CHAPTER 1:

Deformation and Elastic Theory

Introduction to Deformation Behavior
• Mechanical behaviour of materials is the response of materials to forces or loads.

• A material may experience changes in the shape or size if a force (deformation

energy is transferred through work) or heat is applied to it (deformation energy is
transferred through heat).

• As a result, the material may deform or even break. This change in the shape or size
of a material when a force or heat is applied on it is called deformation.

• If a material deforms under small stresses, the deformation is termed elastic

(reversible). Under large stress, the deformation is plastic (irreversible).

• The force that causes deformation is described by stress, while the amount of
deformation is described by strain.
Introduction to Deformation Behavior
• Stress, σ, is the intensity of force F acting at a point on a certain area A.

𝜕𝐹
𝜎=
𝜕𝐴

• A normal stress is caused by a force applied normal to the area on which it acts.

• For a shear stress, the force is parallel to the area on which it acts.

• Tensile stresses are positive and compressive stresses are negative.

"
• There is a true stress 𝜎! = : the force per any unit area, 𝐴$ , (force at an instant of
#!
"
the section), and a nominal (or engineering) stress, defined as 𝜎% = 𝜎& = , where
#"
A0 is the original area of cross-section.
Engineering Stress vs True Stress
• As the applied force F increases, so does the length of the specimen. For an increase 𝑑𝐹, the length 𝑙
increases by 𝑑𝑙. This is called strain, 𝜺.

'(
𝑑𝜀 = , where dl is the infinitesimal elongation.
(

'(
• By integrating 𝑑𝜀 = (
:

(!
𝑑𝑙 𝑙$
𝜀=+ = 𝑙𝑛
(" 𝑙 𝑙)

where 𝑙$ is the instantaneous length and l0 is the original length. This parameter 𝜀 is known as the
(
longitudinal true strain (𝜀! ), where 𝜀! = 𝑙𝑛 !
("

∆( (
• In many applications, engineering or nominal strain, is used and it is defined as: 𝜀% = 𝜀& = = −1
(" ("

• The relationship between the true strain and the engineering strain: 𝜀! = 𝑙𝑛(1 + 𝜀& )
Engineering Stress vs True Stress
Stress – Strain (S-S) Curve
Stress – Strain (S-S) Curve
• Deformation behavior of a material under stress is often obtained from a stress–strain curve.
 Exercise
Determine the total energy absorbed by the material, in Pascals, during a tensile test. A
function has been fitted to the curve: f (x) = -x2-7x. The material begins to yield at x = 0 and
snaps at x = 3.5.

".$ ".$

𝐸 = # 𝑓𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = # (−𝑥 % − 7𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
! !
𝑥" 𝑥 % ".$
=− , ".$!− 7 .
3 2 !
= −57.17 Pa
Normal and shear stresses
• To obtain a complete picture of the stresses in a bar, we must consider the
stresses acting on an “inclined” (as opposed to a “normal”) section through the
bar.
 Normal and shear stresses
• Because the stresses are the same throughout the entire bar, the stresses on the
sections are uniformly distributed.

• The force P can be resolved into components:

Normal force N perpendicular to the inclined plane, N = P cos θ Shear force V

tangential to the inclined plane V = P sin θ
Normal and shear stresses
• If we know the areas on which the forces act, we can calculate the associated
stresses.
Normal and Shear stresses on
Normal stress to the inclined Shear stress tangent to the the inclined plane at angle θ.
plane at angle θ inclined plane at angle θ.
Introduction to Stress Elements
• A stress element is used to describe the stresses
experienced by a material at a point.

• Isolate a small element and show stresses acting on

all faces.

• Dimensions are “infinitesimal” but are drawn to a

large scale.
Introduction to Stress Elements

• Sign convention for 𝜏ab:

Subscript a indicates the “face” on which the stress acts (positive x

“face” is perpendicular to the positive x direction) Subscript b
indicates the direction in which the stress acts Strictly σx = σxx, σy = σyy,
σz = σzz
Stress Elements and Plane Stress
• When an element is in plane stress in the xy plane, only the x and y faces are subjected to
stresses (σ𝑧 = 0 and τzx = τxz = τzy = τyz = 0).

• Such an element could be located on the free surface of a body (no stresses acting on the free
surface).
Stress Elements – Stress Transformation
• The stress system is known in terms of coordinate system xy. We want to find the stresses in terms
of the rotated coordinate system x1y1.

• Why? A material may yield or fail at the maximum value of σ or 𝜏. This value may occur at some
angle other than θ = 0. (Remember that for uniaxial tension the maximum shear stress occurred
when θ = 45 degrees.)
Stress Elements – Stress Transformation
Stress Elements – Stress Transformation

Using the following trigonometric identities gives the transformation

equations for plane stress:
Stress Elements – Stress Transformation
 Exercise
The state of plane stress at a point is represented by the stress element below.
Determine the stresses acting on an element oriented 30° clockwise with respect to
the original element.
Solution:
Solution:
Principal Stress and Strain
• When there is NO shear stresses acting on the planes, the planes experience the
maximum normal stress acting on them.

• These planes are called the principal planes, and stresses normal to these planes are the
principal stresses σx, σy and σz.

• Principal stress is the possible extreme value of the

normal stress acting on a principal plane in the material.

• So, the principal plane is the plane on which normal stress

attains its maximum and minimum value.

• The maximum normal stress is called major principal stress

while minimum normal stress is called minor principal stress.
Principal Stress and Strain
• When shear stresses are zero, then the transformation equation for shear stress becomes:

=0

• Which gives:

• 𝜃+ is the position of the principal planes.

• There are two values of 2θp in the range 0-360°, with values differing by 180°. There are two values
of θp in the range 0-180°, with values differing by 90°. So, the planes on which the principal stresses
act are mutually perpendicular.
Principal Stress and Strain
• We can now solve for the principal stresses by substituting for θp in the stress transformation
equation for σx1. This tells us which principal stress is associated with which principal angle.
Principal Stress and Strain
• Substituting for R and re-arranging gives the two principal stresses:

• To find out which principal stress goes with which principal angle, we could use the equations for
sin θp and cos θp or for σx1.

Note: Two values of 2θp in the range 0-360°, with

values differing by 180° or two values of θp in the
range 0-180°, with values differing by 90°.
 Exercise
The state of plane stress at a point is represented by the stress element below.
Determine the principal stresses and draw the corresponding stress element.
 Solution:

But we must check which angle goes with which principal stress.
Maximum Shear Stress
To find the maximum shear stress, we must differentiate the transformation equation for shear.

• There are two values of 2θs in the range 0-360°, with values
differing by 180°, or two values of θs in the range 0-180°, with
values differing by 90°. So, the planes on which the maximum
shear stresses act are mutually perpendicular.
Maximum Shear Stress
• Because shear stresses on perpendicular planes have equal magnitudes, the maximum positive
and negative shear stresses differ only in sign.

• We can now solve for the maximum shear stress by substituting for θs in the stress transformation
equation for 𝜏 x1y1.
Maximum Shear Stress
• Substituting for R and re-arranging gives the two shear stresses:

• Use equations for sin θs and cos θs or 𝜏x1y1 to find out which face has the positive shear stress and which the
negative.

• What normal stresses act on the planes with maximum shear stress? Substitute for θs in the equations for σx1
and σy1 to get
 Exercise
The state of plane stress at a point is represented by the stress element below.
Determine the maximum shear stresses and draw the corresponding stress element.
Solution:

• But we must check which angle goes with

which shear stress.
Solution:
Principal and Maximum Shear Stresses
• Finally, we can ask how the principal stresses and maximum shear stresses are related
and how the principal angles and maximum shear angles are related.
Principal and Maximum Shear Stresses
Representative Volume Element for principal stresses Representative Volume Element for max. shear stresses

Zero shear stresses

Stress Transformation: Graphical Method (Mohr’s Circle)
• Mohr’s circle is a graphical method for easily determining the normal and
shear stresses without using the stress transformation equations.

• It was invented by Christian Otto Mohr (8 October 1835 – 2 October 1918),

a German civil engineer.
Stress Transformation: Graphical Method (Mohr’s Circle)

• Steps for constructing a Mohr’s Circle for plane stress:

1) Consider information from the stress element
The goal is to find:
2) Identify and plot two points: A = (𝜎" , 𝜏"# ) and B = (𝜎# , −𝜏"# ),
&! '&"
3) Connect the two points through the centre of the circle, C, (a) Average normal stress ( )
%
given by 𝜎$%&'$(& 𝑎𝑛𝑑 0, so C = (𝜎$%&'. , 0).
(b) Principal stresess (𝜎( and 𝜎% )
𝜎" + 𝜎#
𝜎$%&'$(& = (c) Maximum shear stress (𝜏)*+ )
2

*! +*" , (d) Principal angles (𝜃, )

4) Find the radius R on the circle, R = + 𝜏"# ,.
,
(e) Maximum shear angles (𝜃- )
5) Draw the circle using steps 1) to 4) information.
6) Mark the principal and shear stresses on the circle.
 Example:

60 MPa
Draw the Mohr’s circle and determine the following:

30 MPa ,# -,$
(a) Average normal stress ( )
.

45 MPa
(b) Principal stresess (𝜎/ and 𝜎. )

(c) Maximum shear stress (𝜏012 )

(d) Principal angles (𝜃+ )

(e) Maximum shear angles (𝜃3 )