UNITY UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING

Chapter III .Traffic Volume and Loading for

Pavement Design

Highway Engineering II

Belachew G.
 3.1. Introduction
 Traffic loading is the most important factor in pavement analysis and
design
 Among the most important traffic loading factors to be included in
the structural design of pavement design are:
 loading magnitude
 loading configuration
 number of repetitions
 There are three different procedures for considering vehicular and
traffic effects in pavement design:
 fixed traffic – convert wheel confg. --- ESWL
 fixed vehicle
 variable traffic and vehicle
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 3.1.1. Fixed Traffic
 Design thickness of pavements is determined by single wheel load

magnitude independent of load repetitions

 any wheel configurations are converted to equivalent single wheel load

(ESWL)

 design is performed based on the largest equivalent single wheel load

within all configurations

 commonly used for airport and heavy-wheel load, but for light traffic

volume highways not commonly used today

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 3.1.2. Fixed Vehicle
 Design thickness of pavement is determined by the number of

repetitions of a standard single axle load (80 KN)

 any axle configuration is converted to equivalent single axle load

(80 KN) by multiplying EALF

 design is performed based on combined effects of all types of axle

loads in terms of equivalent single axle loads (ESAL)

 because of the great variety of axle loads and traffic, it is the most

commonly used method for design today

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 3.1.3. Variable Traffic and Vehicle
 Design is performed based on individual effect of each traffic and

vehicle

 most commonly used in the mechanistic design approach

 no need to convert to equivalent axle load

 it has been used by the Portland cement association with design

charts.

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 3.2. Equivalent axle load factor-EALF
 EALF is defined as the damage per pass to a pavement by the axle in

question relative to the damage per pass of a pavement by standard

axle load, usually (80KN or 18 kip) single axle load

 The number of repetitions under each single or multiple axle load

must be multiplied by its EALF to obtain the equivalent effect based

on an 80kN single axle load

 A summation of the equivalent effects of all axle loads during the

design period results in an equivalent single axle load (ESAL)

 ESAL is the design parameter to be used in pavement thickness design

 3.2. Equivalent axle load factor-EALF
 The EALF depends on:
 Type of pavement,
 Thickness or structural capacity
 Terminal condition at which the pavement is considered failed,
 Failure criterion
 The condition of the deterioration of pavement at the time of
evaluation, etc.
 The most widely used method for determining EALF is based on
empirical equations developed from the AASHO road test
(AASHTO 1972).
 EALF can also be determined theoretically based on the critical
stresses and strains in the pavement and the failure criteria.

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 3.2.1. EALF for Flexible Pavement
i. AASHTO Equivalency Factors
 The following regression equation is one of the most widely used
methods for determining EALF obtained from the AASHTO Road Test:

Where, Wtx = the number of x-axle load application at the end of time t,
Wt18 = the number of 18kip (80KN) single axle load application to time t,
Lx = the load in kip on one single axle, one set of tandem axles, or one set of tridem
axles,
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 3.2.1. EALF for Flexible Pavement
L2 is the axle code: = 1 for single axles, 2 for tandem axles, and 3 for tri
dem axles,
SN = structural number - a function of thickness, modulus of each layer, and
drainage condition of base and sub base
pt= terminal serviceability – which indicates the pavement conditions to be
considered as failures,
β18= the value of βx when Lx = 18 and L2=1

and

 Practically, EALF is not very sensitive to pavement thickness and

SN equal to 5 may be used for most cases and a pt value of 2 or 2.5
can be used.
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 3.2.1. EALF for Flexible Pavement
ii. Fourth power Rule: The EALF can be approximated by what is
known as the fourth power rule as:
 For single axle load

 For tandem and tridem axles

Where, Ls is the load on standard axles which have the same

number of axles as Lx
L80 – the standard axle load in KN.

 If the EALF for one set of tandem or tridem axles is known, that
for other axles can be determined by the above equation.
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 3.2.1. EALF for Flexible Pavement
 The relationship between a vehicle’s EF and its axle loading is
normally considered in terms of the axle mass measured in
kilograms. The relationship takes the form:

where:
Axlei= mass of axle i
n = a power factor that varies depending on the pavement
construction type and subgrade but which can be assumed
to have a value of 4.5 and the standard axle load is taken as
8 160kg with the summation taken over the number of
axles on the vehicle in question.
 3.2.2. EALFs for Rigid Pavements
 AASHTO Equivalency Factors
 The AASHTO equations for determining the EALF of rigid
pavements are:

 Where Wtx, Wt18, Lx, L2, pt, and β18, are as defined for flexible
pavements and D is the slab thickness in inches.
 Value of pt = 2.5 and D = 9 inches can be used for unknown cases.

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 3.3. Traffic Analysis
 The deterioration of paved roads by traffic results both from

 Magnitude of Load
Computing ESAL using EALF
 Repetition of Load

 Hence, to design a paved highway, it is necessary to consider the traffic

volume or the total number of vehicles that will use the road

 The following Parameters and Considerations/Steps are involved in

Traffic Analysis for pavement design

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 3.3.1. Design Period
 It is the length or duration of time during which the pavement
structure is expected to function satisfactorily without the need
for major intervention (rehabilitation such as overlays or
reconstruction) OR
 It is the duration in time until the pavement structure reaches its
terminal condition (failure condition).
 Selecting appropriate design period depends on
 Functional importance of the road
 Traffic volume
 Location and terrain of the project
 Financial constraints
 Difficulty in forecasting traffic

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 3.3.1. Design Period
 Longer Design Period for –
 important roads,
 high traffic volume,
 roads in difficult location and
 terrain where regular maintenance is costly and
 difficult due to access problems or lack of construction material
 Short Design Period – if there is problem in traffic forecasting,
financial constraints, etc.

Table: Recommended design Period (ERA, 2013)

Road classification Design period (year)
Trunck road 20
Link road 20
Main access road 15

15 Other roads 10
 3.3.2. Vehicle classification
 Small axle loads from private cars and other light vehicles do not cause
significant pavement damage.
 High damage is caused by heavier vehicles (commercial vehicles)
 Hence, important to distinguish the proportion of vehicles which cause
pavement damage (commercial vehicles) from total traffic
 To do this, we need to have a vehicle classification system –
 To distinguish between commercial vehicles and small cars, distinguish
between the different types of commercial vehicles and group them
according to their type, size (loading), configuration, etc.
 ERA vehicle classification system

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Table : Vehicle Classification [ERA, 2013]

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 3.3.3. Traffic Count
 Traffic Count necessary
 To assess the traffic-carrying capacity of different types of roads
 Examine the distribution of traffic between the available traffic lanes
 In the preparation of maintenance schedules for in-service roads
 In the forecasting of expected traffic on a proposed new road from traffic
studies on the surrounding road system
 Traffic volume data may vary daily, weekly, seasonally.
 Hence to avoid error in traffic analysis and to capture the average
yearly trend, minimum 7 days count recommended

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 3.3.4. Traffic Forecast

 Determining traffic growth rate over the design period

 Very uncertain process

 Requires making analysis and forecast of past and future traffic growth

trends, social and economic development trends, etc

 In forecasting, traffic categorized into the following:

A. Normal traffic

B. Diverted traffic and

C. Generated traffic

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 A. Normal Traffic
 Traffic that would pass along the existing road or track even if no new

or improved pavement were provided.

 Forecasted by extrapolating data on traffic levels and assume that

growth will remain either

 Constant in absolute terms i.e. a fixed number of vehicles per year, or

 Constant in relative terms i.e. a fixed percentage increase.

 Growth rate can also be related linearly to anticipated Gross Domestic

Product (GDP).

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 B. Diverted Traffic

 Traffic that changes from another route (or mode of transport) to

the project road because of the improved pavement, but still travels
between the same origin and destination.
 Origin and destination surveys (O/D survey) should preferably be

carried out to provide data on the traffic diversions likely to arise.

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 C. Generated Traffic
 Additional traffic which occurs in response to the provision or
improvement of the road.
 It may arise either because
 a journey becomes more attractive by virtue of a cost or time
reduction or
 because of the increased development that is brought about by the
road investment.
 Generated traffic is also difficult to forecast accurately and can be
easily overestimated.
 From thorough analysis of economic, social and development
trends,
 determine overall growth rate r for all vehicle categories or separate
growth rate ri for each vehicle category.
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 3.3.5. Axle Load Survey
 Carried out together with the traffic count

 Portable vehicle(wheel) weighing devices or weigh in motion (WIM) devices can

be used for survey

 Each axle of the vehicle is weighed and EALF computed for each axle

 Each axle of a tandem axle or tridem axle assembly is considered as one repetition

and EALF calculated for each axle i.e. a tandem axle constitutes 2 load repetitions
and a tridem axle constitutes 3 load repetitions. (according to ERA Pavement
design manual)

 AASHTO pavement design procedure considers each passage of a tandem or

tridem axle assembly as one repetition and EALF calculated correspondingly.

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 3.3.6. Design Traffic Loading
The data and parameters obtained from the studies discussed in the
preceding sections can now be used to estimate the design cumulative
design traffic volume and loading.
i. Adjustment for Lane and Directional Distribution of Traffic – the
AADT should be adjusted as follows
 Lane Distribution Factor (P):
 accounts for the proportion of commercial vehicles in the design lane.

 For two lane highways, the lane in each direction is the design lane, so the
lane distribution factor is 100%.
 For multilane highways, the design lane is the heavily loaded lane (outside
lane).
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 3.3.6. Design Traffic Loading
Table : Lane Distribution Factors (ERA/AASHTO)

Number of Lanes in each Percent Traffic (ESAL) in

direction design lane
1 100
2 80-100
3 60-80
4 50-75

 Directional Distribution Factor (D):

 factor that accounts for any directional variation in total traffic
volume or loading pattern
 It is usually 0.5 (50%).
 However, could be adjusted
 based on actual condition (if there is directional tendency to
commercial vehicle distribution (volume or loading);
 for example if the heavy vehicles in one direction are loaded and
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come back empty in the other direction).
 3.3.6. Design Traffic Loading
ii. Calculating (AADT)1
 AADT1 = Annual Average Daily Traffic (both directions) at year of

Road Opening (year at which construction works are completed and

the whole road is made open for traffic).

 If time between traffic count year (design time) and estimated year

of road opening = x, then

AADT1 = AADT0 (1+r)x

 Note that AADT1 is used as the Design Traffic Parameter for Gravel

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Roads (LVR Design Manual)
 3.3.6. Design Traffic Loading
iii. Cumulative Traffic Volume (T) – can be computed for all
traffic (T) or for each vehicle class (Ti)

Ti = 365 (P) (D) AADT1i [(1+ri)N – 1] / ( ri )

 Ti = cumulative volume of traffic for the ith commercial vehicle

class in the design lane

 ri = annual growth rate for the ith commercial vehicle class

 P = Lane distribution factor; D = Directional distribution factor

 N = Design Period in years

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 3.3.6. Design Traffic Loading
iv. Design Traffic (Cumulative Equivalent Standard Axle Load -
CESAL) – is computed by multiplying the total traffic volume for
each vehicle category (Ti) by its corresponding Equivalence factor
(EFi)

Design Traffic Load = CESAL=Σ(Ti x EFi)

(ESA=Σ(Ti*EALFi))

v. The CESAL is used to determine the traffic class to be employed

for pavement design.

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Table: Traffic Classes for Flexible pavement Design
 Design Example
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 Initial traffic volumes in terms of AADTs have been

established for 2007 for a section of a trunk road under study,
as follows:
Vehicle classification 2007 AADT
Car 250
Bus 40
Truck 130
Truck-trailer 180
 The anticipated traffic growth is a constant 5%, and the
opening of the road is scheduled after 3 year. In addition, an
axle load survey has been conducted, giving representative
axle loads for the various classes of heavy vehicles, such as
given below for truck-trailers (it is assumed that the loads are
equally representative for each direction of traffic):
 Design Example
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Axle loads (Kg)

Vehicle No Axle 1 Axle 2 Axle 3 Axle 4

1 6780 14150 8290 8370

2 6260 12920 8090 9940
3 6350 13000 8490 9340
4 5480 12480 7940 9470
5 6450 8880 6290 10160
6 5550 12240 8550 10150
7 5500 11820 7640 9420
8 4570 13930 2720 2410
9 4190 15300 3110 2450
10 4940 15060 2880 2800
 Design Example
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 The projected AADTs after 3 year can be calculated as

(AADTs in 2007) x (1.05)3, and the corresponding one-
directional volumes for each class of vehicle after 3 years
are:
Vehicle classification One-directional traffic volume after 3 year
Car 145
Bus 23
Truck 75
Truck-trailer 104
 Design Example
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 Selecting, for this trunk road, a design period of 20 years,

the cumulative number of vehicles in one direction over the
design period is calculated as:
Vehicle classification Cumulative no. of vehicles in one direction
over 20 years
Car 365x145[(1.05)20-1]/0.05=1750016
Bus 365x23[(1.05)20-1]/0.05=277589
Truck 365x75[(1.05)20-1]/0.05=905180
Truck-trailer 365x104[(1.05)20-1]/0.05=1255184
 Design Example
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 Equivalency factors for the sample of truck-trailers, and a mean equivalency

factor for that class of heavy vehicles, can be calculated as outlined below:

Axle 1 Axle 2 Axle 3 Axle 4 Total

Load Factor Load Factor Load Factor Load Factor Factor
1 6780 0.43 14150 11.91 8290 1.07 8370 1.12 14.54
2 6260 0.30 12920 7.91 8090 0.96 9940 2.43 11.60
3 6350 0.32 13000 8.13 8490 1.20 9340 1.84 11.49
4 5480 0.17 12480 6.77 7940 0.88 9470 1.95 9.77
5 6450 0.35 8880 1.46 6290 0.31 10160 2.68 4.80
6 5550 0.18 12240 6.20 8550 1.23 10150 2.67 10.28
7 5500 0.17 11820 5.30 7640 0.74 9420 1.91 8.12
8 4570 0.07 13930 11.10 2720 0.01 2410 0.00 11.18
9 4190 0.05 15300 16.92 3110 0.01 2450 0.00 16.99
104940 0.10 15060 15.76 2880 0.01 2800 0.01 15.88
Mean equivalency factor for truck-trailers = 11.47
 Design Example
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 For the sake of this example, it will be assumed that similar

calculations have been performed, giving mean equivalency
factors for buses and trucks of 0.14 and 6.67 respectively.
 Finally, the cumulative numbers of ESAs over the design period
are calculated as follows, using the cumulative numbers of
vehicles previously calculated and the equivalency factors:
Vehicle classification Cum. no. of vehicles Equivalency factor 106 ESAs
 Car 1750016 0.00 0.0
 Bus 277589 0.14 0.0
 Truck 905180 6.67 6.0
 Truck-trailer 1255184 11.47 14.4
 Total ESAs = 20.4
 Based on the above analysis, the trunk road under study would belong to
the traffic class T8 for flexible pavement design.