Lesson 1

1. The Greek Alphabet

The Greek alphabet has twenty-four letters. The respective columns below show the
small forms, capital forms, names, transliterations (English equivalents), and the ap­
proximate sounds of the letters.

a A alpha a father
β Β beta b big
Y Γ gamma g. n God, ankle
δ Δ delta d door
ε Ε epsilon e met

ζ Ζ zeta z, dz zeal, kudzu

η Η eta e obey
θ Θ theta th thing

ι I iota i pit, police

κ Κ kappa k keep
λ Λ lambda 1 law
μ Μ mu m m other
V Ν nu n num ber

ξ Ξ xi X fox

0 0 omicron 0 not
π Π Pi P poor
Ρ Ρ rho r, rh rod
σ, ς Σ sigma s save
τ Τ tau t time
υ Υ upsilon u >y French u or German u

Φ φ phi ph phone
X X chi ch German ich
Ψ ψ psi ps tipsy

ω Ω omega ό vote

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2. Remarks on Pronunciation

Gamma norm ally corresponds to English “g,” but before another γ or before κ, χ, or ξ
it has the nasal sound of “n” as in “thing” or “thank.” Zeta has the sound of the letter
“z” at the beginning of a word. W ithin a word, the conventional pronunciation com ­
bines the sounds of “d ” and “z.” Iota may be either short or long. Some people make a
distinction between the sound of short iota (like “i” in “pit”) and long iota (like “i” in
“police”). Rho is transliterated with “r” within a word. At the beginning of a word, rho
is aspirated (adding the sound of “h”), in which case the transliteration is “rh.” Sigma
has two forms. At the end of a word (final sigma), it is written “ς.” Elsewhere “σ,” the
regular form, is used. For example, απόστολος. The sounds of upsilon and chi are,
strictly speaking, not used in English. Persons unfamiliar with French or German can
approximate these sounds by pronouncing them like the “u” in “rude” and a hard “k”
respectively.
Even though biblical Greek is no longer a spoken language, there is m uch value
in reading it aloud. Reading in antiquity was often done aloud, and certain rhetorical
qualities of texts are better appreciated when heard. Careful pronunciation will also
help the student acquire vocabulary faster since words can be recognized by both sight
and sound. Finally, since word meanings may differ significantly with the change of a
single letter, a certain am ount of precision in pronunciation is necessary. The student
is advised to read the exercises aloud whenever possible.

3. Vowels, Diphthongs, and Breathing Marks

The seven Greek vowels are α, ε, η, ι, ο, υ, and ω. Epsilon (ε) and om icron (o) are al­
ways short. Their counterparts, eta (η) and omega (ω), are always long. The difference
in pronunciation between epsilon and eta and between omicron and omega should be
carefully observed. The other vowels, alpha (a), iota (i), and upsilon (υ), may be short
or long. Nothing in the way they are written distinguishes the short version from the
long. The difference in pronunciation between the short and the long versions has to
do prim arily with the length the sound is prolonged, in other words, a difference of
quantity, not quality. As was m entioned above, some scholars suggest that short and
long iota also differ qualitatively.
A diphthong is a combination of two vowel sounds in one syllable. The second
letter of a Greek diphthong is always iota or upsilon. The com m on diphthongs and
their pronunciations are:

αι ai as in aisle
ει ei as in neighbor
oi oi as in oil
υι uee as in queen

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αυ ? ow as in cow
ου oo as in food
ευ e as in met + u as in rude
ηυ e as in obey + u as in rude

There are also three so-called im proper diphthongs. These consist of the vowels
(long) α, η, and ω with an iota written beneath them, which is called an iota subscript.
Thus: a, r], and ω. An iota subscript does not affect the pronunciation of the long
vowel, but it often determines the form of the word.
In terms of vowel quantity, both common and im proper diphthongs are long.
The exceptions to this are few. Final 01 and αι, that is, oi and αι at the very end of a
word, are short. Elsewhere in a word they are long.
All words that begin with a vowel or diphthong have a breathing mark, either
sm ooth (’) or rough ('). The breathing m ark is written over the vowel; in the case of
diphthongs, it stands over the second vowel. A smooth breathing m ark has no effect
on pronunciation. Thus έν is pronounced “en.” A rough breathing m ark is equivalent
to an “h” sound and is transliterated with “h.” Thus έν is pronounced “hen.” Finally,
when the letters rho and upsilon stand in initial position, they have the rough breath­
ing mark. Thus ρητωρ = rhetor (speaker, orator); ύβρις = hybris (arrogance).

4. Syllables

A Greek word has as many syllables as it has vowels or diphthongs. Thus, the word
άπόστολος (apostle) is divided in this way: ά-πό-στο-λος. If a syllable contains a long
vowel or a diphthong, it is long. If a syllable contains a short vowel (or final oi or αι;
see §3 above), it is short. The quantity of a syllable is critical to the m atter of accent­
ing.
The final three syllables of a Greek word have special names. The last syllable is
called the ultima; the second to last the penult; the third from last the antepenult.
These syllables are the only ones that may receive an accent mark.

5. Accents

Accents in Greek were originally tonal, indicating pitch. For our purposes, accent sim ­
ply identifies emphasis. The accented syllable is the one stressed in pronunciation.
There are three accent marks in Greek, acute ('), circumflex (~), and grave ('). No dis­
tinction in pronunciation is made among the three kinds of accents. Accents are
placed over vowels and diphthongs. In the case of diphthongs, accents are written over
the second o f the two vowels. If the vowel or diphthong also has a breathing mark, an

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acute or grave accent is placed after the breathing mark, a circumflex accent over the
breathing m ark (thus: άνθρωπος, ώραι.)
The basic rules of accent are as follows:

1. The acute accent can appear on any of the last three syllables: the ultima, the
penult, or the antepenult. The circumflex accent will only appear on the last
two; the grave accent only on the ultima. Thus: απόστολος, πιστεύων, άδελφός,
δούλος, γραφής, and και. . . .
2. The circumflex accent can only stand over a long syllable.
3. If the ultim a of a word is long, there are two results. First, the antepenult cannot
be accented. Second, if the penult is accented, it must have the acute. Note the
change from άνθρωπος to ανθρώπου.
4. If the ultim a of a word is short, there are two results. First, the antepenult may
receive an accent, which by rule 1 above would have to be acute. Second, a long
penult, if accented, m ust take the circumflex. Thus, άπόστολος and προφήται.
5. The grave accent is, in effect, a substitute for a final acute. An acute accent on
the ultim a is changed to a grave when the word is immediately followed (i.e.,
w ithout intervening punctuation) by another word. Thus, άδελφός, but
άδελφός και άδελφή.

There are other rules for accenting Greek words. On the one hand, these rules
should not be ignored, because in some cases accent reveals the form of a word and,
consequently, its meaning. For example, κρίνω = I judge; κρινώ = I will judge. On the
other hand, because o f their number, the rules are probably best learned gradually as
the various instances are encountered. Only the basic inform ation has been given
here. The above rules set certain limits for accenting, but in most cases they do not de­
term ine what accent m ust be used. Additional rules, which help fix the accent pre­
cisely, will be introduced in subsequent lessons.
Again, the student is advised to learn Greek words by pronouncing them aloud,
being sure to stress the accented syllable.

6. Punctuation

Greek has four punctuation marks. As in English, a m inor pause is indicated by a

com m a (,) and a full stop by a period (.). A major pause, equivalent to our colon or
semicolon, is indicated by a dot above the line of writing (·)· The Greek question m ark
is identical in form to our semicolon (;).

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7. Exercises

1. Practice writing the Greek alphabet until you can do so from memory.
2. Divide the following words into syllables. Identify each syllable as either short
or long, άνθρωπος, βάλλομεν, έλυόμην, διδασκόμεθα, κώμαι, άδελφαΐς,
άπόστολοι, ειρήνη, πνεύματος, ούρανοϊς.
3. Use the following biblical passages to practice writing, transliteration, and
pronunciation. First, simply transcribe the Greek for practice in writing
Greek characters. Second, transliterate each passage into English characters.
Lastly, read the passages several times out loud in Greek for practice in
pronunciation.

LXX
Έ ν άρχή έποίησεν ό θεός τον ουρανόν και την γην. ή δε γή ήν αόρατος και
άκατασκεύαστος, και σκότος επάνω τής αβύσσου, και πνεύμα θεού έπεφέρετο επάνω
τού ΰδατος. και είπεν ό θεός Ρενηθήτω φώς. και έγένετο φώς. και είδεν ό θεός τό φως
δτι καλόν. (Genesis 1:1-4a)

NT
Έ ν άρχή ήν ό λόγος, και ό λόγος ήν πρός τον θεόν, και θεός ήν ό λόγος, ούτος ήν έν
άρχή πρός τον θεόν. πάντα δι’ αύτού έγένετο, και χωρ'ις αύτού έγένετο ούδέ έν. δ
γέγονεν έν αύτώ ζωή ήν, και ή ζωή ήν τό φώς τών άνθρώπων· (John 1:1-4)

8. A Brief Introduction to the Septuagint (LXX)

The exercises in this book include sentences from the Septuagint, the Greek transla­
tion of the Hebrew Bible (along with a few additions to some biblical books as well as
certain other books not belonging to the Hebrew scriptures). The nam e comes from
the Latin word septuaginta meaning “seventy,” thus the com m on abbreviation “LXX.”
According to tradition, seventy (some sources say seventy-two) elders from Jerusalem
were sent to Alexandria, Egypt, in the middle of the third century BC to translate the
first five books o f the Hebrew Bible for the library of an Egyptian king. The transla­
tion and collection of the remaining books of the Septuagint no doubt took place in
phases over many years.
The Septuagint was of immense importance in ancient Judaism and early Chris­
tianity. In the Hellenistic era (from the beginning of the third century BC on) more
and more Jews lived outside Palestine, and few of them would have read Hebrew with
ease. For these Jews and for most early Christians, the Septuagint was the Bible.
The Septuagint remains very im portant today for several reasons. First, as the
earliest translation of the Hebrew Bible, it is extremely valuable in determ ining the
original text of that docum ent. W hen the Hebrew text is damaged or its meaning is

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uncertain, the Septuagint may shed light on the problem. Second, the Septuagint is
one of the best sources for constructing the semantic and theological environm ent of
early Christianity. W hen the authors of the New Testament cite authoritative scrip­
ture, they are, for the m ost part, citing the Septuagint. They use its language and inter­
pret its texts. Third, and most im portant, the Septuagint reveals the theological under­
standing and interpretive strategies of Hellenistic Judaism. Translation inevitably
involves some interpretation, so by comparing the Septuagint and the Hebrew text, we
can gain insight into how the translators used their ancient traditions in new situa­
tions. In addition, the several books of the Septuagint that are not translated from the
Hebrew Bible provide further windows into the diversity of Jewish thought in that era.
Students translating LXX exercises in this book need to be aware of certain pecu­
liarities of the LXX. First, as mentioned above, there are several books in the LXX that are
not found in the Hebrew Bible or Old Testament. Different Christian traditions call
these books “deutero-canonical” or “apocryphal.” Some of the exercises are drawn from
these books. Thus, you will encounter sentences from 1 Esdras, Judith, 1-4 Maccabees,
Sirach, Tobit, and Wisdom. The abbreviations for these books are easily recognized.
Second, you should be aware that the names of a few books in the LXX differ
from their English counterparts. The Song of Solomon is called Canticum and is ab­
breviated “Cant.” The books of 1-2 Samuel and 1-2 Kings are called 1-4 Kingdoms and
are abbreviated “ 1-4 Kgdms.”
Third, the LXX does not always have a fixed text. In some cases there are varying
m anuscript traditions for the same book. Occasionally the reference for an exercise
might read “Tobit, codex S.” This means that the various ancient m anuscripts present
different readings, and the exercise is drawn from the one scholars have designated “S”
(Sinaiticus).
Finally, the content of some LXX books differs significantly from their Hebrew
(and English) counterparts. Job and Jeremiah are shorter in the LXX; Esther is longer;
and Daniel has three m ajor additions. Because of these and other differences, the enu­
m eration of verses in the LXX does not always correspond to that of English Bibles.
For example, Jeremiah 38:8 in the LXX corresponds to 31:8 in English Bibles. For most
of the Psalms, the LXX chapter num ber is one less than the corresponding English
text. But this problem only arises in a few books. Whenever the LXX reference differs
from the reference for the English text, both will be given, as follows: (Jeremiah 38:8,
ET 31:8). W hen translating LXX exercises in this book, students should bear in m ind
that, strictly speaking, their English “Old Testament” is not a translation of the Septua­
gint, but rather of the Hebrew Bible. Sometimes the Septuagint is a rather free transla­
tion; sometimes it seems to have misunderstood the Hebrew; sometimes it makes de­
liberate changes, clarifying or modifying the meaning. Be aware that such differences
may occur between the m eaning of the Greek in the exercises and the English transla­
tion found at the reference given.