CCE4262-MODERN CONSTRUCTION

TECHNOLOGY

FOR YEAR 4 CIVIL –COCNSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

SEM2 , 2023-2024

BY:
Mr. Claver
NGIRABAKUNZI.

Email: [email protected] Tel:

0 7 8 3 4 8 13 5 5
1
LECTURES 3 &4 …to continue!!

UNIT I-SUB STRUCTURE

CONSTRUCTION
 UNIT 1 CONTENT
• Concept of Advanced construction technology
• Two main parts of the building
• Sub structure construction methods
1. Box Jacking: Need – elements – concept – precautions –
advantages.
2. Pipe jacking: Technique – factors – applications –
advantages.
3. Diaphragm walls – methods – sheet piles – applications –
advantages.
4. Piling techniques: Classifications – factors.
5. Grouting: Need – materials – techniques – applications –
guniting and shotcreting.
6. Well and caisson: Types – sinking method – precautions.
7. Coffer dam: Purpose – types – techniques.
8. Cable anchoring – screw anchor – necessity- applications.
9. Well points - dewatering – techniques.
LECTURE 3
5. DIAPHRAGM WALLS
 Diaphragm walls
• Diaphragm wall are structure elements, which are constructed underground to
prevent the seepage into the excavated area.

• A diaphragm can be defined as a dividing membrane, and in the context of

building a diaphragm wall can be used as a retaining wall to form the perimeter wall of
a basement structure, to act as a cut-off wall for river or similar embankments, and to
retain largemasses of soil such as a side wall of a road underpass.
 Methods and uses
A) Diaphragm walls methods
1. Slurry trench technique
2. Soil mixing method
3. RC continuous diaphragm wall
4. Precast diaphragm wall
5. Glass diaphragm walls

B) Common uses of diaphragm wall walls

• To provide structural support for the construction
• To provide retaining wall
• To provide deep diaphragms
 Advantages of diaphragm wall walls
In-situ concrete diaphragm walls are being used to a large extent in
modern construction work and can give the following advantages:

1. The final wall can be designed and constructed as the required

structural wall.

2. Diaphragm walls can be constructed before the bulk excavation takes

place, thus eliminating the need for temporary works such as timbering.

3. Methods that can be employed to construct the wall are relatively quietand have
little or no vibration.

4. Work can be carried out immediately adjacent to an existing structure.

5. They may be designed to resist vertical and/or horizontal forces.

6. Walls are watertight when constructed.

7. Virtually any plan shape is possible.

8. Overall they are an economic method for the construction of basement

or retaining walls.
• There are two methods by which a cast in-situ diaphragm wall may be
constructed:
 touching or interlocking bored piles;
 excavation of a trench using the bentonite slurry method

Applications of diaphragm walls

• As permanent and temporary foundation wall for deep foundation for
deep basements
• In earth retention schemes for highway and tunnelprojects
• As permanent walls for deep shafts for tunnel access
• As permanent cut - off walls through the core of earthdams
• In congested areas for retention systems and permanent
foundation walls
• Deep groundwater barriers through and under dams
 General method used to construct diaphragm
walls
• The general method used to construct diaphragm walls is the
bentonite slurry system.

• When mixed with the correct amount of water bentonite shows

thixotropic properties, giving a liquid behaviour when agitated and
a gel structure when undisturbed.

• The basic procedure is to replace the excavated soil with the

bentonite slurry as the work proceeds.

• The slurry forms a soft gel or ‘filter cake’ at the interface of the
excavation sides with slight penetration into the subsoil. Hydrostatic
pressure caused by the bentonite slurry thrusting on the filter cake
cushion is sufficient to hold back the subsoil and any groundwater
that may be present and can be successfully employed up to 36.000
m deep.
 Diaphragm walls by bentonite slurry
system.
• Diaphragm walls constructed by this method are executed in alternate
panels from 4.500 m to 7.000 m long with widths ranging from 500 to 900
mm using a specially designed hydraulic grab attached to a standard
crane, or byusing a continuous cutting and recirculating machine.

• Before the general excavation commences, a guide trench about 1.000 m

deep is excavated and lined with lightly reinforced walls. These walls act as
a guide line for the excavating machinery and provide a reservoir for the
slurry, enabling pavings and underground services to be broken out ahead
of the excavation.
 Secant pile walls
• A guide wall is required for this method ofconstruction to ensure that piles
are accurately located to achieve an interlock (or secant) cut into the
adjacent pile. A secant pile wall uses interlocking male and female cast in
situ piles to produce a retaining structure. Construction is carried out
sequentially with primary (female) piles installed first then secondary
(male) piles cut into the primarypiles forming a continuous wall.
 Secant pile walls (end)
• This wall type provides some degree of water retention but is not
watertight. The primary pile may also be reinforced.

• The construction sequence becomes particularly critical when needing to

cut segments of 40 MPa concrete piles to allow installation of the
secondary pile. High torque drill rigs and specially designed cutting tools
are required.

• At exposed heights greater than 9 – 12 m it often becomesuneconomic to

achieve continuous pile overlap and hence a diaphragm wall generally is
more suitable.
 Sheet piles
• Sheet piles are thin piles, made of plates of concrete, timber or steel,
driven into the ground for either separating members or for stopping
seepage of water. They are not meant for carrying any vertical load. They
are driven into ground with help of suitable pile driving equipment, and
their height is increased while driving, by means of addition of successive
installments of sheets.
 Functions of sheet piles.
1. To enclose a site or part therefore to prevent the escape of loose
subsoil, such assand, and to safeguard against settlement.
2. To retain the sides of the trenches andgeneral excavation.
3. To protect river banks.
4. To protect the foundations from scouringactions of nearby river,
stream etc.
 Steel Sheet Piling…..
• Steel sheet piling is the most common form of sheet piling; it can be used
in temporary works such as excavations in soft and/or waterlogged soils
and in the construction of cofferdams.

• This material can also be used to form permanent retaining walls,

especially those used for river bank strengthening, and in the construction
of jetties.

• Three common forms of steel sheet pile are the Larssen, Frodingham and
straight-web piles, all of which have an interlocking joint to form a water
seal, which may need fill gaps where high water pressures are
encountered.

• Straight-web sheet piles are used to form cellular cofferdams.

• Larssen and Frodingham sheet piles are suitable for all uses except for the
cellular cofferdam, and can be obtained in lengths up to 18.000 m
according to the particular section.
 Advantages and disadvantages
• Sheet pile wall disadvantages • Sheet pile wall advantages are:
are:
1. Sections can rarely be used as
1. Provides high resistance to
part of the permanent
driving stresses.
structure.
2. Installation of sheet piles is
difficult in soils with boulders or 2. Light weight
cobbles. In such cases, the
desired wall depths may not be 3. Can be reused on several
reached. projects.
3. Excavation shapes are dictated
by the sheet pile section and 4. Long service life above or below
interlocking elements. water with modest protection.

4. Sheet pile driving may cause 5. Easy to adapt the pile length by
neighborhood disturbance. either welding or bolting
5. Settlements in adjacent
properties may take place due
6. Can produce a watertight wall
to installation vibrations.
Applications of sheet pile walls
• As stated earlier, one of the effective methodsto retain a soil mass is to
install a vertical wallwhich consists of long thin element such as steel,
concrete or wood that are driven in the ground. The elements are usually
connected by interlocking joints.
Cantilever sheet pile walls
• Cantilevered sheet piles are usually used for theheight of about 6m or
less than dredge line.

• In geotechnical practices, cantilever embeddedretaining structures

are specifically used for
excavations, for highway constructions, and protection of landslides.
protecting permanent and temporary
These structures are mostly sheet walls as temporary retaining structures,
and pile walls and diaphragms as permanent retaining structures.
 Anchored sheet piles
• When the height of sheet pile is more than 6m, it is economical to use
sheet pile which is anchored near its top. Anchoring the sheet pile cause
less penetration depth and also less moment to the sheetpile.
• Well constructed anchor walls undergo less lateral deflection than braced
walls and so provide a better control of back-slope subsidence. Anchor
installationonly requires a small excavation to allow equipment access.
• The anchor will maintain their load through the excavation
sequence.
 5. PILING TECHNIQUES
• Piles are column or load bearing members that are used to transmit the
structural loads, through soil formations with poor supporting properties
or through water, onto stiffer or more compact and less compressible soils
that are capable of supporting the loads. Piles are made of timber, steel,
or concrete(Joseph E. Bowles, 1997)
• A pile can be defined as a column inserted in the ground totransmit
the structural loads to a lower level of subsoil.

• The pile foundations needed when:

1. low bearing capacity of the subsoil;

2. heavy point loads of the structure exceeding the soil bearingcapacity;
3. presence of highly compressible soils near the surface
4. subsoils such as clay, which may be capable of moisture
movement or plastic failure;
5. high water table.

Classification
• Piled foundations may be classified by the way in which they transmit their
loads to the subsoils or by the way they are formed.
• Transmittance of loading to a lower level may be by: End bearing and
Friction
 End bearing
• The piles act as columns, carrying the loads through the overlying weak
subsoils to firm strata into which the pile toe has penetrated. This can be a
rock stratum or a layer of firm sand or gravel that has been compacted by
the displacement and vibration encountered during the driving.

Friction
• If a suitable load bearing stratum cannot be found at an acceptable
level, particularly in stiff clay soils, The friction or floating pile is supported
mainly by the adhesion or friction action of the soil around the perimeter
of the pile shaft.

• Piles may be preformed and driven, thus displacing the soil through which
they pass, and are therefore classified as displacement piles. Alternatively
the soil can
• be bored out and subsequently replaced by a pile shaft, and such piles are
classified as replacement piles.
 DISPLACEMENT PILES
This is a general term applied to piles that are driven, thus displacing the soil,
and includes those piles that are preformed, partially preformed or are driven
in-situ piles.

TIMBER PILES

These are usually of square sawn hardwood or softwood in lengths up to 12.000

m with section sizes ranging from 225 mm × 225 mm to 600 mm × 600 mm. They
are easy to handle, and can be driven by percussion with the minimum of
experience.

Most timber piles are fitted with an iron or steel driving shoe, and have an iron
ring around the head to prevent splitting due to impact. Although not particularly
common, they are used in sea defences such as groynes and sometimes as guide
piles for large trestles in conjunction with steel sheet piling. Load bearing
capacities can be up to 350 kN per pile, depending upon section size and/or
species.
 PRECAST CONCRETE PILES

These are used on medium to large contracts where soft soils overlying a firm
stratum are encountered and at least 100 piles will be required.

Lengths up to 18.000 m with section sizes ranging from 250 mm × 250 mm to 450
mm × 450 mm carrying loadings of up to 1,000 kN are generally economical for
the conditions mentioned above. The precast concrete driven pile has little
frictional bearing strength because the driving operation moulds the cohesive
soils around the shaft, which reduces the positive frictional resistance.

These are used mainly in conjunction with marine structures and where overlying
soils are very weak.

These piles are relatively light and therefore are easy to handle and drive. Splicing
can be carried out by site welding to form piles up to 15.000 m long with load
bearing capacities up to 600 kN. Consideration must always be given to the need
to apply a protective coating to the pile to guard against corrosion.
 COMPOSITE AND DRIVEN IN-SITU OR CAST-
IN-PLACE PILES
COMPOSITE PILES
• These are sometimes referred to as partially preformed piles, and are
formed by a method that combines the use of precast and in-situ concrete
or steel and in-situ concrete.

DRIVEN IN-SITU OR CAST-IN-PLACE PILES

• These are an alternative to preformed displacement piles and are usually
applied on medium to large contracts where subsoil conditions or
loadings are likely to create variations in the lengths of pile required.

• They can be formed economically in diameters of 300 to 600 mm with

lengths up to 18.000 m designed to carry loads of up to 1,300 kN. They
generally require heavy piling rigs, and an open, level site where noise is
unrestricted.
 PILEDRIVING
Displacement piles are generally driven into the ground by holding them in the
correct position against the piling frame and applying hammer blows to the head
of the pile. Exceptions are encountered, such as the cased pile shown in Fig.

The piling frame can be purpose made or an adaptation of a standard crane power
unit. The basic components of any piling frame are the vertical member that houses
the leaders or guides, which in turn support the pile and guide the hammer onto the
head of the pile. Pile hammers come in a variety of types and sizes powered by
gravity, steam, compressed air or diesel.

Drop hammers

These are blocks of cast iron or steel with a mass range of 1,500 to 8,000 kg and are
raised by a cable attached to a winch. The hammer, which is sometimes called a ram,
is allowed to fall freely by gravity onto the pile head. The free-fall distance is
controllable, but generally a distance of about 1.200 m is employed. Drop hammers
are slower than the following power hammers and may inflict more
damage to the pile caps.
Single-acting hammers

Activated by steam or compressed air, these have much the same effect as drop
hammers in that the hammer falls freely by gravity through a distance of about 1.500 m.

Two types are available: in one case the hammer is lifted by a piston rod; in the
other the piston is static and the cylinder is raised and allowed to fall freely. Both
forms of hammer deliver a very powerful blow.

Double-acting hammers

These are activated by steam or compressed air, and consist of a heavy fixed
cylinder in which there is a light piston or ram that delivers a large number of
rapid light blows (90 to 225 blows per minute) in a short space of time, as opposed
to the heavier blows over a longer period of the drop and single-acting hammers.

The object is to try to keep the pile constantly on the move rather than being
driven in a series of jerks. This type of hammer has been largely replaced by the
diesel hammer and by vibration techniques.
Diesel hammers

These have been designed to give a reliable and economic method of pile driving.
Various sizes giving different energy outputs per blow are available, but most
deliver between 46 and 52 blows per minute.

The hammer can be suspended from a crane or mounted in the leaders of a piling
frame. A measured amount of liquid fuel is fed into a cup formed in the base of the
cylinder. The air being compressed by the falling ram is trapped between the ram
and the anvil, which applies a preloading force to the pile.

The displaced fuel, at the precise moment of impact, results in an explosion that
applies a downward force on the pile and an upward force on the ram, which returns
to its starting position to recommence the complete cycle.

The movement of the ram within the cylinder activates the fuel supply, and opens and
closes the exhaust ports. Water- or air-cooled variations exist for popular application to
vertical and inclined driving.
REPLACEMENT PILES

Sometimes referred to as bored piles, these are formed by removing a column of

soil and replacing it with in-situ concrete or, as in the case of composite piles, with
precast and in-situ concrete. Replacement or bored piles are considered for sites
where piling is being carried out in close proximity to existing buildings or where
vibration and/or noise is restricted.

The formation of this type of pile can be considered under three general
classifications:
 Percussion bored piles;
 Rotary bored piles;
 Prestcore piles.
PERCUSSION BORED PILES
These are suitable for small and medium-sized contracts of up to 300 piles in clay or gravel
subsoils. Pile diameters are usually from 300 to 950 mm, designed to carry loads up to 1,500
kN. Apart from the common factor with all replacement piles that the strata penetrated can
be fully explored, these piles can be formed byusing a hear leg or tripod rig requiring as little
as 1.800 m headroom.

A steel tube made up from lengths (1.000 to 1.400 m) screwed together is sunk by
extracting the soil from within the tube liner using percussion cutters or balers according to
the nature of the subsoil to be penetrated. The steel lining tube will usually sink under its
own weight, but it can be driven in with slight pressure, normally applied by means of
hydraulic jacks. When the correct depth has been reached, a cage of reinforcement is
placed within the liner and the concrete is introduced. Tamping is carried out as the liner is
extracted by using a winch or hydraulic jack operating against a clamping collar fixed to the
top of the steel tube
lining. An internal drop hammer can be used to tamp and consolidate the concrete,
but usually compressed air is the method employed.

If waterlogged soil is encountered, a pressure pile is usually formed by fixing to the head of the steel
liner an airlock hopper through which the concrete can be introduced and consolidated while the
borehole remains under pressure in excessof the hydrostatic pressure of the groundwater.
ROTARY BORED PILES

These can range from the short bored pile used in domestic dwellings to the very-
large-diameter piles used for concentrated loads in multi-storey buildings and
bridge construction. The rotary bored pile is suitable for most cohesive soils, such
as clay, and is formed using an auger, which may be operated in conjunction with
the steel tube liner according tothe subsoil conditions encountered.

Two common augers are in use. One is the Cheshire auger, which has 11/2 to
2 helix turns at the cutting end and is usually mounted on a lorry or tractor. The
turning shaft or kelly bar is generally up to 7.500 m long and is either telescopic or
extendable. The soil is cut by the auger, raised to the surface, and spun off the
helix to the side of the borehole, from where it is removed from site.

Alternatively, a continuous or flight auger can be used, where the spiral motion
brings the spoil to the surface for removal from site. Flight augers are usually
mounted on an adapted excavator or crane power unit.
A development of continuous or flight auger replacement piling uses a modified
auger with an open-ended hollow central core. The borehole is excavated as
described for a conventional auger but, on reaching the required depth, concrete
is pumped into the hollow core as the auger is withdrawn. This practice is time
efficient, as there is no need to case the pile or temporarily support the excavation.
There is also little disturbance to the surrounding subsoil.

When the auger is removed, a reinforcement cage is vibrated into the concrete to
the required depth. To ease pumping and reinforcement placement, the concrete
design may specify rounded aggregates and a higher than normal water/cement
ratio. Therefore pile diameter and quantity of piles may be greater than with more
conventional methods. This technique is also known as grout injection piling.
PRESTCORE PILES

These are a form of composite pile consisting of precast and in-situ concrete. The
formation of the borehole is as described previously for the percussion bored pile,
using light, easy to handle equipment requiring a low headroom or working
height.

The main advantage of this form of pile lies in the fact that the problem of necking
is eliminated, which makes the system suitable for piling in waterlogged soils.

Theformation of a prestcore pile can be divided into four distinct stages:

1. Boring A lined borehole formed by percussion methods using a tripod rig.

2. Assembly Precast units that form the core of the pile are assembled on a
special mandrel, and reinforcement is inserted before the core unit is lowered
into position.
3. Pressing the core The pile core is raised and lowered by means of a
pneumatic winch attached to the head of the lining tube to consolidate the
bearing stratum.
4. Grouting The lining tube is withdrawn and the pile is grouted with the aid of
compressed air to expel any groundwater.
Large-diameter bored piles are usually considered to be those over 750 mm, and can be
formed with diameters up to 2.600 m with lengths ranging from 24.000 to 60.000 m to
carry loadings from 2,500 to 8,000 kN.

They are suitable for use in stiff clays for structures having highly concentrated loadings,
and can be lined or partially lined with steel tubes as required. The base or toe of the
pile can be enlarged or under-reamed up to three times the shaft diameter to increase
the bearing capacity of the pile. Reinforcement is not always required, and the need for
specialists’ knowledge at the design stage cannot be overemphasised. Compaction of the
concrete, which is usually placed by a tremie pipe, is generally by gravitational force.

Test loading of large-diameter bored piles can be very expensive, and if the local
authority insists on test loading it can render this
method uneconomic.
6. GROUTING
 Grouting:
( Need – materials – techniques –
applications – guniting and shotcreting).

Grouting is the process of placing a material into cavities in concrete or masonry

structure for the purpose of increasing the load bearing capacity of a structure,
restoring the monolithic nature of a structural member, filling voids around pre
cast connections steel base plates, providing fire stops, stopping leakages, placing
adhesives and soil stabilization.

Grout is a mixture of water, cement and optional material like sand, water
reducing admixtures, expansion agents and pozzolans. The water to cement ratio
is around 0.5. Fine sand is used to avoid segregation.
Cement grouts

In common with all grouting methods, cement grouts are used to form a ‘curtain’ in
soils that have high permeability, making temporary exclusion pumping methods
uneconomic.

Cement grouts are injected into the ground through a series of grouting holes bored
into the ground in lines, with secondary intermediate borehole lines if necessary.

The grout can be a mixture of neat cement and water, cement and sand up to a ratio
of 1:4, or PFA (pulverised fuel ash) and cement in the ratio of 1:1 with 2 parts of water
by weight.

The usual practice is to start with a thin grout and gradually reduce the water:cement
ratio as the process proceeds, to increase the viscosity of the mixture.
Grout injection

Grouts of all kinds are usually injected into the subsoil by pumping in the mixture
at high pressure through tubes placed at the appropriate centres according to the
solution being used and/or the soil type.

Soil investigation techniques will reveal the information required to enable the
engineer to decide upon the pattern and spacing of the grout holes, which can be
drilled with pneumatic tools or tipped drills.

The pressure needed to ensure a satisfactory penetration of the subsoil will

depend upon the soil conditions and results required, but is usually within the
range of 1 N/mm2 for fine soils to 7 N/mm2 for cement grouting in fissured and
jointed rock strata.
Clay/cement grouting

This is suitable for sands and gravels where the soil particles are too small. The grout
is introduced by means of a sleeve grout pipe, and as for the cement grouting the
equipment is simple and can be used in a confined space.

The clay/cement grout is basically bentonite with additives such as Portland cement
or soluble silicates to form the permanent barrier.
Chemical grouting

This is suitable for use in medium-to-coarse sands and gravels to stabilise

the soil, and can also be used for underpinning works below the water-table level.

The chemicals are usually mixed prior to their injection into the ground through
injection pipes inserted. – one shot method.

The chemicals form a permanent gel in the earth, which increases the strength of the
soil and also reduces its permeability.

An alternative two-shot method can be used: it is carried out by injecting the first
chemical (usually sodium silicate) into the ground and immediately afterwards
injecting the second chemical (calcium chloride) to form a silica gel. The reaction of
the two chemicals is immediate, whereas in the one-shot method the reaction of the
chemicals can be delayed to allow for full penetration of the subsoil, which will in turn
allow a wider spacing of the boreholes. One main disadvantage of chemical grouting is
the need for at least 2.000 m of natural cover.
Resin grouts

These are suitable for silty fine sands or for use in conjunction with clay/cement
grouts for treating fine strata, but like the chemical grouts described above they can
be costly unless used on large works.

Resin grouts are similar in application to the chemical grouts, but have a low
viscosity, which enables them to penetrate the fine sands that are unsuitable for
chemical grouting applications.

Bituminous grouts

These are suitable for injection into fine sands to decrease the permeability of the
soil, but they will not increase the strength of the soil, and are therefore unsuitable
for underpinning work.
Types of grouting materials and their
use
• Chemical grouting
- control seepage
- shut- off seepage
- soil stabilization
• Cementitious grouting
- mass placement
- structural(high strength)
- caustic environments
- high temperatures
⚫ Epoxy grouting
- seal cracks
- bolt anchoring
- base plate levelling
- acidic environment
⚫ Polyesters
- bolt anchoring
⚫ Silicones
- smoke seals
- fire stops
 Applications of grouting
Repairing of cracks

• The wide cracks may be repaired by filling them with portland cement
grout.

• The grout mixture may contain cement and water or cement, sand
and water, depending upon the width of crack.

• The water cement ratio should be kept as low as practicable to

maximize strengthand minimize shrinkage.

• Strengthening existing walls

 • The lateral strength of buildings can be improved by increasing the
strength and stiffness of the existing individual walls, whether they
are cracked or uncracked.

For soil stabilization

• Common methods are:
- chemical grouting
- compaction grouting
- jet grouting
7. COFFERDAM
 COFFERDAM
• A cofferdam may be defined as a temporary box structures in earth or water to
exclude soil and or water from a construction area.

• Coffer dams are commonly made of steel sheet pile, rock, gabions, concrete jersey
barriers, vinyl tubes filled with water, or wood and may be lined with geotextile,
plastic sheeting, or other materials to prevent water from entering the
construction area. This assignment covers purpose, types and techniques of
construction.

• When construction must take place below the water level, a cofferdam is built to
give dry work environment. Sheet piling is driven around the work site, seal
concrete is placed into the bottom to prevent water from seeping in from
underneath the sheet piling.
COFFER DAM
A cofferdam may be defined as a temporary box structure constructed in earth or
water to exclude soil and/or water from a construction area.

A cofferdam is a temporary structure designed to keep water and/or soil out of

the excavation in which a bridge pier or other structure is built.

It is usually formed to enable the formation of foundations to be carried out in

safe working conditions.

It is common practice to use interlocking steel trench sheeting or steel sheet

piling to form the cofferdam, but any material that will fulfil the same function
can be used, including timber piles, precast concrete piles, earth-filled crib walls
and banks of soil and rock.

It must be clearly understood that, to be safe, economic and effective,

cofferdams must be the subject of structural design.

Cofferdams constructed from steel sheet piles or steel trench sheeting can be
considered under two headings:
• single-skin cofferdams;
• double-skin cofferdams.
PURPOSE TO USE COFFER DAM STRUCTURE

• To retain Soil & Water

• Can be used as either Temporary or Permanent
• Main purpose is to provide dry working area for workers
• It is constructed to facilitate pile driving operations.
• It is used to place grillage as well as the raft foundations
• It is used ,when the foundations for piers and abutments of a bridge, dams,
locks, etc. are to be constructed.

• Some times it is also provided to store water temporarily.

• Cofferdams can be used in all the sectors as explained below.

Civil Engineering: Underground Car Parking, Foundation,

Basement Construction

Transport Engineering: Bridge Pier, Support Walls, Ramps,

Ground Water Retention, Tunnel Work etc.
Water Engineering: Weirs, Culverts, Flood Protection Walls,
Scour Protection Walls, Securing Embankment etc. Port

Construction: Dock Works, Jetty Works etc.

Types of Coffer Dam
1. Earth fill cofferdams - mainly for low level water
2. Sand Bag Coffer Dam – to divert coarse of water
3. Rock fill cofferdams
4. Braced / Sheet Pile Coffer Dam- Consisting of SheetPiles,
mainly used in shallow water depth
(i) Single wall coffer dams
(ii) Double wall coffer dams
(iii) Cellular cofferdams
Earth cofferdam

These are the simplest type of cofferdams well-adapted to depths of water upto 3
m. Earth embankments are constructed around the area to be dewatered. The
earth coffer dams are built of local soils, preferably fine sand.

These usually have a clay core or a vertically driven sheet piling in the middle. The
upstream slope of the bank is covered with a rip rap. A successful coffer dam need
not be completely watertight. For reason of economy, it is not possible to make it
watertight and hence some seepage of water into the excavation is usually
tolerated.

The water collected is pumped out of the excavation. The embankment should be
provided with a minimum free board of 1m to prevent overtopping by waves.
Sand-bag coffer dams are used in an emergency.
Rockfill cofferdam

Rockfill coffer dams made of rockfill are sometimes used to enclose the site to be
dewatered. These are permeable and are usually provided with an impervious
membrane of soil to reduce seepage.

The crest and the upper part of the impervious membrane are provided with rip
rap to provide protection against wave action. Overtopping doesn’t cause serious
damage in case of rockfill coffer dams. The slopes of a rockfill cofferdam can be
made as steep as 1 horizontal to 1.5 vertical.
Single sheet pile cofferdam

These are generally used to enclose small

foundation sites in water for bridges at a
relatively shallow depth.

In this type of coffer dams, there is a

single row of cantilever sheet piles. The
piles are sometimes heavily braced.
Joints in the sheet piles are properly
sealed.

This type of coffer dams are suitable for

moderate- flow velocities of water and
for depth upto 4 m. The depth of
penetration below ground surface is
about 0.25h for coarse sand and gravels,
0.5h for dine sand and 0.85h for silts,
where h is the depth of water.
Sometimes single-sheet cofferdams are
provided with earth fills on one or both
sides to increase the lateral stability. The
figure of single sheet pile cofferdam is
shown on the right.

Braced cofferdam

A braced coffer dam is formed by driving two rows of vertical sheeting and bracing
with wale and struts. These are similar to sheeting and bracing system with one
basic difference that braced cuts are required for excavations in dry areas whereas
braced coffer dams are used to isolate a working area surrounded by water. The
braced coffer dams are susceptible to flood damage.

Braced cofferdams are sometimes used as land coffer dams to prevent ground from
entering the foundation pile pit on land and to support the soil so as to prevent
cave in. After the pit is dewatered, the structure is concreted. When concreting has
been completed above the water level, the coffer dam is removed.
Cellular cofferdam

This is constructed by driving sheet piles of special shapes to form a series of cells.
Te cells are interconnected to form a watertight wall. These cells are filled with soil
to provide stabilizing force against lateral pressure.

Basically, there are two types ofcellular coffer dams that are commonly used:

1.Diaphragm Type: This type of cellular cofferdam consists of circular arcs on the
inner and outer sides which are connected by straight diaphragm walls. The
connection between the curved parts and the diaphragms are made by means of a
specially fabricated element. The coffer dam is thus made from inter-connected
steel sheet piles. The cells are filled with coarse-grained soils which increase the
weight of the cofferdam and its stability. The leakage through the coffer dam is also
reduced.
2. Circular Type: It consists of a set of large
diameter main circular cells interconnected by
arcs of smaller cells. The walls of the
connecting cells are perpendicular to the walls
of the main circular cells of large diameter. The
segmental arcs are joined by special T-piles to
the main cells.

The circular type cellular cofferdams are self-

sustaining, and therefore independent of the
adjacent circular cells. Each cell can be filled
independently. The stability of such cells is
much greater as compared with that of the
diaphragm type.

However, the circular cells are more expensive

than the diaphragm type, as these require
more sheet piles and greater skill in setting and
driving the piles. Because the diameter of
circular cells is limited by interlock tension,
their ability to resist lateral pressure due to
high heads is limited.
SINGLE-SKIN COFFERDAMS

These consist of a suitably supported single enclosing row of sheeting or sheet piles
forming an almost completely watertight box.

Trench sheeting could be considered for light loadings up to an excavation depth of

3.000 m below the existing soil or water level, whereas sheet piles are usually suitable
for excavation depths of up to 15.000 m.

The small amount of seepage that will occur through the interlocking joints must not
be in excess of that which can be comfortably controlled by a pump; alternatively the
joints can be sealed by filling with suitable mastics, bitumastic compounds or silicone
sealants.
Single-skin cofferdams constructed to act as cantilevers are possible in all soils
and most cofferdams are therefore either braced and strutted or anchored using
tie rods or ground anchors. Standard structural steel sections can be used to form
the support system.

Typical cofferdam support arrangements are shown in Fig below. Single-skin

cofferdams that are circular in plan can also be constructed using ring beams of
concrete or steel to act as bracing without the need for strutting. Diameters up to
36.000 m are economically possible using this method.
DOUBLE-SKIN COFFERDAMS

These are self-supporting gravity structures constructed by using two parallel

rows of piles with a filling material placed in the void created. Gravity-type
cofferdams can also be formed by using straight-web sheet pile sections
arranged as a cellular construction (see Figs).

The stability of these forms of cofferdam depends upon the design and
arrangement of the sheet piling and upon the nature of the filling material.
8. WELL AND CAISSON
 Well and caisson: Types – sinking method – precautions.

 CAISSONS:
These are box-like structures that can be sunk through ground or water to Install foundations
or similar structures below the water line or table.

They differ from cofferdams in that they usually become part of the finished foundation or
structure, and should be considered as an alternative to the temporary cofferdam if the
working depth below the water level exceeds.

The design and installation of the various types of caisson are usually the tasks of a specialist
organisation, but building contractors should have a fundamental knowledge of the different
types and their uses.

There are four basic types of caisson in general use:

1.Box caissons;
2.Open caissons;
3.Monolithic caissons;
4.Pneumatic or compressed-air caissons.
 BOX CAISSONS

These are prefabricated precast concrete boxes that are open atthe top and closed at
the bottom.

They are usually constructed on land, and are designed to be launched and floated to the
desired position, where they are sunk onto a previously prepared dredged or rock
foundation.

If the bed stratum is unsuitable for the above preparations it may be necessary to lay a
concrete raft, by using traditional cofferdam techniques, onto which the caisson can be
sunk.
During installation it is essential that precautions are taken to overcome the
problems of flotation by flooding the void with water or adding kentledge to the
caisson walls.
The sides of the caisson will extend above the waterline after it has been
finally positioned, providing a suitable shell for such structures as bridge piers,
breakwaters and jetties.

The void is filled with in-situ concrete placed by pump, tremie pipe or crane and
skip. Box caissons are suitable for situations where the bed conditions are such
that it is not necessary to sink the caisson below the prepared bed level.
OPEN CAISSONS

Sometimes referred to as cylinder caissons because of their usual plan shape,

these are of precast concrete and open at both the top and bottom ends, with
a cutting edge to the bottom rim.

They are suitable for installation in soft subsoils where the excavation can be
carried out by conventional grabs, enabling the caisson to sink under its own
weight as the excavation proceeds.

These caissons can be completely or partially pre-formed; in the latter case

further sections can be added or cast on as the structure sinks to the required
depth.

When the desired depth has been reached a concrete plug in the form of a slab
is placed in the bottom by tremie pipe to prevent further leakage of water. The
cell void can now be pumped dry and filled with crushed rocks or similar
material if necessary to overcome flotation during further construction works.
Open caissons can also be installed in land if the subsoil conditions are suitable.
The shoe or cutting edge is formed so that it is wider than the wall above to
create an annular space some 75 to 100 mm wide into which a bentonite slurry
can be pumped to act as a lubricant and thus reduce the skin friction to a
minimum.

Excavation is carried out by traditional means within the caisson void, the
caisson sinking under its own weight. The excavation operation is usually
carried out simultaneously with the construction of the caisson walls above
ground level.
MONOLITHIC CAISSONS

These are usually rectangular in plan and are divided into a number of Voids or wells
through which the excavation is carried out.

They are similar to open caissons but have greater self-weight and wall
thickness, making them suitable for structures such as quays, which may have
to resist considerable impact forces in their final condition.

PNEUMATIC OR COMPRESSED-AIR CAISSONS

These are similar to open caissons except that there is an airtight working
chamber some 3.000 m high at the cutting edge. They are used where difficult
subsoils exist and where hand excavation in dry workingconditions is necessary.
The working chamber must be pressurised sufficiently to control the inflow of
water and/or soil and at the same time provide safe working conditions for the
operatives.
The maximum safe working pressure is usually specified as 310 kN/m2, which will limit
the working depth of this type of caisson to about 28.000 m. When the required depth
has been reached the floor of the working chamber can be sealed over with a 600 mm
thick layer ofwell-vibrated concrete.

This is followed by further well vibrated layers of concrete until only a small space
remains, which is pressure grouted to finally seal the working chamber. The access
shafts are finally sealed with concrete some three to four days after sealing off the
working chamber.
 Advantages of Caisson

• Economic.

• Slightly less noise and reduced vibrations.

• Easily adaptable to varying site conditions.

• High axial and lateral loading capacity.

• Minimal handling equipment is required for placementof reinforcing cage.

• Placement is sometimes possible in types of soil that adriven pile could not
penetrate
 Difference B/W
Cofferdam and Caisson
1. Temporary structure 1. The part of the permanent work
2. A cofferdam becomes uneconomical in 2. Under such circumstances, a caisson
cases where the plan area of the would prove to be the most suitable.
foundation work is small as compared to
the depth of water.
3. At places where cofferdam cannot be 3. Caissons are superior in water tight
dewatered successfully, caissons are
used.
4. The process of constructing a cofferdam 4. The caissons, on the other hand, are
is greatly simplified in cases of soils useful where obstructions of boulders
which allow easily the driving of sheet would prevent the successful driving of
piles. the sheet piles.
5. For heavy foundation works which are to 5. For heavy foundation works which are to
be provided at a depth of about 12 to 15 be provided at a depth of about 12 to 15
metre below the level of standing water metre below the level of standing water
surface coffer dam become surface, caissons would prove to be
uneconomical more economical than cofferdams.

The choice of construction depends on the following, a. depth of water, b. nature

of soil to be penetrated, and c. permeability of soil below foundation level,
 Well points:

Well points - dewatering – techniques.

Well point systems

The use of pumping methods to lower the groundwater water level is the most widely used
and in many cases, the more economical. The groundwater can be directly pumped or
allowed to seep to sumps at the boundaries of the excavation site, where it can be pumped
from there.

These are popular methods for water lowering in non-cohesive soils up to a depth of
between 5.000 and 6.000 m. To dewater an area beyond this depth requires a multi-stage
installation see Fig below.

The basic principle is to water-jet into the ground with number of small diameter wells,
which are connected to a header pipe attached to a vacuum pump see Fig. Wellpoint
systems can be installed with the header pipe acting as a ring main enclosing the area to be
excavated.
The header pipe should be connected to two pumps, the first for actual pumping
operations and the second as a standby pump, because it is essential to keep the system
fully operational to avoid collapse of the excavation should a pump failure occur.

The alternative system is the progressive line arrangement, where the header pipe is
placed alongside a trench or similar excavation to one side or both sides according
to the width of the excavation.

A pump is connected to a predetermined length of header pipe, and further well points
are jetted in ahead of the excavation works. As the work including backfilling is
completed the redundant well points are removed and the header pipe is moved
forwards.

Shallow-bored wells
These are suitable for sandy gravels and water-bearing rocks, and the action is similar in
principle to well point pumping but is more appropriate for installations that have to be
pumped for several months because running costs are generally lower. This method is
subject to the same lift restrictions as well point systems and can be arranged as a multi-
stage system if the depth of lowering exceeds 5.000 m.
Deep-bored wells
These can be used as an alternative to a multi-stage well point installation where the
groundwater needs to be lowered to a depth greater than 9.000 m. The wells are
formed by sinking a 300 to 600 mm diameter steel lining tube into the ground to the
required depth and at spacings to suit the subsoil being dewatered. This borehole
allows a perforated well liner to be installed with an electro-submersible pump to
extract the water. The annular space is filled with a suitable medium such as sand and
gravel as the outer steel lining tube is removed .

The distance between the

well points depends mainly on the
hydraulic conductivity and the head of
water to be raised. Usually, it ranges
between 0.30 m and 5.0 m

Details of well point system

Dewatering of deep excavation
In excavation works, the presence of groundwater in higher levels, makes the
process very complicated. Generally, it is found more practical to lower the
groundwater level far enough to make the excavation and other execution works
easier. This is done in several ways depending on the original groundwater level, soil
properties, importance of the structure and the length of the subsurface
construction period.

Among the methods of groundwater control are the following:

 Dewatering
 Freezing
 Electro-osmosis
 Grouting
 Compressed air
 Control of Groundwater by Freezing

This is one of the most expensive methods of groundwater control. It is actually used
when it is practically impossible to use any other method. Double walled Pipes are
inserted vertically to the required depth through the soil at distances 1-1.5 m center to
center around the excavation area. The fluid used to freeze the water is compressed
through the inner tube from the freezing plant. The fluid flows back to the plant
through the distancebetween the two walls of the tube.

The process of freezing may take several months to be completed. Moreover, the
freezing of the bottom of the excavation is far more difficult than the sides.
 Horizontal groundwater control

The pumping methods described above all work on a completely vertical system. An
alternative is the horizontal system of dewatering, which consists of installing into the
ground a 100 mm diameter PVC perforated suction pipe covered with a nylon filter
sleeve to prevent the infiltration of fine particles.

The pipe is installed using a special machine that excavates a narrow trench, lays the pipe,
and backfills the excavation in one operation at speeds up to 180 m per hour with a
maximum depth of 5.000 m. Under average conditions a single pump can handle
approximately
230.000 m of pipe run; for distances in excess of the pumping length an overlap of
consecutive pipe lengths of up to 4.000 m is required.
 Electro-osmosis
This is an uncommon and costly method, which can be used for dewatering cohesive
soils such as silts and clays where other pumping methods would not be adequate. It
works on the principle that soil particles carry a negative charge, which attracts the
positively charged ends of the water molecules, creating a balanced state; if this balance
is disturbed the water will flow. The disturbance of this natural balance is created by
inserting into the ground two electrodes and passing an electric charge between them.

The positive electrode can be of steel rods or sheet piling, which will act as the anode,
and a wellpoint is installed to act as the cathode or negative electrode. When an electric
current is passed between the anode and cathode it causes the positively charged water
molecules to flow to the wellpoint (cathode), where it is collected and pumped away to
a discharge point.

The power consumption for this method can vary from 1 kW/m3 for large excavations
up to 12 kW/m3 of soil dewatered for small excavations, which will generally make this
method uneconomic on running costs alone.
END OF UNIT I