Ma and 1641 Ma, respec-
A large-scale magmatic event affected the NCC during ~ 1.76 to tively (Gao et al., 2011; Li et al., 1995; Zhang et al., 2013). Geochemically,
1.65 Ga (Fig. 8), such as the Damiao anorthosite–gabbro complex in the volcanic rocks show enrichment in LILE and LREE and depletion in
northern Hebei, the Miyun rapakivi granitic bodies in Beijing, A-type HFSE, with weak negative abnormal of Nb and Ta and εNd(t) values rang-
granites and alkali granites in the southern NCC, and bi-modal volcanic ing from −0.66 to 0.63.
rocks in the Yan-Liao aulacogen. ~1.72 to 1.62 Ga igneous rocks in the NCC commonly constitute a se-
The Damiao anorthosite complex includes anorthosite, norite, ries of anorogenic association (Zhai et al., 2001). In general, the
mangerite and gabbro with Fe–Ti–P ore deposits. The zircon U–Pb ages anorogenic magmatic association is considered to have formed in an
of norite and mangerite are from 1742–1693 Ma (Zhang et al., 2007; intra-plate or post-collisional tectonic setting. Fig. 9 displays age–εNd
Zhao and Zhou, 2009; Zhao et al., 2004b). The whole-rock εNd(t) values (t) and age–εHf(t) for anorogenic magmatic rocks in the NCC, demonstrat-
range from −4.0 to −5.4, and zircon εHf(t) values from −4.7 to −7.5. ing that felsic rocks have εNd(t) of −8 to −4 and εHf(t) of −14 to −1, and

Fig. 7. A model for XIP for related plume.

Modified from Peng et al. (2008) and Zhai and Santosh (2013).
160 M. Zhai et al. / Tectonophysics 662 (2015) 153–166

Fig. 8. Distribution of anorogenic magmatic association and related rocks.

mafic rocks have εNd(t) of −8 to +1 and εHf(t) of −10 to 0. The weathering. In Wulongji south to Xiabancheng, at least three diabase
geochemical data indicate that they were mainly derived from enriched sills can be identified (Fig. 10A), and four are present in the
mantle with contamination of crustal materials. Zircons from felsic rocks Shuangdongzi anticline east of Pingquan (Fig. 10B).
have two-stage TDM2Hf ages of 2.6–2.8 Ga, implying that old crystalized Gao et al. (2009), Li et al. (2009), and Zhang et al. (2009, 2012a,b) re-
basement was their protolith rocks. ported new accurate zircon and baddeleyite SHRIMP, LA-ICP-MS and
The Dahongyu and Tuanshanzi Formations contain bimodal volcanic SIMS U–Pb analyses on representative samples of the diabase sills
rocks that yield zircon U–Pb ages of ~1625 Ma and ~1683 Ma, respec- emplaced into the Wumishan, Tieling and Xiamaling Formations. The
tively. Geochemical study shows that they were formed in an intra- zircon ages range from 1325 ± 5 Ma to 1316 ± 37 Ma. Zircon LA-ICP-
plate setting and derived from enriched mantle. The bimodal volcanics MS U–Pb dating of the Shangdu-Huade granitic pluton in the northern
were associated with anorogenic magmatic complexes and anorthosite- NCC yields similar emplacement ages ranging from 1331 ± 11 Ma to
rapakivi intrusive rocks (Ramo et al., 1995; Yu et al., 1996). 1313 ± 17 Ma. These ages are comparable with the 1.4–1.2 Ga rift-
related anorogenic magmatism worldwide, such as North America,
3.3. ~1.3 Ga diabase sills Greenland, Baltic, and Siberia, which was associated possibly with the
breakup of the Columbia (Nuna) supercontinent (Zhang et al., 2012a,b).
Large volumes of diabase sills occur within the late Paleoproterozoic The major and trace element data of diabase sills are characterized
to Mesoproterozoic sedimentary rocks in the northern NCC. They by TiO2 (1.51–3.72 wt.%), Fe2O3T (13.08–20.16 wt.%) and MgO
extend for several hundred kilometers from west to east, and are (3.26–7.48 wt.%), and Mg# values are from 24.27 to 53.12. In diagrams
very common near Chaoyang, Lingyuan, Pingquan, Kuangcheng and of Nb/Y vs. Zr (Fig. 10A) and Ti/100-Zr-Y*3 (Fig. 10B), all the diabase sill
Xiabancheng. They mainly intrude the Xiamaling Group, and also samples exhibit tholeiitic compositions and fall in to the field of intra-
occur within the Chuanlinggou, Gaoyuzhuang, Tieling and Wumishan plate (Zhang et al., 2012a). Fig. 11 are diagrams of age–εNd(t) (A) and
Formations. The Xiamaling Formation consists of dark shales, sand- age–εHf(t) (B) for diabase sills. All the diabase samples exhibit very sim-
stones, siltstones and marl layers. Diabase sills are very common within ilar Nd and Hf isotopic compositions with positive whole-rock
the Xiamaling Formation throughout the northern NCC. Diabase sills are εNd(t) and zircon and baddeleyite εHf(t) values. On εNd(t) vs. emplace-
normally a few to 100 m thick, and occasionally exhibiting concentric ment age and εHf(t) vs. U–Pb age of zircons and baddeleyites (Fig. 11C

Fig. 9. Diagrams of age–εNd(t) (A) and age–εHf(t) (B) for anorogenic magmatic rocks.
 M. Zhai et al. / Tectonophysics 662 (2015) 153–166 161

Fig. 10. Geological section showing the diabase sills within the Xiamaling Group. (A) Wulongji section; (B) Shuangdongzi section.
After Zhang et al. (2009).

and D), the rocks fall in the field between evolution lines of chondrite which were considered to have been derived from partial melting of
and depleted mantle. The 1.74–1.69 Ga Damiao anorthosite complex an enriched lithospheric mantle (Xie, 2005; Zhang et al., 2007). Partial
in the northern NCC are also put in Fig. 11 for comparative study. melting of subcontinental lithospheric mantle cannot account for the
These Nd and Hf isotopic systematics are very different from those high positive εNd(t) and εHf(t) values of the diabase sills and the

Fig. 11. Diagrams of Nb/Y vs. Zr (A) and Ti/100-Zr-Y*3 (B), age–εNd(t) (C) and age–εHf(t) (D) for diabase sills and related rocks.
162 M. Zhai et al. / Tectonophysics 662 (2015) 153–166

primary basaltic magmas of these rocks were likely derived at the con- secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS). They yield a 207Pb/206Pb aver-
tinental rifting stage. The Mid-Mesoproterozoic diabase sills in the age age of 920.4 ± 5.7 Ma (Peng et al., 2011a).
northern NCC were likely generated by partial melting of the depleted The rocks of the Dashigou dyke swarm comprise gabbro to diabase.
asthenosphere mantle coupled with minor crustal assimilation in a con- The gabbro dykes are medium- to coarse-grained, composed mainly of
tinental rifting environment. clinopyroxene and plagioclase, with or without olivine. One of the
most primitive dykes has 47.79 wt.% SiO2, 6.41 wt.% MgO, 1.38 wt.%
TiO2, 17.77 wt.% Al2O3, 10.47 wt.% CaO and 0.62 wt.% K2O. Their REE
3.4. ~925 to 830 Ma magmatism plots show slight enrichment in light rare earth elements and slightly
depleted in high field-strength elements compared with neighboring
The Neoproterozoic igneous rocks comprise the ~925 Ma mafic dyke elements on a primitive mantle-normalized spider-gram. Their Eu/Eu*
swarm, ~900 Ma mafic sills, and ~890 to 830 Ma bimodal volcanic rocks. rations demonstrate slightly positive anomaly (1.1). The Dashigou
The ~925 Ma mafic dykes are distributed in the central and southern dykes have εNdt values of + 1.8 to + 3.1 and 87Sr/86Sr values of
parts of the NCC (Fig. 12). The representative dykes with detailed study 0.7019–0.7047 (t = 920 Ma). All these characteristics indicate that
are the Taihuagou dyke in Liangcheng, Inner Mongolia, Yangjiagou dyke they are not likely derived from the ancient lithospheric mantle of the
in Huai'an, NW Hebei, Dashigou dyke in Heng Mountains, Zuoquan dyke NCC, but rather from a mantle source in the asthenosphere.
in Taihang Mountains and Fengjiajuan dyke in Yishui-Laiwu, western Our survey of the geology of North Korea revealed that the Sariwon
Shandong. All these dykes are named as the Dashigou swarm (Peng sills are distributed in the Pyongnam basin at the center of the Korean
et al., 2011a). They are typically unmetamorphosed and partly uncon- Peninsula, in the eastern part of the NCC or the Sino-Korea Craton
formably covered by Cambrian strata. The dykes are typically ~ 10 to (Peng et al., 2011b). These sills are up to 150 m thick and up to more
100 m wide and up to 10–20 km long. Their trends vary from 305 to than 10 km long. Baddeleyite grains separated from a ~50-m-thick sill
340° in the central NCC to ~ 010° in the southern NCC. The Dashigou give a SIMS 206Pb–207Pb age of 899 ± 7 Ma (MSWD = 0.34, n = 14),
swarm exhibits an overall radiating geometry (the overall fan angle is which is interpreted to be magmatic crystallization age. The Sariwon
about 60°), with a focal point located along the southern margin of the sills are tholeiitic diabases. They show enrichment in light rare earth ele-
eastern NCC, where a large ca. 900 Ma sill swarm was recognized ment concentrations (La/YbN = 1.4–2.8) and are slightly depleted in
(Wang et al., 2012). Representative sills are the Chulan sills (the Xu- high field strength elements (e.g. Nb, Zr, and Ti). Their whole-rock εNdt
Huai basin, Shandong Peninsula) and the Dalian sills (Lv–Da basin, (t = 900 Ma) values are around − 2, whereas in-situ εHft (t =
Liaodong peninsula). The rift system hosting these slightly younger 900 Ma) values from zircon grains vary from −25 to +8. They are similar
sills is named the Xu–Huai Rift Subsystem. The ~ 925 Ma dykes and to the coeval sills in other parts of the NCC. These sills possibly originated
~900 Ma sills could represent two breakup-parallel arms of a rift–rift– from a depleted mantle source (e.g., asthenosphere), rather than from the
rift triple junction related to the initiation of magma center that pro- ancient lithospheric mantle of the NCC, and have experienced significant
duced the Dashigou dykes. The sills have similar characteristics and assimilation of lithospheric materials. The strata and sills in the Xu-Huai,
could be cogenetic with the Dashigou dykes. The dykes of the Dashigou Lv–Da and Pyongnam basins are comparable. Moreover, the three basins
swarm cut the ~ 1.78 Ga dykes in some places, for example, in the are geographically correlative based on the Neoproterozoic geographical
Zuoquan area and Yishui-Laiwu area. reconstruction.
Precise U–Pb isotope dilution thermal ionization mass spectrometry It is reasonable to consider that ~925 to 900 Ma magmatism repre-
(ID-TIMS) measurements on baddeleyite grains separated from three sents a second sub-lithospheric mantle upwelling event following the
dykes yield 207Pb/206Pb average ages of 924.0 ± 3.7 Ma (Dashigou 1780–1730 Ma event that occurred shortly (~70 Ma) after the forma-
dyke), 921.8 ± 2.6 Ma (Yangjiaogou dyke) and 925.8 ± 1.7 Ma tion of the subcontinental lithospheric mantle (SCLM). Therefore, the
(Taohuagou dyke). To test ID-TIMS U–Pb ages, baddeleyite grains from SCLM of the NCC was multiply metasomatized during asthenospheric
a late-stage pegmatite vein in the Dashigou dyke were analyzed by upwellings (at least at 1780–1730 and 925–900 Ma) before most of its

Fig. 12. Distribution of ~925 to 900 Ma dykes.

After Peng et al. (2011a,b).
 M. Zhai et al. / Tectonophysics 662 (2015) 153–166 163

eastern part was removed during the Mesozoic. Collectively, these 4. Discussion and conclusion
~ 925 Ma dykes and ~ 900 Ma sills constitute a large igneous province
(LIP) with an aerial extent being about 0.5 m km2 and a diameter of Zhai et al (2014) have paid attention to the geological process of
about 1000 km. This LIP probably resulted from a Neoproterozoic man- the NCC during Late Paleoproterozoic to Neoproterozoic period and
tle plume centered along the present southern margin of the eastern proposes that it probably has global implication. Cawood and
NCC, and probably resulted in the break-off and drifting away of a sep- Hawkesworth (2014) recently termed the period 1.7–0.75 Ga as the
arate crustal block. “Earth's middle age”, and summarized that this time interval was
In addition to the discovery of the ~925 to 900 Ma mafic swarm, an- marked by a number of obvious geological phenomena, such as a pauci-
other discovery is bimodal volcanic rocks in Langshan–Zhaertai rift in ty of preserved passive margins, an absence of a significant Sr anomalies
the Northern marginal rift system (Fig. 13A). Basaltic and dacitic rocks in both the paleoseawater record and εHf(t) in detrital zircons, a lack of
are layered with crystalline limestone, shale and sandstone, associated orogenic gold and volcanic hosted massive sulfide deposits, and an ab-
with SEDEX-Type Pb–Zn deposits. The thickness of the volcanic beds is sence of glacial deposits and banded iron formations. By contrast,
~10 to 30 m. They were commonly metamorphosed to greenschist fa- there are widely developed anorthosites and related bodies as well as
cies, locally to amphibolites facies. The dacitic rocks yield zircon large-scale Mo and Cu mineralization. Cawood and Hawkesworth
SHRIMP U–Pb ages from 867 to 805 Ma, and some zircon grains have (2014) ascribed these trends to a relatively stable continental setting
cores of N1677 Ma (Peng et al., 2010). The basaltic rocks yield SIMS zir- as result of formation of the Nuna supercontinent since ca. 1.75 Ga,
con U–Pb age of 887.4 Ma (Fig. 13B, Peng et al., 2014). Their REE plots which might have persisted until the breakup of Rodinia at ca.
show slight enrichment in light REE and flat in heavy REE (Fig. 13C). 0.75 Ga. Therefore, Earth's middle age encompassed a period of environ-
Their geochemical characteristics, such as unfractionated in HFSE with- mental, evolutionary, and lithospheric stability that contrasts strikingly
out any Th enrichment and Nb and Ta depletion, probably suggest that with the dramatic changes in preceding and succeeding eras. All the
the mafic volcanic rocks were mainly derived from an enriched mantle geological processes are also characteristic of the late Paleo- to
source (Peng et al., 2014). Neoproterozoic NCC, as already described by Zhai et al. (2014).

Fig. 13. 880–830 Ma bimodal volcanic rocks in Langshan-Zaertai rift in northern NCC (A). (B) SIMS U–Pb zircon age of meta-basalt; (C) REE plot of meta-basalt.
164 M. Zhai et al. / Tectonophysics 662 (2015) 153–166

(1) ~1.8 to ~0.7 Ga thick sedimentary sequences are widely distrib-

uted in the NCC and did not experience strong contraction and
metamorphism until the Middle Jurassic. Four rift systems
developed around the NCC during the Late Paleoproterozoic–
Neoproterozoic, the Xiong'er aulacogen system in the south-
central NCC, the Yan-Liao aulacogen system in the northern
NCC, in the Northern marginal rift system and the Eastern mar-
ginal rift system (including the Korean Peninsula), respectively.
The basal volcanic rocks of the Xiong'er Formation are dated
at ~ 1.80 to 1.78 Ga (Zhao et al., 2004a), indicating that
rifting started at the southern edge of the NCC in the late
Paleoproterozoic. The Yan-Liao rift sequences, composed of the Fig. 14. Schematic diagram showing main super-continent cycles.
Changcheng, Jixian, Await Name and Qingbaikou systems, also Modified after Condie et al. (2001).

began developing at N1.70 Ga. The Neoproterozoic is poorly-

represented in the Yan-Liao aulacogen system, but relatively
well-preserved in the northeastern NCC. The Neoproterozoic se- worth noting that the NCC did not undergo any strong compres-
quence in the northeastern NCC is divided into the Jing'eryu, sional deformations and metamorphism related to orogenic pro-
Qiaotou, Wuxingshan and Jinxian Formations, which could be cesses during the late Paleo- to Neoproterozoic interval. Studies
correlated with the Qingbaikou, Nanhua and Sinian systems, re- of Neoproterozoic sedimentary and magmatic evolution showed
spectively. However, the proposed stratigraphic correlation is no any evidence for Grenville orogeny in the NCC (Zhai et al.,
tentative because of the lack of reliable radiometric dates to con- 2014). Several magmatic events occurred in late Proto- to
strain the ages of the Neoproterozoic rocks in the northeastern Mesoproterozoic times in the NCC, which were previously sug-
NCC (Chen et al., 2009). The Proterozoic sedimentary strata are gested to indicate the breakup of Nuna from ~ 1.78 to 1.30 Ga
separated from the Cambrian by a regional parallel disconformi- and breakup of Rodinia from ~ 0.925 to 0.82 Ga in the NCC
ty, suggesting that the NCC did not experience strong contraction (such as Zhao et al., 2004a, 2009; Zhang et al., 2009; Gao et al.,
at the end of the Neoproterozoic. It is obvious that sedimentation 2009; Peng, 2010; Peng et al., 2011a; Peng et al., 2014). The du-
in the NCC took place in a continental extensional setting from ration from ca. 1.78 to 1.30 Ga or 0.82 Ga for breakup processes
~1.8 Ga to 0.7 Ga or even to ~540 Ma after the Paleoproterozoic seems too long to be accepted. The NCC might have been located
reworking event (or called the Hutuo Movement). In other at a remote edge of the Nuna supercontinent throughout the Pro-
words, the NCC evolved under a stable environment typified by terozoic era based on paleomagnetic studies (Zhang SH et al.,
development of rift basins and epicontinental sedimentation in 2000, 2012). This result can well account for the lack of geologic
Earth's middle age. records of Meso- and Neoproterozoic orogenic events in the NCC.
(2) Four stages of magmatism are recognized in the NCC during the Zhai et al. (2014) suggested two possibilities as follows: the NCC
Late Paleoproterozoic–Neoproterozoic as follows: (1) ~1800 to was located far from the Grenville orogenic belts, or the Grenville
1780 Ma mafic dyke swarm and the Xiong'er igneous province; orogeny was not a global scale tectonic event. Therefore, it is
(2) ~ 1720 to 1620 Ma anorogenic magmatism; (3) ~ 1350 to worth rethinking the conception that several supercontinent cy-
1320 Ma diabase sill swarm; (4) ~ 900 Ma mafic dyke swarm cles existed in the Proterozoic.
and bimodal volcanism. The first and fourth magmatic
events were possibly the result of mantle plumes, whereas the
second-stage anorogenic magmatism was likely related to a In sum, we come to the following conclusions:
warm mantle. The third-stage diabase sills could be generated
by partial melting of a depleted asthenospheric mantle coupled (1) An important Paleoproterozoic mobile belt event took place in
with slight crustal assimilation. It is thus proposed that the NCC the NCC, termed the Hutuo Movement. This has been interpreted
lithosphere should be stable and underlain by a warmer mantle as a cratonic reworking event with rifting–subduction–collision
in Earth's middle age. The persistent warmer state of the mantle processes, after which the NCC evolved into a stable platform
is believed to have led to multi-stage partial melting of both the or para-platform tectonic setting in Earth's middle age period ex-
mantle and lower crust, and triggered rift development. Late tending longer than ~ 1.0 Ga. Vast and thick Late Proterozoic–
Paleo- and Neoproterozoic mineralization is also obvious in the Neoproterozoic sedimentary sequences were extensively depos-
NCC. Main ore-deposits include magmatic Fe–Ti–P deposits asso- ited on the early metamorphic basement.
ciated with anorthosites and gabbro intrusions, Meso- and (2) Four stages of magmatic activity are recognized during the Late
Neoproterozoic SEDEX-type Pb–Zn–Cu deposits, REE–Fe–Nb de- Paleoproterozoic–Neoproterozoic, which suggest that the NCC
posits related to Mesoproterozoic rifting and mantle upwelling, was situated in a within-plate setting for an extended time
and Mesoproterozoic sedimentary GIF (hematite) deposits. All from ~ 1.8 Ga to ~ 0.7 Ga or even younger, and the magmatic
the deposits clearly are related to continental rifting and events were associated with multi-stage rifting activities.
extension-related magmatism. (3) The main ore deposits in this period are magmatic type iron de-
(3) It has been suggested that there were several supercontinent cy- posits related to anorthosite-gabbro bodies, REE–Bb–Fe and Pb–
cles in the Proterozoic period (Condie et al., 2001; Dalziel, 1997; Zn–Cu–Fe deposits related to Mesoproterozoic–Neoproterozoic
Gladkochub et al., 2010; Goldberg, 2010; Li et al., 2008; Rogers, rifts.
and Santosh, 2003; Santosh, 2010; Zhao et al., 2002a), as illus- (4) No evidence for the Grenville or other related orogenic events is
trated by Fig. 14. An earliest supercraton had formed prior to recorded in the NCC. It is possible that the Proterozoic NCC was
ca. 2.5 Ga, and broke up in the 2.35–2.25 Ga period (Condie located at a remote edge of the Nuna supercontinent if such a su-
et al., 2001). Another two supercontinents are assumed to have percontinent existed. Or, there is another case, i.e. the Earth's
also existed in the Proterozoic, Nuna (or Columbia) and Grenville middle age represents a particular tectonic evolution period, dur-
(Rodinia), and ~2.1 to 1.95 Ga and ~ 1.1 to 0.9 Ga metamorphic ing which the Earth had a stable lithosphere with underlying sec-
and magmatic events were argued to record assembly of the ular warm mantle that resulted in multi-stage magmatism and
Nuna and Grenville supercontinents, respectively. It is, however, rifting from the Late Paleoproterozoic to Neoproterozoic.
 M. Zhai et al. / Tectonophysics 662 (2015) 153–166 165

(5) The lithosphere should have become more stable and rigid Kusky, T.M., Li, J.H., 2002. Is the Dongwanzi Complex an Archean Ophiolite? Response to
Zhai, M.G., Zhao, G.C., Zhang, Q. Science 295 (5557), 923. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/
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middle age. We propose that modern plate tectonics began Kusky, T.M., Li, J.H., Tucker, R.D., 2001. The Archaean Dongwanzi ophiolite complex, North
operating after break-up of the Rodinia supercontinent, which China craton: 2.505-billion-year-old oceanic crust and mantle. Science 292,
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contrasted with Paleoproterozoic small-scale primitive plate Kusky, T.M., Li, J.H., Santosh, M., 2007. The Paleoproterozoic North Hebei Orogen: North
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Acknowledgments
Tuanshanzi Group, Changcheng System and its geological significant. Geologija 24
(1), 43–48 (in Chinese with English abstract).
This study represents the research results of a project supported by Li, Z.X., Bogdanova, S.V., Collins, A.S., Davidson, A., De Waele, B., Ernst, R.E., Fitzsimons,
I.C.W., Fuck, R.A., Gladkochub, D.P., Jacobs, J., Karlstrom, K.E., Lu, S., Natapov, L.M.,
the 973 program (Grant No. 2012CB4166006) supported by the State
Pease, V., Pisarevsky, S.A., Thrane, K., Vernikovsky, V., 2008. Assembly, configuration,
Ministry of Science and Technology, and research programs (Grant and break-up history of Rodinia: a synthesis. Precambrian Res. 160, 179–210.
Nos. 41030316 and 41210003) supported by the National Natural Sci- Li, H.K., Lu, S.N., Li, H.M., Sun, L.X., Xiang, Z.Q., Geng, J.Z., Zhou, H.Y., 2009. Dating of zircon
ence Foundation of China. We also thank our study group members and baddeleyite for basic sills in the Xiamaling Group: constrain to division of Meso-
zoic strata in the North China Craton. Geol. Bull. 28 (10), 1396–1404 (in Chinese with
Profs. Renmin Peng, Jinghui Guo, Yanbin Zhang, Qiuli Li, Xiaohui English abstract).
Zhang, Yue Zhao, Jianmin Hu, Yong Sun and Chengli Zhang. We express Li, H.K., Su, W.B., Zhou, H.Y., Geng, J.Z., Xiang, Z.Q., Cui, Y.R., Liu, W.C., Lu, S.N., 2011. Youn-
our gratitude to Prof. Tim Kusky for his helpful discussion and in ger than 1670 Ma of bottom boundary age of the Changcheng System in northern
NCC: evidence from zircon LA-MC-ICP MS U–Pb age of granitic porphyry vein in
polishing the English language of this study. We also thank two re- Miyun, Beijing. Earth Sci. Front. 18 (3), 108–120 (in Chinese with English abstract).
viewers for their helpful comments and the post-doctoral and PhD stu- Liu, S.W., Pan, Y.M., Li, J.H., Li, Q.G., Zhang, J., 2002. Geological and isotopic geochemical
dents Yan Zhong, Yanyan Zhou, Lei Zhao and Haozheng Wang for their constraint on the evolution of the Fuping complex, North China Craton. Precambrian
Res. 117, 41–56.
drawing of the figures. Meng, Q.R., Wei, H.H., Qu, Y.Q., 2011. Stratigraphic and sedimentary records of the rift to
drift evolution of the northern North China craton at the Paleo- to Mesoproterozoic
transition. Gondwana Res. 20, 205–218.
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