AS 知识点问答题

Administrator: DAISY Level: AS chemistry （2023）

Name: Class:
 学习如同蒸馏，温度太低自然无法进行，所以需要饱满的热情去让它达到沸点。

Chapter 1 Atomic structure

Definition

1. Relative mass and charge of fundamental/sub-atomic particles

Relative mass Relative charge
Proton 1 +1
Neutron 1 0
electron 1/1836 or negligible -1
2. A
ZE

A: Mass number: number of protons and neutrons

Z: Atomic number: number of protons E: element

3. Proton number: number of protons

4. nucleon number: number of proton + number of neutron

5. Isotope: atoms with the same number of protons but different number of neutrons

6. Molecular ion: the molecule with a positive charge/the ions with an m/z equal to Mr

7. (1) First ionisation energy (1IE): energy needed to remove one electron from one mole of atom to form

one mole of ions with one positive charge in their gaseous state. （一定记得写状态符号）

Mg(g) – e → Mg(g) +

(2) Second ionisation energy (2IE) : energy needed to remove one electron from one mole of ions with

one positive charge to form one mole of ions with two positive charge in their gaseous state.

Mg(g) + – e- → Mg(g) 2+

知识点

8. 写 electron configuration 时，参考 Energy level diagram，电子排布时有 3 rules

(1) 1st rule: lowest energy principle (由低能级往高能级排布， low

1s→2s→2p→3s→3p→4s→3d→)

(2) 2nd rule: Pauli exclusion principle

(每个 energy level/orbital energy

最多能排布 2 个 electrons，且 spin oppositely )

(3) 3rd rule: Hund’s rule (fill singly before pairing up) high

注：s p d f 为 sub-shells or atomic orbitals，s 有 1 个 energy level, p 有 3 个 energy level, 有 5 个 energy

level, 每个 energy level 最多能排 2 个 electrons，所以 s orbtal 最多排 2 个 electrons, p 最多排 6

个 electrons，d 最多排 10 个 electrons.

(1s, 2s 前面的 1 及 2 代表电子层数 n，每层 maximum 容 2n2 electrons,最外层最多排 8 个 electron)

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 写法归纳:

(1) 写 atom 的：

首先① 已知 atom 的 identity 如 Al，看 periodic table，找到它的 atomic number

② 将电子排进去，由低能级往高能级排布 (1s→2s→2p→3s→3p→4s→3d→)

例如：Al 的 atomic number 为 13，从 1s 往 2s 再往 2p 排，则为 1s22s2 2p63s2 3p1

(还有一种用 inert gas 的写法：[Ne] 3s2 3p1)

(2) 写 ion 的：

同上，先写 atom 的，然后 lose electrons，从 outer shell electrons 开始 lose

即先失去外层电子，如
Ni: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p64s2 3d8

Ni2+: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p64s0 3d8 /1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d8

（3）特殊：对于 d orbital, half-filled 及 full-filled 更 stable 所以，

Cu:1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p64s1 3d10 [Ar]4s1 3d10

Cr: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p64s1 3d5 [Ar]4s1 3d5

9. Dot-cross diogram

10. 注意：影响 IE 的因素有：

1 The size of the nuclear charge

2 Shielding effect of inner electrons/Distance of outer electrons from the nucleus

3 Charge

 在分析 IE 的大小时，先看 shell number , shell number 越大，shielding/distance increase, IE decrease;

 其次，若 shell number 一样 (same period)，则 shielding similar, 看 nuclear charge, nuclear charge

increase, attraction increase, distance decrease, IE increase.

 新增：successive ionization energy of Mg 的 curve (ionisation energy against number of electrons

being removed)

11. Several process of TOF mass spectrometer

→ (1) ionisation: sample is bombarded by high energy electrons/high energy electrons fired at sample

Sample lose one electron form M+; M(g)→M(g)++ e-

(2) acceleration: attraction to negatively charged plate (same KE=1/2mV2)

(3) deflection: in the magnetic field (lower mass, more deflection)

(4) detection: ions hit the detector (smallest m/z，arrive first),

detected by gaining electrons (bigger current=higher abundance)

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 注：the whole apparatus are in a high vacuum: to prevent ions produced to collide with molecules in the air.

isotope deflect 的多少，取决于 __isotope 的 m/z value____

Isotope 的 abundance 的多少 取决于 ____电流的大小_____

12. relative atomic mass 的计算：①若给的是比例或者高度，则将每个峰的位置即 m/z 与其对应的高度

或比例相乘，再除以总比例或高度。②若给的是强度（%），则将每个峰的位置即 m/z 与其对应的

强度相乘。

Eg1. A sample of element R contains isotopes with mass numbers of 206, 207 and 208 in a

1:1:2 ratio of abundance.

(1) Calculate the relative atomic mass of R. Give your answer to one decimal place.

(2) Identify R: Zn (看元素周期表，找到 Mass number 为 207 的 element)

Eg2. Mg atoms make up 10% by mass in a sample of magnesium. Magnesium has Ar = 24.3. Use this

information to deduce the percentage of the other two isotopes present in the sample

13. 有效数字：

1 one decimal place 代表保留小数点后一位，207.3，21.2，11.0 之类的

同理，two decimal place 代表保留小数点后两位，207.31，21.20，11.40 之类的

2 1 significant figures 保留一个有效数字，1，2，3，0.001 之类的

2 significant figures 保留两个有效数字，1.0，0.22，3.0，0.0010 之类的

14. 其他

在 Periodic Table 中，对于 potassium 来说，K 为 element 的 identity, 19 为 atomic number, 39.1

为 relative molecular mass (数值等于 mass number, 39.1 g/mol 为 molar mass)

Q&A

15. Explain why the ionisation energy of every element is endothermic.

→ Heat or energy needed to overcome the attraction between the (negative) electron

and the (positive) nucleus or protons.

16. Explain why the second ionisation energy of boron is higher than the first ionisation energy of

boron.

→ Electron being removed from a positive ion (therefore needs more energy) / electron

being removed is closer to the nucleus.

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 同主族比较 trend (IE/radius down a group)
17. Explain why the first ionisation energies decrease down the group.

→Atomic radius increase / Atoms get larger/ More shells/Shielding effect increase

Electrons removed is further from nucleus.

Which reduces attraction between the outer electrons and nucleus.

18. Explain why the atomic radius increases down the group.

Down the group, There are more shells/Shielding effect increase

Electrons removed is further from nucleus.

Which reduces attraction between the outer electrons and nucleus.

19. Suggest why the first ionisation energy of krypton is lower than the first ionisation energy of argon.

→ Kr is a bigger atom / has more shells / more shielding in Kr / electron removed further from nucleus/

electron removed from a higher (principal or main) energy level

 同周期比较 trend (IE/radius across a period)

20. Explain why there is a general increase in ionisation energy across a period.

→Across a period, they have the same shielding, nuclear charge increase, electrons are closer to the nucleus .

So the attraction between outer electrons and nucleus increase.

21. Suggest why the atomic radius of the elements decreases across a period.

(同电离能 IE)

→Across a period,they have the same shielding, nuclear charge increase, electrons are closer to the nucleus

So the attraction between outer electrons and nucleus increase.

22. Explain why the value of the first ionisation energy of sulfur is less than the value of the first

ionisation energy of phosphorus.

→ Paired electrons in (3)p orbital, they repel each other

23. Explain why the value of the first ionisation energy of Aluminium is less than the value of the first

ionisation energy of Magnesium.

→ electron being removed is in 3p orbital in Al, 3p orbital is a higher energy level, electron is easier to be removed

24. Explain why the second ionisation energy of Sodium is higher than that of magnesium.

→ less shielding effect; electrons are closer to the nucleus; electron being removed from 2p orbital, a higher

energy level.

25. Give one reason why the second ionisation energy of silicon is lower than the second ionisation

energy of aluminium (compare 2IE)

→ Electron in Si (removed from) (3)p orbital / electron (removed) from higher energy orbital or sub-shell /

electron in silicon is more shielded.

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26. Explain why isotopes of the same element have the same chemical properties

→ have the same electron configuration/ same proton number /electrons

Time of flight (TOF) mass spectrometer 飞行时间质谱-measure Mr/Ar

27. Two measurements are record:

1 m/z or mass (z 代表 charge)

2 abundance/intensity （abundance determined by size of current）

28. Why it is necessary to Keep the mass spectrometer under a high vaccum?

→ prevent the ions produced colliding with molecules from the air

 Ionisation

29. Describe how ions are formed in a time of flight mass spectrometer.

→ ① (for electron impact ionisation) 电子轰击质谱

Sample is bombarded by high energy electrons the sample molecule loses an electron forming M+

② (for electrospray ionisation) 电喷雾质谱-----A high voltage is applied to a sample in a polar solvent

the sample molecule, M gains a proton forming MH+

30. Explain why it is necessary to ionise molecules when measuring their mass in a TOF mass

spectrometer.

→ Ions, not molecules, can be attracted to te negative plate and be accelerated by an electric field

Only ions will create a current when hitting the detector/only ions can be detected.

31. Outline how the TOF mass spectrometer is able to separate these two species to give two peaks.

→ ① Positive ions are accelerated by an electric field. To a constant kinetic energy

② The positive ions with m/z of 104 have the same kinetic energy as those with m/z of 118 and move faster.

③ Therefore, ions with m/z of 104 arrive at the detector first

 Acceleration

32. Explain how the ions are accelerated and separated by mass in the instrument.

→They are attracted towards the negatively charged plate and pass through the hole.

The smaller ions attain a greater velocity and arrive at the detector first.

 Detection

33. Explain how an electric current is produced when an ion arrives at the detector.

→Ion hit the detector and accept electrons causing a flow of electrons. Current generated.

34. Describe how the ions are detected. M(g)++e → M(g)

→Ions hit the detector and accept electrons causing movement of electrons. Current generated.

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35. Explain how the abundance of each isotope is determined in a TOF mass spectrometer.

→Ion hit the detector and accept electrons causing a flow of electron and current generated..

Bigger current = higher abundances of isotope / Current is proportional to the abundance

36. State the property of these ions 14N+ and 15N+ ions that causes them to follow different paths.

State one change in the operation of the mass spectrometer that will change the path of an ion.

→They have different m/z value.

Change the electric field / magnetic field

37. A second mass spectrum was recorded for the same sample of silicon.

The energy of the electrons from the electron gun was higher for this second spectrum.

State and explain one similarity and one difference between the two spectra.

→ Similarity: same peak at same m/z Explanation: same sample / same element

Difference : additional peaks at 1/2 m/z value Explanation: Two electrons knocked out

38. Kr has 4 isotopes: 82Kr, 83Kr, 84Kr, 86Kr.

Sometimes the mass spectrum of Kr has a very small peak with an m/z value of 42. Explain the occurrence of

this peak

→The 84Kr isotopes has 2 electrons knocked out.

39. Explain why the relative atomic mass calculated is different from the value in the periodic table？

→ Some isotopes may be absent/not contained

40. One isotope of K has mass number 40, One isotope of Ar is 39, explain why the position of K is after

Ar in periodic table.

→ proton number of K is bigger than that of Ar, and periodic table arranged in order of proton number

41. State how many times heavier a proton is than an electron.

→ 1836

42. State the maximum number of electrons in one orbital

→2

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Chapter 2 amount of substance

Definition

1. Relative atomic mass：

2. Relative molecular mass or relative formular mass

注：relative atomic/molecular mass 无 unit

3. Mole: one mole is 6.02×1023 particle

4. ① 1 mol 有 6.02×1023 个 atoms, 其中，② 6.02×1023 是 Avogadro constant

3 Molar mass (M) 代表 1 mol 的某物质的 mass，unit 为 g/mol，其在数值上等于 mass number 及

relative atomic/molecular mass (也就是说任何 物质的 1 mol 的 mass 在数值上等于 它的 mass

number)

5. Empirical formulae: simplest mole ratio of atoms presented in a compound

6. Molecular formulae: actual mole ratio of atoms presented in the compound

知识点

7. Formula
(1) 关于 moles
1 已知 mass 求 moles n=m/M

2 In solution: c=n/v n=cV (V-dm3)

3 In gas: ideal gas equation: pV=nRT (V-m3)

注意 unit （计算摩尔时考虑哪个物质 not in excess）

K 与℃的换算，0℃=273 K 25℃= (273+25) =298 K

(2) 关于 atom economy (原子利用率)和 percentage yield (产率)

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 滤去不愉快的，留下愉快的，这就是过滤的意义。

一般在 reaction equation 里面计算这两个：(以下面这个 equation 为例)

→ 左边两个物质为 reactant，右边两个为 product, KI 及 PbI2 前面的 coefficient 2, 1 代表 reactants 之间或

其和 products 的 mole ratio，即 2 mol 的 KI 与 1 mol 的 Pb(NO3)2 反应生成 1 mol 的 PbI2 和 2 mol 的 KNO3.

在一个 equation 中，reactants 的总 mass=product 的总 mass，之间的关系为通过 coefficient 确定 mole ratio 的关系。

① atom economy 计算为：假如 desired product 为 KNO3，则把 KNO3 的 mass 除以总 products 的 mass

(生成有用的 product，在 cracking 中 atom economy 为 100%，all the products are useful)

② percentage yield 计算为：在 products 生产时实际得到的产物除以理论得到的产物的 mass.(一般是

根据 reactant 的 mass，先求 mole，再根据 reactant 与 product 的 mole ratio 求 product 的 mole, 最后求

product 的 mass，最后根据 formula 计算。)

8. Balance equation: reactant 和 product 的 atom 一样且 atom 的 number 一样，如果是 ionic equation，还要
保证 charge 一样

9. Empirical formulae: simplest mole ratio of atoms presented in a compound

(1) empirical formulae 计算方法：找到每个种类的 atom，找到每个 atom 对应 mass，根据公式 n=m/M

求出 mole,再求 mole ratio，得到最小整数比，写出 empirical formulae

模板：(已知物质 A 由 C H O 组成，其质量分别为 12g 2g 16g)

C H O

Mass 12g 2g 16g

n=m/M 1 2 1

mole ratio C:H:O=1:2:1

empirical formulae CH2O

(2) 若再已知 Mr=80,则可求 molecular formulae,由上可设 Mr 为(CH2O)n

n = relative molecular mass of A/ relative empirical formulae of A

n=80/(12+2+16)=2

molecular formulae: (CH2O)2 或 C2H4O2

10. State why the precise relative atomic mass for the 12C isotope is exactly 12.00000

→ by definition

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 化学元素中，元素是守恒的，世界因为守恒而美丽，上帝为你关上了一扇门肯定会为你打开两扇窗户

Chapter 3 bonding
Definition

1. ionic bond: transferring of electrons

2. covalent bond: shared pair of electrons

3. Coordinate/dative bond: a covalent bond in which both electrons in the bond come from the same atom

4. Metallic bond:the attraction between positive ion and delocalized electrons

5. Intermolecular force: force between molecules

6. electronegativity: the power of an atom to withdraw the bonding electrons in a covalent bond.

7. Polarity: unequal sharing of electrons (会画 dipole)

知识点

8. electronegativity 影响因素：

① nuclear charge

② shielding effect ( distance between the nucleus and electrons)

·across a period,

electronegativity increase

·· up a group,

electronegativity increase

9. Intramolecular force:(分子内)-形成什么 bond 和 electronegativity difference 有关,大 ionic 小 covalent

Force definition Formed between example properties

（1）Ionic Electron Metal and MgCl2, High Tm, conductor of electricity(molten or in

bond transfer non-metal Cu2O water)--free ions, brittle and shatter

（2） Electron sharing non-metal and HCl, H2, low Tm, poor conductor of electriciy

covalent non-metal NH3

bond Co-cordinate/dative covalent NH3→ H+ NH3 donate paired electrons to H+

（3） Electron spread Metal and metal Na, Ca High Tm, conductor of electricity-free

metallic Mg electrons and heat, malleable and ductile

bond 影响 metallic bond 的 strength 的因素 1 Charge 越大越 stronger ② Size 越小越 stronger

2 Mobile electrons 越多越 stronger (如 Na 和 Mg 比较)

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10. Intermolecular force: （分子间）-只存在 molecules 间（含有 covalent bond 的 molecules）

Force （1）Van der waal’s force （2）Dipole- dipole force （3）Hydrogen bond

Exist in all molecules (related to ① Mr, Different electronegativity Electronegativity

Mr 大 vdw 大) ② contact area ( Hδ+—Clδ-) difference big enough

(branched ＜straight) H with N O F (H---F)

Strength Weakest intermediate strongest

Example CH3CH3 NO H2O NH3 HF

 注意: CH3F 没有 H bond, 因为 H 和 F 没有直接相连

 intramoleular force（chemical bonds） 比 intermolecular force(physical force) 强很多

11. Crystal structure

structure （1）simple （2）macro （3）giant （4）giant ionic

molecular molecular metallic

Tm Low Tm high Tm high Tm (strong high Tm (strong

Reason (weak vdw (many covalent attraction between attraction between

between bonds) positive nucleus positive ions and

Property molecules) and delocalised negative ions)

electrons)

Conductor of no no yes Yes (liquid/molten

electricity and in aqueous)

I2 Graphite, Na MgCl2

example Si,Diamond,

SiO2

 Properties of metal: high Tm/good conductor of electricity（free electrons） and heat;

malleable and ductile/can be hammered into different shapes (layer of atom can slide over one another)

 注意 graphite 和 metal 导电性的差别：metal conduct electricity in all directions, but graphite only

conduct along hexagnonal plate not in the right angle

 分析 Melting point 的时候，in terms of structure and bonding.

①第一步，先比较 structure

Simple molecular structure 会比 giant 更 weak

②若 structure bond 都相同则比较对于 simple molecule 比较 intermolecular force （先比种类再比大小）

或者对于 giant ionic/metallic 比较 bond strength（比较 size 和 charge，比较 attraction）

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 化学元素中，元素是守恒的，世界因为守恒而美丽，上帝为你关上了一扇门肯定会为你打开两扇窗户

12. Shapes

Paired Bonding paired lone paired

shape Angle
electrons electrons electrons

2 2 0 linear 180°

3 3 0 Trigonal planar 120°

4 0 tetrahedral 109.5°

4 3 1 Trigonal pyramid 107°

2 2 V-shape/angular 104.5°

Trigonal
5 0 90°/120°
bipyramid

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4 1 / 89°/119°

T-shape
3 2 90o(120o)
(Trigonal planar)

6 0 octahedral 90°

4 2 square planar 90°

判断 shape 的方法 (即如何判断键角和形状)：首先找到中心原子，找到 outer electrons 的

数目，与其他 atom 成 bond，计算出 Bonding paired electrons 的数目和 lone paired electrons 的数目，

根据 electron pair repulsion theory 判断。

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 力的作用是相互的，化学式也讲究对等，所以要懂得回馈他人的好

Q&A

13. Explain how the electron pair repulsion theory can be used to deduce the shape of, and the angle in

PF3.

→Stage 1: Electrons round P

• P has 5 electrons in the outside shell

• With 3 electrons from 3 fluorine, there are a total of 8 electrons in outside shell

• so 3 bond pairs, 1 non-bond pair

Stage 2: Electron pair repulsion theory

• Electron pairs repel as far as possible

• Lone pair repels more than bonding pairs

Stage 3: Conclusions

• Therefore, tetrahedral / trigonal pyramidal shape

• With angle of 109(.5)° decreased to 107°

14. Explain why the AsCl4+ ion has a bond angle of 109.5°.

→ There are 4 bonds or 4 pairs of electrons (around As), (Electron pairs / bonds) repel equally

15. There are two lone pairs of electrons on the oxygen atom in a molecule of oxygen difluoride(OF2),

explain how the lone pairs of electrons on the oxygen atom influence the bond angle in t he OF2

→ there are two lone pairs and two bonding pairs around O, so the shape based on tetrahedral, lone pairs

repel more than bonding pairs, so the bond angle will be lower than 104.5

About electronegativity(polarity):

16. Expalin why the electronegativity of the element increase from lithium to fluorine（across a period）.

→ Across a period, nuclear charge increase, and they have the same shielding, 加一句

So there is stronger attraction of bonding pair to nucleus

17. State the trend in electronegativity of the elements down a Group. Explain this trend.

The electronegativity decreases.

Shielding effect increases / the atomic size increases

Therefore there is weaker attraction between nucleus and bonding pair of electrons in the covalent bond
18. Explain, using ammonia as the example, the meaning of the term bond polarity.
→N and H have different electronegativity.

Bonding pair is unequally shared./ N-H bond has a dipole

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19. Explain why the ammonia molecule is polar

→Ammonia has a lone pair.

So ammonia molecule is not symmetrical. / Dipoles do not cancel out.

20. Explain why CCl4 is non-polar

→No lone pair. Dipoles cancel out

21. Explain thy the H-F bond is polar.

→H and F have different electronegativity. / F is more electronegative than H

So Bonding electrons drawn towards F

22. State which of the mlecules NH3 . H2O , or HF contains the least polar bond. Explain why the bond in

your chosen molecule is less polar than the bonds found in the other two molecules.

NH3, H and N has the smallest difference in electronegativity.

23. Although PH3 molecules contain hydrogen atoms, there is no hydrogen bonding between PH3

molecules. Suggest an explanation for this.

→Electronegativity difference between P and H is too small

24. Explain why PH3 is insoluble in water

→ can not form hydrogen bond with water

25．Deduce why the bonding in nitrogen oxide is covalent rather than ionic

→The difference in electronegativity between N and O is very small

26. How van der waals’ forces exist between all molecules

→electron movement in first molecule, induce a diple in another molecule, induced-temporary attraction in

adjacent molecules

27. Explain how permanent dipole- dipole forces arise between hydrogen chloride molecules.

→Difference in electronegativity leads to bond polartiy.

And there is an attraction between δ+on one molecule and δ– on another.

28. Use the values in the table to explain how the strongest type of intermolecular forces arises between

two molecules of ammonia (会 draw a digram to show hydrogen bond between molecules)

→Very big difference in electronegativity between H and N,

Which cause N with δ–and H with δ+ formed .

There is a strong attraction between lone pair on N and H in different molecule

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共价化合物（simple molecules with covalent bonds） -先看 force 种类，如果相同看 Mr，不同看 force 强弱

29. Explain why iodine has a higher melting point than fluorine.

→Iodine is a bigger molecules than fluorine. / Iodine has more electrons / bigger Mr

So iodine has stronger van der waals forces between molecules.

30. Chlorine Cl2 is a gas at room temperature whereas bromine Br2 is a liquid under the same

conditions. Explain these observations.

→Cl2 is a smaller molecules than Br2. / There is fewer electrons in Cl2 than in Br2.

Smaller van der waals’ forces between Cl2 molecules.

31. Explain why the melting point of sulfur is higher than the melting point of phosphorus

→S8 is a bigger molecules than P4. / S8 have more electrons / has bigger Mr than P4.

So Sulphur has stronger van der waals’ forces between molecules.

32. Explain why the boiling points increase from H2S to H2Te.

→from H2S to H2Te , Molecules get larger. / More electrons.

So van der waals force between molecules increae

33. Explain why the melting and boiling points of water are much higher than those of H2S.

→H2O has hydrogen bonds between molecules. H2S has van der waals’ force between molecules.

Hydrogen bonds are stronger than van der waals’ force between molecules

 H2O H2S H2Se H2Te boiling Point 的变化趋势

34. 比较 CH3CH2SH CH3CH2SeH CH3CH2OH boiling point 的差别

35. 比较 F2 CH3F 的 boiling point

36. Explain why the boiling point of I2 is higher than that of HBr.

→ I2 has van der waals force between molecules, HBr has dipole-dipole force and van der waals’ force

between molecules, van der waals’ force between molecules between I2 is stronger than the dipole-dipole force

and van der waals force between HBr molecules.

共价化合物 （giant molecules ）

37. Explain why the melting point of silicon/ carbon is very high.

→Silicon is giant molecular structure with strong covalent bond which need lots of energy to break the bond.

38. Describe the structure of and bonding in graphite and explain why the melting point of graphite is

very high.

→Each carbon atom bond to other 3 carbon atoms with strong covalent bond within each layer.

And weak van der waals’ forces between layers

Lots of energy needed to break the strong covalent bonds

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39. How is the structure of graphite related to its properties?

→ (structure: layers of C, connected by covalent bonds within each layers, weak van der waal forces

between layers) macromolecular structure, many covalent bonds, need lots of energy to break, so

melting point is high.

40. What’s the different of metal and graphite in electricity of conductor?

→ Metal conduct electricity in all direction, graphite conduct electricity along the hexagonal planes, not a

right angles to them.

41. Explain why graiphite can be used as a lubricant

→Weak van der waal’ force between layers allow them to slide over one another.

42. 为什么 Si 不导电

→Si has no free mobile electrons

离子化合物： 比较 size, charge (ionic bond 影响因素)

43. Explain why the melting point of sodium chloride is high.

→There is Strong attraction between positive ions and negative ions.

同类型的题目：

Sodium sulfide (Na2S) has a melting point of 1223 K.

Predict the type of bonding in sodium sulfide and explain why its melting point is high.

Type of bonding ..........................................................................................

Explanation ..................................................................................................

44. Suggest why the melting point of sodium iodide is lower than the melting point of sodium bromide.

→Iodide ion is bigger than bromide ion.

So it has less attraction to the Na+ ion / There is less attraction between Na+ and I- than that between Na+

and Br-.

45. 为什么 the melting point of NaCl is lower than MgO

→Mg2+ and O2- have higher charge than Na+ and Cl- respectively (a;so smaller size).

Stronger ionic bonding/attraction between Mg2+ and O2-.

金属单质 比较 size, charge, delocalised electron

46. Explain why the melting point of aluminium is higher than the melting point of sodium.

→ ① Bigger charge (3+ compared to 1+)

2 smaller atom/ion in Al

3 More free/delocalised electrons in Al

16
 4 Stronger metallic bonding/stronger (electrostatic) attraction between the nuclei and (delocalised) electrons

47. Explain why the melting point of aluminium is higher than the melting point of sodium.（同周期）

→Al has smaller atomic size than Na. And Al has bigger charge and more delocalized electrons than Na. So

it has stronger metallic bond. / stronger attraction between cation and delocalized electrons.

48. Explain why the melting point of magnesium is higher than the melting point of calcium.（同主族）

→Mg has smaller atomic size than Ca. So Mg has stronger metallic bonding/stronger attraction between

cation and delocalized electrons.

49. Why do metals conduct electricity.

It has free mobile electrons

50. Explain why metal can be hammered into different shapes（Why is metal malleable and ductile）,

and why they have similar strength. 为什么不同形状的金属的强度是一样的。Draw a diagram to show

how the particles arearranged in aluminium

→ ① Layers of atoms/ions slide (over one another)

② same metallic bonding retains same crystal structure，has same attraction between protons and

delocalised electrons as before being hammered.

③ （draw a diagram to show how particles are arranged in Na ）

 注意若是 NaCl 等 ionic compound, diagram 为正负电荷相间排布

Coordinate bond(先判断是否为 non-metal 之间存在的 Bond, 如果是，且有个 atom electron-deficient,有个

atom electron-sufficient 的话说明是 unequal sharing of bonding electrons， 就是 coordinate bond)

51. A molecule of NHF2 reacts with a molecule of BF3 as shown in the following equation.

NHF2 + BF3 → F2HNBF3

(1) State the type of bond formed between the N atom and the B atom in F2HNBF3.

→ Type of bond：Coordinate / dative covalent

(2) Explain how this bond is formed

→ How bond is formed：Lone pair electrons on NHF2 donated to BF3 (注意→的指向)

52. When hydrogen halide dissolve in water, H3O+ is formed, draw a diagram of H3O+, and state the difference

of the bond formed in H3O+

17
 Chapter 4 energetics

Definition

1. Enthalpy change (△H): heat change measured at constant pressure.

[ Sign: ＋△H endothermic; －△H exothermic ]

2. Enthalpy change of formation (△HfΘ): enthalpy change when 1 mol of substance is formed from its

elements in their standard state. 1/2H2(g) + 1/2N2(g) + 3/2O2(g) → HNO3(l)

3. Enthalpy change of combustion (△HcΘ): enthalpy change when 1 mol of compound is burned

completely in sufficient oxygen, with all the substances in their standard state.

CH3CH2OH(l) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) +3H2O(l)

[Standard condition Θ: ① T →298 K ② pressure → 100 kPa ③ element in their standard state]

4. Hess law: enthalpy change in a reaction is independent of the route taken

Cl2(g) → 2Cl(g)
5. Bond enthalpy: enthalpy change to break a covalent bond with all the species in gaseous state

6. Mean bond enthalpy: the average energy needed to break a bond over different compounds.
7. Endothermic/exothermic:absorb/release energy Bond enthalpy O=O is not mean bond enthalpy

知识点

8. Bond enthalpy 影响因素：

(bond enthalpy 越大，strength 越强； bond length related to the size of atom,attraction between

nucleus and bonding pair of electrons stronger, length shorter)

9. △H 的计算 (公式法)

(1) △H = ∑△HfΘ（products）－∑△HfΘ（reactants） [题目中已知物质的△HfΘ ]

(2) △H = ∑△HcΘ（reactants）－∑△HcΘ（products） [题目中已知物质的△HcΘ]

(3) △H = ∑△H（bond-broken）－∑△H（bon d-formed）(第一步找到所有的 bonds)

(4) 建 Themochemical cycle according to Hess law (如下：△H1 + △H2 + △H3 = △H4)

△H1 △H2

A B C

△H4 D △H3

 对于 reaction N2(g) + O2(g) → 2NO(g) △H= a KJ/mol

则 1/2 N2(g) + 1/2 O2(g) → NO(g) △H1= a/2 KJ/mol

2NO(g) → N2(g) + O2(g) △H= -a KJ/mol

18
10. Measure △H (heat release = heat absorbed)

(1) 计算过程根据（以下两个公式可求△Hc，或者△Hneut）

① formula：q = c m △T (注意 m 为 water/solution 的 mass, g)

② △H = － q/n (注意加负号，求 n 时注意为 reactant 的 m/M)

(2) Measuring data is different from the value in the databook?

→ ① heat loss（thermometer absorb heat） ② combustion is not complete

③ not in the standard state ④ evaporation of ethanol

(3) Suggest improvements to the apparatus, would you give a more accurate value?

→ ① add a lid ② put a drought screen/shield ③ measure water use burette (m= ρV)

(4) 对于放热速度正常的反应，

→△T 为 thermometer 的 minimum 和 maximum 差值。

然而，对于 neutralisation 这种反应速度很快，放热速度很快的反应来说，Tmaximum 不能被测量到，需要

plot a curve 找 Tmaximum， 进而求△T.

① 首先, 列表：

T/℃ 21 21 21 21 28 27.6 27.2 26.8 26.4

Time/min 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

② 画图, 画出 the best fit line as cooling straight (after time of mixing), extra plot back to the time of mixing

(作反向延长线)，

与 time before mixing 的交点为 Tmaximum

再减去 Tminimum, 即△T.

 计算时注意：

q=cm△T 中 m 的选取

△H = － q/n 中 n 的选取，两者混合取未过量的

11. Enthalpy level diagram (箭头指向：Reactant→product)

Exothermic Endothermic

19
Q&A

12. Suggest why the value for the standard enthalpy of formation of liquid antimony, given in the table

above, is not zero.

→ Liquid Sb is not its standard state

13. State why the standard enthalpy of formation of CO2 (g) is the same as the value for the standard

enthalpy of combustion of carbon

→The two ehthalpy changes are for the same reaction / the same chemical equation

Experiment: Measure the enthalpy change

14. Explain why it is improtant that the reaction mixture is stirred before recording each temperature

→To make sure all the mixture is at the same temperature

15. Explain why it is impossible to measure the enthalpy change of C(g) + 1/2O2(g)→ CO(g)

→ can not prevent CO2 formed

16. Give two reasons why the experimental values obtained by the student are less exothermic than the

calculated values that were obtained using enthalpy of formation data. P166

→Heat loss to surroundings / heat absorbed by the apparatus

Incomplete combustion/Evaporation of alcohol

The reactants or products may not be in standard states.

17. Suggest one improvement that would reduce errors due to heat loss in the student’s experiment.

→ ①add a lid ②put a drought screen/shield ③Reduce the distance between the flame and the beaker ④ put a

sleeve around the flame to protect from drafts ⑤use a copper calorimeter rather than a polystyrene beaker。

18. The student said correctly that using a thermometer with an overall uncertainty for the rise in

temperature of +-0.5 was adequate for this experiment.

Explain why this thermometer was adequate for this experiment. P183

→The temperature rise is much bigger than uncentainty.

19. Suggest one possible risk to a person who uses a hand-warmer containing sodium hydroxide and

hydrochloric acid.

→ Container splitting and releasing irritant / corrosive chemicals

�����������∗�
20. Percentage uncertainty = （N 代表一次数据取得使用仪器的测量次数）
读数

针对 balance/burette 用两次，N=2;针对 volumetric flask 用一次,N=1

若题干中出现 total uncertainty，则无需乘 2；

(Division 为 0.1 时， uncertainty 为 0.05)

20
21. In terms of bonds broken and bonds formed, explain why the calculated values of enthalpies of

combustion of these alcohols, when plotted against Mr, follow a straight

→ Each alcohol in the series increases by/has an extra CH2, combustion of each alcohol in the series breaks

one more C-C and two more C-H compared with the previous one and forms one more mol CO2 and one more

mol H2O, difference in number of bonds broken and formed (as the series increases) is the same.

Chapter 5 kinetics

Definition

1. activation energy: minimum energy needed to get a reaction to occur

2. catalyst: speed up the rate of chemical reaction with no change in chemical composition

3. rate of reaction: the change in concentration of the substance in unit time

知识点

Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution (distribution pf energy amongst the particles)\

B：most probable energy (Emp)

C: average/mean energy

D: activation energy (Ea)

 Curve 下的总 area 代表 all the particles with energy.

 Only temperature will affect the shape of the curve.

4. State why the curve starts at the origin.：

→ all particles have energy

21
rate of reaction 的影响因素

 temperature: T increase, rate of reaction increase

5. Explain why T 增加, rate of reaction 增加.

→Particles gain more energy, so more particles have energy≥Ea，

more successful collision frequency, rate of reaction increase.

6. Explain why a small increase/decrease in temperature can lead a large increase in the rate of reaction.

→a small increase/decrease in temperature, many more/far few particles gain energy≥Ea, many more/ far

fewer successful collision frequency, a large increase/decrease in rate of reaction.

 Concentration/pressure: con./p increase, rate of reaction increase

7. Explain why con./p 增加, rate of reaction 增加.

→More particles in a given volume, have energy≥Ea, more successful collision frequency, rate of reaction increase.

8. why volume halved, rate of reaction increase. (同上)： More particles in a given volume, have energy≥Ea,

more successful collision frequency, rate of reaction increase.

9. Explain why surface area increase, rate of reaction increase.

→More particles are exposed, increase the surface contact, more successful collision frequency, rate of reaction increase.

 Catalyst: add catalyst, rate of reaction increase

10. How does catalyst work?

→ Catalyst provide an alternative reaction

route for a reaction to occur, which lower Ea

11. What factors will alter(改变) Ea？

→ Catalyst

measure the rate of reaction

12. how to measure rate of reaction:

1 measure mass loss at regular time intervals

2 measure the volume of gas at regular time intervals

根据 gas syringe 的读数可列如下 Table：

Time/s 0 30 60 120 240 480 960

Volume/cm3 0 2 4 6 8 10 10

13. how to determine the initial rate of a reaction?

→ (根据 table 可以) plot a graph, volume against time, draw a tangent at the beginning and calculate the

slope. (注意 slope 的化学意义是 rate of reaction)

14. why time increase, rate of reaction decrease? ( why the slope (gradient) of curve decrease with time increase)

22
→ the concentration of ×××decrease, successful collision frequency decrease in a given time, so rate of

reaction decrease.

15. 注意 rate 与图形题相结合（看两点： 曲线的斜率-rate; ending point；高度与 number of moles 有关）。

Chapter 6 equilibrium

Definition

1. Le Chatelier’s principle: if one or more factors that affect equilibrium is changed, the position of

equilibrium will shift to direction to oppose the change.

2. Dynamic equilibrium: ① Forward rate = reverse/backward rate

② Amount (Conc or moles or proportion) of reactants and products remain constant

3. Dynamic: both forward and backward reaction never stop

知识点

4. The equilibrium constant Kc:

注意：Kc 的 unit

5. Factors that will affect the position of equilibrium (use Le Chatelier’s priciple to explain)

基本模板：Equilibrium shift to right/left to oppose the change

(1) Concentration:

A(g) + 2B(g) = 2C(g) + 3D(g)

1 D 的 Con. Increase:

Equilibrium shift to left to oppose the increase in concentration of D.

2 C 的 Con. decrease:

Equilibrium shift to right to oppose the decrease in concentration of C.

(2) Pressure

23
 A(g) + 2B(g) = 2C(g) + 3D(g)
1 Pressure increase：
2 There’re more moles of gas on right side, equilibrium shift to left to oppose the increase in pressure.
E(g) + 2F(g) = 2G(g) + H(g)
③ Pressure increase/decrease：no change
There’re more moles of gas on right side, equilibrium will not shift.
(3) Catalyst: No effect

Catalyst accelerate the forword and backword rate equally

(4) Temperature
A(g) + 2B(g) = 2C(g) + 3D(g) △H = —150 kJ mol
① T increase：
The forward reaction is exothermic, equilibrium shift to left to oppose the increase in T.
② T decrease：
The forward reaction is exothermic, equilibrium shift to right to oppose the decrease in T.
6. Factor that will affect Kc: only temperature will affect Kc

A(g) + 2B(g) = 2C(g) + 3D(g) △H = —150 kJ mol

1 T increase：
The forward reaction is exothermic, equilibrium shift to left to oppose the increase in Temperature.
Kc decrease
2 T decrease：
The forward reaction is exothermic, equilibrium shift to right to oppose the decrease in Temperature.
Kc increase
7. Equilibrium 计算模板
已知 concentration [ 若已知 n，则用 c=n/v 求 concentration]

A(g) + 2B(g) = 2C(g) + 3D(g)

Initial: 0.2 0.15 0.05 0

Change: - 0.05 - 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.15

Equilibrium: 0.2-0.05 0.15 - 0.1 0.05 + 0.1 + 0.15

按公式求 Kc (注意要求 concentration 再代入公式，当 equation 两边 mole 数一致时，直接代 moles

就可以，因为 volume cancel out)

Q&A

8. Give the meaning of the term dynamic in the context of a dynamic equilibrium.

→ Forward and reverse reactions occur all the time

9. Give two features of a reaction at equilibrium.

→ ① Concentration(s) (of reactants and products) remain or stay constant

② Forward rate = reverse/backward rate

24
10. Haber Process N2 +3H2 → 2NH3 ΔH<0 Condition : T: 450℃ P:200 atm, Catalyst: Fe

解释为什么要选择这样的 450 度的温度。

→Yield + rate + 综合

The forward reaction is exothermic.

If the temperature increases, the position of equilibrium shift to left to oppose the increase in temperature.

So high temperature will reduce the yield.

At high temperature, the rate of reaction increase. Because the particle gain more energy. And there are more

particles with Ea>E, so collision frequency increase.

temperature chosen is to achieve a balance of yield and rate

11. Explain why a catalyst has no effect on the position of an equilibrium.

→A catalyst increases the rate of forward reaction and backward reaction equally.

12. State why industry uses a pressure lower than 35 Mpa.

Do not include references to safety.

→Uses less expensive equipment.

13. Why we can calculate Kc even though we do not know the volume as for the reaction I2+H2=2HI

→ there are same moles on both side so unit cancel out.

14. Rate 与 equilibrium 联用的数形结合题

 Haber process 中 yield of NH3 随着 T 及 p 的变化
 Equilibrium 中改变 condition curve 的变化

25
 这个世界上，对某个事情能产生化学反应的，除了非做不可的坚决，还有吗，时间

Chapter 7 redox reaction

Definition

1. Oxidation Is Loss of electrons (OIL), Reduction Is Gain of electrons (RIG)

2. Oxidising agent: electron acceptor reducing agent: electron donor

3. Oxidation state/valency: charge on the ion or element/atom

知识点

4. Oxidation states:( 4 rules)

(1) 1st rule: uncombined element has oxidation number of 0

(2) 2nd rule: the sum of the oxidation state in a compound equals to 0

(3) 3rd rule: the sum of the oxidation state of a complex ion, equals the charge on the ion, such as SO42-

has oxidation state of -2

(4) 4th rule: in a compound the most electronegative element always has a negative oxidation state

5. Reducing and oxidising reaction 的判断以及 Reducing and oxidising agent 的判断。

升失氧还原剂

降得还氧化剂

判断过程：首先看 oxidation state 的变化，从 reactant to product

Sn 从 0 → + 4 oxidation state of Sn increase from 0 to + 4, lose electrons, oxidation, Sn is a reducing agent

N 从+ 5 → + 4 oxidation state of N in HNO3 decrease from + 5 to + 4, gain electrons, reduction, Sn is a

oxidising agent.

Half equation: Sn – 4 e- → Sn4+ 升 4 × ① 升高的化合价 = 降低的化合价

HNO3 + e- → NO2 降 1 × ④ 失去的电子数 = 得到的电子数

26
 你是化学课上偶然发现的“二氧化萌“

5. Reducing agent 及 oxidsing agent 的强弱比较

（1）Reducing agent：electron donor，所以越容易失去 electron 的 atom 或者 ion 是 greater reducing agent.

【从得失电子难易程度判断强弱】

1 看 nuclear charge, nuclear charge 越小，越容易失去电子，是 greater reducing agent；

2 看 relative size, size 越大，越容易失去电子, 是 greater reducing agent；

③ 看 electron shells 的层数，层数越多，shielding 越强，越容易失去电子，是 greater reducing agent;

④ 看 electron 和 nucleus 的 distance, 越大越容易失去电子，是 greater reducing agent

（2）oxidising agent：
electron acceptor，所以越容易得到 electron 的 atom 或者 ion 是 greater oxidising agent.

规律与 reducing agent 相反。

6. Half equation

注意：审清题意，看清楚 反应物，生成物

方法： 先找到反应物，生成物， 然后 再标出化合价，再 根据 升失氧，降得还，把电子数加上，最

后再加 H+ 和 H2O ， 配平

Q&A

7. Define an oxidising agent in terms of electron: electron acceptor

Define an reducing agent in terms of electron: electron donor

8. Define an oxidising agent in terms of oxidation state: oxidation state decrease

Define an reducing agent in terms of oxidation state: oxidation state increase

9. Cl2 + 2 KBr → Br2 + 2KCl Explain, with reference to the oxidation states, why this is a redox

reaction.

→The oxidation state of Cl in Cl2decrease from 0 to -1. Cl2 gain electrons and is reduced.

The oxidation state of Br in KBr increase from -1 to 0, KBr lose electrons and is oxidised.

27
 Chapter 8 Periodic Table
知识点

1. Periodic table [分 4 个 block, 区分原则：electron configuration-highest energy electrons are in × orbital]

Period: horizontal column of element Group: vertical column of element

GroupⅠ：alkaline metal GroupⅡ: alkaline earth metal

GroupⅦ: halogens Group 0: noble gas

metals lose electrons to form ionic compound;

Non-mental obtain electrons to form ionic compound or share electrons to form covalent compound;

noble gas has a full outer shell and is unreactive.

2. Trend:
(1) Melting/boiling point: decrease down a group

(2) Radii: increase down a group (number of shells / shielding increase), decrease across a period (same

number of shells/similar shielding, nuclear charge increase) 电离能判断方法与之类似

也就是在半径比较时要注意：

同一周期 period： 比较 proton number and electron number

同一族 group： 比较 number of shells

如：40Ca, 42Ca (proton number electron number 都一样，所以 attraction/size 一样大)

Na+ F- （shielding effect 一样，Na+ nuclear charge 更大，所以 attraction 强 size 小）

(3) 1IE: decrease down a group,

generally increase across a period(sth deviate)

28
 注意：

1 P S Cl Ar 所形成的单质为 P4 S8 Cl2 Ar;

2 比较熔沸点从 Bond 和 Structure 出发，再比较所形成 bond 的强弱。

Metallic 和 macromolecular structure 强于 molecular structure；

[补充：Crystal structure 分为 Metallic、macromolecular、molecular 和 ionic]

(a) 在 Metallic structure 中，strong attraction between nucleus and delocalised electrons, 是较强的

metallic bond, ( metallic bond 的强度与 nuclear charge/size/delocalised electrons 有关，nuclear charge

越大/size 越小/delocalised electrons 越多，键越强)，且强于 covalent bond. [eg: Na ]

(b) 在 Molecular structure 中，covalent bond between atoms and van der waal’s forces between

molecules (vdw forces 与分子的 Mr 有关，Mr 越大 vdw forces 越大). [SiO2 S8 ]

(c) 在 Macromolecular structure 中, many/gaint covalent bonds, stronger than molecules. [eg:

diamond and graphite ]

(d) 在 Ionic structure 中,strong attraction between negative ions and positive ions, 是较强的 ionic

bond, (ionic bond 的强度与 charge/size 有关，charge 越大/size 越小，键越强)

3 影响 IE 的因素：

(a) size of nuclear charge; (b) distance of outer electrons from the nucleus;

(c) shielding effect of inner electrons.

举例：Suggest why the electronegativity of the elements increases across a period.

→Across a period, nuclear charge increase, and they have the same shielding,加一句

So there is stronger attraction of bonding pair to nucleus

Q&A

3. Explain why the atomic radii of the element decrease across a period?

→ similar shielding effect, nuclear charge increases across a period, therefore the attraction between the

nucleus and electrons increases

 Across period 3, 1IE 2IE 变化曲线

4. State how the element sulfur deviates from the general trend in first ionisation energies.

→ Lower. Two/pair of electrons in (3)p orbital or implied, repel (each other)

5. Which element has the highest second ionization energy in period 2? (类推 higherst third ionisation energy)

→ Na

6. State the trend in electronegativity of the elements down Group. Explain this trend.

The electronegativity decreases. Number of electronic shells increases / the atomic size increases

Therefore there is weaker attraction between nucleus and bonding pair of electrons in covalent bond
29
  Across period 3, melting point 的变化，图形怎么画

7. Explain why magnesium has a higher melting point than sodium?

→Mg2+ / magnesium ion has higher charge than Na+; attracts delocalized electrons more strongly /

metallic bonding stronger.

( 1 Bond ②charge ③outer electrons influence the bond strength)

8. Why the Tm of sulfur (S8) is greater than that of phosphorus (P4)?

→ S8 molecules are bigger than P4 molecules, Therefore, van der Waals / dispersion / London forces

between molecules are stronger in sulfur

9. 第三周期：熔点最高的是：__________, Explain?

Si, Si is giant molecular structure with strong covalent bonding which needs a lot energy to break.

延申：第二周期：熔点最高的是：__________, Explain ?

10. State how the melting point of phosphorus(V) oxide compares with that of silicon dioxide. Explain

your answer in terms of the structure of, and the bonding in, phosphorus(V) oxide and silicon dioxide?

→ (Phosphorus pentoxide’s melting point is) lower;

Silicon dioxide: Macromolecular (structure) with giant covalent bonding, Strong (covalent) bonds must be

broken or overcome / (covalent) bonds need a lot of energy to break; Phosphorus pentoxide : Molecular

(structure) with covalent bonding, weak / easily broken / not much energy to break intermolecular forces

30
 慈母泪，有化学分析不了的高贵而深沉的爱存在其中

Chapter 9 Group 2, the alkaline earth metals

Q&A

补充：[properties of metal; high Tm/good conductor of electricity and heat/malleable and ductile]

1. State and explain the trend in melting point of the Group 2 elements Ca to Ba

→Trend: decreases. Increase in size of atom or more levels in the atom. Weaker attraction by the nucleus for

delocalized electron

2. State the trend in solubility of the hydroxides and of the sulfates of the Group 2 elements Mg to Ba.

→ (1) Hydroxides: solubility increases [Mg(OH)2 insoluble, white precipitate, as antacid to neutralize

stomach acid in medical use, test for OH- with Mg2+]

(2) Sulfates: solubility decreases [BaSO4 insoluble, white precipitate, as barium meal in medical use, test

for SO42- with Ba2+]

3. State the trend in the reactivity of the Group 2 elements Mg to Ba with water. White equations to

show the reactionof barium with an excess of water.

→Reactivity increases down the group

Ba (s) + 2H2O(l) → Ba(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)

4. Write the equation of Mg reacts with water and steam individually.

→Mg(s) + 2H2O(l) →Mg (OH)2(s) + H2(g)

Observation: effervescence, white precipitate

Mg(s) + H2O(g) → MgO(s) + H2(g) (in steam)

Observation: white light, white solid

(difficult to distinguish MgO and Mg(OH)2: both white solid)

5. State a use of magnesium hydroxide in medicine.

→ To neutralize the acidity of stomach.

6. State a use of calcium hydroxide in agriculture.

→To neutralize the acidity of soil.

7. State how barium sulfate is used in medicine

→Barium meal

8. Explain why this use is possible, given that solutions containing barium ions are poisonous.

→Barium sulfate is insoluble in water.

31
 Chapter 10 Group 7(17), the halogens

知识点

1. Oxidising power trend of halogens

2. Reducing power trend of halides.

3. The oxidation of a halide by a halogen (displacement)

Halide will be displaced by a more reactive halogen
Cl2 + 2Br- → 2Cl- + Br2

4. Displacement reactions of halogens (also redox reactions)

Based on the reducing ability of halides and oxidising ability of halogens(强制弱)

Oxidising property: F2>Cl2>Br2> I2

Reducing property: F-< Cl-<Br-<I-

equation observation
Cl2 + NaBr equation: Cl2 + 2NaBr →2NaCl + Br2 The solution turns orange /
Ionic equation: Cl2 + 2Br-→ 2Cl- + Br2 yellow.
Cl2 + NaI Chemical equation: Cl2 + 2NaI →2NaCl + I2 The solution turns brown. /
Ionic equation: Cl2 + 2I-→ 2Cl- + I2 black solid is formed
Br2 + KI Chemical equation: Br2 + 2KI →2KBr + I2 The solution turns brown. /
Ionic equation: Br2 + 2I-→ 2Br- + I2 black solid is formed
Br2 + KCl No reaction
I2 + KCl No reaction
I2 + KBr No reaction

32
5. NaX + concentrated H2SO4 (down a group reducing ability of X- increase )

Equation observation
NaF + H2SO4→ NaHSO4 + HF
NaF
F- + H+→ HF
NaCl + H2SO4→ NaHSO4 + HCl
NaCl steamy fume formed :HCl
Cl-+H+→ HCl
(1) NaBr+ H2SO4→ NaHSO4 + HBr
steamy fume formed :HBr brown
Br-+H+→ HBr
NaBr gas formed: Br2
(2) 2NaBr + 2H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + Br2 + SO2+ H2O
Chocking gas formed: SO2
2Br-+4H+ + SO4 2-→ Br2 + SO2 + 2H2O
(1) NaI+ H2SO4→ NaHSO4 + HI steamy fume formed :HI
I-+H+→ HI
(2) 2NaI + 2H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + I2 + SO2+ H2O Black solid formed: I2
2I-+4H+ + SO4 2-→ I2 + SO2 + 2H2O Chocking gas formed: SO2
NaI
(3) 6NaI + 4H2SO4 → 3Na2SO4 + 3I2 + S+ 4H2O Yellow solid formed: S
6I-+8H+ + SO4 2-→ 3I2 + S+ 4H2O
(4) 8NaI + 5H2SO4 → 4Na2SO4 + 4I2 + H2S+ 4H2O Bad egg smell of H2S
8I-+10H+ + SO4 2-→ 4I2 + H2S + 4H2O

6. Test for ions

（1）如何 test the presence of SO42-

Add BaCl2 (aq)

离子方程式：Ba2+ + SO42-→ BaSO4

现象：White precipitate formed

（2）如何 test the presence of Ba2+

Add H2SO4(aq)

离子方程式：Ba2+ + SO42-→ BaSO4

现象：White precipitate formed

（3）如何 test the presence of OH-

Add MgCl2 (aq)

离子方程式：Mg2+ + 2OH-→ Mg(OH)2

现象：White precipitate formed

（4）如何 test the presence of Mg2+

Add NaOH (aq)

离子方程式：Mg2+ + 2OH-→ Mg(OH)2

现象：White precipitate formed

33
 （5）如何 test the presence of CO32-?

Add HCl (aq)

离子方程式：CO32- + 2H+→ CO2 + H2O [how to show the gas is CO2, lime water turns milky]

现象：bubbles formed / effervescence /Fizzing

（6）如何 test the presence of NH4+

Add NaOH(aq) and warm

NH4+ + OH →NH3 + H2O

－

Observation: gas formed turns red litmus paper blue.

（7）Test Cl-, Br-, I-

Method 1 （combination of reagent: acidified AgNO3 and ammonia）

Step: Add HNO3(aq) to acidify the solution, Then add AgNO3 (aq), Finally add ammonia(aq)

Ag+ + Cl- → AgCl white ppt, dissolve in dilute ammonia solution

Ag+ + Br- → AgBr cream ppt, doesn’t dissolve in dilute ammonia solution, But dissolve in

concentrated ammonia

Ag+ + I- → AgI yellow ppt,doesn’t dissolve in concentrated ammonia solution

注意： AgF is soluble (不能用这种方式 test F-)

Method 2: Add concentrated H2SO4

NaCl + H2SO4 →NaHSO4 +HCl (HCl: steamy fume/ white fume )

2NaBr + 2H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + SO2 + Br2 + 2H2O (SO2: pungent smelling gas/choking gas, Br2:

brown vapour)

NaI + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + SO2 / S / H2S + I2 + H2O 没有配平

(SO2: pungent smelling gas/choking gas, S: yellow solid, H2S: a smell of bad egg, I2: black solid )

同时要掌握离子方程式 （通过 half equation 去写 ionic equation）

【强电解质 electrolyte 完全电离（强酸强碱盐）；弱电解质 electrolyte 部分电离；弱酸弱碱水】

7. Observation:

Br2: Solution goes orange. / orange solution formed /

brown vapour formed (NaBr 与浓硫酸反应时)

I2: Solution goes brown. / brown solution formed

Black solid formed (NaI 与浓硫酸反应时)

SO2: pungent odour / choking gas

S: yellow solid

H2S: a smell of bad egg

34
 HCl / HBr/ HI: white fume (NaCl/ NaBr/ NaI 与浓硫酸反应时)
water Dilute NH3 Con. NH3

AgCl: white ppt, ppt dissolve in dilute ammonia solution

AgCl
AgBr: cream ppt, ppt dissolve in concentrated ammonia solution
AgBr
AgI: yellow ppt, ppt does not dissolve in ammonia solution
AgI
8. 重要的沉淀+Color of halogens
BaSO4: white ppt precipitate

AgCl : white ppt AgBr yellow cream AgI brown ppt

Mg(OH)2: white ppt

Fe(OH)3: red brown ppt

Fe(OH)2: green ppt

Cu(OH)2 : blue ppt

Molecules Color In aqueous Silver halides (ppt) Color

(chlorine) Pale green Very pale g AgCl white

Cl2 reen

(bromine) Red-brown Yellow/orange AgBr cream

Br2

(iodine) I2 Black solid Brown solution or black AgI yellow

(Purple vapour) ppt

9. Physical properties of group 7, fluorine to iodine

Q&A

10. The trend and explain the trend in electronegativity of element down Group 7.
→ Trend: decrease

Shielding effect/atomic size increases

Therefore there is weaker attraction between nucleus and bonding pair of electrons in the covalent bond

35
11. State the trend in the boiling points of the halogens from fluorine to iodine and explain this trend
→Trend: Increase

The molecules become bigger, which cause stronger van der waals’ forces between molecules. So more

energy needed to overcome these force.

12. Explain why chlorine are stronger oxidising agents than bromine.
→ Chlorine is smaller than bromine

There are stronger attraction between nucleus and electrons, chlorine is easier to gain electrons

13. Explain why iodide ions are stronger reducing agents than chloride ions.
→ Iodide ions are larger than chloride ions. / Iodide ions have more electron shells than chloride ions.

The electrons lost is less strongly held by the nucleus compared with that lost from a chloride ions.

14. How does the reducing power of fluoride ion compare with the other halide ions? Explain your
answer.

→ It has the least reducing power.

The fluoride ion is the smallest halide ion which means that it has stronger attraction between nucleus and

electrons, it is hardest for it to lose an electron

15. State and explain the trend in reducing ability of the halide ions down the Group 7.
→ Trend: increase; Shielding effect increase, which reduce the attraction between nucleus and outer

electrons, electrons are easier to lose, so reducing ability increase

16. The presence of halide ions in solution can be detected by adding silver nitrate solution and dilute
nitric acid. State the purpose of the nitric acid in this test. / State why the silver nitrate is acidified

when testing for iodide ions.

→ To remove carbonate and hydroxide ions / To remove the ions that would interfere

17. Give two uses of HClO/NaClO solution.

Bleach; Kill bacteria / disinfectant / sterilizer

Reactions: H2O+Cl2→HClO+HCl(cold water/in the absence of light) 2Cl2 + 2H2O→ 4HCl + O2

2NaOH+Cl2→NaClO+NaCl+H2O 注意命名 NaClO 次氯酸钠 Sodium Chlorate(Ⅰ) NaCl 氯化钠 Sodium Chloride

HClO: hypochloric acid HCl: hydrochloric acid

18. Chlorine is toxic to humans. This toxicity does not prevent the large-scale use of chlorine in water treatment.
(i) Give one reason why water is treated with chlorine.

→ to sterilise/disinfect water, to destroy/kill microorganisms / bacteria / microbes / pathogens

(ii) Explain why the toxicity of chlorine does not prevent this use.(why chlorine is used for the

treatment of drinking water even though the gas is very toxic.

→ The (health) benefit outweighs the risk/It is used in (very) dilute concentrations / small amounts
36
19. The following pairs of compounds can be distinguished by simple test-tube reactions. For each pair, give a
suitable reagent that could be added separately to each compound to distinguish between them. Describe

what you would observe in each case.

(a) AgBr(s) and AgI(s)

(b) HCl(aq) and HNO3(aq)

20. Confirm the solution only contain Br- but no I-

(1) Add AgNO3(acidified), cream precipitate formed

(2) Add concentrated ammonia, precipitate dissolve completely

21. Experiment: Carry out simple test-tube reactions to identify: Cations- Group II, NH4+
Anions- Group 7 (halide ions), OH-, CO32-, SO42-

Examples: 本土新考纲 2018.05 P1 Q4

Separate unlabelled solid samples of three anhydrous sodium compounds are provided for a student to identify.

These compounds are known to be sodium carbonate, sodium fluoride and sodium chloride but it is not known

which sample is which. Outline a logical sequence of test-tube reactions that the student could carry out to

identify each of these compounds. Include the observations the student would expect to make. Give equations,

including state symbols, for any reactions that would take place.

Steps:

1 Add dilute HNO3 to all 3 samples ②Add water to make into a solution ③Add AgNO3(aq)

Observation:

Na2CO3 will fizz with acid； NaCl will give white ppt； NaF shows no change/ no ppt.

Equations:

CO32-(aq)+ 2H+ (aq) → CO2 (g)+ H2O (l) Cl- (aq) + Ag+ (aq) → AgCl (s)

37
 慈母泪，有化学分析不了的高贵而深沉的爱存在其中

Section 3 Organic chemistry (Chapter 11-16)

有机物命名规则（IUPAC）

(1) 确定 root (找最长的 carbon chain)

 只有 single bond,加 suffix -ane; 有 double bond 加-ene
(2) 编号，找支链 (每个 group 都要编号，编号符合总和最小规则)
 Halogen 做 prefix 放前面 如 chloro-, fluoro-, bromo-, iodo-; (alkyl group 做 prefix: -CH3 代表 Methyl)
（Alkyl: 甲: methyl
乙：ethyl 丙: propyl 丁: butyl 戊: pentyl 己: hexyl）
 其他的 functional group 做 suffix, 放后面，如-al
(3) 注意：数字与数字之间用逗号，数字与字母之间有短杆-
有多个相同的 functional group 用 di-, tri-, tetra-, pent-, hexa-

主链 (root)
Number of carbon atom
1 meth
2 eth
3 prop
4 but
5 pent
6 hex

Alkanes: -C-C-
甲烷: methane 乙烷: ethane 丙烷: propane 丁烷: butane 戊烷: pentane 己烷: hexane
庚烷: heptane 辛烷: octane 壬烷: nonane 癸烷: decane
①找到最长碳链→②编号→支链编号尽可能小，名称放在前，按基团字母表顺序排序
（有两个等长碳链时：支链数目较多的为主链；支链定位号较小者为主链）
· 环烷烃: prefix: cyclo- (异: iso- 新：neo- )
· 多取代基：di- (n=2) tri- (n=3) tetra- (n=4)

Alkenes: -C=C-
乙烯：ethene 丙烯: propene 丁烯: butene 戊烯: pentene 己烯: hexene
庚烯: heptene 辛烯: octene 壬烯: nonene 癸烯: decene
· 多烯烃： -diene (n=2) -triene(n=3) -tetraene (n=4)
· fluorine→fluoro- chorine→chloro- bromine→bromo- iodine→iodo-

Carboxylic acids: -COOH

· Alkane (alkene alkyne) 去“e”加“-oic acid”
· 多元羧酸： 在“oic”或“carboxylic” 前加 di-（二元）或 tri-（三元）或 tetra-（四元）
· 俗名：fomic acid 甲酸; acetic acid 乙酸

Alcohols: -OH
· Alkane (alkene alkyne) 去“e”加“-ol”
· 多元醇：不去“e” 加“-ol”
如 CH2OHCH2OH ethane-1,2-diol

38
Aldehydes: -HC=O (-CHO)
· Alkane (alkene alkyne) 去“e”加“-al”

Ketone: -RC=O
· Alkane (alkene alkyne) 去“e”加“-one”

Nitriles: -C=N
· Alkane (alkene alkyne)加“-nitrile”
CH3CH2CH2CH(CH3)CN

Amines: -NH2
· Alkyl + amine
· 仲 sec- 叔 tert-
· 二级胺 secondary 三级胺 tertiary

以下为部分 A2 的 Nomenclature
Amides: -CO-NH-
· Alkane (alkene alkyne) 去“e”加“-amide”
· 亚胺：Alkane (alkene alkyne) 去“e”加“-imide”（1R2RC=N3R）

Carboxylic anhydrides: O=C-O-C=O

· Alkane (alkene alkyne) 去“e”加“-oic anhydrid”

Acyl halides: O=C-X

· Alkane (alkene alkyne) 去“e”加“-oyl halide”
· fluorine→fluoride chorine→chloride bromine→bromide iodine→iodide

Ester: -COOR
· Alkyl + Alkane (alkene alkyne) “e”加“-(o)ate”
醇 酸

Ethers: -C-O-C-
· Alkyl + Alkyl + ether

Alkynes: -C=C-
乙炔：ethyne 丙炔: propyne 丁炔: butyne 戊炔: pentyne 己炔: hexyne
庚炔: heptyne 辛炔: octyne 壬炔: nonyne 癸炔: decyne

Arenes:
· 一元取代：烃基 C 数＜6 alkyl+benzene (benzene=phene)
烃基 C 数＞6 phenyl+alkane
· 二元取代：邻（o） 间（m） 对（p）

39
取代基（前缀和后缀）：

40
CIP priority rules （E/Z isomerism）

E/Z isomers: (different groups on each side of -C=C-, restrict of rotation )

Examples:

Phenylethanone

Pent-2-ene shows E-Z isomerism

Draw the skeletal formula of E-pent-2-ene
Justify your answer using Cahn- Ingold- Prelog (CIP ) priority rules.
→ Atomic number of C > atomic number of H
Highest priority atoms are on opposite sides for E isomer

Example:

First consider the groups joined to the right carbon of C=C bond, carbon has a higher atomic number than
hydrogen, so CH2CH2OH thkes priority.
Second considr the groups joined to the left carbon of C=C bond, Both groups contain carbond atoms, so it
continue to consider atoms further away. C from the propyl group has higher atomic number than H from ethyl
goup. So propyl takes priority.
The highest priority groups, propyl and CH2CH2OH are on the same side of the C=C bond, so the isomer is Z
The name is Z-4-ethylhept-3-en-1-ol

41
Definition of Chapter 11 to Chapter 16 (知识点)

1. Hydrocarbons: are compounds of carbon and hydrogen only.

2. Saturated hydrocarbon: Hydrocarbon containing only C-C and C-H single bond
Unsaturated hydrocarbon: Hydrocarbon containing one or more C=C double bond.
3. Molecular formula: shows us the actual numbers of each type of atom in a molecule.
Empirical formula: simplest ratio of atoms presented in a compound
4. Functional group: an atom or group of atoms in an organic molecule that determine the characteristic
reactions of a homologous series.
5. Homologous series: is a family of organic compounds with the same functional group, but different
carbon chain length.
6. Characteristics of a homologous series:
• (Same) General formula/allow a named homologous series with its general formula
• Chemically similar/same (chemical) reactions
• Same functional group
• Trend in physical properties/eg inc bp as Mr increases
• (Molecules) increase by CH2/Mr = 14
7. Isomers:
(1) Structural isomerism: Compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural
formulae.
1 Position isomerism: Compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural
formula due to different positions of the same functional group on.
2 Functional group isomerism: same functional group attached into the main chain at different
points
3 Chain isomerism: a different arrangement of hydrocarbon chain(such as branch)
(2) Stereisomerism: (Compounds/molecules with) the same structural formula with atoms/bonds/groups
arranged differently in space
1 E/Z isomerism ②Optical isomerism: clockwise and anticlockwise
8. Nucleophile: Electron pair donor (OH- NH3 -:CN:, negative charge, lone paired electrons on atom is
electronegative)
9. Electrophile: Electron pair acceptor
10. （1）Substitution: Replacement of the halogen (atom) (by the nucleophile)
（2）Addition: reaction with increase number of substituents (C=C bond to C-C bond)
（3）Elimination: A reaction in which a small molecule leaves the parent molecule.
11. Hydrolysis: A reaction in which s splitting molecules by adding water.
12. Hydration: adding water to a molecule
13. Dehydration: a water molecule is removed from the parent molecule
14. Free radical: species with unpaired electrons
15. Cracking: the process in which large less useful alkanes molecules are broken down into smaller, more
valuable alkenes or alkanes
Reason for cracking: smaller molecules in great demand
16. Carbon neutral: An activity which has no net / overall (annual) greenhouse gas emissions
to the atmosphere (green house gas: CO2 CH4 N2O H2O O3)
17. Monomer: a small, reactive molecule that reacts to make long-chain molecules.
18. Polymer: a long-chain molecule made up of many repeating units.
19. Addition polymerisation: the reaction in which alkene molecules react with each other to form polymer.
Condensation polymerization:
20. Molecular ion: molecule with a positive
Charge/ion with an m/z equal to Mr
42
 . Chapter 11-12 Organic chemistry and Alkanes

知识点

1. Bond: 1 个 carbon 连 4 个 single bond

2. Formula:
(1) Structural formula
(2) Displayed formula
(3) Skeletal formula
(4) Molecular formula
(5) Empirical formula
(6) General formula
Chan: different chain length
3. Isomerism structural isomerism position: different position of functional group
Functional group: different functional group
Stereoisomerism E/Z Or geometrical: a: no free rotation of C=C bond
b: C=C with different functional group on either side
of C=C bond
optical: chiral carbon
4. Organic compound

Complete combustion: form CO2

Incomplete combustion: form CO (gas) or C (solid) 注意反应方程式配平

5. 有害气体对环境的污染

(1) CO: poisonous/toxic

(2) Nitrogen oxides NO NO2: cause the formation of acid rain, photochemical smog

(3) SO2: cause the formation of acid rain

(4) Carbon particles: causing breathing problem

Unburnt hydrocarbons: greenhouse gas, photochemical smog

CO2: greenhouse gas , which cause global warming

(4) Water vapour: greenhouse gas

6. Cracking

（1）Thermal cracking:

条件：high temperature ( 具体温度是：700K-1200 K), high pressure (＞1000 kPa, <7000KPa)

产物: a high proportion of alkenes

（2）Catalytic cracking:

条件:high temperature 720 K, catalyst: zeolite. 产物: branched alkanes / cycloalkanes / aromatic compounds

43
Q&A

7. How a covalent bond breaks in free radical substitution reaction

→ homolytic fission 均裂

or one electron from the bonding pair goes to each atom

8. Free radical substitution of alkanes (一定有 HX 生成)

CH3CH3 + Cl2(g)→ CH3CH2Cl+ HCl Mechanism :

如果 CH3CH3 所有 H 被取代，则：CH3CH3 + 6 Cl2 → CCl3CCl3 + 6HCl

9. Name the process used to obtain hexane from the raw material(crude oil)
Fractional distillation
10. State why high temperatures are necessary for cracking reactions to occur.

→To break the strong C-C and C-H bonds.

11. Explain the main economic reason why alkanes are cracked. / Give one reason why thermal

cracking reactions are carried out in industry.

→To produce substances which are more in demand /To produce products with a high value.

12. oxides of nitrogen 怎么产生的？

→ Nitrogen reacts with oxygen in high temperature

13. How to remove SO2? Why? Relevant equation?

→Use CaO / CaCO3 反应类型： Neutralization

CaO/ CaCO3 is basic, SO2 is acidic. CaO can neutralize SO2

CaO + SO2→ CaSO3 CaCO3 + SO2→CaSO3 + CO2

14. How to remove NO in catalytic converter? Catalyst ?

→NO + CO →CO2 + N2

Catalyst: Pt/ Pd 或者：Unburnt hydrocarbon, 如： C8H18 + 25NO→��

�
N2 + 8CO2 + 9H2O

15. Explain the origin of the stereoisomerism shown.

→The C=C double bond can not rotate.

2 different atoms or group of atoms on each carbon atoms of C=C bond.

16. Why it has no E-Z/geometrical isomerism

→ 2 same atoms/groups on each carbon atom of C=C bond

17. Explain why it is Z isomer

→ higher priority group attached to each of the carbon are on the same side of C=C

44
18. 为什么 CO2 will cause global warming?

→CO2 is greenhouse gas ,which absorb infrared radiation.

19. Explain why the boiling point of X (with side chain) is lower than that of its straight-chain isomer.

→Because the X molecules has lower surface area. So they pack together less closer, which hich cause

weaker van der waal’ forces between molecules.

20. Explain why the boiling point of C8H18 is higher than that of C4H10.

→C8H18 is a bigger molecules than C4H10.. So it has stonger van der vaals’ forces between molecules

21. Alcohols/ Carboxylic acid have higher m.p./ b.p. than alkanes of similar Mr. WHY?

→Alcohols / carboxylic acid contain hydrogen bonds between molecules.

Alkanes has van der waals’ forced between molecules

Hydrogen bonds is stronger than van der waals’ forced between molecules

Chapter 13 Halogenalkanes

知识点

1. Halogenoalkanes : contain permanent dipole-dipole forces between molecules

2. Reactions of Halogenalkanes 如： CH3CH2Cl + NaOH →

Reagent condition role of OH-

Elimination: NaOH ethanolic/ in ethanol, hot base

Nucleophilic substitution : NaOH in aqueous nucleophile

3. Nucleophilic substitution of haloalkanes 与 excess of NH3(aq)

CH3CH2Cl + 2NH3→ CH3CH2NH2 + NH4Cl

Ethylamine

4. Nucleophilic substitution of haloalkanes 与 NaCN (aq)

CH3CH2Cl + NaCN → CH3CH2CN + HCl

Propanenitrile

5. Halogenoalkanes 的取代

反应速率比较： C-I > C-Br > C-Cl (faster / slower ) 原因： C-I bond is weaker than C-Cl bond

6. 氟氯烃如：CHF2Cl the use of CFSs e.g, CHF2Cl will destroy Ozone layer

CHF2Cl → ·CHF2 + Cl· Cl· + O3 → ClO·+ O2 ClO· + O3 →2O2 + Cl· 2O3 → 3O2
45
 Chapter 14 Alkenes

Q&A

1. Identify the feature of the double bond in the E and Z isomers that causes them to be stereoisomers.

→No rotation about the double bond / Double bond does not rotate

2. Bromine reacts with alkenes, even though bromine is a non-polar molecule.

Explain why bromine molecules react with the double bonds in alkenes.

→Double bonds in alkenes are electron-rich. / C=C bond is area of high electron density

Which induces a dipole in the bromine molecules. / Bromine become polar

3. Explain why propane and propene have similar boiling point?

→Molecules are similar size, similar vdw force between molecules

4. Electrophilic addition of Alkenes (mechanism)

(1) CH2=CH2 + H2O(g) →CH3CH2OH

Catalyst: concentrated H3PO4 / concentrated H2SO4 / Al2O3

Condition : heat / 600 K

(2) CH3CH=CH2 + HBr → CH3CHBrCH3

(3) CH3CH=CH2 + H2SO4→ CH3CH(OSO3H)CH3

(4) CH3CH=CH2 + Br2→ CH3CHBrCH2Br

5. Observation of Alkenes + Br2

→The solution turns from orange to colourless.

6. Explain why this compound is the major product.

→Major product is formed via _______ carbocation which is more stable than _________ carbocation.

Due to the electron releasing character of more alkyl groups.

一级 Primary 二级 secondary 三级 tertiary (三级碳正离子最稳定)_

7. Addition polymerisation of Alkenes

n CH3CH=CH2→ propene → poly(propene)

8. Explain the polymer in unreactive

→It contains C-H and C-C bonds. /non-polar bonds / It does not contain C=C bonds So it doesn’t react

with nucleophiles or electrophiles.

9. State one physical property and one chemical property of the polymer, poly(propene), that differs

from the properties of the monomer, propene.

Physical property of polymer：polymer has higher melting (or boiling) point or more viscous

46
 or polymer is a solid at room temperature

Chemical property of polymer：polymer is unreactive

10. Poly(chloroethene), PVC, is an important addition polymer that has many uses.

Name the type of substance added to PVC to make it more flexible.

Explain how this type of substance makes PVC more flexible.

Type of substance：plasticiser

Explanation：separates chains or weakens the intermolecular forces between chains

11. Write an equation for the reaction of ethene is oxidised to epoxyethane.

Name the catalyst used

Identify the hazards associated with the process

→ 2CH2=CH2 + O2 → C2H4O

high temperature and pressure

Catalyst: Ag

hazard： Explosive , highly flammable , Product is toxic

12. Epoxyethane

(1) Preparation : equation:

Catalyst:

Reaction type: addition

(2) Explain, by reference to its structure, why epoxyethane is a reactive molecule.

C-O-C bond angle is much smaller than 109.5, It is only 60, Bonding pairs repel each other.

(3) Addition of epoxyethane with H2O : CH2OCH2 + H2O → CH2OHCH2OH

(4) Use of Ethane-1,2-diol : antifreeze 防冻剂/ polymer

(5) CH2OCH2 + CH2OHCH2OH → CH2(OH)CH2(OCH2CH2OH)

(6) Addition of epoxyethane with NH3

CH2OCH2 + NH3 → CH2OHCH2NH2

47
 . Chapter 15 Alcohols

Q&A

1. Alcohols have higher m.p./ b.p. than alkanes of similar Mr. WHY?

→Alcohols molecules are held together by hydrogen bond which is stronger than van der walls’ forces

between alkane molecules.

2. Alcohols are soluble in water, why?

→Alcohols can form hydrogen bond to water molecules.

3. Longer chain alcohols are insoluble in water.

→Non polar hydrocarbon chain can not form hydrogen bond to water molecules.

4. Dehydration of alcohol

CH3CH2OH → CH2=CH2 + H2O

Catalyst: concentrated H2SO4

Condition : heat

 As for some branched structure, products will be more than one, why?

H can be removed from more than one carbon atom

5. Half equation:

Write a half equation for the overall oxidation of ethanol into ethanoic acid.

6. Ethanol can be oxidesed by acidified potassium dichromate (VI )to ethanoic acid in a two-step

process. Ethanol → ethanal → ethanoic acid

Describe what happens when a reaction mixture is refluxed and why it is necessary, in this case, for

complete oxidation to ethanoic acid

→A mixture of liquids is heated to boiling point for a long time

The ethanol and ethanal vapour is formed and then is changed/condensed back into liquid and returned to

the liquid mixture

The ethanol and ethanal can then be oxidized further.

7. Explain how heating under reflux ensures the complete oxidation of fbutan-1-ol to butanoic acid

→Butan-1-ol and Butanal is condensed back into liquid

So they can be oxidized further

48
8. Oxidation of Alcohol

reagent: acidified K2Cr2O7 (aq) 现象： orange to green

（1）Primary alcohol: 条件： heat and distill off immediately → aldehyde (partially oxidized )

CH3CH2OH + [O] → CH3CHO + H2O

条件： heat under reflux → carboxylic acid (completely oxidized)

CH3CH2OH +2[O] → CH3COOH + H2O

（2）Secondary alcohol: → Ketone

CH3CH(OH)CH3 +[O]→ CH3COCH3+H2O

（3）Tertiary alcohol and ketone 不能被 oxidized

9. Oxidation of aldehyde

CH3CHO + [O] → CH3COOH

（1）Reagent: acidified K2Cr2O7 (aq) observation： orange to green Cr2O72-→ Cr3+

（2）Reagent: Tollens’ reagent condition: warm

observation： silver mirror formed Ag+→ Ag

（3）Reagent: Fehling’s reagent condition: warm

observation： red precipitate formed Cu2+→ Cu2O

Reagent/ oxidizing agent observation reason

Acidified potassium dichromate(VI) Orange solution to green Cr2O72- → Cr3+
K2Cr2O7
Fehling’s solution (Cu2+), warm Brick-red precipitate formed Cu2+ → Cu2O
Tollens’ reagent [Ag(NH3)2]+, warm Silver mirror formed Ag+ → Ag
10. Test of Carboxylic acid:

Using Na2CO3 / NaHCO3 observation: effervescence

CH3COOH + NaHCO3→ CH3COONa + CO2 + H2O

2CH3COOH + Na2CO3→ 2CH3COONa + CO2+ H2O

CO32- + 2H+→ CO2 + H2O

或者：Ｕsing reactive metal 如：Mg, or Zn observation: effervecsence (冒泡)

CH3COOH + Zn/ Mg→ (CH3COO)2Mg + H2

49
11. Experiment: Distillation and reflux

（1）questions

① Octane and isooctane can be separated in the laboratory. Name a laboratory technique that could be

used to separate isooctane from a mixture of octane and isooctane.

Outline how this technique separates isooctane from octane.

Name: fractional distillation

Outline: Isooctane with a lower boiling point first condenses/ liquefies and collected.

② The use of anti-bumping granules in the flask in the experiment of distillation

→To ensure gentle boiling.

(2) Reflux 的装置图

Condition: excess acidified K2Cr2O7, heat and under reflux

（3）Fractional distillation 装置图

注意： 最底下要用 ice bath 冰浴来 minimise the loss / evaporation of the product.

50
12. Force in organic molecules

Intermolecular force

Alkanes / /

Alkenes / /

Haloalkanes /

Aldehydes Van der waals force /

Dipole – dipole force
ketones /

Carboxylic acid Hydrogen bond

Alcohols /

13.Test for functional group

51
 慈母泪，有化学分析不了的高贵而深沉的爱存在其中

. Chapter 16 Organic analysis

Q&A

1. Give one reason why bonds in molecules such as carbon dioxide and 1.1.1-trifluoroethane absorb

infrared radiation.

→ Bonds vibrate / stretch.

2. Infrared spectrum 回答模板

→ There is a peak/ absorption in the range ```````` cm-1 which is due to```````group.

2. Workbook P184 Q6 e

→ There will be two peaks in the mass spectrum.

3. State one way that the infrared spectrum of isomer 3 (CH3) 2CHCH=CH2 is different from the

infrared spectrum of iosmer 4 (CH3) 2C=CHCH3 .

→ The finerprint region / The region below 1500 cm-1 is different

4. Four compounds, all colourless liquids, are Butan-2-olButanalButanone2-methylpropan-2-ol

Two of these compounds can be identified using different test-tube reactions.

Describe these two test-tube reactions by giving reagents and observations in each case.

Suggest how the results of a spectroscopic technique could be used to distinguish between the other

two coumpounds

→ Add Tollen’s reagent to the four solutions. Butanal will have silver mirror formed.

Others have no change. So butanal is identified.

Then add acidified K2Cr2O7 to the other 3 solutions

Butan-2-ol will turns green form orange.. Other 2 has no change. So butan-2-ol is identified.

Then, Use IR spectroscopy to distinguish butanone and 2-methylpropan-2-ol.

For butanone, There is a peak in the range 1680-1750 cm-1 which is due to C=0 bond.

For 2-methylpropan-2-ol, There is a peak in the range 3230-3550 cm-1 which is due to O-H bond.

OR Use mass spectrometer

For butanone, There is a peak at m/z= 72. For 2-methylpropan-2-ol, There is a peak at m/z=74.

52
 慈母泪，有化学分析不了的高贵而深沉的爱存在其中

Reactions and mechanisms of Chapter 11-16

1. Combustion:

(complete)

(incomplete)

2. Free radical reaction:

1 Initiation: homolysis (均裂)：每个 atom 得到一个 electron

homolytic fission or one electron from the bonding pair goes to each atom

2 Propagation:

3 Termination:

3. Nucleophilic substitution:

1 with hydroxide ② with cyanide

③with ammonia

4. Elimination: (OH-act as a base)

53
5. Substitution or elimination?

Depends on two factors:

1 reaction condition (room T in aqueous solution→substitution; high T in ethanol→elimination )
2 types of halogenalkanes (primary→substitution, tertiary→elimination, secondary→both)

6. Electrophilic addition:

7. Epoxyethane with water

8. Elimination-Dehydration of alchohol (Al2O3)

54
Titration

1. Give the meaning of the term concordant titres

→Titres that are within 0.1 cm3 of each other

2. The student used a wash bottle containing deionised water when approaching the end-point to rinse the

inside of the conical flask.

Explain why this improved the accuracy of the titration

→Because some of the reactants would be on the sides of the flask. / To make sure all the reactants are in

the solution/mixture.

3. State why it is important to fill the space below the tap in the burette before beginning an accurate

titration

→Otherwise, the titre value would be too high./ Volume of NaOH added would be less than the recorded

volume.

4. State why the funnel used to fill the burette should be removed before starting the titration.

→ To prevent drops (of NaOH / solution) entering the burette/ Lower the value recorded.

5. The student rinsed the burette before filling it with the sodium hydroxide solution.

State why the student should use sodium hydroxide solution rather than water for the final rinse of

the burette.

→ Use of water would dilute the NaOH/ Use of water would change the concentration of NaOH/

To ensure the concentration of the NaOH is not changed

6. 配制溶液

Another student is required to make up 250 cm3 of an aqueous solution that contains a known mass of

MHCO3. The student is provided with a sample bottle containing the MHCO3

Describe the method, including apparatus and practical details, that the student should used to prepapre

the solution.

(1) Weigh the sample bottle containing the solid on a balance

(2) Transfer to beaker and reweigh sample bottle

(3) Record the difference in mass

(4) Add distilled water

(5) Stir untill all the solid has dissolved

(6) Transfer to 250 ml volumetric flask

55
(7) Wash the beaker 2-3 times with distilled water and transfer to volumetric flask

(8) Make up to 250 cm3 with distilled water

(9) Shake, invert to mix

7. The student identified use of the burette as the largest source of uncertainty in the experiment.Using the

same apparatus, suggest how the procedure could be improved to reduce the percentage uncertainty

in using the burette.

Justify your suggested improvement.MHCO3 +HCl → MCl + H2O + CO2

Suggestion: Use a larger mass of solid/ use a more concentrated solution of MHCO3 / Use less concentrated

solution of HCl

Justification: So a larger titre will be needed. / Larger volume of HCl

8. Uncentainty 注意是 Each 还是 overall

2017.05 P2 Q11 本土新考纲

补充：A2
9. Outline a simple experiment to demonstrate that magnesium oxide has ionic bonding.

Melt it, Molten MgO conducts electricity.

10. Some period 3 oxides have basic properties

State the type of bonding in these basic oxides.

Explain why this type of bonding causes these oxides to have basic properties.

Type of bonding : ionic bonding Explanation: It contains O2- ions

O2- accept protons to form OH-.

56
 CHEMISTRY WORDS -AS（I）
1 matter 物质
2 element 元素，单质
3 compound 化合物
4 fundamental particle 基本粒子
5 molecule 分子
6 atom 原子
7 ion 离子
8 proton 质子
9 neutron 中子
10 electron 电子
11 relative atomic mass 相对原子质量
12 relative charge 相对电荷
13 sub-atomic 亚原子
14 positive charge 正电荷
15 nucleus 原子核
16 nucleon number 核数
17 property 性质
18 opposite charge 相反的电荷
19 electronic arrangement 电子排布
20 electrostatic force 静电吸引力
21 repulsion 排斥（名词）
22 repel 排斥（动词）
23 overcome 克服
24 quantum shell 电子层
25 orbital 轨道
26 get further away from nuclues 远离原子核
27 assume 假设
28 milky / cloudy 浑浊
29 carbon dioxide 二氧化碳 CO2
30 soluble 可溶的
31 solubility 溶解度
32 insoluble 不可溶的
33 oxygen 氧气 O2
34 experiment 实验
35 atomic number 原子序号
36 isotope 同位素
37 neutral 中性的
38 electron configuration 电子结构
39 burn/combustion 燃烧
40 unstable 不稳定的
41 radioactivity 放射性
42 decay 衰变，衰退
43 half life （放射性）半衰期
44 atmosphere 大气层
45 accurate 精确的
46 hydrogen 氢
47 deuterium 氘
48 tritium 氚
49 instrument 仪器
50 the mass spectrometer 质谱
51 define/definition 定义
52 a whole number 整数
53 average mass 平均质量
54 relative molecular mass 相对分子质量
55 form 形成，生成
56 from 从……
57 sample 样本
58 ratio 比例
59 solvent 溶剂
60 evaporate 蒸发
61 vacuum 真空
62 voltage 电压
63 convert to 转换成…
64 accelerate 加速
65 collide 碰撞
66 the first ionisation energy 第一电离能
67 investigate 调查
68 dissolve 溶解…
69 volatile 挥发性的
70 hollow needle 空心针
71 droplet 液滴
72 a negatively charged plate 带负电荷的板
73 ion drift 离子偏转
74 kinetic energy 动能
75 test-tube 试管
76 velocity 速度
77 current 电流
78 generate 生成
79 characteristic 特有的，特征
80 peak height 峰高
81 relative abundance 相对含量
82 mass to charge ratio 质量与电荷的比值（质荷比）
83 decimal place 小数位
84 molecular ion 分子离子
85 high resolution mass spectrometry 高分辨质谱
86 rechargeable 可充电的
87 battery 电池
88 explosive 爆炸的
89 chemical bond 化学键
90 ionic bond 离子键
91 covalent bond 共价键
92 metallic bond 金属键
93 share electrons 共用电子
94 geometry 几何
95 crystal 晶体
96 charge cloud 电荷云
97 quantum theory 量子理论
98 electron shell 电子层
99 closest to the nucleus 靠近原子核
100 main energy level 主能级/电子层
101 divide into 把…分成
102 sub-shell 亚电子层
103 quantum mechanics 量子力学
104 Periodic Table 元素周期表
105 spin 自旋
106 repel 排斥
107 noble gas 惰性气体
108 inert 惰性的，不活泼的
109 first ionisation energy 第一电离能
110 cation 阳离子
111 anion 阴离子
112 gaseous 气体状态的
113 successsive ionisation energy 连续电离能
114 electron affinity 电子亲合能
115 shielding effect 屏蔽效应
116 relative atomic mass 相对原子质量
117 relative molecular mass 相对分子质量
118 relative isotopic mass 相对同位素质量
119 the Avogadro constant 阿伏伽德罗常数
120 mole 摩尔
121 tiny 微小的
122 isotope 同位素
123 optical microscope 光学显微镜
124 solution 溶液
125 solvent 溶剂
126 solute 溶质
127 dissolve 溶解
128 concentration 浓度
129 volume 体积
130 in a given volume of solution 已知溶液体积
131 general formula 通式
132 significant figure 有效数字
133 percentage error 百分误差
134 the ideal gas equation 理想气体状态方程
135 remain constant 保持常数/保持不变
136 be proportional to 与…成正比
137 obey 遵循
138 empirical formula 最简式
139 flame 火焰
140 molecular formula 分子式
141 organic compound 有机化合物
142 reactant 反应物
143 product 生成物
145 stoichiometry 化学计量学
146 amount 数量
147 solid 固体
148 liquid 液体
149 gas 气体
150 acid 酸
151 alkali 碱性的
152 base 碱
153 salt 盐
154 dilute 稀释的
155 concentrated 浓稠的
156 titration 滴定
157 indicator 指示剂
158 pipette 移液管
159 concial flask 锥形瓶
160 end point 终点
161 neutralisation 中和
162 experiment error 实验误差
163 the percentage atom economy 原子经济百分比
164 theoretical amount 理论值
165 household bleach 家用漂白剂
166 starting material 原始材料
167 toxic 有毒的
168 filter off 过滤出
169 pour…into… 把…倒入…
170 precipitate 沉淀
171 beaker 烧杯
172 laboratory 实验室
173 industry 工业
174 reversible 可逆的
175 decompose 分解
176 occupy 占据/占领
177 atomospheric pollution 大气污染
178 hydrated 含水的
179 deficiency 缺乏，不足
180 impure 不纯的
181 anhydrous 无水的
182 ionic bond 离子键
183 chemical bond 化学键
184 covalent bond 共价键
185 share electron 共用电子
186 metallic bond 金属键
187 non-metal 非金属
188 dot and cross diagram 点叉式
189 electrostatic attractive force 静电吸引力
190 oppositely charged ions 带相反电荷的离子
191 lattice 晶体，晶格
192 giant ionic structure 巨型离子结构
193 melt 熔化
194 boil 沸腾
195 break up 打破
196 conduct electricity 导电
197 molten 熔融的
198 delocalised electron 离域电子
199 cathode 阴极/正极
200 anode 阳极/负极
201 brittle 脆弱的
202 simple molecular structure 简单分子结构
203 co-ordinated bond 配位键
204 dative covalent bond 配位键
205 lone pairs 孤电子对
206 shared pairs 共用电子对
207 electron deficient 缺电子
208 donate 提供
209 accept electron 接收电子
210 symmetrical 对称的
211 shiny 有光泽的
212 merge 合并
213 associated with 与…相关
214 thermal conductivity 导热
215 vibration 振动
216 malleable 可塑的，有延展性的
217 ductile 柔软的，易延展的
218 particulate 微粒
219 compress 压缩
220 diffusion 扩散
221 expand 扩大，膨胀
222 enthalpy change 焓变
223 van der waals force 范德华力力
224 dipole-dipole force 极性作用力
225 hydrogen bond 氢键
226 macromolecular 巨型分子
227 embed 嵌入
228 sublime 升华
229 graphite 石墨
230 allotrope 同素异形体
231 tetrahedral 四面体
232 bond angle 键角
233 trigonal planar 平面三角形
234 layer 层
235 slide over 滑动，移动
236 flaky 片状的
237 nanotube 纳米管
238 buckminsterfullerene 富勒烯
239 alloy 合金
240 electronegative 电负性
241 graphene 石墨烯
242 electron pair repulsion theory 电子对互斥理论
243 linear 线性的，直线的
244 trigonal bipyramidal 三角双锥
245 octahedral 八面体
246 trigaonal pyramial 三角锥
247 non-linear 非线性的
248 square planar 平面正方形
249 bond polarity 键的极性
250 electron density 电子密度
251 non-polar 非极性的
252 polar 极性的
253 uniformly 均匀分布的
254 a temporary dipole 暂时的极性
255 induce 诱导
256 instantaneous dipole-induced dipole force 暂时性极性诱导作用力
257 freeze 冷冻
258 dense 稠密的
259 endothermic 吸热的
260 exothermic 放热的
261 take in energy 吸收能量
262 give out energy 释放能量
263 fuel 燃料
264 anhydrous 无水的
265 reverse reaction 可逆反应
266 coal 煤
267 surrounding 环境
268 state symbol 状态符号
269 enthalpy level diagram 焓能级图
270 calorimetry 量热学
271 standard enthalpy change of reaction 标准反应焓变
272 standard enthalpy change of formation 标准生成焓
273 standard enthalpy change of combustion 标准燃烧焓
274 standard enthalpy change of neutralisation 标准中和焓
275 standard enthalpy change of atomisation 标准原子化焓
276 specific heat capacity 比热容
277 flame calorimeter 火焰量热计
278 polystyrene beaker 聚苯乙烯烧杯
279 insulator 绝缘体
280 displacement reaction 取代反应
281 heat loss 热量损失
282 a cooling curve 冷却曲线
283 apparatus 仪器，设备
284 variation 变化
285 random error 随机误差
286 stir 搅拌
287 Hess law 盖斯定律
288 route 路径
289 thermochemical cycle 热化学循环
290 independent 独立的，与…无关
291 isomer 同分异构物
292 bond energy 键能
293 dissociation 分解，分裂
294 displayed formula 展开式
295 kinetic energy 动能
296 collision theory 碰撞理论
297 rate 速率
298 orientation 方向，定向
299 factor 因素
300 affect 影响
301 surface area 表面积
302 lump 块状
303 catalyst 催化剂
304 activation energy 活化能
305 proportion 比例
306 tansition state 过渡状态
307 activated complex 活化络合物
308 the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution 玻尔兹曼分布
309 intermediate 中间体
310 spontaneously 自发的
311 petrol 汽油
312 spark 火花
313 explosion 爆炸
314 shade 阴影
315 effective collision 有效碰撞
316 pathway 路径
317 route 路径
318 fertiliser 肥料
319 margarine 人工奶油
320 catalytic converter 催化转化器
321 exhaust system 尾气系统
322 ceramic material 陶瓷材料
323 adsorption 吸附
324 desorption 解吸
325 zeolite 沸石
326 ozone layer 臭氧层
327 alternative 另一个的
328 the position of equilibrium 平衡位置
329 reversible 可逆的
330 backward reaction 逆反应
331 forward reaction 正反应
332 dynamic equilibrium 动态平衡
333 closed system 封闭体系
334 component 组成成分
335 condensation 冷凝
336 evaporation 蒸发
337 shift to 移向….
338 disturb 打破，扰乱
339 plunger 活塞
340 composition 组成成分
341 equilibrium constant 平衡常数
342 homogeneous 同类的
343 flask 烧瓶
344 industrial process 工业过程
345 manufacture 生产，生成
346 sulfuric acid 硫酸H2SO4
347 ammonia 氨气NH3
348 compromise 折中方案
349 redox reaction 氧化还原反应
350 oxidation 氧化反应
351 reduction 还原反应
352 oxidising agent 氧化剂
353 reducing agent 还原剂
354 gain electron 得电子
355 loss electron 失电子
356 be oxidised 被氧化
357 be reduced 被还原
358 electron transfer 电子转移
359 half equation 半方程
360 spectator ion 旁观离子
361 donor 提供者
362 acceptor 接收者
363 oxidation state/number 化合价
364 alkaline 碱性的
365 disproportionation 歧化反应
366 periodicity 周期性
367 inorganic chemistry 无机化学
368 alkali metal 碱金属
369 alkaline earth metal 碱土金属
370 transition metals 过渡金属
371 halogen 卤素
372 noble gas 稀有气体
373 metalloid 类金属
374 semi-conductor 半导体
375 s-block S-封闭
376 partly filled 半满的
377 wavelength 波长
378 excited electron 激发状态电子
379 Group 族
380 period 周期
381 reactivity 活跃性
382 radioactive 放射性的
383 descend 下降，沿…向下
384 atomic radius 原子半径
385 conductivity 传导性/导电性
386 isolated 单独的
387 electron density 电子密度
388 extra 额外的
389 paired electron 成对电子
390 repulsion 排斥力
391 a sharp increase 急剧增加
392 deviate from 偏离…，脱离….
393 further away from 远离…
394 shileding effect 屏蔽效应
395 inner shell of electron 内层电子
396 lime kiln 石灰窑
397 limestone rock 石灰石
398 mortar 灰浆
399 acidic soil 酸性土壤
400 decompose 分解
401 slaked lime 熟石灰
402 neutralise 中和
403 indigestion remedy 消化不良的治疗
404 stomach acid 胃酸
405 steam 蒸汽
406 vigorous 剧烈的
407 solubility 溶解度
408 soluble 可溶解的
409 insoluble 不可溶解的
410 extract 提炼
411 aerospace industry 航空业
412 suspension 悬浮物
413 sparingly 微溶的
414 lime water 石灰水
415 barium meal 钡餐
416 X-rays X-射线
417 toxic 有毒的
418 flue gas desulfurisation 烟气脱硫
419 fossil fuel 化石燃料
420 observation 现象
421 poisonous 有毒的
422 halogen 卤素
423 rare 稀有的
424 radioactive 放射性的
425 appearance 外观
426 pale yellow 浅黄色
427 greenish 绿色的
428 get darker （颜色）变深
429 electronegativity 电负性
430 atrract electron 吸引电子
431 halide ion 卤素离子
432 volatile 挥发性的
433 oxidising ability 氧化能力
434 displacement reaction 取代反应
435 oxidising agent 氧化剂
436 sea water 海水
437 kelp 海藻
438 seaweed 海藻
439 residue 残留物/滤渣
440 concentrated sulfuric acid 浓硫酸
441 reducing agent 还原剂
442 steamy fume 冒烟
443 vaporise 蒸发
444 bad egg smell 臭鸡蛋气味
445 acid-base reaction 酸碱反应
446 precipitate 沉淀
447 impurity 杂质/不纯
448 dissolve 溶解
449 colourless 无色的
450 turn milky 变浑浊
451 indicator 指示剂
452 disproportionation 歧化反应
453 purify water 净化水
454 kill bacteria 杀死细菌
455 bleach 漂白剂
456 shallow 使…变浅
457 chlorination 氯化
458 corrode 腐蚀
459 ingredient 原料，组成要素
460 organic chemistry 有机化学
461 hydrocarbon 碳氢（化合物）
462 plastic 塑料
463 synthetically 合成地
464 molecular formula 分子式
465 empirical formula 最简氏
466 displayed formula 展开式
467 structural formula 结构式
468 skeletal formula 骨架式
469 straight chain 直链
470 unbranched 无支链的
471 three-demensional structural formula 3-D结构式
472 wedge 楔形
473 reaction mechanism 反应历程，反应原理
474 negatively charged 带负电荷的
475 arrow 箭头
476 free radical 自由基
477 branched chain 支链
478 nomenclature 术语，命名法
479 root 词根
480 alkane 烷烃
481 alkene 烯烃
482 halogenoalkane 卤代烃
483 alcohol 醇
484 aldehyde 醛
485 ketone 酮

486 carboxylic acid 羧酸

487 prefixes 前缀

488 suffixes 尾缀

489 side chain 支链

490 functional group 官能团
491 substitute 取代，代替
492 homologous series 同源系列
493 isomer 同分异构物

494 isomerism 同分异构

495 structural isomerism 结构异构

496 stereoisomerism 立体异构

497 positional isomerism 位置异构

498 functional group isomerism 官能团异构

499 chain isomerism 链异构

500 optical isomerism 光学异构

501 geometric isomerism 几何异构

502 substituent 取代基

503 rotate 旋转

504 rotation 旋转
505 saturated hydrocarbon 饱和碳氢化合物
506 crude oil 原油
507 ring alkane 环烷烃
508 a plentiful supply of oxygen 足量的氧气
509 a restricted supply of oxygen 有限（不足）氧气
510 non-renewable 非再生的
511 naphtha 石油脑
512 kerosene 煤油
513 acid rain 酸雨
514 fractional distillation 分馏
515 fractionating tower 分馏塔
516 tray 隔板
517 condense 冷凝
518 bitumen 沥青
519 lubricating oil 润滑油
520 thermal cracking 热裂解
521 catalyst cracking 催化裂解
522 polythene 聚乙烯
523 intermediate 中间体
524 zeolite 沸石
525 aluminosilicate 铝硅酸盐
526 aromatic compound 芳香化合物
527 decolourise 褪色
528 incomplete combustion 不完全燃烧
529 flame 火焰
530 spark 火花，火星
531 ignite 点燃
532 photochemical smog 光化学烟雾
533 greenhouse gas 温室气体
534 coal 煤
535 catalytic converter 催化转化器
536 internal combustion engine 内燃机
537 exhaust system 尾气系统
538 unburnt 未燃烧的
539 coat 覆盖…的表面
540 ultraviolet light 紫外线
541 free radical substitution 自由基取代
542 chain reaction 链反应
543 initiation step 起始步骤
544 propagation step 繁殖步骤
545 termination step 终止步骤
546 homolytic fission 均裂
547 destroy the ozone layer 破坏臭氧层
548 dry-cleaning fluid 干洗剂
549 nucleophile 亲核试剂
550 electrophile 亲电试剂
551 electron donor 电子提供者
552 eletcron acceptor 电子接收者
553 shared electrons 共用电子
554 nucleophilic substitution 亲核取代
555 attacking group 进攻基团
556 leaving group 离去基团
557 hydrolysis 水解反应
558 elimination 消除反应
559 potassium dichromate K2Cr2O7
560 aerosol propellant 气溶胶喷射剂
561 refrigerant 制冷剂
562 unsaturated 不饱和的
563 planar 平面的
564 overlap 重叠
565 restricted rotation 阻碍旋转
566 electron-rich 富电子的
567 electrophilic addition 亲电加成反应
568 carbocation 碳正离子
569 electrophile 亲电试剂
570 electron pair acceptor 电子对接收者
571 heterolytically 异裂地
572 asymmetrical 不对称的
573 positive inductive effect 正诱导效应
574 stabilise 稳定，安定
575 primary carbocation 一级碳正离子
576 secondary carbocation 二级碳正离子
577 tertiary carbocation 三级碳正离子
578 instantaneous dipole 瞬时偶极
579 monomer 单体
580 polymer 聚合物
581 starch 淀粉
582 protein 蛋白质
583 addition polymer 聚合加成
584 alkyl group 烷基基团
585 aryl group 芳香基
586 styrene 苯乙烯
587 biodegradability 生物降解
588 enzyme 酶
589 waste disposal 废物处理
590 flexible 柔韧的，易弯曲的
591 stretch 可伸缩的
592 rigid 刚性的
593 mechanical recycling 机械回收
594 remould 重新塑造
595 feedstock recycling 原料回收
596 thermoplastic polymer 热塑性聚合物
597 expoxyethane 环氧乙烷
598 hazardous 有害的，有危险的
599 antifreeze 防冻剂
600 ethanolamine 乙醇胺
601 detergent 清洁剂
602 alcohol 醇
603 additive 添加剂
604 hydroxy group 羟基
605 glycerol 甘油，丙三醇
606 methylated spirit 甲基化酒精
607 dehydration 脱水反应
608 ceramic fibre 陶瓷纤维
 609 soak 浸渍，浸泡
610 further oxidise 进一步氧化
611 pleasant smell 令人愉快的气味
612 anti-bumping granule 防爆沸颗粒
613 distill off 蒸馏出
614 reflux 回流
615 condense 冷凝
616 drip back into 滴回
617 carbonyl group 羰基
618 Tollens' reagent 托伦试剂
619 deposit 沉降，沉淀物
620 Fehling's reagent 斐林试剂
621 brick-red precipitate 砖红色沉淀
622 ionise 离子化
623 fragment 碎片
624 molecular ion 分子离子
625 fragmentation 破碎，分裂
626 mass spectrum 质谱
627 fingerprint region 指纹区
628 Gas Chromatography 气相色谱
629 infrared spectroscopy 红外光谱法
630 radiation 辐射，发光
631 transmittance 透射比
632 broad peak 宽峰

Definition
Chapter 1- Atomic structure
1. isotope: Atoms which have the same number of protons but different number of
neutrons.
2. proton number: The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
3. nucleon number / mass number: The number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of
an atom.
4. First ionisation energy: is the energy needed to remove one mole of electrons from one
mole of gaseous atom to form one mole of 1+ ions.
5. Second ionization energy: is the energy needed to remove one mole of electrons from
one mole of gaseous 1+ ions to form one mole of 2+ ions.
Chapter 2- Amount of substance
12
6. Relative atomic mass: is the average mass of an atom of an element compared to C
which has a mass of exactly 12.
12
7. Relative molecular mass: is the mass of a molecule compared with C which has a mass
of exactly 12.
23
8. mole: One mole is 6.02 * 10 particles.
9. empirical formula: is the simplest whole number ratio of the elements present in a
molecule.
10. Molecular formula: shows the total number of atoms in a molecule.
Chapter 3 --- Bonding
 Section 1 Physical chemsitry C1-C7
1. isotope
2. proton number, Mass/nucleon number
3. First/second ionisation energy
4. Explain why isotopes of the same element have the same chemical properties
5. Explain why the ionisation energy of every element is endothermic.
6. Explain why the second ionisation energy is bigger than first ionisation energy
7. Explain why the atomic radius decreases across a period./Explain why there is a general increase in
ionisation energy across a period.
8. Suggest why the electronegativity of the elements increases across a period.
9. Explain why the first ionisation energies decrease down the group./Explain why the atomic radius
increases down the group.
10. Suggest why the electronegativity of the elements decreases down the group
11. Explain why the first ionisation energy of Al is less than that of Mg
12. Explain why the first ionisation energy of S is less than that of P
13. Explain why the second ionisation energy of Sodium is higher than that of magnesium.
14. Give one reason why the second ionisation energy of silicon is lower than the second ionisation
energy of aluminium
15. Explain why the instrument of Mass spectrometer TOF is kept under vacuum.
16. Explain how positive ions are formed from the sample
17. Explain how the ions are accelerated and separated by mass in the instrument.
18. Describe how the ions are detected./Explain how an electric current is produced when an ion arrives
at the
detector/Explain how the abundance of each isotope is determined in a TOF mass spectrometer.
19. A TOF mass spectrometer can be used to determine the relative molecular mass of molecular
substances.
Explain why it is necessary to ionise molecules when measuring their mass in a TOF mass
spectrometer.
20. State the property of these ions 14N+ and 15N+ ions that causes them to follow different paths.
State one change in the operation of the mass spectrometer that will change the path of an ion.
21. Two peaks were observed at m / z = 104 and 118.
Outline how the TOF mass spectrometer is able to separate these two species to give two peaks.
22. Explain why the relative atomic mass calculated is different from the value in the periodic table？
23. One isotope of K has mass number 40, One isotope of Ar is 39, explain why the position of K is after
Ar in periodic table.
24. State how many times heavier a proton is than an electron.
25. State the maximum number of electrons in one orbital
26. Mole/empirical formula/molecular formula
27. relative atomic mass/relative molecular mass
28. ionic bond/covalent bond/Coordinate/dative bond/Metallic bond
29. Electronegativity/Polarity
30. Explain how the electron pair repulsion theory can be used to deduce the shape of, and the angle in
PF3.
31. Explain why the AsCl4+ ion has a bond angle of 109.5°.
32. explain how the lone pairs of electrons on the oxygen atom influence the bond angle in t he OF2
33. Explain, using ammonia as the example, the meaning of the term bond polarity./Explain why the
ammonia molecule is polar/Explain thy the H-F bond is polar./Explain why CCl4 is non-polar

57
34. State which of the mlecules NH3 . H2O , or HF contains the least polar bond. Explain why the bond in
your chosen molecule is less polar than the bonds found in the other two molecules.
35. Although PH3 molecules contain hydrogen atoms, there is no hydrogen bonding between PH3
molecules. Suggest an explanation for this.
36. Explain why PH3 is insoluble in water
37. Deduce why the bonding in nitrogen oxide is covalent rather than ionic
38. How van der waals’ forces exist between all molecules
39. Explain how permanent dipole- dipole forces arise between hydrogen chloride molecules.
40. Explain how permanent dipole- dipole forces arise between hydrogen chloride molecules.
41. Explain why iodine has a higher melting point than fluorine./Chlorine Cl2 is a gas at room temperature
whereas bromine Br2 is a liquid under the same conditions. Explain these observations.
42. Explain why the melting point of sulfur is higher than the melting point of phosphorus/Explain why the
boiling points increase from H2S to H2Te.
43. Explain why the melting and boiling points of water are much higher than those of H2S./ 比 较

CH3CH2SH CH3CH2SeH CH3CH2OH boiling point 的差别

44. 比较 F2 CH3F 的 boiling point/Explain why the boiling point of I2 is higher than that of HBr.
45. Explain why the melting point of silicon/ carbon is very high.
46. Describe the structure of and bonding in graphite and explain why the melting point of graphite is
very high.
47. How is the structure of graphite related to its properties?
48. What’s the different of metal and graphite in electricity of conductor?
49. Explain why graiphite can be used as a lubricant
50. Why do metals conduct electricity./为什么 Si 不导电

51. Suggest why the melting point of sodium iodide is lower than the melting point of sodium bromide./为

什么 the melting point of NaCl is lower than MgO

52. Explain why the melting point of aluminium is higher than the melting point of sodium.
53. Explain why the melting point of magnesium is higher than the melting point of calcium.
54. Explain why metal can be hammered into different shapes（Why is metal malleable and ductile）,

and why they have similar strength. 为什么不同形状的金属的强度是一样的。Draw a diagram to show

how the particles arearranged in aluminium
55. Enthalpy change (△H)/Hess law:
56. Enthalpy change of formation (△HfΘ)/Enthalpy change of combustion (△HcΘ):
[Standard condition Θ:
57. Bond enthalpy/Mean bond enthalpy
58. Suggest why the value for the standard enthalpy of formation of liquid antimony, given in the table
above, is not zero.
59. State why the standard enthalpy of formation of CO2 (g) is the same as the value for the standard
enthalpy of combustion of carbon
60. Explain why it is improtant that the reaction mixture is stirred before recording each temperature
61. Explain why it is impossible to measure the enthalpy change of C(g) + 1/2O2(g)→ CO(g)
62. Give two reasons why the experimental values obtained by the student are less exothermic than the

58
 calculated values that were obtained using enthalpy of formation data. P166
63. Suggest one improvement that would reduce errors due to heat loss in the student’s experiment.
64. The student said correctly that using a thermometer with an overall uncertainty for the rise in
temperature of +-0.5 was adequate for this experiment.
Explain why this thermometer was adequate for this experiment. P183
65. Suggest one possible risk to a person who uses a hand-warmer containing sodium hydroxide and
hydrochloric acid.
66. activation energy/catalyst/rate of reaction:
67. State why the curve starts at the origin. (Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution)
68. Explain why T 增加, rate of reaction 增加/Explain why a small increase/decrease in temperature can
lead a large increase in the rate of reaction
69. Explain why con./p 增加, rate of reaction 增加.
70. Explain why surface area increase, rate of reaction increase.
71. How does catalyst work?
72. how to determine the initial rate of a reaction?
73. Le Chatelier’s principle/Dynamic equilibrium/Dynamic:
74. Haber Process N2 +3H2 → 2NH3 ΔH<0 Condition : T: 450℃ P:200 atm, Catalyst: Fe
解释为什么要选择这样的 450 度的温度。
75.Explain why a catalyst has no effect on the position of an equilibrium.
76. State why industry uses a pressure lower than 35 Mpa.Do not include references to safety.
77. Why we can calculate Kc even though we do not know the volume as for the reaction I2+H2=2HI
78. Oxidising agent/reducing agent
79. Cl2 + 2 KBr → Br2 + 2KCl Explain, with reference to the oxidation states, why this is a redox
reaction.

Section 2 Inorganic chemsitry C8-C10

80. Explain why the atomic radii of the element decrease across a period?
81. State how the element sulfur deviates from the general trend in first ionisation energies.

82. Which element has the highest second ionization energy in period 2? (类推 higherst third ionisation

energy)
83. State the trend in electronegativity of the elements down Group. Explain this trend.
84. Explain why magnesium has a higher melting point than sodium?
85. Why the Tm of sulfur (S8) is greater than that of phosphorus (P4)?

86. 第三周期：熔点最高的是：__________, Explain?

87. State how the melting point of phosphorus(V) oxide compares with that of silicon dioxide. Explain
your answer in terms of the structure of, and the bonding in, phosphorus(V) oxide and silicon dioxide?
88. State and explain the trend in melting point of the Group 2 elements Ca to Ba
89. State the trend in solubility of the hydroxides and of the sulfates of the Group 2 elements Mg to Ba.
90. State the trend in the reactivity of the Group 2 elements Mg to Ba with water. White equations to show

59
the reactionof barium with an excess of water.
91. Write the equation of Mg reacts with water and steam individually.
92. State a use of magnesium hydroxide in medicine/State a use of calcium hydroxide in agriculture.
93. State how barium sulfate is used in medicine/Explain why this use is possible, given that solutions
containing barium ions are poisonous.
94.
equation observation
Cl2 +
NaBr
Cl2 + NaI
Br2 + KI
Br2 + KCl
I2 + KCl
I2 + KBr
95.
Equation observation
NaCl
(1)
NaBr
(2)
(1)
(2)
NaI
(3)
(4)

96. 如何 test the presence of SO42-/Ba2+/OH-/Mg2+/CO32-/NH4+?

97. Test Cl-, Br-, I- (2 methods)

98. State the trend in the boiling points of the halogens from fluorine to iodine and explain this trend
99. Explain why chlorine are stronger oxidising agents than bromine./ Explain why iodide ions are
stronger reducing agents than chloride ions./How does the reducing power of fluoride ion compare with
the other halide ions? Explain your answer.
100. The presence of halide ions in solution can be detected by adding silver nitrate solution and
dilute nitric acid. State the purpose of the nitric acid in this test. / State why the silver nitrate is acidified
when testing for iodide ions
101. Give two uses of HClO/NaClO solution.
102. Give one reason why water is treated with chlorine.
103. Explain why the toxicity of chlorine does not prevent this use.(why chlorine is used for the
treatment of drinking water even though the gas is very toxic.
104. Confirm the solution only contain Br- but no I-

60
 Section 3 Organic chemsitry C11-C16
105. Hydrocarbons:
106. Saturated hydrocarbon:
107. Unsaturated hydrocarbon:
108. Functional group:
109. Homologous series:
110. Characteristics of a homologous series:
111. Structural isomerism/Stereisomerism
112. Nucleophile/Electrophile:
113. Substitution/Addition/Elimination:
114. Hydrolysis/Hydration/Dehydration
115. Free radical
116. Cracking/Reason for cracking:
117. Carbon neutral
118. Monomer/Polymer/Addition polymerisation:
119. Molecular ion
120. Hazard of pollutant gas: CO/Nitrogen oxides NO NO2/SO2/Carbon particles/Unburnt
hydrocarbons/CO2
121. How a covalent bond breaks in free radical substitution reaction
122. Name the process used to obtain hexane from the raw material(crude oil)
123. State why high temperatures are necessary for cracking reactions to occur.
124. Explain the main economic reason why alkanes are cracked. / Give one reason why thermal
cracking reactions are carried out in industry.
125. oxides of nitrogen 怎么产生的？
126. How to remove SO2? Why? Relevant equation?
127. How to remove NO in catalytic converter? Catalyst ?
128. Explain the origin of the stereoisomerism shown./Why it has no E-Z/geometrical isomerism
129. Explain why it is Z isomer
130. 为什么 CO2 will cause global warming?
131. Explain why the boiling point of X (with side chain) is lower than that of its straight-chain
isomer.
132. Explain why the boiling point of C8H18 is higher than that of C4H10.
133. Alcohols/ Carboxylic acid have higher m.p./ b.p. than alkanes of similar Mr. WHY?
134. Identify the feature of the double bond in the E and Z isomers that causes them to be
stereoisomers.
135. .Explain why bromine molecules react with the double bonds in alkenes./Observation of
Alkenes + Br2
136. Explain why propane and propene have similar boiling point?
61
 137. Explain why this compound is the major product.
138. Explain the polymer in unreactive
139. State one physical property and one chemical property of the polymer, poly(propene), that
differs from the properties of the monomer, propene.
140. Poly(chloroethene), PVC, is an important addition polymer that has many uses.Name the
type of substance added to PVC to make it more flexible. /Explain how this type of substance makes
PVC more flexible.
141. Write an equation for the reaction of ethene is oxidised to epoxyethane./Name the catalyst
used /Identify the hazards associated with the process
142. Explain, by reference to its structure, why epoxyethane is a reactive molecule.
143. Addition of epoxyethane with H2O/NH3
144. Use of Ethane-1,2-diol
145. Alcohols have higher m.p./ b.p. than alkanes of similar Mr. WHY?
146. Alcohols are soluble in water, why?
147. Longer chain alcohols are insoluble in water.
148. Write a half equation for the overall oxidation of ethanol into ethanoic acid.
149. Ethanol can be oxidesed by acidified potassium dichromate (VI )to ethanoic acid in a
two-step process. Ethanol → ethanal → ethanoic acid. Describe what happens when a reaction
mixture is refluxed and why it is necessary, in this case, for complete oxidation to ethanoic acid
150. Explain how heating under reflux ensures the complete oxidation of fbutan-1-ol to butanoic
acid
151. Octane and isooctane can be separated in the laboratory. Name a laboratory technique that
could be used to separate isooctane from a mixture of octane and isooctane. Outline how this technique
separates isooctane from octane.
151. The use of anti-bumping granules in the flask in the experiment of distillation
152. Give one reason why bonds in molecules such as carbon dioxide and 1.1.1-trifluoroethane absorb
infrared radiation.

153. Infrared spectrum 回答模板

154. tate one way that the infrared spectrum of isomer 3 (CH3) 2CHCH=CH2 is different from the infrared
spectrum of iosmer 4 (CH3) 2C=CHCH3 .
155. Four compounds, all colourless liquids, are Butan-2-olButanalButanone2-methylpropan-2-ol
Two of these compounds can be identified using different test-tube reactions.
Describe these two test-tube reactions by giving reagents and observations in each case.
156. Suggest how the results of a spectroscopic technique could be used to distinguish between the

62
other two compounds
Give the meaning of the term concordant titres
157. The student used a wash bottle containing deionised water when approaching the end-point to
rinse the inside of the conical flask.Explain why this improved the accuracy of the titration
158. State why it is important to fill the space below the tap in the burette before beginning an accurate
titration
159. State why the funnel used to fill the burette should be removed before starting the titration.
160. The student rinsed the burette before filling it with the sodium hydroxide solution.
State why the student should use sodium hydroxide solution rather than water for the final rinse of
the burette.
161. Another student is required to make up 250 cm3 of an aqueous solution that contains a known mass
of MHCO3. The student is provided with a sample bottle containing the MHCO3
Describe the method, including apparatus and practical details, that the student should used to prepare
the solution.
162. Name and outline the mechanism (condition reagents)
Free radical substitution
Nucleophilic substitution
Elimination (halogenalkane and alcohol)
Electrophilic addition
Epoxyethane with water
Addition polymerisation
cracking

63
64
 Chemistry Data Sheet

Table A Table B Table C

Infrared absorption data 1H NMR chemical shift data 13C NMR chemical shift data

Bond Wavenumber Type of proton δ/ppm Type of carbon δ/ppm

/cm–1
ROH 0.5 – 5.0
N H 3300 – 3500 C C 5 – 40
(amines) RCH3 0.7 – 1.2
RNH2 1.0 – 4.5
O H 3230 – 3550 R C Cl or Br 10 – 70
(alcohols) R2CH2 1.2 – 1.4
C H 2850 – 3300 R3CH 1.4 – 1.6
R C C 20 – 50
O H 2500 – 3000 R C C 2.1– 2.6
(acids) O
O H
C N 2220 – 2260
R O C 3.1 – 3.9 R C N 25 – 60
C O 1680 – 1750
C C 1620 – 1680 H alcohols,
RCH2Cl or Br 3.1 – 4.2 C O ethers or 50 – 90
C O 1000 – 1300
esters
C C 750 – 1100
R C O C 3.7 – 4.1
C C 90 – 150
O H
R H R C N 110 – 125
C C 4.5 – 6.0
110 – 160
O
R C 9.0 – 10.0 R C esters or 160 – 185
H acids
O
O
R C aldehydes 190 – 220
R C 10.0 – 12.0 or ketones
O H O
Insert to IntSernational ASSS andSS SA-level Chemistry/9620/EEE1