2nd Semester,

MSc (Radiological Physics), 2021

RP2.1 : Radiation Physics:

Interaction of Radiation with Matter
Lesson-5

Kalyanee Boruah
20 July, 2021
 Syllabus
Interaction of charged particles with matter :

Classical theory of inelastic collision with atomic
electrons.

Energy loss per ion pair by primary and
secondary ionization-

Dependence of collision energy losses on the
physical and chemical state of the absorber-

Cerenkov radiation-

Electron absorption process- Scattering
excitation and ionization-

Radiative collision- Bremmstrahlung-
 Cherenkov Radiation
Cherenkov radiation arises when a charged particle in a
material medium moves faster than the speed of light
in that same medium. In a medium of refractive index
'n', light moves with a phase velocity of 'c/n', which is
less than c, the speed of light in a vacuum. Velocity of
a relativistic particle is given by, v=c.
A particle emitting Cherenkov radiation must therefore
have a velocity v>c/n. In such a case, an
electromagnetic shock wave is created, just as a
faster-than-sound aircraft creates a sonic shock wave.
This is illustrated in the Fig. The coherent wavefront
formed is conical in shape and is emitted at an angle
c, with respect to the trajectory of the particle.
Cherenkov radiation: an electromagnetic shock wave is formed
when the particle travels faster than the speed of light in
the same medium
The formation of conical wave-front is based on Huigen's
principle of wave propagation and it can be shown that,
(11)

In general, a continuous spectrum of frequencies is

radiated and the photons are linearly polarized.The
energy carried off by Cherenkov radiation was first
calculated by Tamm and Frank to be

(12)

where the integration is only over those frequencies for

which pn((o) > 1. This energy loss is already included
in the Bethe-Bloch formula and is greatest at relativistic
velocities. Even at these energies, however, its
contribution is small compared to collision loss.
 Energy Loss of Electrons and Positrons
Like heavy charged particles, electrons and positrons
also suffer a collisional energy loss when passing
through matter. However, because of their small mass
an additional energy loss mechanism comes into play:
the emission of electromagnetic radiation arising from
scattering in the electric field of a nucleus
(bremsstrahlung). Classically, this may be understood
as radiation arising from the acceleration of the
electron in the electric field of the nucleus. Probability
of Bremsstrahlung is low upto a few MeV. However it
shoots up quickly at a few tens of MeV. Loss of energy
by radiation is comparable to or greater than the
collision-ionization loss. At energies above this critical
energy, bremsstrahlung dominates completely.
The total energy loss of electrons and positrons, is
composed of two parts:

. . . . . . (1)

While the basic mechanism of collision loss for heavy

charged particles is also valid for electrons and positrons,
the Bethe-Bloch formula must be modified. Because,
1. For small mass, the assumption that the incident particle
remains undeflected during the collision process is not
valid.
2. The collisions between identical particles require that the
calculation must take into account their indistinguishability.
3. The maximum allowable energy transfer is Wmax = Te/2
where Te is the kinetic energy of the incident electron.
 The Bethe-Bloch formula then becomes,

. . (2)

where r is the kinetic energy of particle in units of m ec2,

 Difference of energy loss mechanisms for light vs
heavy charged particles
Electron / Positron Heavy charged particle

1. Much greater energy transfer Less energy transfer per collision

per collision [up to half of its with atomic electrons.
energy]
2. Statistical fluctuation or Straggling is less.
straggling of energy loss is
much more pronounced.
3. Energy loss by radiation at Energy loss by radiation is
high energy. negligible.

4. Major part of energy is Energy loss is continuous.

absorbed in few single collision.
 Electron absorption process
As an electron pass through matter, it loses its energy in
ionizing and radiative collisions, and suffer significant
deflection. In addition, there is large number of
deflections due to elastic scattering. The net result is
that the electron's path is not straight. In practice, it is
found that the path length is about 1.2 to 4 times the
thickness of the absorber traversed. The ratio is largest
for slow electrons in high Z material.
The range of a particle is an experimental concept,
relating to the thickness of an absorber which the
particle can just penetrate. The electron's total path
length is totaly different from its 'Range'(R). The total
path length is measured along the actual path of the
electron and is always much greater than R.
Fig.1 : Schematic diagram of the path of an electron which is
multiply scattered while traversing an absorber of thickness
R+dR and which does not emerge from the absorber.
Total path length (S) has been observed in a few
experiments using cloud chamber or photographic
emulsion and direct comparison may be made with 'R'.
Experiment by E.J. William using monoenergetic
electrons with initial energy 19.6 keV, gives distribution
of path lengths (S) and range (R) in Oxygen, which is
shown in the following figure. In this energy domain,
radiative losses are negligible and the curves represent
the effects of ionization loses, elastic scattering and
straggling of energy losses.
The curve S shows the fraction f of electrons whose path
lengths exceed the distance D cm. The mean path
length <S> can be taken as the path length at f=0.5,
when one half of the electrons have been stopped. The
broad distribution of path length is due to the statistical
distribution of energy losses or straggling of electrons.
Fig.2 : Distribution of path lengths S and of range R for
19.6 keV electrons in Oxygen at 0o and 1 atm pressure.
A comparison of the R and S curves shows the effect of
scattering. It is found that the average range <R>
which one half the electrons will penetrate is just half of
the average path length <S>. Measured values of path
lengths of electrons in different gases agree well with
quantum theory of energy loss, but not with classical
theory.
Exact calculation of range is further complicated by the
statistical fluctuation or stragglinng which is much more
pronounced in electrons, than for heavy particles.
Conservation of momentum permits fractional energy
transfer (~me/M) which is small for heavy particles. On
the other hand, electrons lose up to one half their
energy in an ionizing collision. In addition to it,
electrons lose energy in radiative collisions.
Fig.3 : Transmission through mica of the monoenergetic
electrons from the 0.2065 MeV conversion line of RaB
Fig.3 illustrates the effect of straggling on an originally
homogeneous and monoenergetic distribution of
electrons after passing through thin mica foils of
varying thicknesses. Each successive increase in
absorber thickness shifts the number maximum
towards a lower energy, but at the same time very
greatly broadens the number energy distribution. This
is due to severe straggling effect encountered by the
electrons in the absorption measurements.
 Range Energy ralation for monoenergetic
electrons
Fig. 4 shows a transmission curve for initially
monoenergetic electrons show a long tail because of
straggling. The thickness of material required to reduce
the ionization or counting to nearly zero is an observable
quantity. The extrapolated range Ro is obtained by
extrapolating the nearly linear middle portion of the
absorption curve until it cuts the estimated contribution of
background due to gamma rays, bremsstrahlung in the
absorber and other causes.
Fig.5 gives Ro in Al as a function of initial KE. At low
energies, Ro  E2, at high energies, Ro E. At intermediate
energies (E< 0.1 MeV) dE/dx  1/2  1/T  1/E
At small energies, mean path length, <S>  (E2 / NZ) and
range is roughly proportional to path length.
Fig.4 : Extrapolared range Ro for initially monoenergetic electrons
Fig.5 : Range curves for electrons in several materials
 Absorption of continuous beta spectrum

The absorption curve for continuous beta spectrum

(Fig.6) differs greatly from that for monoenergetic
electrons. It resembles very closely a pure exponential
attenuation curve. This is illustrated in Fig.7, showing
number distance curves for different absorbers plotted
in a semi-logarithmic scale. The curves are almost
linear and may be fitted as,
I = Io exp(-x)
The constant  is known as beta absorption co-efficient
and is found to be directly related to the end point
energy of the beta spectrum.
Fig.6 : A typical plot of approximately exponential transmission
of continuous beta spectrum
Fig.7 : Absorption curves for beta decay electrons from 183W
Distribution of path lengths & of range (R) in Oxygen for 19.6 keV electrons