Earth and Planetary Science

Honorary Editor-in-Chief
Zheng-Xiang Li
Curtin University, Australia
Editor-in-Chief
Albert Galy
CRPG - CNRS - Université de Lorraine, France
Associate Editor
Maria Gritsevich
Finnish Geospatial Research Institute (FGI), Finland
Editorial Board Members
Angelo De Santis, Italy Xiaojun Xu, China

Yangting Lin, China Karoly Nemeth, Hungary
Ross Mitchell, China Shaunna M. Morrison, United States
Ian M. Coulson, Canada Stavro L. Ivanovski, Italy
Andrea Brogi, Italy Alessandro Mura, Italy
Michele Paternoster, Italy Chengmin Zhang, China
Chi Pui Tang, China Luka Č. Popović, Serbia
Pál Sümegi, Hungary Xuanmei Fan, China
Long Xiao, China Kebiao Mao, China
Yazhou Yang, China Xiaoping Zhang, China
Sandor Gulyas, Hungary Rui Li, China
David C Fernández-Remolar, China Armel Zacharie Ekoa Bessa, Cameroon
Jean-Louis Vigneresse, France Lidong Dai, China
Marek Tulej, Switzerland
Volume 2 Issue 2·October 2023 ISSN 2810-9732 (Online)
Earth and
Planetary Science
Honorary Editor-in-Chief
Zheng-Xiang Li
Editor-in-Chief
Albert Galy
Volume 2 ｜ Issue 2 ｜ October 2023 ｜ Page1-99
Earth and Planetary Science
Contents
Research Articles
1 Petrochemistry of Phyllites from Patharkhola, Lesser Kumaun Himalaya with Reference to Tectonic
Implications
Haritabh Rana Harel Thomas Aman Soni Satyam Shukla
10 Geophysical Evaluation of Agricultural Potential of Orlu and Environs Using Landsat Imagery
Chukwuebuka N. Onwubuariri Chidimma O. Ikeme Lebe A. Nnanna Boniface I. Ijeh Chidiebere C. Agoha
Cynthia C. Nwaeju Obinna C. Dinneya Festus U. Nwaneho
21 Some Remarks about Asteroid Impact Triggered “Bioaerosol” Escape during a Putative Microbial
Exchange between Early Earth and Mars
Balázs Bradák
33 Revisiting Recent Amplitude and Phase Variations of the Chandler Wobble and Free Core Nutation
Zinovy Malkin
38 Contribution to the Knowledge of Twenty Members of the Lagenid Benthic Foraminifera in the South-
ern Tethys
Haidar Salim Anan
55 Facies and Hydrocarbon Reservoir Rock Characterization of the Paleozoic Rocks of Peshawar Basin,
northwest Pakistan
Sajjad Ahmad Sohail Raza Suleman Khan
68 Interpretation of Geothermal Magnetic Depths, Physicochemical Parameters and Heavy Metals Deter-
mination of Lamurde Hot-spring in the North-Eastern Benue Trough, Nigeria
Mukaila Abdullahi Yunis B. Valdon Fartisincha P. Andrew Adamu Usman Abba Ibrahim Maigari
75 Results of the Application of Direct-search Mobile Technology in the Exploration Blocks of Shakal and
Halabja (Kurdistan)
Mykola Yakymchuk Arzu Javadova Ignat Korchagin
Review
86 Origin of the Moon and Lunar Water

Nick Gorkavyi
Earth and Planetary Science | Volume 02 | Issue 02 | October 2023

https://journals.nasspublishing.com/index.php/eps
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Petrochemistry of Phyllites from Patharkhola, Lesser Kumaun
Himalaya with Reference to Tectonic Implications
Haritabh Rana Harel Thomas* Aman Soni Satyam Shukla
Department of Applied Geology, Dr. Harisingh Gour Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Sagar (M.P.), 470003, India
ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT
Article history Phyllites from Patharkhola, Lesser Kumaun Himalaya have been studied
Received: 17 April 2023 to investigate the geochemical characteristics of these rocks and their
formation processes and mechanism of emplacement. Petrographically,
Revised: 27 May 2023 phyllites have been showing the mineral assemblages as Biotite (25%
Accepted: 31 May 2023 approx.)-chlorite (25% approx.)-muscovite (20% approx.)-quartz (10%
Published Online: 21 July 2023 approx.)-feldspar (10% approx.)-sericite (5% approx.). Geochemically,
the analysed four samples of phyllites have high SiO2 and Al2O3 values.
Keywords: Phyllites with higher alumina have more enrichment of trace elements. The
enrichment of Zr and depletion of Y and Nb indicate preferential survival
Phyllites of zircon in extreme weathering conditions. The HFSE has shown variation
Geochemistry in the ratios due to decoupling with the major oxides. The enrichment of
Tectonic settings LREE and depletion of HREE suggest mixing of the terrigenous sediments
with the concominant magma. Discrimination plots to classify the tectonic
Almora
settings suggested that the phyllites of Patharkhola have formed in active
continental margins.
1. Introduction
its axis trending in NW-SE direction plunging due, south
The Himalaya, arc-shaped mountain belt covering the east. These comprise chiefly metamorphic derivatives of
whole boundary of northern India is an example of an pelitic, semi-pelitic and psammitic sediments. The area
intercontinental collision between Indian and Asian plates of investigation, around Patharkhola, District Almora,
around 55 Ma ago [1-7]. The structure, stratigraphy and forms the southern limb of Almora Crystallines [15-17] lying
tectonics of the Lesser Kumaun Himalaya have been de- between longitude 79°09’E to 79°17’56”E and latitude
scribed by Auden [8]; Valdiya [9,10]; Thomas & Thomas [11]; 29°47’42”N to 29°56’69”N with an approximate area of
Thomas & Thomas [12]; Joshi et al. [13]; Joshi et al. [14]; around 120 square kilometres (Figure 1). The main rock
Rana and Thomas [15]. The Almora group of rocks forms a types exposed in the area are gneisses, schists and phyl-
part of the Lesser Himalayas bounded by North and South lites. In this paper, the authors discuss the geochemical
Almora thrust [9]. Almora Crystallines are disposed of in characteristics of phyllites to understand their process of
the form of a broad asymmetrical synformal nappe with formation.
*Corresponding Author:
Harel Thomas,
Department of Applied Geology, Dr. Harisingh Gour Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Sagar (M.P.), 470003, India;
Email: [email protected]
DOI: https://doi.org/10.36956/eps.v2i2.842
Copyright © 2023 by the author(s). Published by Nan Yang Academy of Sciences Pte. Ltd. This is an open access article under the
Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by-nc/4.0/).
1
± 200 Ma. Old [21] by Rb/Sr isotopic data. Islam et al. [22]
proposed Proterozoic granitoids of Lesser Himalaya be
grouped into older clusters of 2200-1800 Ma and younger
clusters of 1400-1200 Ma age. Kohn et al. [23] proposed
a U-Pb zircon age of 1830 ± 50 Ma for the Paleoprote-
rozoic edge arc of Lesser Himalayas. Mandal et al. [24]
dated biotite augen gneiss for U-Pb zircon date as 1878
± 2.4 Ma. The metamorphic terrain of Lesser Himalayas
exhibits multiple deformation patterns and polyphase met-
amorphism [25], which is well exposed in the central part
of Almora nappe. Phyllites are widely distributed in the
area under investigation (Figure 1); exposed in the NW,
S to SW and in the western part of the area. The phyllites
are grey, greenish grey, brownish and greyish green and
at places become compact and siliceous. At a few places,
phyllites show more increase in the silica content giving a
quartzitic appearance to these phyllites. The phyllites are
composed of chlorite, mica, quartz and feldspar. At some
localities, these phyllites exhibit iron enrichment or chlo-
rite knots too. The phyllites are characterised by well-de-
veloped schistosity (S2). At some localities, the colour
Figure 1. Detailed geological map around Patharkhola bands in siliceous phyllites show bedding planes (S1). Best
Kumaun Lesser Himalaya Uttarakhand India modified exposures of crushed phyllites can be observed near vil-
after Thomas and Thomas (2003) [12]. lages Ruchiakhal, Syalde and Deghat. Phyllites of the area
are highly folded [12]. Fold structures such as gentle folds,
2. Geological Setting asymmetrical folds and chevron folds are well exposed at
In the Kumaun region, the Lesser Himalayan sequence several places and can be easily seen on the motor road
is delineated by MCT from the Higher Himalayan in the leading to Udaipur around Chachroti, Galigaon, Kueta
north and by MBT from the Siwaliks in the south [18]. The and from Ruchaikhal to Pipalkhal. At a few localities,
Almora group of rocks forming the largest nappe dom- ptygmatic folds are also found associated with the quartz
inantly consists of metapelites and meta-psammite. The vein intruded in phyllites. Phyllites showing asymmetrical
sequence of these rocks has shown amphibolite grade folds are exposed along the road to Ruchaikhal village
of metamorphism [19] with maximum P-T estimates as (Figure 2). Chevron folds are commonly observed in this
575 °C and 8 kbar. These metapelitic rocks are considered rock type (Figure 3). The phyllites of the area under inves-
to be of Precambrian age [1,16,20]. In Kumaun Himalaya, tigation show a strike of WNW-ESE dipping towards the
the Munsiyari gneisses of Almora Group were dated 1830 northern directions.
Figure 2. Asymmetrical fold developed in phyllite. Loca- Figure 3. Chevron fold exposed in phyllite. Location
tion Ruchiakhal Village. Ruchiakhal road.
2
3. Petrography to the rock heterogeneities as feldspar and quartz have

high strength behaviour as compared to phylosillicate, due
The dominant mineral assemblage of phyllites is biotite to which some of the mica grains have rotated during the
(25% approx.)-chlorite (25% approx.)-muscovite (20% deformation process. Biotite based on mutual relationship
approx.)-quartz (10% approx.)-feldspar (10% approx.)- and relation with schistosity, two different variants have
sericite (5% approx.) along with ilmenite and magnetite been recognized. Biotite I along with muscovite I and
as accessories. The preferred orientation of chlorite and chlorite grains defines the schistosity (Figures 4-6).
micas defines the well-developed schistosity. Elongated Quartz usually fine grained occurs with feldspar and
grains of quartz and feldspar run parallel to the schistosity biotite grains aligned parallel to the schistosity plane.
planes. Recrystallized quartz showing wavy extinction and inclu-
Chlorite shows yellowish green to light green pleo- sions of sericite and chlorite is observed at a few places.
chroism, first order interference colour is usually observed Feldspar, both orthoclase and plagioclase feldspar is
occurring as tiny specks which are fibrous in nature. It observed. Plagioclase feldspar mostly albite to oligoclase
shows preferred orientation marking the schistosity along is observed to have anorthite content as An06 to An 12,
with the mica minerals. Two variants of muscovite have measured during the microscopic study. At most of the
been distinguished based on the grain size and grain rela- places, both feldspars are showing alteration towards
tionship with other minerals. Muscovite I show preferred sericitization.
orientation marking the schistosity along with the biotite Sericite usually occurs as alteration products in feld-
and chlorite grains. Muscovite II showing angular rela- spar (both orthoclase and plagioclase) along with in some
tionship with the other mica grains has been observed due grains of quartz.
Figure 4. Mineral association of biotite, chlorite, mus- Figure 5. Phyllite (HR63) shows a mineral assemblage of
covite and quartz in phyllite (HR39) under cross nicol. biotite, muscovite, chlorite, feldspar and quartz (Abbrevi-
(Abbreviations are after Whitney and Evans, 2010) [26]. ations are after Whitney and Evans, 2010) [26].
Figure 6. Phyliite (HR92) shows a mineral assemblage

of chlorite, biotite, muscovite and quartz (Abbreviations
after Whitney and Evans, 2010) [26].
3
4. Geochemistry and Petrogenesis to 0.83%, respectively. The K2O/Al2O3 ratio is higher as

compared to the Na2O/Al2O3 ratio, clearly differentiated
Four samples of phyllites analyzed by X-ray fluo- from igneous rocks [28] (Figure 7). Even though meta-
rescence method (XRF) and Inductively Coupled Plas- morphism may alter the original chemistry, changes are
ma-mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) method, respectively, at themselves related to plate tectonic environments and
the Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehradun are bulk composition should still reflect the tectonic settings.
tabulated in Table 1. K and Na being mobile are easily affected by low grade
The SiO2 and Al2O3 content varies from 65.81 to 79.9% metamorphism, but phyllites being dominantly composed
and from 10.13 to 16.82%, respectively. The FeOT content of biotite along with a subordinate amount of feldspar
varies from 3.15 to 10.97%. The average Na2O and K2O compensate for K and Na in the system. It is evident that
content in the phyllites is 3.38% and 3.25%, respectively. all samples fall within the field specified for sedimentary
The average K2O/Na2O ratio of these rocks is 0.96 which rock. Figure 8 [29] shows that the phyllites dominantly fall
is usually four times less than the mean value of PAAS in the wacke-arkose field with higher SiO2/Al2O3 ratio as
standard [27]. TiO2 content of the rocks varies from 0.13 compared to Fe2O3/K2O. The plots between SiO2 versus
Table 1. Major oxides, REE, trace elements and CIPW norm of phyllites.
Sample No. HR69 HR39 HR63 HR97 Sample No. HR69 HR39 HR63 HR97
Trace elements
SiO2 73.41 65.81 79.9 73.79 Sc 2 8 3 11
Al2O3 15.85 16.82 10.13 12.3 V 9 59 11 42
Fe2O3 1.67 4.69 1.77 5.28 Cr 219 199 474 2605
FeO 1.48 4.17 1.57 5.69 Co 128 45 443 343
MnO 0.04 0.07 0.01 0.08 Ni 175 132 398 2227
MgO 0.2 1.13 0.12 0.8 Cu 4 28 19 37
Cao 0.57 0.69 0.22 0.58 Zn 49 87 12 51
Na2O 3.59 2.74 4.23 2.98 Ga 15 19 4 10
K2O 4.64 3.44 2.13 2.8 Rb 350 136 65 116
TiO2 0.13 0.69 0.24 0.83 Sr 69 82 87 95
P2O5 0.26 0.04 0.03 0.03 Y 34 36 18 28
Total 101.84 100.29 100.35 105.16 Zr 50 367 133 511
FeO/MgO 7.4 3.69 13.083 7.112 Nb 14 21 4 17
K2O/Na2O 1.292 1.255 0.503 0.939 Ba 173 737 498 649
Na2O/ Al2O3 0.226 0.162 0.417 0.242 Pb 36 21 11 18
Rare Earth Elements Th 4 24 8 25
La 12.413 76.69 21.965 102.22 U BDL 6.6 BDL 2.8
Ce 21.874 146.17 55.35 178.17
Er 1.575 8.263 1.758 4.72
Tm 0.22 1.214 0.277 0.694
Yb 1.32 7.71 1.723 4.31
Lu 0.18 1.04 0.24 0.56
LREE 58.485 356.902 109.613 419.558
HREE 9.266 39.208 8.167 23.42
REE total 67.751 396.11 117.78 442.978
LREE/HREE 6.311 9.102 13.421 17.914
La/Eu 17.582 31.0234 22.231 49.429
Eu/Lu 3.922 2.376 4.116 3.692
4
other oxides are shown in Figure 9. The plot of SiO2 ver-

sus Na2O, CaO, Al2O3, MgO and MnO shows regression
of more than 0.5. In general, phyllites having Al2O3 values
of more than 15% show higher trace elements contents.
The plot of SiO2 versus trace elements is shown in Figure
10. The enrichment of Zr and depleted Y, Nb values indi-
cate the preferential survival of zircon in extreme weath-
ering conditions due to the decoupled behaviour of Y and
Nb as compared to Zr. Ni and Cr show higher values as
compared to PAAS. Co values are ranging from 45 to 343
ppm. The Ni/Co ratio ranges from 0.8 to 6.5 Ni shows a
wide range of values with respect to Co whose values are Figure 7. K2O/Al2O3 versus Na2O/Al2O3 after Garrels and
clustered. In terms of ratios of trace elements, variabil- Mackenzie (1971) [28].
ity has been observed as Co/Th is on higher side due to
higher values of Co as compared to Th while Sc/Th is on
the lower side as the Sc is consistently low as compared
to Th. HFSE ratios have shown quite a variability as the
Zr/Nb ratio ranges from 3.5 to 33.2 while the Zr/Y ratio
shows 1.4 to 18.2. This is due to decoupling of the HFSE
in the major oxides.
The REE data of phyllites shows enrichment of LREE
and depletion of HREE. The LREE ranges from 58.4 to
419.5 while the HREE ranges from 8.2-39.2. The rare
earth data for the selected phyllitic assemblage were
normalized to chondrites [30]. Their values are plotted in
Figure 11, and it shows slightly steeper to almost flatter
light rare earth element (LREE) pattern with La/Eu ratio Figure 8. Log (SiO2/Al2O3) versus log (Fe2O3/K2O) after
of 30.06, a relatively flat to a slightly enriched heavy rare Herron (1988) [29] for classification of terrigenous sedi-
earth element (HREE) pattern with Eu/Lu ratio of 3.05. ments and shales.
Figure 9. Harker variation diagram of Silica versus major oxides.
5
Figure 10. Harker variation diagram of Silica versus trace elements.
lisional tectonics and deformation is formed during the

mechanism of orogeny or plate convergence leading to
the formation of continental arc or active continental mar-
gin settings. These depositional environments forming in
these regions are usually underlain by thick and elevated
continental crust [32]. Geochemical composition of phyl-
lites is plotted in these ternary plots. Figures 12 and 13
falls in the active continental margin and passive margin
continental settings. The plot of SiO2 versus K2O/Na2O
(Figure 14) shows that phyllites of Patharkhola have been
formed in the active continental margin.
Figure 11. Chondrite normalised plot for Phyllites,

Patharkhola, Sun and McDonough, 1989 [30].
5. Tectonic Implications
Studies have traditionally shown that geochemistry
plays a crucial role as a sensitive indicator in determining
the provenance of sedimentary and metasedimentary rocks
and also to constrain the tectonic setting in which they
were deposited [31-34]. Trace elements such as Co, Sc, Ni,
Zr, Th, La and others are used for tectonic environment
discrimination due to their fractionation and low mobility
in sedimentary environments. Bhatia [31] proposed ternary Figure 12. Th-Sc-Zr/10 tectonic setting discrimination
plots of Sc-Th-Zr/10 and Sc-La-Th. The process of col- ternary diagrams (after Bhatia & Crook 1986) [32].
6
dicating their preponderance of K-feldspars and micas.

The enrichment of Zr and depletion of Y and Nb indicate
preferential survival of zircon in extreme weathering con-
ditions. The HFSE has shown variation in the ratios due
to decoupling with the major oxides. Fluids at magmatic
arcs are usually marked by enrichment of LREE and LILE
along with relative depletion of HFSE. The enrichment
of LREE and depletion of HREE suggest mixing of the
terrigenous sediments with the magma [33]. Discrimination
plots to classify the tectonic settings suggested that the
phyllites of Patharkhola have formed in active continental
margins. The reliability of such diagrams is supported by
the rock minerology as it is dominated by biotite along
with a subordinate amount of feldspar. Such minerology
guarantee that the K and Na were immobile at low grade
metamorphism. This can be considered that the Lesser
Himalayan rocks have subducted during the collisional
processes leading to the formation of tholeiitic magma
Figure 13. La-Th-Sc tectonic setting discrimination terna-
followed by a mixing of melt and crustal contamination.
ry diagram after Bhatia & Crook (1986) [32].
Afterwards, the exhumation of the asthenosphere is asso-
ciated with arc magmatism.
Author Contributions
Author Haritabh Rana carried out the field work along
with Aman Soni and Satyam Shukla as a part of his Ph.D.
work under the supervision of Harel Thomas who concep-
tualized the work. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This research received no external funding.
Figure 14. SiO2 versus K2O/Na2O for Patharkhola rocks Acknowledgement

after Roger and Korsch 1986 [33]. The authors should like to put on record their candid
thanks to the Head, Department of Applied Geology, Doc-
6. Discussion & Conclusions tor Harisingh Gour Vishwavidyalaya, Sagar (M.P.) and the
Department of Science and Technology, New Delhi, India
Phyllites exposed in the western part of the Patharkho-
for providing PURSE- Phase -II facilities for conducting
la area of District Almora exposed in the NW, S to SW.
present research work. The authors express sincere thanks
They are grey, greenish grey, brownish and greyish green
to the reviewers for their critical and constructive reviews
in colour, fine-grained and thinly foliated. Phyllites of the
which significantly improved the focus and clarity of the
area are highly folded showing gentle folds, asymmetrical
manuscript.
folds and chevron folds. Along with all these, ptygmat-
ic folds are also found associated with the quartz vein Data Availability Statement
intruded in phyllites. Based on the mineral paragenesis,
phyllites have been containing Chlorite-biotite-seric- The data used for writing this manuscript have been
ite-quartz-muscovite. Geochemically, the phyllites have attached in Table 1.
high SiO2 and Al2O3 values along with higher ratios of
Conflict of Interest
K2O/Al2O3 and SiO2/Al2O3. Phyllites with higher Al2O3
values have a strong association with trace elements in- All authors disclosed no any conflict of interest.
7
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Geology. 104(1-4), 1-37. tectonic setting of sandstone mudstone suites using
[28] Mackenzie, F.T., Garrels, R.M., 1971. Evolution of SiO2 content and K2O/Na2O ratio. Journal of Geolo-
sedimentary rocks. Norton: New York. gy. 94(5), 635-650.
[29] Herron, M.M., 1988. Geochemical classification of [34] Madukwe, H.Y., Obasi, R.A., Fakolade, O.R., et al.,
terrigenous sands and shales from core or log data. 2015. Provenance, tectonic setting and source-area
Journal of Sedimentary Research. 58(5), 820-829. weathering of the coastal plain sediments, South
[30] Sun, S.S., McDonough, W.F., 1989. Chemical and iso- West, Nigeria. Science Research Journal (SCIRJ).
topic systematics of oceanic basalts: Implications for 3(2), 20-31.
9

RESEARCH ARTICLE
Geophysical Evaluation of Agricultural Potential of Orlu and Envi-
rons Using Landsat Imagery
Chukwuebuka N. Onwubuariri1* Chidimma O. Ikeme2 Lebe A. Nnanna1 Boniface I. Ijeh1
Chidiebere C. Agoha3 Cynthia C. Nwaeju4 Obinna C. Dinneya1 Festus U. Nwaneho5
1. Department of Physics, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike, 440101, Nigeria
2. Department of Microbiology, Federal University of Technology, Owerri, 340110, Nigeria
3. Department of Geology, Federal University of Technology, Owerri, 340110, Nigeria
4. Department of Mechanical Engineering, Nigeria Maritime University, Okerekoko, Delta State, 332105, Nigeria
5. Department of Physics, Federal University of Technology, Owerri, 340110, Nigeria
Article history The scarcity of food afflicting third-world countries, particularly Nigeria,
Received: 19 April 2023 case study Orlu zone, Imo State, Nigeria, is intolerable, given the high
rate of environmental degradation in the form of erosions, nation’s poor
Revised: 30 May 2023 economic state, insecurity, and extremely low per capita income of citizens,
Accepted: 5 June 2023 motivated this research. This research is tailored to a possible approach to
Published Online: 13 June 2023 combating the threat of food insecurity via geophysical investigation of
agricultural potential areas and as well help in managing food insecurity
Keywords: ravaging the area, particularly in this post-COVID lockdown era. In this
research, a geophysical approach—Landsat imagery and interpretation—
Agriculture was used to identify areas with high agricultural yielding potentials and
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) how to exploit them for bumper agricultural harvests to sustain livelihood
Lineaments and alleviate the food crisis and food inflation ravaging the zone. Within
the study area, the following data were collected: Normalized Difference
Drainage
Vegetation Index (NDVI) map, lineament map and drainage pattern map.
Food They were interpreted, and areas with high agricultural yield potentials
were mapped. Band ratios (3/4, 4/2, 3/1, 5/4) were generated to reduce the
effects of shadowing and as well improve the features present. The NDVI
values that indicate soil viability, generated within the study area range
from –0.22 to 0.51.
1. Introduction
tional Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), on
The use of the Landsat satellite has been consistent March 1, 2022, launched the most recent Geostationary
since the launching of the first satellite in 1972. The Na- Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES-T), which
Chukwuebuka N. Onwubuariri,
Department of Physics, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike, 440101, Nigeria;
by-nc/4.0/).
10
will ensure and provide coverage of environmental and cultural applications and uses of Landsat imagery, unrave-
weather conditions and as well make predictions as it re- ling both the merits and drawbacks, if any, with respect to
lates to weather. For about 50 years now, there has been the use of this technology.
a steady gathering of satellite imagery and this has led to
the availability of the longest continuous archive of such Location Study Area
imagery presently available [1]. The study area Orlu and its environs as seen in Figure
Landsat can be applied in various aspects of life for 1, are located in Imo state, Southeastern Nigeria and it is
different uses. Its benefits include ensuring water con- defined with Longitude 6o40’0” E-7o10’0” E and Latitude
servation and the safety of the public. It also provides a 5o10’0” N-6o0’0” N. There are two pronounced seasons
guide for field workers who are saddled with the decision within the study area: The dry season, which spans be-
of managing natural resources as it assists them in devel- tween November and March, and the wet or rainy season,
oping the proper developmental strategies and plans [2].
which is primarily experienced between April and Octo-
Irrespective of research carried out on Landsat imagery,
ber, having its peak in June and July. The vegetation of the
the overall advantage of open access Landsat imagery is
area is monsoon and tropical Savannah. Plants like Palm
not so easy to predict as a result of many downstream and
trees, yams, cassava, cocoyam, maize, and other crops are
value-added uses.
frequently grown in the area.
Some analytical surveys were carried out in 2009 and
2012 to estimate the economic advantages of Landsat 2. Materials and Method
imagery employing the contingent method of assessment.
There has been a series of case evaluations on Landsat The study area was geophysically mapped using geo-
by USGS in addition to the surveys Carried out by Miller logic and topographic maps. Physical observations of the
and others [3]. A more quantitative approach was taken for vegetation, drainage, and lineaments within the study area
these case studies, looking into the defined application of were also made. Geomorphological activities such as top
Landsat, its merit and demerit as appraised by the users. soil weathering were also considered because they have
Specific examples of applications of imagery, advantages an impact on agricultural practices.
and drawbacks that arise from them give the details of us- The national space research and development center
ers and uses as well. agency (NSRDA) provided a seven-band Landsat En-
The application of Landsat imagery in the investigation hanced Thematic Mapper (ETM) image of Orlu and its
of agriculturally viable areas within Orlu and its environs, environs. The same area was also imaged by the shut-
Nigeria is the focus of this research. Monitoring of ag- tle radar topographic mission (SRTM). Ground control
ricultural production and food availability has become a points (GCPs) and Satellite orbit transformation were
major concern in Nigeria as the country’s population con- employed for the correction of imagery. These Image
tinues to grow astronomically. According to the Food and corrections were performed with the aid of geo-coded
Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations and Landsat multispectral scanner (MSS), SPOT (Satellite
the United Nations World Food Programme (WFP), Nige- Pour l’Observation de la Terre) Multispectral data (image
ria will face food insecurity and it is expected to last from to image geo-coding) and the Universal Transverse Mer-
June 2022 to August 2022 and possibly beyond. WFP and cator (UTM) coordinate system. Radiometric amendments
FAO [4] predicted a population of 19.4 million Nigerians were also carried out on each scene. Band 1 Enhanced
across 21 States of the Federation including the Federal Thematic Mapper (ETM) data which permeates water for
Capital Territory (FCT) to face food insecurity during the bathymetric mapping across the coastline was used to dif-
period, with 14.4 million people representing about 74.2% ferentiate soil vegetation and types of forest [5]. ETM Band
of the predicted population, already facing the crisis. It is 2 was used in the estimation of green reflectance from
worthy of note that tremendous improvements have been healthy plants, while Band 3 estimated the chlorophyll
made in the last 50 years in agriculture with the practice assimilation in vegetation. ETM Band 4 was employed
of irrigation, crop rotation, fertilization, crop rotation and perfectly in spotting the peaks in near-infrared reflectance
other technologies. These practices have contributed im- of healthy green vegetation including water bodies/land
mensely to improving and increasing agricultural yield borders. Soil moisture and vegetation were analyzed using
globally and Landsat imagery has played a huge role in the two mid-Infrared bands (Bands 5 and 7). They were
informing management decisions, mostly at a global level also employed in making distinctions between rock and
in monitoring agricultural production or maximizing yield mineral types. The thermal-Infrared Band on ETM Band 6
for a local field. This study investigates a number of agri- was also used in analyzing soil moisture and vegetation [6].
11
Map of Nigeria
Figure 1. Location map of the study area.
Fig. 1
Single band images, band ratio, colour composite and vegetation. To evaluate crop yields, field performance and
classified images of the study area were gotten by digital capacities of rangeland in the study of vegetation, NDVI
processing and enhancing the Landsat 5 ETM data of the has been of immense help. It is also employed in studying
area for the study area and these were supplemented by some soil features like the percentage of ground cover,
digitized geologic maps. Drainage configurations and sur- photosynthetic behaviour of plants, surface water, leaf
faces, bare soils, and vegetated areas were boosted by en- area index and quantity of biomass [7]. NDVI information
hancing the single-band images. A digital elevation model can be generated by aiming at satellite bands with more
(DEM) was created via the use of SRTM data and it is reliable facts about vegetation. This is aided as a result of
beneficial in recognizing sands ridges. Colours were used already established behavioral attributes of plants across
as background data for both supervised and unsupervised the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum (Near-Infrared and
image classifications. Red). The amount of vegetation within an area is deter-
mined by how large the difference between near-infrared
3. Theoretical Background and red reflectance is.
 −
3.1 Brief Review of Normalized Difference Vege-   = (1)
 +
tation Index (NDVI)
NIR = Near Infrared, RED = Red Reflectance.
The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) The NDVI expression implies that two similar veg-
is a numerical pointer that makes use of the visible and etative covers may have discordant values especially if
near-infrared bands of the electromagnetic spectrum in one is in bright sunlight and the other is under a cloudy
scrutinizing and analyzing remote sensing quantities and sky. The digital number (DN) of its pixels under bright
decides if the target being examined contains live green sunlight will be higher, thereby generating entirely a large
12
difference between the bands. NDVI values are presented lithology. The fundamental knowledge is that rivers flow
theoretically in the form of a ratio extending from –1 to from areas of high elevation to areas of low elevation
1. Practically, high negative values indicate water, values along the maximum regional topographic gradient. There
around zero show bare soil, and values higher than 0.6 are different drainage forms and they include Dendritic,
signifies dense green vegetation. parallel, trellis, rectangular, radial/centrifugal, annular,
and contorted [14,13]. Drainage irregularities are described
3.2 Lineaments as unconformities from a dendritic pattern circumlocutory
to the regional topographic gradient. These deviations re-
Lineaments deduced from satellite images are usual-
sult from structural or lithological incoherence [15].
ly employed in revealing major azimuth arrays whose
alignment offers a clue of an area’s regional fractured 4. Results and Discussion
setting [8-10]. Geomorphologically, lineaments are described
as mappable, common or complex linear surface attrib- The Landsat 5-ETM data were treated and analyzed
utes with fragments aligning rectilinearly or moderately using different types of image boosting and modification
in curvilinear form, having pronounced differences from processes. Band ratios for image modification and trans-
adjacent patterns and apparently reflecting the subsurface formations were generated using IDRISI 32 calculator
module [16]. These ratios (3/4, 4/2, 3/1, 5/4) were gener-
peculiarities [11]. Hobbs [12] identified linear surface expres-
ated to reduce the effects of shadowing and to improve
sions as valleys, ridges, elevated area boundaries, rivers,
the detection of particular features. IDRISI 32 composite
coastlines, rock formation boundary lines, and fracture
module was also in use to generate three band Red, Green,
zones. The recognition of lineaments within an area is
and Blue (RGB) color composites for image enhance-
influenced by the types of outcrops observed within the
ment. The spectral qualities of images were improved via
area. The existence of thick vegetation, alluvial deposits,
this method. Composites were generated in the following
volcanic ashes, and human activities like landscape mod-
forms: RGB 357, RGB 751, RGB 752, and NDVI com-
ification can pose some problems in the identification of
posite. These ratios generated were carefully analyzed
lineaments.
alongside with digital elevation model to extract informa-
3.3 Drainage Patterns tion and subsequently attribute the color patterns observed
to that of color composites.
Howard [13] postulated that examination and analysis IDRISI 32 was used to generate a digital elevation
of drainage expose the details of structural attributes and model as seen in Figure 2 from Shuttle Radar Topographic
Figure 2. Digital elevation model (DEM) map.

13
Mission (SRTM) data using a color-shaded operation. Us- of land available for agriculture. Lineaments reveal three
ing the ERDAS and ArcView software, the DEM was con- distinct groups of linear features. The most common di-
verted into a contour map. Geomorphic units in the study rection is NE-SW, while others are N-S, E-W, and NW-
area were identified using the DEM [17]. Based on the SE. Figure 4 depicts the drainage map of the study area
image texture and tone, three geomorphic units were iden- superimposed on the lineament map.
tified: A portion of Orlu and Environs, a scarp slope, and To prove the affiliation between geological formations
a low-lying plain. The highest elevations are represented and structural attributes, the interpreted lineaments (Figure
as green patches and are thought to be sandy ridges. This 5) were submerged on the edge-enhanced map with a lin-
feature, visible in the upper right corner of Figure 2, is eament density map (Figure 6) indicating a high-density
thought to be part of the Awka-Orlu Cuesta, which runs fracture area east of Urualla and Orlu town. These lines
NE-SW. The scarp gradient of the ridge was recognized indicate that the top soils used for agriculture have been
by the close packing of light green, yellow, and red colors, weakened and therefore are carried away by runoff due to
demonstrating an abrupt alteration in topography from their loose nature, causing soil erosion. This consequently
116 to 201 meters. There are numerous streams, gullies, leads to non-availability of topsoil used for agriculture
and rivers on the slope. The interpretation of topographic and its nutrients.
high areas as characterized by top soil will be correct. The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)
Similarly, the highest elevation of the study area is depict- is based on a plant’s chlorophyll content, which indicates
ed as green contours on the topographic map (Figure 3), the amount of nutrients in the soil. The higher the chloro-
which corresponds to the green patches on the DEM map phyll content of plants, the more there are nutrients in the
in Figure 2. The study area’s low-lying plain is depicted in soil, implying that the area is very viable for agriculture [18].
blue on the DEM and topographic map. The ridge slope is Areas with low chlorophyll content have low soil nutrients
similar to the one interpreted from the DEM imagery. or have been eroded as top soil used for agriculture has
Linear features with a length of 1km or more were con- been washed away. NDVI was established to demarcate
sidered. The longer lineaments have the greatest potential areas of vegetation and bare soil. Healthy plants were seen
for further development into gullies, limiting the amount to have higher NDVI values due to their high reflectance
Fig. 3 Figure 3. Topographical map of Orlu and Environs.
14
Figure 4. Lineament on drainage map.
Fig 5 Figure 5. Lineament on edge enhanced band 5 map.
15
Figure 6. Lineament density map.
of infrared (band 4) light and relatively low reflectance of likely suitable and less energy-consuming during cultiva-
red (band 3) light. The NDVI is calculated using the for- tion. Overburdens, sand, and other materials are included
mula in Equation (1). in this litho-unit. The RGB752 composite in Figure 8
A closer examination of the NDVI imagery (Figure 7) is very descriptive because it distinguishes between the
revealed that the brown areas with NDVI values between patterns. In Figure 2, the bare soil area, interpreted as a
–0.22 and –0.01 correspond to bare or eroded soils. It is sandy ridge from the DEM, is rendered in lavender and
not recommended to conduct agricultural activities in such magenta, while urban areas are represented in a lavender
areas because crops will barely survive, let alone yield form.
results. Yellow areas (0.01-0.19) correspond to sparsely The areas with vegetation are represented by green
vegetated areas. The lack of vegetation within the zones shades in RGB 357 and 752 as seen in Figures 10 and 8,
may indicate a lack of soil nutrients; though agricultural indicating potentially agricultural high yield areas, which
activities may be permitted only within the said area if is consistent with NDVI as seen in Figure 7. Shades of
significant soil remedial interventions can take place. This blue indicate vegetated areas in RGB 751 (Figure 9),
intervention to improve soil nutrients will undoubtedly be while light brown and light yellow indicates areas with no
capital intensive, as crop yield may not justify the capital or little vegetation.
invested to make the soil viable, so agricultural activities The unsupervised classification which is primarily based
are not recommended. Dense vegetation areas with NDVI on image classification was carried out using ArcGIS. This
values between 0.19 and 0.51 indicate high chlorophyll classification depends on tonal differences as seen in Figure
content. These are invariably natural agricultural viable 11. Nine tonal features were observed in the study area.
areas, as indicated by the color green in Figure 7. The blue and green colors in Figure 11 represent areas with
The dendritic configuration indicates that the underly- mixed vegetation. Yellow areas were discovered in Orlu,
ing sediment is a single unit. Also, the dendritic pattern Urualla, and Umueshi. This was previously interpreted as
shows that the top lithology of the soil is soft and most sand based on the DEM and color composites.
16
Figure 7. Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI).
Fig. 8 Figure 8. Colour composite RGB 752 map.
17
18
Fig. 11 Figure 11. Unsupervised classification map.
5. Conclusions NDVI values are areas best fit for agricultural practices
as they are areas of high soil nutrients with minimal or
Figures 2 and 3 from this study revealed the presence
no erosion threats as a result of topography or even linea-
of a topographic high, which can easily aid runoff or
ments.
washing away of top soil meant for agricultural activities.
To contribute to the resolution of Nigeria’s impending
The presence of lineaments concentrating in the north-
food crisis, it is critical to take note of these areas identi-
eastern part of the study area, as shown in Figures 4 and 6
fied as viable for agriculture and make proper use of them
respectively, revealed that erosion, which is a major factor
for crop yield while investing limited resources.
affecting agricultural practices within the area, is structur-
ally and lithologically controlled. It’s possible that the lin- Author Contributions
eaments provided a path for the top soil to migrate. This
could also imply that the rivers and streams that serve as Chukwuebuka N. Onwubuariri conceptualize this re-
a source of water and irrigation in the area are structurally search and is the main editor of the manuscript; Chidim-
controlled. Hence agricultural practices should be discour- ma O. Ikeme and Chukwuebuka N. Onwubuariri gathered
aged in these areas to limit waste. Should agriculture be all the data used for this research and as well interpreted
practiced in such locations, proper control measures must them after they were being processed; Lebe A. Nnanna
be put in place to ensure sustenance and preservation of and Boniface I. Ijeh supervised the entire research; Chi-
agricultural input for appropriate yield. The study’s find- diebere C. Agoha and Cynthia C. Nwaeju processed the
ings also validate the existence of significant relationships acquired data; Obinna C. Dinneya and Festus U. Nwaneho
between NDVI and crop yield, as shown in Figure 7, and did the literature review. All authors have read and agreed
which Figures 8, 9, and 10 agree with. Areas with high to the published version of the manuscript.
19
Data Availability Statement [8] McElfresh, S.B., Harbert, W., Ku, C.Y., et al., 2002.
Stress modeling of tectonic blocks at Cape Kam-
Data will be made available on request. chatka, Russia using principal stress proxies from
high-resolution SAR: New evidence for the Koman-
Funding
dorskiy Block. Tectonophysics. 354(3-4), 239-256.
This research received no external funding. [9] Casas, A.M., Cortes, A.L., Maestro, A., et al., 2000.
LINDENS: A program for lineament length and den-
Conflict of Interest sity analysis. Computers & Geosciences. 26(9-10),
There is no conflict of interest. 1011-1022.
[10] Koike, K., Nagano, S., Kawaba, K., 1998. Con-
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20

RESEARCH ARTICLE
Some Remarks about Asteroid Impact Triggered “Bioaerosol” Escape
during a Putative Microbial Exchange between Early Earth and Mars
Balázs Bradák
Laboratory of Exo-Oceanography, Faculty of Oceanology, Kobe University, 5-1-1 Fukaeminami-machi, Higashinada-ku,
Kobe, 658-0022, Japan
Article history In general, Panspermia theory discusses the possibility of the spread of
Received: 17 May 2023 life in the universe. The migration of living organisms between planets
is crucial in such a “fertilization” process. This study focuses on one
Revised: 28 June 2023 particular case and phase of such migration: the possible material transport
Accepted: 30 June 2023 between the early Earth and Mars with a focus on the phase of escape, i.e.,
Published Online: 10 July 2023 the ejection of a microorganism-containing material into space. Specific
characteristics of asteroid impacts and one of the possible processes,
Keywords: which may be able to transfer microorganisms to space, were investigated.
The comparison of the terrestrial and Martian paleoenvironment showed
Early Earth that theoretically, early Mars, similar to Earth, might allow biological
Early Mars evolution and might be able to harbor life. Determining various pressure
Panspermia zones regarding the survivability of the mechanical compression in the
case of an impact and the characterization of specific physical parameters
Escape phase
of the ejected debris lead to the identification of the pressure—mass/
Asteroid impact size conflict and the conclusion, which indicates two possible ways of
material escape. The possibly “common” and known way is the material
ejection close to ground zero. It guarantees big enough debris to protect its
passengers during their travel. Still, the survival rate at/close to ground zero
is supposedly low, and the heat and overpressure-related compression may
sterilize the material even before boarding. An alternative way, discussed
in this study, provides a higher chance of survival further from the impact
center. Still, the possibility of the ejectile reaching the escaping velocity
and the minimum required size is low. Although solving such a problem is
out of the scope of this manuscript, searching for an ideal combination of
various parameters is a possible challenge for future studies.
Balázs Bradák,
Laboratory of Exo-Oceanography, Faculty of Oceanology, Kobe University, 5-1-1 Fukaeminami-machi, Higashinada-ku, Kobe, 658-
0022, Japan;
by-nc/4.0/).
21
1. Introduction ic collision at their very early age, which might be respon-

sible for the dichotomy, the sharp contrast between the
The study presented here focuses on a particular seg- northern and southern hemispheres of Mars (~4.5 to 4.47
ment of a Panspermia hypothesis-related theory, namely Ga) [6], and the formation of the Earth’s Moon, described
the research about the possibility of microbial exchange by the Theia hypothesis (~4.51 Ga) [7]. The Martian North-
between early Earth and Mars. ern Hemisphere has a significantly lower elevation com-
Following the early pioneering studies [1,2], Rampelotto [3] pared to the Southern regions, which may have functioned
suggested that the Panspermia hypothesis, the transfer of as a hydrological and sedimentary basin, be the location
the “seeds of life” between planets, is one of the prom- of the Martian ocean and one of the potential regions of
ising fields of astrobiological research. The proposed the emergence of life in subsequent Martian periods (see
transfers between planets rely on a set of crucial steps, below) (Figure 1). Despite the dichotomy-forming impact
namely the escape, the transfer, and the landing phases [4]. and the one indicated by the crater retention age of the
Experiments and modeling have investigated all efforts. Hellas basin (3.97 to 4.06 Ga) [8], the mean impact flux
However, there are still numerous questions that need to during the pre-Noachian was significantly lower compared
be considered further, e.g., the paleoenvironment of the to the Noachian Late Heavy Bombardment (LHB) peri-
donor and the recipient planets, along with, e.g., appear- od (c.a. 10% of the LHB flux) [9]. Along with the lack of
ance, as well the survival of a living organism in the case impact events, no marks of pre-Noachian plate tectonism
of, e.g., asteroid impact. and volcanism can be recognized, along with the missing
In particular, the potential material transfer between significant surface erosion—even if the Fe/Mg phyllosil-
planetary bodies, especially Earth and Mars, has been the icates exposed on the Noachian surface [10] may indicate
target of various studies from various aspects, including pre-Noachian subsurface weathering processes and the
the role of asteroid impacts on bio-material production, presence of water, or groundwater hydrothermal circula-
the study of meteorites as a potential source of organic tion [9,11]. The lack of impact and volcanic activity might
components, the search for the signs of microbial life, the have significantly influenced the (lack of the) formation of
search for the earliest marks of life, and the existence of the pre-Noachian atmosphere. The pre-Noachian paleocli-
LUCA—Last Universal Common Ancestor (see in de- mate might be strongly influenced by the faint young Sun,
tailed in Section 1.1). Among those studies, one focuses which provided less solar flux [12], and the lack of volcan-
on the thorough research of the survival of a microorganism (tectonism), which might play a key role in increasing
ism during the ejection, transfer, and landing phase of the CO2, CH4, NH3, hydrogen sulfides, and aerosol content of
transfer [5]. This study from Mileikowsky et al. [5] summa- the atmosphere [9].
rizes many aspects of the transfer, such as various factors Contrasting with the Martian pre-Noachian paleoen-
of microbe survival, the size and number of unshocked vironment, there are significant differences in Earth’s
meteorites, the possible transporters of microorganisms, Hadean (~4.6 to 4 Ga) paleoenvironment. Following the
and the approximate fraction of microbes. Their study Theia-collision, the formation of the global Hadean Ocean
concluded that viable transfer between Mars and Earth (~4.4 to 4.3 Ga), an aqueous planet with the possible ap-
was highly probable. To provide additional information to pearance of proto-continental crusts and landmasses, set
their research, the early Martian and terrestrial paleoen- a different course in planetary evolution [13]. Compared to
vironment are compared below from the point of view of the pre-Noachian paleoenvironment, the rising crust-man-
historical geology/planetary science. In addition, the pos- tle cycle on Earth might help the formation of a CO2 at-
sible survival of the shockwave-mechanical pressure and mosphere, along with the global Hadean Ocean (and the
ejection of material further from ground zero, from the lack of significant size landmass above sea level), which
center of impact, are discussed. protected the CO2 storage in continental rocks and its sub-
duction into the mantle [14].
1.1 Paleoenvironment on Early Earth and Mars
Despite the differences in the evolution of the two
and the Potential of Emerging Life
planets, there are common components that may have
From the angle of the early Earth and Mars microbial supported the emergence of life. Although there are some
exchange hypothesis, it seems essential to compare the doubts about the existence of a Martian atmosphere in
early Martian and terrestrial paleoenvironment between pre-Noachian (see above), a Noachian denser CO2 atmos-
approximately 4.6 to 2.5 Ga ago, to understand the poten- phere was formed by potentially volatile outgassing, which
tial for bioaerosols’ escape and transportation between the is expected to be efficient in pre-Noachian as well [12,15]. If it
two planets (Figure 1). Both planets suffered a catastroph- did exist, such outgassing made the Martian pre-Noachian
22
Figure 1. A chronological summary of various factors contributing to the possible microbial exchange between Mars
and Earth.
atmosphere similar to the Hadean terrestrial atmosphere. candidates for life’s emergence on Mars [9].
In some sense, both the Martian and terrestrial paleoenvi- Despite the ongoing argument about the natural, artifi-
ronment can be considered as “calm” as well, regarding cial, or organic origin of the identified features [17-20], some
the cold Martian world with the characteristic topographi- studies suggest that there are apparent similarities between
cal dichotomy and without oceans, significant erosion and terrestrial magneto fossils and the phenomenon observed
impact flux [9], and Earth covered by global Hadean Ocean in the Martian meteorite [19,20]. The one and currently only
providing shelter for the emerging life [13]. possible comparison of potential early Martian and terres-
Among the possible paleoenvironmental similarities, trial life is based on analyzing the mark of microbial life
there is one which may suggest similar abiogenesis in the found in the Allan Hills (Antarctica) or ALH84001 mete-
early Mars and Earth: the mark of hydrothermal activity. orite [17]. Unfortunately, a recent study has also seen some
Based on our current knowledge [13], hydrothermal pro- distinct mechanisms of abiotic organic synthesis, which
cesses and environment might be the key to abiogenesis, possibly operated on early Mars (4.1 to 3.9 Ga) and ques-
providing components for prebiotic synthesis and mole- tioned the features’ biogenic origin found in ALH84001 [21].
cules, and via the so-called RNA world around 4.36 Ga [16], Regardless of the speculation about the possible fossils in
the building blocks of first cells and the so-called LUCA, ALH84001, it may provide some evidence about processes
i.e., the Last Universal Common Ancestor of life on Earth. related to the appearance of some liquid (hydrothermal ac-
The potential marks of hydrothermal processes were ob- tivity and/or weathering) around 4.3 to 3.8 Ga on Mars [22]
served in the Martian environment as well [11] suggesting (Figure 1).
the possible evolution of exo-LUCA (the extraterrestrial
1.2 Possible Bioaerosol Escape from the Gravity
correspondent of LUCA), the appearance of extraterres-
Well of the Studied Planets
trial life via abiogenesis [13]. Despite this hypothesis’s
speculative nature and missing information to prove it, the Following the introduction to the planetary environ-
pre-Noachian environment is considered one of the best ment of emerging life, the possible way of escape, the first
23
crucial step of life transportation [4], needs to be discussed. contributors. The appearance of one of the first super-cra-
There are some potential ways of high-altitude transport ton, the continent-size Vaalbara (2.7 to 2.2 Ga) [38], meant
of microbes by bioaerosols (fine particles suspended in the the slow ending of the marine “monopoly” on the Earth’s
air, containing or consisting of various microbes), includ- surface. The early continental evolution-controlled komati-
ing i) giant meteorite impacts and ii) volcanic eruptions [4]. ite volcanism (3.5 to 1.5 Ga) was characterized by low-vis-
Following the “relatively calm” pre-Noachian/Hadean, cosity magma and created large volcanic flow fields [39]
the Noachian (Mars) and Archean (Earth) starts with the along the island-arc volcanism [40], which explosive erup-
intense LHB impact event (~4.1 to 3.8 Ga). Like many tions might work as a supporter of ejection of early life
components in the history of the young Solar system, there developing on land (e.g., in hot spring deposits; [41]) into
are arguments about the timing, nature, and even the ex- higher atmospheric altitudes (Figure 1).
istence of the LHB [23,24]. Regardless that LHB appeared as Some short speculation can be made about the becom-
an intense asteroid bombardment period with spike-like, ing of the bioaerosol following the escape phase. It has
periodic, or steady decline impact flux in the history of the been proven by recent experiments on ISS (International
planets, it might eject a significant amount of aerosols and Space Station; Tanpopo or Dandelion mission) that micro-
water to the atmosphere [25] carrying microbes to higher organisms can survive a minimum of three years, exposed
altitudes. The impacts seem to have some limitations in to outer space during interplanetary travel by using the
their sterilizing effect as well, leaving behind survivals surface cells killed by radiation, as a protective layer (so-
in micro-habitats and the “deep biosphere” of the global called massapanspermia) [42]. Such a shield might allow
ocean of the Hadean/Archean Earth [13], and theoretically, safe travel between Mars and Earth. Although the land-
if life did exist on Mars, e.g., in Ocean Borealis [26]. The ing process on a recipient planet from the perspective of
marks of such impacts can be identified on the surface lithopanspermia (transfer of microbial passengers inside
of Mars, indicated by the crustal-scale Hellas, Isidis, and of asteroids) is well studied, there are only a few explana-
Argyre basins [8,27]. Earth’s continuously changing surface tions about how bioaerosols might survive entry into the
makes identifying Archean age impact craters difficult. atmosphere [5,42]. Many theories can be built about the fate
Still, indirect geochemical and petrographical evidence, of the microbes arriving in an “alien world”, e.g., the way
such as the iridium abundance in the oldest sediments and of survival of a pre-Noachian/Noachian non-marine mi-
the appearance of shocked quartz, suggest the escalation croorganism in the most likely ocean-dominated Hadean
of extraterrestrial material influx by asteroid impacts [28]. to (Eo)archean Earth [13,43], or vice versa. Several questions
Although the impact flux significantly decreased during can be raised regarding the possible interaction between
the Hesperian, some potential candidates could still lift the endemic microbial life on Earth [44-46] and the cosmic
bioaerosols to higher altitudes. The Martian paleoenviron- newcomers. Such interaction might contain competition,
ment during the Hesperian (3.71 to 3.37 Ga) is character- cooperation [47], and the occupation of empty paleoeco-
ized by the intensification of volcanism, changing wet and logical niche as well, but (as the writer Michael Ende told
dry periods, permafrost, catastrophic floods, and a possi- in his famous novel, the Neverending Story), this and the
ble ocean in the Northern lowlands [29,30]. Recently, a the- summary of the evolutionary consequences of such inter-
ory of large, planetary-scale impact(s) on Mars during the actions are “another story and shall be told another time.”
Late Hesperian triggered a scientific discussion [31-33]. If This study aims to evaluate one critical problem during
such an impact existed, it provided a potential explanation the first step of microbial transfer between planets, name-
for escaping various bioaerosols from Mars by ejecting ly the character of an asteroid impact which can provide
microbe-containing material into space [34]. enough supporting energy to eject some material to leave
Along with meteorite impacts, volcanic eruptions can the planet and does not destroy every living organism dur-
also eject bioaerosols to high altitudes [35] if the type of ing the process.
volcanism allows it. Most likely, eruptions with a higher
Volcanic Explosivity Index have some chance of ejecting 2. Data and Data Analysis
material into space. On Mars, volcanoes and volcanic re-
2.1 Data Sources
gions are comprised mostly of basaltic rocks of various
types and morphology [27], which suggest volcanic activity The following datasets were used to analyze the po-
ranging from the formation of effusive lava plains, shields, tential bioaerosol transfer between Earth and Mars during
and lava flows to explosive eruptions (e.g., pyroclastic their early period (older than 2.5-3 Ga). The impact crater
products around 4 Ga) [36,37]. Compared to Mars, the vol- data from early Earth is based on the simulation and data-
canic activity on Archean Earth (4 to 2.5 Ga) had various set provided by Marchi et al. [48,49]. Two sources were used
24
to collect impact crater data from Mars, including the out of the gravity well of the planet. For such reason, in
study of Robbins and Hynek [50] and Robbins et al. [8]. this study, viE, the minimum impact speed on Earth, and
Craters above 150 km diameter were used during the viM, the minimum impact speed on Mars, were set to
analysis, which crater size was possibly caused by a 10-20 22.4 and 10.1 km/s, respectively. Along with studying the
km diameter size impactor. Mileikowsky et al. [5] used this ejectile characteristics of an impact characterized by the
minimum impactor size to evaluate the potential natural minimum impact speed, an additional, possibly limiting
transfer of viable microbes between Earth and Mars and condition was also investigated. Meteorites with a 300 km
roughly equal the size of the Chicxulub impact (~10 km). diameter size and 30 km/s speed or above are considered
This collision caused the mass extinction at the boundary to be able to evaporate the water in case of an impact in
of the Cretaceous and Paleogene (ca. 66 Ma). an ocean [56]. Along with the use of the minimum impact
speed, which can transfer bioaerosols in space (viE and
2.2 The Calculation of Key Parameters
viM), vio, the ocean evaporating impact speed on Earth
The following equations were used to characterize the (30 km/s) was also applied during the data analysis to
mass and the size of the ejectiles. The size of the impactor compare the results in the case of a potential ocean evap-
was determined based on the size of the impact crater, fol- orating impact. In addition, along with 15 km/s, 30 km/s
lowing the equation of Hughes [51]: impact velocity was also used in the study of Mileikowsky
log D = (1.026 ± 0.5) + (1.16 ± 0.04) log d (1) et al. [5]. Such impact velocities represent the extreme ends
where d (diameter in km) is the impactor’s size, and D (di- of impactor speed which may appear in an impact with
ameter in km) is the size of the crater created by the impact. possible ejection of bioaerosols.
The impact energy was derived from the so-called High temperature is a critical environmental com-
Shoemaker formula, presented in the study of Shoemaker ponent that endangers the microorganism’s survival by
et al. [52], including the impact angle factor: sterilizing the bioaerosols during impact. Melosh [55] and
Mileikowsky et al. [5] applied the following equation to
D = 0.074 cf (gE/g)1/6 (W ρi/ρt)1/3.4 (sin i)2/3(2)
determine the mass of the ejectile with temperature re-
where D (km) is the size of the impact crater, cf is the so-
striction (< 100 °C):
called crater collapse factor: 1.3, gE is the gravitational
acceleration on Earth, g is the gravitational acceleration Ps 0 2ve 1/3
me (~E, M, Eo, Mo) = 1.2 1− vi
mi (4)
ρt CT vi
on other planets, where the crater was formed, ρi is the
density of the impactor: 3.65 g/cm3 [53], ρt is the density of where meE Tand meM (kg) are the mass of the ejected,
lAVG = v 2/3 v 4/3 d
the rock at the target location: 2.86 g/cm3 [53], i (°) is the (non-)sterilized
ρt e i materials, in the case of collision of Earth
impact angle, defined as 45° in the case of this study, and or Mars and an impactor with viE, viM, and vio impact
W is the impact energy (kinetic energy of the impactor) in speeds, respectively
m +3 (see the description above Equation
lMAX = W lAVG
kilotons TNT equivalent. (3)). meEo and meMo are the mass of the non-sterilized
2
The estimation of the peak overpressure, a key com- ejecta, in the case of a collision with an asteroid speeding
ponent during the characterization of various parameters up to 30 km/s, the potential minimal “ocean evaporating”
of the ejectiles, is based on the review of Vijayaraghavan speed. mi is the weight of the projectile. During the deter-
et al. [54], summarizing the methods applied during the mination of the mass, first, the volume of the impactor was
study of nuclear experiments: calculated by the definition of the shape of the projectile
Ps0 = 6784 (W/R3) + 93 (W/R3)1/2 (3) as a theoretical sphere (with a diameter d, Equation (1) [51]),
where Ps0 (bars) is the maximum (peak) blast overpres- and the mass of this theoretical sphere shape impactor was
sure, W is the yield of a nuclear explosion, which repre- determined by the use of ρiAVG: 3.65 g/cm3 as its average
sents the kinetic energy of the impactor in this study in density, based on the study of Britt and Consolmagno [57]
tons of TNT equivalent (see Equation (2)), and R (m) is and Hughes [51]. ve is the speed of ejecta, equivalent to the
the distance from “ground zero”. second cosmic velocity on Earth and Mars, 11.186 and
During the estimation of various characteristics of the 5.022 km/s, respectively.
ejectiles, some environmental conditions have to be con- Along with temperature, pressure is another critical en-
sidered regarding the survival and the successful transfer vironmental component during an impact to be considered
of the potential microorganism. a potential limitation for microorganism survival. Based
Melosh [55] and Armstrong et al. [53] suggested that the on the study of Hazael et al. [58], a microorganism may
speed of the impactor (vi) needs to be slightly more than survive in tens of GPa pressure, and the calculation of
double the second cosmic velocity to transfer the ejectile Ps0 and Ps0surv allows us to define the characteristics of
25
ejectiles beyond the 1 GPa blast overpressure most likely pulse and mechanical pressure, different zones around the
survivable limit. Ps0 (in Pa; please note that Equation (4) impact center were reconstructed. Based on the informa-
results are in bars) is the maximum (peak) blast overpres- tion about the survivable overpressure found in the study
sure. Along with calculating ejectile characteristics at peak of Mileikowsky et al. [5] and Hazael et al. [58], four zones,
blast overpressure, the pressure limiting factor for life was namely the “Safe” survival zone, Critical zone, Qua-
set to Ps0surv: 1 GPa [5]. Ρt is the rock density at the target si-sterile zone, and Sterile zone, were separated and calcu-
location: 2.86 g/cm3 [53], and CT is the velocity of sound in late. Pressure below 1 GPa was considered safe; pressure
the target rock: 6 × 103 m/s. between 1 and 10 GPa is critical for certain species, but
The size of the ejected material during spallation is there are potential survivals of extreme compression (e.g.,
crucial for the survival of the microbes during the escape the length of high-pressure exposure) [58]. The Quasi-ster-
from the donor planet, during the interplanetary exchange, ile zone was defined due to the decreasing number but still
and during entering the atmosphere of the recipient planet. existing species that may survive extreme high-pressure
Based on Mileikowsky et al. [5], the size of the ejected mate- exposure (e.g., [59]). The Sterile zone refers to pressure and
rial needs to be bigger than 0.2 m in diameter to protect the region where the compression is too big and prevents the
microbes from heat during the impact and the escape phase. survival of known lifeforms.
The equation applied by Mileikowsky et al. [5] was used As it is shown in Figure 2, in the case of a Chicxu-
Ps 0 2ve 1/3
to
medetermine
(~E, M, Eo,the average
Mo) = 1.2 fragment 1 −diameter expected
mi dur- lub-size impact (with various impact velocities), living
ρt CT vi vi
ing spallation: organisms even in less than 100 km distance from ground
lAVG =
T
d (5)
zero may survive the peak pressure of the impact (please
ρt ve 2/3 vi 4/3 note that only the pressure is examined here, without any
where lAVG is the ejected fragments’ average size (diameter other components of an impact). The survivability dra-
in m), andm +3 T is the tension fracture, equal to 0.1 × 109 Pa matically decreases, e.g., in the case of a 100 km diameter
lMAX = W lAVG
in basalt and 2 other igneous rocks. As it is described in the size impactor. The Safe survival zone is located out of c.a.
previous equations, d is the size of the impactor (diameter 800-900 km (Earth) and c.a. 700 km (Mars) radius from
in km), ρt is the density of the rock at the target location: ground zero and closer than 400 km (Earth) and c.a. 350
2.86 g/cm3 [53], ve is the speed of the ejecta, and vi is the km (Mars) from the center of the impact (Quasi-sterile-,
speed of the impactor in various, analyzed in multiple cas- and Sterile zone) only a few (or none) possible survival
P0 2v 1/3
es
me(v iE, v
(~E, M,iMEo,
andMo) vio),=as
1.2it isCssummarised
1 − v e at themdescription
i species may be found on the planetary surface.
ρt T vi i
of Equation (4). Regarding the mass and average size of the ejectiles,
lAVGIn=addition
T to the average fragment size, possibly eject- there are significant differences between the number of
2/3 v 4/3
d
t ve donor
ed from ρthe i planet, the maximum fragment size was ejectiles at various peak pressures, under certain living
[5]
also estimated : organisms may survive the impact. In the case of a 100
lMAX =
mW +3
lAVG (6) km diameter impactor, c.a. 1033 kg ejectiles are expected
2
in contrast to the c.a. 1016-1015 kg mass of ejectiles at the
where lMAX is the maximum size (diameter in m) of the 10 GPa and 1 GPa peak pressure environment, respec-
ejected fragments, lAVG is the average fragment size (in m; tively. It must be noted that compared to the estimation of
Equation (5)), and mW is the so-called Weibulls constant, Mileikowsky et al. [5], who used 15 km/s impact speed, in
which is 9.5 for basalt. the case of Figure 3a, 30 km/s was used. Setting the im-
pact speed to the velocity of a “planet destroyer” asteroid
3. Results and Discussion
shows the possible maximum ejected mass and resulted in
Some key characteristics of a potential asteroid impact such extreme ground zero ejected mass results. The esti-
that might be able to eject debris hijacked by living organ- mation of Mileikowsky et al. [5] feels more realistic, e.g.,
isms need to be evaluated. 8.3 × 1014 kg in the case of a 100 km diameter impactor
One of the critical environmental components is the colliding with Mars at the velocity of 15 km/s. As an ad-
peak overpressure wave which appears in the surround- ditional comparison, the mass of Earth and Mars can be
ings of the impact. Mileikowsky et al. [5] describe that listed as c.a. 5.97 × 1024 and 6.39 × 1023 kg, respectively.
the pressure caused by the shockwave is zero at the sur- Despite the extreme values, Figure 3a indicates the sig-
face, and even the pressure rises, there are near-surface nificant drop in ejected mass at the Critical pressure zone
microbes that may survive the impact. Inspired by the and Safe survival zone, compared to ground zero.
works of Melosh [55] and Toon et al. [25], which describe The average size of the ejectiles was calculated at the
the evolution and effect of the shockwave, namely stress two extreme possibilities; one is the already suggested
26
maximum expected impact speed, a speed of an asteroid

capable of evaporating oceans (Figure 3b, vi), and the
other end, the lowest impact speed which is capable of
providing enough energy to transfer the debris out of the
gravity well of the planets (Figure 3b, vMIN). Decreasing
average grain size can be recognized by the increase in the
impact velocity. A collision with a 100 km diameter aster-
oid with vMIN minimum velocity results in 50-60 m diame-
ter debris ejected from Mars and c.a. 10 m diameter debris
from Earth at ground zero. If the same impactor arrives
with a 30 km/s impact speed, the size of ejectiles change
to c.a. 10 m in the case of Mars and 7-8 m diameter in the
case of Earth. Regarding the estimated asteroid size, the
roughly 10 to tens-of-meter diameter asteroids feel capa-
ble of safely transferring microorganisms between early
Figure 2. The distance of (non-)survivable pressure zones Earth and Mars. Still, some aspects must be considered
during a blast wave hit from ground zero of an asteroid during the evaluation of the results.
impact. The 1 GPa and 10 GPa pressure limits of surviv- The comparison resulted in a contradicting result. As
ability are based on the study and review of Mileikowsky may be expected, the calculation of Mileikowsky et al. [5]
et al. [5] and Hazael et al. [58]. The blue solid and dashed
showed decreasing average grain size by the decreasing
lines indicate the minimum distance of Safe survival zone
impactor size (impact velocity was set to constant), most
(A) and Critical zone (B) from ground zero, in the case
of Earth (solid line) and Mars (dashed line), respectively. likely due to the decreasing impact energy with reducing
The solid lines indicate the calculation based on terrestrial asteroid size. It is also expected that further and further
impacts and Earth parameters; the dashed lines indicate from ground zero, the average size of ejected debris is de-
the calculations based on Martian impact and the various creasing due to the decaying impact energy (stress wave) [55].
Martian parameters. Example theoretical pressure zones, related to the 30 km/
Figure 3. a) The mass of ejectiles at various distances from ground zero and b) the estimation of the average size of
ejected fragments during various size asteroid impacts. The solid lines indicate the calculation based on terrestrial
impacts and Earth parameters; the dashed lines indicate the calculations based on Martian impact and the various pa-
rameters of Mars. The arrows in Figure 3b show the decreasing average size of ejectiles. EarthGZ and MarsGZ lines mark
the ejected mass and average grains size at ground zero. 1 GPa and 10 GPa indices indicate the ejection mass at the 1
GPa and 10 GPa pressure zones (the distances of those pressure zones from ground zero are summarized in Figure 2).
The blue solid and dashed lines indicate the amount of ejected material at ground zero (A), at 10 GPa peak pressure at
ground zero and/or at the minimum distance of the Critical zone (B), and at 1 GPa peak pressure at ground zero and/
or at the Safe survival zone (C), in the case of Earth (solid line) and Mars (dashed line) respectively. Please note that
in the case of Figure 3b, the indication of various zones only serves as a visual aid, indicating the decreasing grain size
with increasing distance from ground zero in the case of the vi = 30 km/s velocity impacts (Section 3 and Section 4; the
pressure-mass/size conflict).
27
s velocity impacts are indicated in brackets (Figure 3b). In the escape of microorganisms from terrestrial (Earth-like)
contrast, the result in this study demonstrates that impact planets is discussed.
speed significantly influences the average size of the ejec- The size of impactors as a limiting factor during the
tiles, i.e., higher impact velocity results in smaller size of transfer of microbes to another planet was discussed in
ejectiles, which variable needs to be considered in further detail in Mileikowsky et al. [5]. In the case of Mars-Earth
studies. transfer, Category 1 meteorites are too small to provide a
Along with the impactor’s velocity, the size should also safe transfer to microorganisms.
be discussed shortly. As an example, the effect of a theo- This research adds a factor to the material ejection
retical 100 km diameter impactor was analyzed. As shown phase. The distances of the Safe-and Critical survival zone
in Figure 3, the mass and average size decrease signifi- (Figure 2) raised the question that in such distances, there
cantly with the decrease of the impactor size. In the first is enough impact energy left to lift big enough size and
billion years, the initially high ratio of asteroid impacts amount of debris (Figure 3) and eject it into space with
reduced considerably [14], along with the estimated size of possible living microbial content or not (Figure 4). A high-
the impactors (e.g., [48]). Such estimations suggest that the er velocity and bigger size impactor certainly provides
size of potential impactors, which may eject microorgan- enough energy to fragment and eject bigger mass and size
ism-containing debris in space when a simple living or- debris to space. Despite the expected surface and subsur-
ganism appears on Earth (and theoretically on Mars), was face overpressure conditions, i.e., from 0 to ≤ 1 GPa over-
smaller than the example 100 km. Using a 20 km diameter pressure [5], the calculation in this study shows that even
size impactor (such size asteroid was used as maximum in the case of a 20 km diameter impactor, zones, where
size impactor in, e.g., [5], the ejected mass of material at 1 microorganisms may survive the mechanical pressure, are
GPa and 10 GPa pressure is around 1012-1013 kg, and the located in c.a. 100 km distance or further. The question is
average ejectile size is around 1 m diameter (at 30 km/s whether the impact has enough energy (regarding, e.g., the
impact velocity) (Figure 3a). propagation and decay of the first stress wave-detached
The minimum ejectile size is the third size-related fac- shock [55]) to detach and eject materials into space, located
tor that needs to be considered. Please note that based on in further distances (along with the non-shocked ejectiles
the explanation of Mileikowsky et al. [5], if the size of the
from the neighbour of ground zero), or the ejected materi-
ejectile is bigger than 0.2 m or 0.8 m diameter, it prevents
al is big enough to protect the microbes via the transfer.
the inner part from heating up above 100 °C, which would
sterilize the debris. Such heating appears at the impact and
the time of entering the new planet’s atmosphere follow-
ing the transfer. Regarding the potential transfer between
Earth and Mars with their early atmosphere, the 0.2 m or
0.8 m is a crucial minimum size limit, which must be kept
in mind, even if the fall through the atmosphere is a rela-
tively short period (few tens of seconds) and a heat shield,
a compact, melted layer, forms around the meteorite [5]. In
addition, asteroids may break up during the transfer and
landing phase, which may endanger the microorganisms’
survival in smaller meteorites [5]. Figure 4. The visual explanation of the pressure-mass/
size conflict. t1 to t6 curves indicate the variation of over-
The pressure-mass/size conflict pressure in the air with the distance at successive times [60],
and GZ marks the ground zero.
The determination of various pressure zones around
the impact site, and their distance from ground zero, all Similar to explosions, the characteristics of the peak
together with the change in the ejected mass (even if the overpressure-related shock front (blast wave) and the
extreme 30 m/s impact velocity and 100 km diameter dynamic pressure (drag force associated with the strong
impactor size were used) and the supposed difference in wind accompanying the passage of the blast wave) at a
decreasing average size of ejected debris moving further certain distance from ground zero may be considered crit-
from the center of impact revealed a dilemma. Such a ical parameters during the evaluation of surface material
dilemma is closely related not only to the possible bioaer- detachment, lift and ejection further from ground zero [60,61].
osol/microbe-containing material exchange between early The detailed research of the surface waves, such as inci-
Earth and Mars but applies, in general, to any case when dent and reflected waves, and their interaction, including
28
the formation of a single wavefront by merging the two this manuscript, searching for an “ideal” combination of
waves (so-called Mach or irregular region), may signifi- various parameters (e.g., impactor size, impact velocity,
cantly contribute to understanding microbe-bearing mate- and so on) is a possible challenge for future studies. In
rial ejection in space. Still, it is beyond the scope of this closing words, at least two alternative ways of material
study and most likely requires experiment-based complex ejection into space by asteroid impact can be considered.
simulations. The possibly most discussed and known way is material
ejection close to ground zero. It guarantees big enough
4. Conclusions and Summary debris to protect its passengers during their travel. Still,
Along with the determination of various zones regard- the survival rate at/close to ground zero is supposedly low,
ing the (microbial) survivability of the mechanical pres- and the heat and overpressure-related compression may
sure triggered by the shockwave, the mass and average sterilize the material even before “boarding”. Another
size of the ejectiles were estimated. The size of ejectiles in alternative way may provide a higher chance of survival,
the case of a possible exchange between Earth and Mars further from the center of impact. Still, the possibility of
falls between 10 to tens of km in the case of a 100 km im- the ejectile reaching the escaping velocity and the min-
pactor. The extreme ends of such scale represent the scale imum required size is low. Such ways may represent a
of various impact speeds, the minimum impact velocity re- scale’s extreme ends regarding various factors that may
quired to trigger enough high escape velocity for the ejec- influence the bioaerosol escape during an asteroid impact.
tiles, and a maximum high velocity, defined as 30 km/s. One of the focuses of future studies can be the determina-
The estimated average ejectile size drops to a magnitude tion of an ideal way, an ideal escaping distance, where all
smaller size range in the case of smaller (20 km diame- the considered factors are in a setting that supports suc-
ter) asteroids, which might be more common around 3.5 cessful bioaerosol escape.
Ga ago, during the period when life appeared in the case
of Earth and theoretically on Mars. Considering various Funding
physical effects on the ejectile, e.g., the potential further
fragmentation of the debris during the transfer and landing
phase, the smaller size may jeopardize the survival of the Acknowledgement
carried microbes.
The study of essential characteristics leads to a dilem- I want to thank Simone Marchi for providing the early
ma, named pressure-mass/size conflict, that is not simply Earth impact dataset. It provided a strong foundation for
related to the understanding of the possible microbial the calculations.
exchange between the early Earth and Mars, but any I would like to thank the anonymous reviewers of this
panspermia studies targeting asteroid impacts as potential article for taking the time and effort to review the man-
contributors in the escape step of microbial transport. uscript. I appreciate all of their valuable comments and
The pressure-mass/size conflict origins from a contra- suggestions, which helped improve this manuscript’s
diction related to the determined zones, indicating the dis- quality.
tance where living organisms, most likely microorganisms
in the case of early Earth and theoretically Mars, may Data Availability Statement
survive the shockwave-triggered mechanical pressure and Data will be available upon request from the author.
the size of the ejectiles which may carry microbes during
the transfer between planets. It seems that some impacts Conflict of Interest
with specific impact energy can eject the appropriate size
The author declares no conflict of interest.
debris, which may be a carrier for microorganisms during
the transfer between early Earth and Mars. The only prob- References
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32

RESEARCH ARTICLE
Revisiting Recent Amplitude and Phase Variations of the Chandler
Wobble and Free Core Nutation
Zinovy Malkin*
Pulkovo Observatory, St. Petersburg, 196140, Russia
Article history The paper is devoted to the analysis of two components of the Earth’s
Received: 6 June 2023 rotation, Chandler wobble (CW) and free core nutation (FCN). They are
oscillations with near-constant periods but variable amplitude and phase.
Revised: 5 July 2023 The variations of the amplitude and phase of the CW and FCN have already
Accepted: 18 July 2023 been considered in the literature, and both showed similar behavior such
Published Online: 26 July 2023 as a recent significant decrease of the amplitude and large phase change.
However, the CW and FCN amplitude and phase variations are, to a large
Keywords: extent, predicted for the current epochs, and their today’s variations need
regular updates with obtaining new observations. In this work, the CW and
Earth’s rotation FCN parameters have been re-computed using the latest data and compared
Chandler wobble with the data published earlier. It was found that the currently obtained
Free core nutation amplitude and phase variations generally agreed with the data published
earlier. The main difference is that the epochs of the current minimum of
Amplitude
amplitude and phase jump or both CW and FCN happened somewhat later
Phase variations than was predicted in previous publications. The delay is about two years
for the CW relative to the prediction made in 2010 and about one year for
the FCN with respect to the prediction made in 2022.
1. Introduction
some features of the first two processes will be discussed.
The rotation of the Earth is a very complex process that The movement of the Earth’s rotation axis relative to
consists of many free and forced modes. Analysis of the the Earth’s surface manifests itself as Polar motion (PM)
variations in the Earth’s rotation plays an important role in and is observed through the coordinates of the terrestrial
our understanding of the physical processes in the Earth’s Pole Xp and Yp in the conventional terrestrial reference
surface, interior, atmosphere, and hydrosphere. Three frame [1]. The Chandler wobble (CW) discovered by Seth
main constituents of the Earth’s rotation are movement Carlo Chandler in 1891 [2,3] is one of the main and most
of the rotation axis in terrestrial and celestial reference complicated components of the Earth’s rotation, and nu-
frames, and rotation around the rotation axis. In this paper, merous papers were devoted to investigation of the CW
Zinovy Malkin,
Pulkovo Observatory, St. Petersburg, 196140, Russia;
by-nc/4.0/).
33
variations, such as changes in the CW amplitude and 2023). It is sampled at 0.1 Besselian year (36.524 solar
phase. A brief overview of these studies is given [4-10] and days) for the period 1846-1890 and 0.05 Besselian year
papers cited therein. The main result [4] was detecting, for (18.262 solar days) after 1890.0. Using this data, a new
the first time, a large jump in the CW phase in the 2000s interpolated EOP series of the CW component of polar
and a simultaneous deep minimum of the CW amplitude. motion XCW and YCW with 10 days step was constructed and
Free core nutation (FCN) is a component of the motion used for further analysis. This series is shown in Figure 1.
of the Earth’s rotation axis in the conventional celestial Epochs in all the plots in this paper are expressed in Bes-
reference frame [1]. The FCN is a free Earth’s rotational selian years.
mode caused by the misalignment of the rotational axis of For this work, PM (CW) series started with 1900.0 was
the Earth’s mantle and the rotational axis of the outer liq- used because the data before 1900 are less reliable. The
uid core [11]. It is observed through the coordinates of the whole IERS C01 series was considered [4], while in this
celestial Pole dX and dY in the conventional celestial ref- study we are mostly interested in the CW behavior in re-
erence frame [1]. Like CW, the FCN is an oscillation with cent years.
highly variable amplitude and phase that was investigated
in many studies [12-17] and papers cited therein. In a recent
paper [18], a new minimum of the FCN amplitude and si-
multaneous large jump in the FCN phase was preliminary
detected at the epoch around 2022.
It should be noted that the CW and FCN amplitude and
phase variations [4,18] were obtained from analysis of the
series of Earth orientation parameters (EOP) ended near
the epochs of the investigated minima of the amplitude
and phase jumps. Besides, both series used in these works
are smoothed, the CW series to a lesser extent, and the
FCN series to a larger extent. Under these circumstances,
today’s behavior of the CW and FCN could not be accu-
rately predicted when these papers were published. There-
fore, it is very desirable to revise the results [4,18] using the Figure 1. IERS C01 series.
latest available observations, which is the primary goal of A general CW model can be expressed as follows:
this study. XCW = Ac cosϕ − As sinϕ,
The paper is organized as follows. Section 2 describes
YCW = Ac sinϕ + As cosϕ,
the analysis of the CW variations, and Section 3 is devot- (1)
Ac = −XCW sinϕ + YCW cosϕ,
ed to the analysis of the FCN variations. Section 4 sums As = XCW cosϕ + YCW sinϕ,
up the paper.
where CW phase ϕ = 2π/PCW(t−t0), t is the epoch at which
2. Chandler Wobble observed XCW and YCW values are given, t0 = J2000.0. Each
group of Equation (1) corresponds to one epoch given in
The first step in the CW analysis was to extract the CW the CW series. Then the instant CW amplitude and phase
signal from the PM time series, removing all the trend, at epoch t can be found as:
periodic, and quasi-periodic components beyond the CW
frequency band. For this study, the CW signal was extract-
, (2)
ed from the IERS (International Earth Rotation and Refer-
ence Systems Service) Pole coordinates time series IERS
The results of this analysis are shown in Figure 2. For a
C01a using a band-pass digital filter based on the Fourier
better representation of the CW phase variations, the line-
transform with the window 1.18…1.20 yr centered at
ar trend corresponding to the CW frequency was removed
the nominal CW period PCW = 1.19 years. The IERS C01
from the CW phase series. The results of the previous
series begins in 1846.0 and extends to the present (April
analysis [4] are also shown in these plots. Note that the
a https://datacenter.iers.org/data/latestVersion/EOP_C01_IAU2000_
IERS C01 EOP series, which was analyzed [4], ended in
1846-now.txt December 2008 (epoch 2009.0).
34
omyb (IVS). Figure 3 shows the ZM2 CPO model along

with the underlying IVS CPO series.
Then the ZM3 model (FCN series) was evaluated using
the following expression:
dX = Ac cosϕ − As sinϕ + X0 ,
(4)
dY = Ac sinϕ + As cosϕ + Y0 ,
where ϕ = 2π/PFCN(t − t0), PFCN is the FCN period equal
to –430.21 solar days, t is the epoch at which observed
dX and dY values are given, t0 = J2000.0. The model pa-
rameters Ac, As, X0, and Y0 are adjusted by the least square
method for running 431-day intervals with one day shift.
Each pair of Equation (3) corresponds to one CPO epoch
given in the ZM2 series. The model parameters Ac, As, X0,
and Y0 were computed at the middle epoch of each 431-
day interval.
The FCN contribution to the celestial pole motion at
the same epochs is computed by using Equation (3) with-
out the bias terms X0 and Y0.
dXFCN = Ac cosϕ − As sinϕ,
(4)
dYFCN = Ac sinϕ + As cosϕ.
Figure 2. Chandler wobble (CW) series (upper panel),
CW amplitude (middle panel), and CW phase minus line-
ar drift (bottom panel). In the amplitude and phase plots,
data from the previous publication are shown in black,
and data obtained in this work are shown in red.
A well-known large CW phase jump in the 1920s is
clearly visible in Figure 2, but we are mostly interested
in the comparison of the second large CW phase jump
epoch (after 2000.0) detected [4] in this work. One can
see that the present analysis revealed an even larger CW
phase jump, but its epoch is later than was suggested [4].
One of the reasons may be that the minimum of the CW
amplitude was reached after 2010, at the epoch 2021.4 ac-
cording to this work, which made the determination of the
moment of the phase jump made in 2010 not very reliable. Figure 3. ZM2 FCN series (red line) and IVS combined
Obtained results for CW variations are in good agree- series (black dots with error bars).
ment with the results [9] derived by a similar method of Then the instant amplitude AFCN and phase PFCN of the
digital filtration of the IERS EOP series but using another FCN signal can be computed as:
filtering technique.
, (5)
3. Free Core Nutation
The FCN amplitude and phase variations were studied Thus obtained the FCN amplitude and phase variations
using the ZM3 FCN model in the same way as it was done [18]. are shown in Figure 4. For a better representation of the
First, the ZM2 celestial pole offset (CPO) model was con- FCN phase variations, the linear trend corresponding to
structed by the Gaussian smoothing and interpolation at the FCN frequency was removed from the FCN phase se-
daily intervals of the combined EOP series maintained by
b https://ivscc.gsfc.nasa.gov/products-data/product-tables/bkg-
the International VLBI Service for Geodesy and Astron- products-eops.html
35
ries. The results of the previous analysis [18] are also shown and FCN amplitude and phase variations using the latest
in these plots. Note that the IVS EOP series [18] ended in data of EOP observations. Obtained results were com-
February 2022 (epoch 2022.13). pared with the results of the prediction of the recent pe-
Results presented in Figure 4 confirmed the deep min- culiarities in the CW and FCN behavior published earlier.
imum of the FCN amplitude and FCN phase jump dis- The comparison confirmed the deep minima of the CW
cussed [18], but their epoch is later than was suggested [18] and FCN amplitude and simultaneous CW and FCN phase
by about one year. This epoch still cannot be accurately jumps, but the epochs of these events occurred to be later
determined because the minimum of the FCN amplitude than predicted. Such a result could be expected because
most probably is not reached yet. However, it can be not- the recent amplitude and phase variations under investi-
ed that the current minimum of the FCN amplitude, which gation are detected near the end of the EOP series used
is ≈ 35 mas, is deeper than the previous minimum in about for the study. Therefore, the addition of new data obtained
1999.4, which was ≈ 55 mas. during the last years allowed us to determine this epoch
One can also see in Figure 4 that the amplitude varia- more accurately. Also, an edge effect in the data analysis
tions in the 1980s and at the beginning of the 1990s are can impact the accuracy of the obtained epochs of the
substantially different for the previous and the current minima of the CW and FCN amplitude and phase jumps.
analysis. This can be explained by using different versions It should be also noted that the phase of any physical
of the IVS CPO series [18] and in this study. These series oscillation is often less stable during the period of near-ze-
substantially differ at the beginning of the interval due to ro amplitude. This effect is also observed in both the case
the low accuracy and instability of the CPO observations of CW and FCN.
in this period. The most reliable CPO data begins in May It is important to bear in mind that the parts of the
1993 [19]. phase variation plots in Figures 2 and 4 close to horizontal
do not mean that the phase of corresponding oscillation
(CW or FCN) is constant, since the slope of the line on
the plot directly depends on the linear drift corresponding
to the CW (FCN) frequency which has been subtracted
from the phase before plotting. Therefore, these periods
simply correspond to the periods of linear phase change.
However, the jumps and other disturbances in the plots
correspond to the actual non-linear disturbances in the
CW or FCN phase.
From results of the analysis of the CW and FCN series
showed that in both cases the precise epochs of the current
minima of the CW (to a lesser extent) and FCN (to a larg-
er extent) amplitude and simultaneous phase jumps are
still hardly possible. Re-computation of the CW and FCN
series in two-three years with the addition of new obser-
vations will allow us to investigate these events in more
detail.
Funding
Acknowledgement
Figure 4. Free core nutation (FCN) series (upper panel),
FCN amplitude (middle panel), and FCN phase minus lin- The author is grateful to the anonymous reviewers for
ear drift (bottom panel). In the amplitude and phase plots, their careful reading of the manuscript and useful com-
data from the previous publication are shown in black, ments. This research has made use of SAO/NASA Astro-
and data obtained in this work are shown in red. physics Data Systemc (ADS). The figures were prepared
using gnuplotd.
4. Conclusions
c https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/
In this paper, a re-computation was made of the CW d http://www.gnuplot.info/
36
Data Availability Statement University Physics Bulletin. 77(3), 555-563.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.3103/S0027134922030134
IERS EOP series are available at https://datacenter.iers. [10] Chen, W., Chen, Y., Ray, J., et al., 2023. Free decay
org/eop.php. Author’s FCN and CPO series used in this and excitation of the chandler wobble: Self-consistent
study are available at http://www.gaoran.ru/english/as/per- estimates of the period and quality factor. Journal of
sac/. Other results derived from this work can be available Geodesy. 97(4), 36.
from the author upon reasonable request. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00190-023-01727-z
[11] Dehant, V., Mathews, P.M., 2015. Precession, nuta-
Conflicts of Interest
tion and wobble of the earth. Cambridge University
The author states that there are no known conflicts of Press: Cambridge, UK.
interest. [12] Malkin, Z., Terentev, D., 2003. Parameters of the free
core nutation from VLBI data. Communications of
References the IAA RAS. 149.
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No. 36. Verlag des Bundesamts für Kartographie und [13] Gubanov, V.S., 2009. Dynamics of the Earth’s core
Geodäsie: Frankfurt am Main, Germany. from VLBI observations. Astronomy Letters. 35,
[2] Chandler, S.C., 1891. On the variation of the latitude, 270-277.
I. Astronomical Journal. 11, 59-61. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1134/S1063773709040070
[3] Chandler, S.C., 1891. On the variation of the latitude, [14] Malkin, Z., 2013. Free core nutation and geomagnet-
II. Astronomical Journal. 11, 65-70. ic jerks. Journal of Geodynamics. 72, 53-58.
[4] Malkin, Z., Miller, N., 2010. Chandler wobble: Two DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jog.2013.06.001
more large phase jumps revealed. Earth, Planets and [15] Belda, S., Ferrándiz, J.M., Heinkelmann, R., et al.,
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[5] Miller, N.O., 2011. Chandler wobble in variations of DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jog.2016.02.002
the Pulkovo latitude for 170 years. Solar System Re- [16] Vondrák, J., Ron, C., 2017. New method for deter-
search. 45, 342-353. mining free core nutation parameters, considering
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[6] Chao, B.F., Chung, W.Y., 2012. Amplitude and phase 604(A&A), A56.
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al excitation. Journal of Geodynamics. 62, 35-39. [17] Cui, X., Sun, H., Xu, J., et al., 2020. Relationship
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[7] Zotov, L., Bizouard, C., 2012. On modulations of the Journal of Geodesy. 94(4), 1-13.
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ics. 62, 30-34. [18] Malkin, Z., Belda, S., Modiri, S., 2022. Detection of
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[8] Vondrák, J., Ron, C., Chapanov, Y., 2017. New de- 22(16), 5960.
termination of period and quality factor of Chandler DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/s22165960
wobble, considering geophysical excitations. Ad- [19] Malkin, Z.M., 2020. Statistical analysis of the results
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[9] Zotov, L.V., Sidorenkov, N.S., Bizouard, C., 2022. 64, 168-188.
Anomalies of the chandler wobble in 2010s. Moscow DOI: https://doi.org/10.1134/S1063772920020043
37

RESEARCH ARTICLE
Contribution to the Knowledge of Twenty Members of the Lagenid
Benthic Foraminifera in the Southern Tethys
Haidar Salim Anan*
Al Azhar University-Gaza, P.O. Box 1277, Palestine
Article history The modern taxonomical consideration is used for twenty Lagenid
Received: 27 May 2023 benthic foraminiferal species which are belonging to eight genera from
nine countries in the Southern Tethys: Chile, Argentina, Egypt, Tanzania,
Revised: 11 July 2023 Jordan, Iraq, United Arab Emirates (UAE), Iran and Pakistan: Nodosaria
Accepted: 24 July 2023 catenula (Reuss) Iraq, Pyramidulina robinsoni (Futyan) Jordan, Tollmannia
Published Online: 14 August 2023 costata (d’Orbigny), Tollmannia fingeri Anan, sp. nov., Percultazonaria
fragaria (Gümbel), Percultazonaria tuberculata (Plummer), Lenticuzonaria
Keywords: argentinica Anan, Lenticuzonaria misrensis Anan, Percultalina misrensis
Anan, Hemirobulina comma (Roemer), Hemirobulina curvatura
Paleontology (Cushman), Hemirobulina humilis (Reuss), Hemirobulina nammalensis
Lagenid foraminifera (Haque), Hemirobulina pachygaster Gümbel, Vaginulinopsis argentinica
Paleogeography Anan, sp. nov., Vaginulinopsis deserti (Said & Kenawy), Vaginulinopsis
emiratensis (Anan), Vaginulina boukharyi (Anan), Vaginulina chilensis
Tethys
Anan, sp. nov., and Ramulina shreifae Anan, sp. nov. Nine species of these
assemblage were recorded from Egypt (about 45%), 3 species from Chile
(about 15%), 2 species from Argentina (about 10%), and one species (about
5%) from each of Tanzania, Jordan, Iraq, UAE, Iran and Pakistan. Four
species are believed here to be new: Tollmannia fingeri, Vaginulinopsis
argentinica, Vaginulina chilensis and Ramulina shreifae.
1. Introduction
Africa (Tanzania), Southwest Asia (Jordan, Iraq, UAE,
The present study aims at throwing light on the pale- Iran, Pakistan) (Figure 1A) and South America (Chile, Ar-
ontology and biogeography of twenty small benthic fo- gentina) (Figure 1B). Four out of them are believed here
raminiferal species that were originally erected by many to be new: two species from Chile (Tollmannia fingeri and
authors from nine countries in the Southern Tethys. Ten Vaginulina chilensis), one species from Argentina (Vag-
of them were erected originally from Egypt (Northeast inulinopsis argentinica), and also the other one species
Africa), while the other species were recorded from East from Egypt (Ramulina shreifae).
Haidar Salim Anan,
Al Azhar University-Gaza, P.O. Box 1277, Palestine;
by-nc/4.0/).
38
2. Material of Study 1860 Dentalina catenula Reuss [3], p. 185, Plate 3,

Figure 6.
Rich and well-preserved twenty Lagenid foraminiferal 1956 Dentalina catenula Reuss-Said & Kenawy [17], p.
species from nine countries in the Southern Tethys (South 132, Plate 2, Figure 24.
America, Northeast and Central East Africa, and Southwest 2019 Laevidentalina catenula Reuss-Jaff & Lawa[21], p.
Asia) made it possible to elucidate them with its modern tax- 12, Plate 1, Figure 21.● {illustrated specimen}.
onomical consideration. Following the Сode of Zoological Age, type locality and sample: Late Campanian-Early
Nomenclature, a taxonomic revision of four species of them Maastrichtian, Dokan section, sample number DSH05-
is re-described its morphological features, which are consid- 105 (Figure 2).
ered here as a new species. As noted by many researchers Remarks: Nodosaria differs from Laevidentalina by its
(e.g. Finger [1]), the sample processing of foraminiferal spec- elongate arcuate smooth test, rounded to fusiform proloc-
imens was processed from the sedimentary rock samples by ulus, which is mostly apiculate. Nodosaria catenula was
(1) soaking in water or hydrogen peroxide until most of the recorded from Austria (Northern Tethys) and later from
sediment had disaggregated, (2) washing the residue over a both Egypt and Iraq (Southern Tethys).
standard 230-mesh (63-µm openings) sieve, and (3) drying Genus Pyramidulina Fornasini, 1894
by funneling through fast-flow filter paper, followed by ov- Pyramidulina robinsoni (Futyan, 1976) (Plate 1, Fig-
en-drying at 30 °C, (4) specimens were then picked with a ure 2)
000 sable hair brush and sorted by species onto 63 60-grid 1976 Nodosaria robinsoni Futyan [4], p. 525, Plate 82,
micropaleontological slides, from which primary types were Figures 5, 6.
selected and transferred onto single-hole slides for reference 2006 Nodosaria sp. Pearson et al. [9], p. 307, Plate 4,
and imaging. Figure 11.
2016 Nodosaria limbata d’Orbigny-Orabi & Zaky [22],
3. Systematic Paleontology
p. 188, Plate 3, Figure 1. ●
The taxonomy of Loeblich & Tappan [2] is followed Type locality and sample no.: North Gunna, Farafra
here. The twenty benthic foraminiferal species belonging Oasis, Egypt, sample 65 (Figures 3A, B).
to eight genera, which were recorded from the Maastrich- Age: Thanetian.
tian to Ypresian of nine Southern Tethyan countries, and Remarks: Anan [23] introduced an evolutionary trend:
illustrated in Plate 1. The Middle Paleocene Pyramidulina robinsoni (Futyan)
Order Foraminiferida Eichwald, 1830 → Late Paleocene-Early Eocene Pyramidulina leroyi
Suborder Lagenina Delage & Hérouard, 1896 Anan [24]. Pyramidulina robinsoni, so far, was recorded
Genus Nodosaria Lamarck, 1812 from Jordan, Egypt and Tanzania.
Nodosaria catenula (Reuss, 1860) (Plate 1, Figure 1) Genus Tollmannia Sellier de Civrieux & Dessauvagie,
Figure 1. Location map of the Southern Tethys (A): Northeast Africa (Egypt), East Africa (Tanzania), Southeast Asia
(Jordan, Iraq, UAE, Iran, Pakistan), and the southern Tethys (B): South America (Chile and Argentina).
39
Plate 1. Figure 1. Nodosaria catenula (Reuss [3]), 2. Pyramidulina robinsoni (Futyan [4]), 3. Tollmannia costata (d’Orbig-
ny [5]), 4. Tollmannia fingeri Anan, sp. nov., 5. Percultazonaria fragaria (Gümbel [6]), 6. P. tuberculata (Plummer [7]), 7a.
Lenticuzonaria argentinica (Anan [8]), 7b. Astacolus sp.-Pearson et al. [9], 7c. Percultazonaria cf. P. mamilligera (Kar-
rer)-Finger [1], 7d. Marginulinopsis sp.-Salahi [10], 8. Lenticuzonaria misrensis (Anan [8]), 9a,b. 9a. Percultalina misrensis
(Anan [11]), 9b. Percultazonaria vaughani (Cushman)-Finger [1], 10a,b. Hemirobulina comma (Römer [12]), 10a. dorsal
view, 10b. side view, 11a,b. Hemirobulina curvatura (Cushman [13]), 11a. dorsal view, 11b. side view, 12. Hemirobulina
humilis (Reuss [14]), 13a,b. Hemirobulina nammalensis (Haque [15]), 13a. dorsal view, 13b. side view, 14. Hemirobulina
pachygaster (Gümbel [16]), 15. Vaginulinopsis argentinica Anan, sp. nov., 16. Vaginulinopsis deserti (Said & Kenawy [17]),
17. Vaginulinopsis emiratensis (Anan [18]), 18. Vaginulina boukharyi (Anan [19]), 19a,b. Vaginulina chilensis Anan, sp. nov.,
19a. side view, 19b. dorsal view, 20. Ramulina shreifae Anan, sp. nov., 21. R. pseudoaculata (Olsson [20]). (Scale bars
100 µm)
40
Figure 2. Stratigraphic log of the Dokan section, northeast Iraq, and the stratigraphic range of the Nodosaria catenula
(Reuss) (after Jaff & Lawa [21]).
Figure 3. A. Location map of North Gunna and El-Guss Abu Said sections, Farafra Oasis, Egypt, B. Stratigraphy of
North Gunna section, and the position of sample 65: Thanetian (after Orabi & Zaky [22]).
41
1965
Type species Lingulina costata subsp. tricarinata Toll-
mann, 1954 = Lingulina costata d’Orbigny.
Tollmannia costata (d’Orbigny, 1846) (Plate 1, Figure 3)
2013 Pseudonodosaria comatula (Cushman)-Finger [1],
p. 403, Plate 7, Figure 7.●
Type locality: Navidad Formation (in the vicinity
of the name-bearing town located southwest of Capital
Santiago), Central Chile, sample number and deposi-
tary: University of California Museum of Paleontology
(UCMP50135), PPP (collected site in the Navidad Forma-
tion) (Figure 4).
Remarks: The test has fine to coarse longitudinal ribs,
then an elongate test with a smooth surface. For that, the
late Early Miocene Finger’s specimen P. comatula is treat-
ed here to belong to T. costata (d’Orbigny [5]) (Table 1).
Tollmannia fingeri Anan, sp. nov. (Plate 1, Figure 4)
2013 Tollmannia costata d’Orbigny-Finger [1], p. 404,
Plate 7, Figure 11. ●
Holotype: Illustrated specimen in Plate 1, Figure 4.
Dimensions: Length 4.5 mm, width 3.2 mm.
Depositary: The University of California Museum of Figure 4. Location map of Navidad area, southwest the
capital Santiago in central Chile (after Finger [1]).
Paleontology (UCMP50135).
Etymology: After the micropaleontologist K.L. Finger,
from T. costata in its die out distally rib in the last cham-
Univ. California Museum of Paleontology.
ber, and from T. argentinica Anan [25] in its shorter test,
Type locality and sample: Navidad Formation, Central
and without surface longitudinal ribs in the final globular
Chile, UCMP50135, PPP, PPT (Navidad area, Navidad
chamber, than whole test. It is confined to Chile.
Formation collecting sites) (Figure 5).
Stratigraphic level: Middle Miocene to Early Pliocene Percultazonaria fragaria (Gümbel, 1868) (Plate 1,
(Table 2). Figure 5)
Diagnosis: This new species is characterized by its fine 1868 Marginulina fragaria Gümbel [6], p. 57, Plate 1,
to coarse surface longitudinal ribs, but die out distally in Figure 58.
the last chamber, aperture terminal, slitlike, bordered by 2006 Percultazonaria fragaria (Gümbel)-Cimerman et
an elevated lip. al. [26], p. 24, Plate 5, Figures 4, 5.
Remarks: Tollmannia fingeri Anan, sp. nov. differs 2009 Percultazonaria fragaria (Gümbel)-Anan [27], p. 6,
Table 1. The stratigraphic range of Tollmannia costata in the Navidad Formation (Navidad area) and Ranquil Formation
(Arauco area), Chile (VR = very rare, R = rare, F = frequent) (after Finger [1]).
North Central
Sector
Las
area Navidad Conc Arauco Vald
Cruces
EI Peral
Geologic unit Navidad Fm. Ranquil Fm. SDom
beds
NLP
LPER
MOS
RAP
PPP
PPT
PPN
LBZ
PTA
MAT
NAV5
MPUP
CPUP
MS10
FRA
FRM
RQT
RQK
RAN
MIB
LEB
VAL
Locality
Pseudonodosaria aequalis VR R R VR R
Pseudonodosaria comatula
F R F F F R R F
42
1927 Cristellaria subaculeata var. tuberculata Plummer [7],

p. 101, Plate 7, Figure 2, Plate 14, Figure 1.
2004 Vaginulinopsis waiparaensis (Finlay)-Pearson
et al. [32], p. 40, Plate 5, Figure 8. ●
2021 Marginulinopsis sp. Salahi [10], p. 316, Plate 5,
Figures 31, 32.
Type locality: Tanzania Drilling Project (TPD 1, 2),
and stratigraphic log of TDP2 (Figure 7).
Remarks: The Tanzanian specimen belongs here to the
genus Percultazonaria, dye to its rows of distinct beadlike
tubercles best developed on the coiled portion of the test
and giving place to more ridge-like elevations between
later chambers with protruding radiate aperture.
Lenticuzonaria argentinica Anan, 2023 (Plate 1, Fig-
ures 7a-d)
2004 Astacolus sp.-Pearson et al. [32], p. 40, Plate 5,
Figure 9. ●
2013 Percultazonaria cf. P. mamilligera (Karrer)-Fin-
ger [1], p. 412, Plate 9, Figure 8., UCMP 50169.●
2021 Marginulinopsis sp.-Salahi [10], p. 316, Plate 5,
Figure 33. ●
2023 Lenticuzonaria argentinica Anan [25], p. 37, Plate
Figure 5. The sites of PPP and PPT in the Navidad For-
1, Figure 9. ●
mation (Chile).
Type locality and sample of L. argentinica: Formación
Plate 1, Figure 9. Punta Torcida, AV-5, SEGEMAR 2860 (Ypresian), (Figure
2009 Percultazonaria fragaria (Gümbel)-Zlinská [28], p. 8).
306, Plate 1, Figure 2. Remarks: The specimens of Tanzania, Chile, Iraq have
2013 Percultazonaria fragaria (Gümbel)-Valchev et al. [29], closely related to L. argentinica Anan [25].
p. 59, Plate 1, Figure 5. Lenticuzonaria misrensis Anan, 2021 (Plate 1, Figure
2015 Percultazonaria fragaria (Gümbel)-Anan [30], p. 8)
21, Plate 1, Figure 9. 2022 Lenticulina tuberculata (Plummer)-Farouk et al. [34],
2016 Lenticulina sp.-VahdatiRad et al. [31], p. 5 (of 13), p. 32, Figures 12, 14.●
Plate 2, Figure 8. ● Type locality: Gharb El–Mawhob section, Dakhla Oa-
Type locality: Yaghol section, Khangiran formation, sis (26°01’02” N, 28°13’18” E; Western Desert, Egypt)
northeast of Iran (Figure 6). sample no. 255 (Figures 9a-c).
Remarks: The Iranian specimen has closely characters Remarks: The specimen of Farouk et al. [34] has identi-
with P. fragaria. It was recorded in France, Slovenia, Slo- cal characteristics with the Lenticuzonaria Anan [8].
vakia, Bulgaria, Egypt, UAE and Iran. Percultalina misrensis Anan, 2022 (Plate 1, Figure 9)
Percultazonaria tuberculata (Plummer, 1927) (Plate 2012 Marginulinopsis tuberculata (Plummer)-Youssef
1, Figure 6) & Taha [35], p. 4289, Plate 2, Figure 18.
Table 2. The stratigraphic distribution of Tollmannia fingeri n. sp. in the Navidad Formation, Chile (VR = very rare, R =
rare), (after Finger [1]).
Sector North
area Las Cruces Navidad
Geologic unit EI Peral beds Navidad Fm.
Locality NLP LPER MOS RAP PPP PPT PPN LBZ PTA MAT NAV5 MPUP CPUP
Tollmannia costata
R VR
43
Figure 6. Location of the Yaghol section, sample location 224D (Ypresian) in the stratigraphic log of Yaghol section,
North of Iran (after VahdatiRad et al. [31]).
Figure 7. Location map of TPD 1, 2, and stratigraphic log of Early-Middle Eocene of Tanzania, East Africa (after Pear-
son et al. [32]).
Figure 8. Geological map of de la Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego (South Argentina), including the stratigraphy of the
Punta Torcida Formation (after Jannou et al. [33]).
44
Figure 9. a) Location map of the Gharb El-Mawhob section, Dakhla Oasis, Western Desert of Egypt, b) stratigraphic
log of the study section, c) the K/P boundary of the study section (after Farouk et al. [34]).
2013 Percultazonaria vaughani (Cushman)-Finger [1], p. with Percultalina misrensis Anan [11]. This species was re-
412, Plate 9, Figure 10.● corded in Egypt and Chile.
2015 Marginulinopsis tuberculata (Plummer)-Orabi & Genus Hemirobulina Stache, 1864
Hassan [36], Plate 1, Figure 13. Hemirobulina comma (Roemer, 1841) (Plate 1, Figure
2022 Percultalina misrensis Anan [11], p. 32, Plate 1, 10)
Figure 2. 1841 Marginulina comma Römer [12]), Plate 47, Figure 9.
Type locality and depositary: Navidad Formation (North 1956 Marginulinopsis comma (Römer)-Said & Kenawy [17]).,
Chile), PPP, PPT, MPUP sites, UCMP 50171 (Figure 10). p. 132, Plate 2, Figure 19.●
Type locality and stratigraphic log of Nekhl section,
North Sinai, Egypt (Figure 11),
Stratigraphic level and sample no. of the species: Fig-
ure 12.
Remarks: The genus Hemirobulina differs from Mar-
ginulina in having a smooth rather than longitudinally
costate wall, It also differs mainly from Marginulinopsis
in slightly curved early chambers than close coiled and
planispiral, and lacking ribbed ornamentation on the un-
iserial stage. Hemirobulina comma was recorded from the
Maestrichtian of Germany, and later from Nekhl section,
Sinai of Egypt.
Hemirobulina curvatura (Cushman, 1938) (Plate 1,
Figure 11)
1938 Marginulina curvatura Cushman [13], p. 34, Plate
5, Figures 13-14.
1956 Marginulina curvatura Cushman-Said & Kenawy [17], p.
132, Plate 2, Figure 20.●
Figure 10. Location map of the Navidad section, Central 2003 Marginulina curvatura Cushman-Abdelghany [38],
Chile. p. 394, Figure 3.
Stratigraphic range of Finger’s specimen: Navidad For- Type locality, Giddi section (no. 1), North Sinai, Egypt
mation (VR = very rare, R = rare, C = common) (Table 3). (see Figure 12).
Remarks: The figured specimens of Finger [1], Youssef Stratigraphic level and sample no.: Early Eocene, sam-
& Taha [35] and Orabi & Hassan [36] have closed characters ple no. 859 (Figure 13).
45
Table 3: The stratigraphic rages of the Percultazonaria vaughani of Finger (= Percultalina misrensis Anan) (after Figure [1]).
Sector North
area Las Cruces Navidad
Geologic unit EI Peral beds Navidad Fm.
Locality NLP LPER MOS RAP PPP PPT PPN LBZ PTA MAT NAV5 MPUP CPUP
Percultazonaria vaughani
VR R R C
Figure 11. The location map of some studied sections in Egypt (no. 1. Nekhl and Giddi sections in North Sinai, 2,
Fayum area), 7 Maqfi section; and UAE (Jabal Hafit and J. Mundassa) (after Anan [37]).
Figure North
Figure 12. Stratigraphic log of Nekhl section, 12 Sinai, stratigraphic level and sample no. 6 of the Maastrichtian
[17]
Hemirobulina comma (after Said & Kenawy ).
46
Remarks: The figured specimens of Said & Kenawy [17] rope, USA and Mexico, while it was recorded from the
and Abdelghany [38] are closely related to the genus Maastrichtian and Paleocene of Sinai of Egypt (Said &
Hemirobulina. It was recorded from USA, and also Giddi Kenawy [17]).
section (Sinai of Egypt) and Qarn El Barr section (UAE). Hemirobulina nammalensis (Haque, 1956) (Plate 1,
Hemirobulina humilis (Reuss, 1863) (Plate 1, Figure Figure 13)
12) 1956 Marginulina glabra d’Orbigny var. nammalensis
1863 Cristellaria (Cristellaria) humilis Reuss [14], p. 65, Haque [15], p.74, Plate11, Figures 1-4. ●
Plate 6, Figures 16, 17. 2005 Vaginulinopsis nammalensis (Haque)-Sztràkos [40],
1946 Marginulina humilis (Reuss)-Cushman [39], p. 63, p. 186, Plate 14, Figure 28.
Plate 22, Figure 17. Type locality: Nammal Formation, Nammal Gorge
1956 Marginulina humilis (Reuss)-Said & Kenawy [17], area, Pakistan (Figure 14).
p. 130, Plate 2, Figure 18.● Remarks: Hemirobulina differs from Vaginulinapsis
Type locality and sample no.: Paleocene of Nekhl sec- in the rounded cross section and curved but not distinctly
tion (sample 7) and Giddi section (sample no. 834), North enrolled early stage. It differs from Marginulina in having
Sinai of Egypt (Figures 12, 13). a smooth rather than longitudinally costate wall. For that,
Remarks: The figured specimens of Cushman [39] the figured specimens of Haque [15] and Sztràkos [40] belong
Figure 12
and Said & Kenawy [17] are closely related to the genus to the genus Hemirobulina. Hemirobulina nammalensis
Hemirobulina. It was recorded in the Cretaceous of Eu- was recorded from Pakistan (Southern Tethys), and France
Figure[17]
Figure 13. Stratigraphic log of Giddi section, North Sinai, Egypt (after Said & Kenawy 13).
Figure 14. Lithostratigraphic section and location of Nammal Gorge at Nammal Dam: Patala and Nammal Formations
of the Nammal Gorge, Salt and Sor Ranges of Pakistan (Gibson [41]).
47
(Northern Tethys). recognizable by its slender test and slightly inflated and
Hemirobulina pachygaster Gümbel, 1870 (Plate 1, elongated chambers. it was recorded from Maastrichtian,
Figure 14) Nekhl section (Egypt), sample no. 6 (see Figures 12, 13).
1870 Marginulina pachygaster Gumbel [16], 1868 Vaginulinopsis emiratensis (Anan, 1993) (Plate 1,
(1870), p. 632, Plate 1, Figure 60. Figure 17)
1953 Marginulina pachygaster Gumbel-LeRoy [42], p. 1993 Marginulinopsis emiratensis Anan [18], p. 657,
38, Plate 8, Figure 11. Plate 2, Figure 12.
1956 Marginulina pachygaster Gumbel-Said & Type locality: Qarn El Barr section, Al Dhayd area, no.
Kenawy [17], p. 132, Plate 2, Figure 21.● 1 (about 80 km north of J. Hafit, no. 2), UAE (Abathom-
Stratigraphic level and sample no.: Maastrichtian, phalus mayaroensis Zone). (Figure 15)
Nekhl section, sample no. 6 (see Figures 12, 13). Remarks: This Late Maastrichtian specimen belongs
Remarks: As noted before, Hemirobulina differs from to the genus Vaginulinopsis. V. emiratensis was described
Marginulina in having a smooth rather than longitudinally from Qarn El Barr section, Al Dhayd area (about 80 km
costate wall. For that, the Egyptian specimens belong to north of J. Hafit), UAE.
the genus Hemirobulina. It was originally described from
the Eocene of Germany, Early Eocene in Maqfi section,
Western Desert of Egypt (LeRoy [42]), and Maastrichtian in
Sinai of Egypt (Said & Kenawy [17]).
Genus Vaginulinopsis Silvestri, 1904
Vaginulinopsis argentinica Anan, sp. nov. (Plate 1,
Figure 15)
2022 Laevidentalina sp. Jannou et al. [33], p. 21, Plate 2,
Figure 5.●
Diameter of the holotype: Length 0.62 mm, width 0.11
mm.
Depositary: The Survey of Geology and Mineralogy of
Argentina (SEGEMAR2849).
Etymology: After the State of Argentina.
Type locality and sample: Formación Punta Torcida,
CI-20, SEGEMAR 2849, CM-145 (see Figure 8).
Stratigraphic level: Ypresian.
Diagnosis: This Early Eocene species has an elongate
test and circular in section, early-stage planispirally en-
rolled and involute, the later stage includes numerous
semi globular chambers added in a slight curve, sutures
nearly horizontal, flush in the early stage, but depressed Figure 15
Figure 15. Location map of Qarn El Barr section (no.1)
in the final three chambers, wall calcareous, hyaline, per- North UAE (after Abdelghany [38]).
forate radial, surface smooth and unornamented, aperture
terminal at the dorsal angle, and produced on a neck. Genus Vaginulina d’Orbigny, 1826
Remarks: The genus Vaginulinopsis has a planispirally Vaginulina boukharyi (Anan, 2010) (Plate 1, Figure
enrolled and involute early stage, which does not exist in 18)
the genus Laevidentalina. The V. argentinica Anan [12] is 2010 Vaginulinopsis boukharyi Anan [19], p. 30, Plate 1,
lacking an apiculate pro-loculus, which is characterized Figure 12.
the genus Laevidentalina. Type locality: Duwi section, Tarawan Chalk, Red Sea
Vaginulinopsis deserti (Said & Kenawy, 1956) (Plate coast, Egypt (see Figure 12).
1, Figure 16) Remarks: This Paleocene species belongs here to the
[43]
1956 Marginulinopsis deserti Said & Kenawy [4], p. genus Vaginulina d’Orbigny due to its thick raised
132, Plate 2, Figure 23. sutures, then slightly depressed sutures in Vaginulinopsis
[44]
Remarks: This species Lacks the longitudinal ribs Silvestri . It is originally recorded from Duwi section,
Figure 16
along the test surface as genus Marginulinopsis. It is Egypt (Figure 16).
48
Figure 15 Earth and Planetary Science | Volume 02 | Issue 02 | October 2023
Figure 16 log of Duwi section, including the stratigraphic range of the Thanetian V. boukharyi (after Anan [45]).
Figure 16. Stratigraphic
Vaginulina chilensis Anan, sp. nov. (Plate 1, Figure

19)
2013 Astacolus mexicanus (Nuttall)-Finger [1], p. 415,
Plate 9, Figure 19.
Diameter of the holotype: Length 0.55 mm, width 0.32
mm.
Depositary: The University of California Museum of
Paleontology (UCMP).
Etymology: After the State of Chile.
Type locality: Navidad Fm. (site CPUP), Ranquil Fm.
(sites FRA, FRM), (Figure 17).
Stratigraphic level: Early Oligocene to Early Miocene
(Table 4).
Diagnosis: This species has an elongate uniserial recti-
linear laterally compressed test, septa horizontal to slight-
Figure 17. Location map of the Navidad section, Cen-
ly oblique thickened and elevated, wall calcareous perfo-
rate, surface smooth, aperture radiate at the dorsal angle, tral Chile.
and slightly produced. Genus Ramulina Jones, 1875
Remarks: This new species differs from V. boukharyi Ramulina shreifae sp. nov. (Plate 1, Figure 20)
Anan [19] in its longer test, lesser and acuter width, with 2023 Ramulina pseudoaculata (Olsson)-Shreif et al. [46],
keel, and more elevated thick sutures. p. 115, Plate 6, Figure 8.
Table 4. Stratigraphic range of Vaginulina chilensis in both Navidad and Ranquil Formations, North and Central Chile
(after Finger [1]).
North Central
Sector
area Las
Navidad Conc Arauco Vald
Cruces
EI Peral
Geologic unit Navidad Fm. Ranquil Fm. SDom
beds
NLP
LPER
MOS
RAP
PPP
PPT
PPN
LBZ
PTA
MAT
NAV5
MPUP
CPUP
MS10
FRA
FRM
RQT
RQK
RAN
MIB
LEB
VAL
Locality
Astacolus
mexicanus VR R F
49
Holotype: Illustrated specimen in Plate 1, Figure 20. Remarks: This new species differs from R. pseudoacu-
Diameter of the holotype: Length 0.42 mm, width 0.18 lata (Olsson [20]) in having a smooth surface and not con-
mm. centric two ends arms of the chamber, then ornamented
Depositary: Faculty of Education, Dept. Biological and surface and concentric two arms.
Geological Sciences, Ain Shams Univ., Egypt.
Etymology: After the micropaleontologist Abeer Shreif, 4. Paleogeography
Ain Shams University, Faculty of Education, Department
The twenty identified species have wide geographic
of Biological and Geological Sciences, Cairo, 11341,
distribution in nine localities in the Southern Tethys: Chile
Egypt.
Type locality and sample no.: El Guss Abu Said, West- (South Pacific), Argentina (South Atlantic), Egypt, Tanza-
ern Desert, Egypt, samples 1, 2 (common), (after Shreif et nia (Northeast Africa), Jordan, Iraq, UAE, Iran and Paki-
al. [46]). stan (Southwest Asia) (see Figure 1). The paleogeographic
Stratigraphic level: Ypresian (E3, Morozovella mar- maps recorded by many authors [47-50] show the Tethyan
ginodentata Zone), Figure 18. realm had been connected with the Atlantic Ocean from
Diagnosis: This Early Eocene species is characterized the west to the Indo-Pacific Ocean to the east, via the
by its ovoid smooth test, with only two not concentric Mediterranean Sea, crossing the Middle East region dur-
ends arms of the chamber. ing the Paleogene time (Table 5).
Figure 18. Stratigraphic log of El Guss Abu Said section, Farafra Oasis, Western Desert, Egypt, and the stratigraphic
range of the new species Ramulina shreifae, samples (1, 2) (after Shreif et al. [46]).
Table 5. Paleogeographic distribution of the Early Eocene twenty Lagenid and Rotaliid benthic foraminiferal species in
the different locations in the Southern Tethys, particularly the sp. nov. in this study: 1. Chile (Tollmannia fingeri, Vaginu-
lina chilensis), 2. Argentina (Vaginulinopsis argentinica), 3. Egypt (Ramulina shreifae), 4. Tanzania, 5. Jordan, 6. Iraq, 7.
UAE, 8. Iran, 9. Pakistan.
Sp.
countries
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
species
No.
1 Nodosaria catenula - - x - - ☻ - - -
2 Pyramidulina robinsoni - - x x ☻ - - - -
3 Tollmannia costata ☻ - - - - - - - -
4 fingeri ☻ - - - - - - - -
5 Percultazonaria fragaria - - x - - - x ☻ -
6 tuberculata - - x ☻ - - - x x
7 Lenticuzonaria argentinica x ☻ - - - - - x -
8 misrensis - - ☻ x - - - - -
9 Percultalina misrensis x - ☻ - - - - - -
10 Hemirobulina comma - - ☻ - - - - - -
11 curvatura - - ☻ - - - x - -
12 humilis - - ☻ - - - - - -
13 nammalensis - - - - - - - - ☻
14 pachygaster - - ☻ - - - x - -
15 Vaginulinopsis argentinica - ☻ - - - - - - -
16 deserti - - ☻ - - - - - -
17 emiratensis - - x - - - ☻ - -
18 Vaginulina boukharyi - - ☻ - - - - - -
19 chilensis ☻ - - - - - - - -
20 Ramulina shreifae - - ☻ - - - - - -
Note: ☻ = illustrated, x = recorded, - = not recorded.
50
5. Paleoecology and Paleoenvironment fauna of the Maqfi section, Western Desert of Egypt, and
the northern part of Sinai Peninsula to be predominantly
Finger [1] noted that the presence of Neogene cosmo- related to the “Midway-type fauna, MTF”, middle-outer
politan deep-water benthic foraminifera in all of the as- neritic environment (50-200 m). Futyan [4] noted that the
semblages supports the hypothesis that deep water masses Jordanian faunal assemblage is predominantly considered
derived from the Antarctic Circumpolar Current have en- here to be related to MTF (middle-upper neritic environ-
abled many Neogene deep-water foraminifera to disperse ment, 100-200 m). VahdatiRad et al. [31] noted that the
widely in the global ocean (Figure 19). changes in the relative abundance percentage of plankton-
ic foraminiferal species in Yaghol section, Khangiran for-
mation, northeast of Iran indicate the warm seawater and
nearly oligotrophic condition in the late Paleocene-Early
Eocene. Salahi [10] noted that the diverse benthic assem-
blages in the Kopet-Dag (KD) in northern Iran indicate a
deeper environment in comparison with Late Paleocene
. fauna (middle-outer neritic based on the presence of Mid-
way-type fauna, MTF), while a deep paleowater environ-
ment is evidenced by a high proportion of lenticulinids (=
Percultazonaria fragaria) (Figure 20).
Figure 19. Paleogeography of the Neo-Tethys Ocean

during the Maastrichtian showing the flow direction of the
Tethyan Circumglobal Current (TCC) from east to west in
the Southern Tethys (after Abed [51]); 1. Chile, 2. Argenti-
na, 3. Egypt, 4. Jordan, 5. Iraq, 6. Iran, 7. UAE, 8. Tanza-
nia, 9. Pakistan.
Jannou et al. [33] noted that the paleoenvironment of
Figure 20. Peri-Tethys basin, includes Kopet-Dag area,
South Argentina would have been a shelf sea of normal
KD (NE Iran) during the Early Paleogene (after Salahi [10]).
salinity. LeRoy [42] noted that in certain respects the micro-
fauna of the Esna Shale of Maqfi section (Figure 11, no. 7)
exhibits an affinity with the Midway Type Fauna (MTF) of 6. Conclusions
the American Gulf Coastal area, middle-outer neritic en- The modern taxonomical consideration is used for
vironment (50-200 m). Said & Kenawy [17] described and twenty Lagenid benthic foraminiferal species from nine
recorded more than twenty hundred benthic foraminiferal countries in the Southern Tethys: Chile, Argentina, Egypt,
species from the Maastrichtian-Early Eocene strata of the Tanzania, Jordan, Iraq, United Arab Emirates (UAE),
two sections (Nekhl and Giddi) in northern Sinai, Egypt, Iran and Pakistan. These species are: Nodosaria catenula,
and noted that these taxa showed an affinity with Midway Pyramidulina robinsoni, Tollmannia costata, Tollman-
faunas of American Gulf Coastal Plain, which indicate nia fingeri, Percultazonaria fragaria, Percultazonaria
similarity with fauna of Trinidad and Tampico Embay- tuberculata, Lenticuzonaria argentinica, Lenticuzonaria
ment of Mexico. Anan [30] noted that the probable envi- misrensis, Percultalina misrensis, Hemirobulina com-
ronment of northern Egypt is outer neritic-upper bathyal, ma, Hemirobulina curvatura, Hemirobulina nammalen-
while deeper in central Egypt, are deposited in the mid- sis, Hemirobulina humilis, Hemirobulina pachygaster,
dle-outer neritic. Shreif et al. [46] noted that the abrupt Vaginulinopsis argentinica, Vaginulinopsis emiratensis,
decrease in the P/B ratio at the top of the Esna Formation Vaginulinopsis deserti, Vaginulina boukharyi, Vaginulina
and the erosional surface at the top of the Esna Formation chilensis and Ramulina shreifae. Nine species of these as-
indicate progressive or stepwise shallowing of the shelf semblage were recorded from Egypt (about 45%): Lentic-
through the succession of El Guss Abu Said, Western De- uzonaria misrensis, Percultalina misrensis, Hemirobulina
sert, Egypt, and during the late Paleocene-Early Eocene. comma, Hemirobulina curvatura, Hemirobulina humilis,
Berggren & Aubert [52] considered the Lower Tertiary Hemirobulina pachygaster, Vaginulinopsis deserti, Vagi-
51
nulina boukharyi, Ramulina shreifae; 3 species from Chile iliche Classe. 40, 147-238.
(about 15%): Tollmannia costata, Tollmannia fingeri, [4] Futyan, A.I., 1976. Late Mesozoic and Early Caino-
Percultalina misrensis; 2 from Argentina (about 10%): zoic benthonic foraminifera from Jordan. Palaeontol-
Lenticuzonaria argentinica, Vaginulinopsis argentinica; ogy. 19(3), 53-66.
and one species (about 5%) from each of Tanzania: Per- [5] Orbigny, A.D., 1846. Die fossilen Foraminiferen des
cultazonaria tuberculata, Jordan: Pyramidulina robinsoni, Tertiären Beckens von Wien (French) [The fossil for-
Iraq: Nodosaria catenula, UAE: Vaginulinopsis emiraten- aminifera of the Tertiary Basin of Vienna]. Foramin-
sis, Iran: Percultazonaria fragaria, and Pakistan: Hemiro- ifères fossiles du Bassin Tertiaire de Vienne. pp. 312.
bulina nammalensis. Four species are believed here to [6] Gümbel, C.W., 1868. Beiträge zur Foraminiferenfau-
be new: Tollmannia fingeri, Vaginulinopsis argentinica, na der nordalpinen Eocängebilde (Germany) [Con-
Vaginulina chilensis and Ramulina shreifae. The identified tributions to the foraminiferal fauna of the northern
species are marine fauna which indicates a middle nerit- Alpine Eocängebilde]. Abhandlungen der K. Bay-
ic-deep paleowater environment. The identified species erische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Cl. II. 10(2),
have wide geographic distribution in the Tethys, due to 579-730.
open and extended realms of the Tethys, which have ex- [7] Plummer, H.J., 1926. Foraminifera of the midway
tended from the Indo-Pacific to the Atlantic Oceans and formation in Texas. Bulletin University of Texas:
Mediterranean Sea during the Late Cretaceous to Early Austin.
Neogene times, and the fauna exhibit pronounced similar- [8] Anan, H.S., 2021. Lenticuzonaria: A new Tethyan
ities. The unclosed number of the members of Lagenids in Lagenid benthic foraminiferal genus. Earth Sciences
the study area may be due to a lack of available literature, Pakistan (ESP). 5(1), 33-36.
different latitudes, differences in paleoenvironmental con- [9] Pearson, P.N., Nicholas, C.J., Singano, J.M., et al.,
ditions (depth, temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, 2006. Further Paleogene and Cretaceous sediment
nutrient, land barriers, etc.) or misidentification. cores from the Kilwa area of coastal Tanzania: Tan-
zania drilling project sites 6-10. Journal of African
Funding Earth Sciences. 45(3), 279-317.
This research received no external funding or internal [10] Salahi, A., 2021. Late paleocene-middle eocene
funding. planktonic and small benthic foraminiferal fauna
from the type section of khangiran formation, Kop-
Acknowledgement et-Dagh Basin (NE Iran), Southernmost Peri-Tethys.
Stratigraphy and Geological Correlation. 29(3), 303-
The author would like to express his sincere apprecia-
321.
tion to the editor of EPS and the unknown reviewers for
[11] Anan, H.S., 2022. Percultalina: A new lagenid
their valuable comments. I am also indebted to my daugh-
benthic foraminiferal genus. Earth Sciences Pakistan
ter Dr. Huda Anan for her help in the development of the
(ESP). 6(2), 43-48.
figures, table and plate.
[12] Römer, F.A., 1841. Die Versteinerungen des
Conflict of Interest Norddeutschen Kreidegebirges/von Friedrich Adolph
Roemer, Königlich-Hannoverschen Amts-Assessor.
There is no conflict of interest. Mit 16 lithographirten Tafeln (Germany) [The fossils
of the North German Chalk Mountains. With sixteen
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54

RESEARCH ARTICLE
Facies and Hydrocarbon Reservoir Rock Characterization of the
Paleozoic Rocks of Peshawar Basin, Northwest Pakistan
Sajjad Ahmad* Sohail Raza Suleman Khan
Department of Geology, University of Peshawar, Khyber Pukhtunkhwa, 25120, Pakistan
Article history The present study details the facies description and hydrocarbon reservoir
Received: 10 June 2023 characterization of the Paleozoic rocks of Peshawar Basin, northwest
Pakistan. The outcrop samples from the Cambrian-Devonian rocks along
Revised: 10 July 2023 the famous Nowshera-Risalpur Road and Turlandi Village Section were
Accepted: 20 July 2023 investigated. The analysis of outcrop data revealed significant information
Published Online: 18 August 2023 regarding the facies and their depositional environments. Based on its
detailed sedimentological data, it is believed that the Ambar Formation
Keywords: is deposited in shallow shelf-tidal flat settings, while the protolith of the
Misri Banda Quartzite came from the wide beaches. The protolith of the
Facies Panjpir Formation was deposited in the shelf conditions, which shows an
Hydrocarbon reservoir overall shallowing when moving up the section from the argillites and
Paleozoic phyllites to crinoidal limestone. The Nowshera Formation was deposited as
a reef complex on the shelf edge having reef core, reef breccia and a back-
Peshawar Basin
reef lagoon. The techniques of petrography, XRD and SEM were used for
Pakistan the bulk geochemical composition of the rocks focusing on their matrix,
mineralogy, micro-porosity and pore-filling materials. The presence of
micrite, goethite, kaolinite and illite as intergranular mass, dolomitization-
induced porosity, twin cleavage plane and high dissolution porosity in
the Ambar Formation can provide significant pore space to the reservoir
fluids migration. Hematite with minor kaolinite, illite and chlorite as
alteration products of unstable framework grains as intergranular mass
and a deep seated burial diagenesis has minimized the reservoir potential
in Misri Banda Quartzite. The coarse and fine calcite, dolomite, chlorite
and kaolinite occur as pore-filling material between the framework grains
while the high intensity of intragranular dissolution and micro intergranular
connecting porosity in the Nowshera Formation makes it a promising
reservoir.
Sajjad Ahmad,
Department of Geology, University of Peshawar, Khyber Pukhtunkhwa, 25120, Pakistan;
by-nc/4.0/).
55
1. Introduction its. Small outcrops within the basin are the only places
where the Paleozoic and older strata have been exposed.
In the foothills of the Himalayas, the Peshawar Basin Pre-Cambrian to Early Mesozoic metamorphosed and
(Figure 1) includes the oldest exposed sequence of sedi- igneous rocks in the Peshawar Basin are highly deformed
mentary and metasedimentary rocks. Marine evaporites
and tightly folded. According to Treloar and Others [15]
(Salt Range Formation) can be found in the south, where-
these rocks are thrust over the Kurrum-Cherat-Margalla
as deep water pelites can be found in the north. The entire
ranges in the south. More than 300 meters of floodplain
sequence of Paleozoic-era strata can be found within the
mudstone and siltstones with minor sandstone intercala-
Peshawar Basin and along the hills that circle the basin
tions occupy the basin, which is overlaid by eroded Eo-
on its eastern side. Waagen [1], Griesbach [2], Middle-
cene limestone or Murree sandstone fanglomerates which
miss [3], Wadia [4], Martin et al. [5], Davies and Ahmad [6],
are moving northward. Intruding metamorphosed Paleo-
and Teichert and Stauffer [7] are credited with the first
zoic sediments along fault zones are a few alkaline rock
attempts to understand the stratigraphy of the Peshawar
complexes that emerge towards the western edge of the
Basin. They also first reported the presence of Paleozoic
Peshawar basin. The heavily deformed Murree sediments
rocks in the region. Burbank [8] described Pleistocene and
that make up the northern part of the Peshawar Basin in-
Pliocene era sediments in 1983, and Tahirkheli and Bur-
dicate that the pre-existing fore-deep basin experienced
bank [9] did the same in 1985. In an effort to understand
severe deformation prior to the start of sedimentation in
the local context of Himalayan stratigraphy, Fuchs [10]
the newly created Peshawar Basin. At least 2.8 million
undertook a study in the Nowshera area. Hussain [11]
years ago, sediments that filled the basin piled at a pace
created the regional geological map of the Nizampur re-
of 15 cm/1,000 years, totaling more than 300 m. The jux-
gion, which includes portions of the Attock, Mardan, and
taposition of metasediments from the Lesser Himalaya in
Peshawar districts. Pogue and Hussain [12] reconstructed
the north and sediments from the Mesozoic to Neogene
the Nowshera region stratigraphy based on the discovery
fold-belt in the south characterizes the southern edge of
of Trilobite trace fossils. The structural events’ timing in
the Peshawar Basin. Ahmad and others [16] hypothesized
the foothills of the Himalayas was worked out by Yeats
that the marine shelf sedimentation of the Indus Basin was
and Hussain [13]. Pogue and others [14] are responsible for
extended up to the Peshawar Basin during the Mesozoic.
the initial systematic attempt to understand the regionally
Under the Pre-Paleocene thrust nappes in the submerged
applicable and coherent stratigraphy of the Peshawar Ba-
Mesozoic marine strata, it is anticipated that a potential
sin and surrounding regions. They completed a thorough
petroleum system may be present in the Peshawar Basin.
sampling from several outcrops for a paleontological in-
vestigation, and as a result, they were able to modify the 3. Stratigraphic Setup
region’s stratigraphic framework and carry out a regional
correlation. The literature assessment makes clear that the In a younging up stratigraphic sequence, the Pesha-
petroleum geology of the study region has not yet been war Basin contains the Cambrian (Ambar Formation),
fully studied. Therefore, the assessment of the Peshawar Mid Ordovician (Misri Banda Quartzite), Late Silurian
Basin’s hydrocarbon resource potential has received par- (Panjpir Formation), and Late Devonian (Nowshera For-
ticular attention in this study. mation) (Figure 2). Of particular mention is the absence
of Precambrian (Manki, Shekhai and Dakhner Forma-
2. Regional Tectonic Settings tions), Cambrian (Darwaza Formation), Early Ordovician
A fairly large intra-mountain basin (more than 5500 (Hisartang Formation) and early-Mid Devonian (Inazari
km2) named the Peshawar Basin is located near the south- Formation) from the Peshawar Basin and characterizes the
ernmost tip of the Himalayas, northwest of the Kohat adjacent Attock-Cherat Ranges in the south of Peshawar
Basin (Figure 1). It is situated where the northern and Basin (Table 1).
southern edges of the Indo-Gangetic fore-deep, as well as 3.1 Ambar Formation
the southern limit of the Hindu Kush-Himalayan Ranges,
converge. The Peshawar basin is delimited by the Khy- It is a thick rock unit that is exposed in the form of
ber range in the northwest, the Attock-Cherat range in isolated hillocks between the Nowshera and Swabi areas.
the south, and the Swat range in the northeast along the The dominant lithology of the formation is thick bedded
margin of the basin, Quaternary fanglomerates were seen. to massive sandy dolomite, having ripple marks, mud
The majority of such deposits in the basin’s central region cracks and salt pseudomorphs (Figures 2-3). Minor shale
are fluvial micaceous sand, gravel, and lacustrine depos- and siltstone intercalations are also present.
56
Figure 1. The map shows major sedimentary basins and actinomorphic terrains of Pakistan. The Peshawar Basin is
located in the northwest of the Kohat Basin.
Table 1. The Paleozoic Stratigraphic framework of the Peshawar Basin and adjoining Attock Cherat Ranges, in north
Pakistan.
Era Epochs Peshawar Basin and adjoining Attock-Cherat Range
Formation Lithology Thickness
Devonian
Nowshera Limestone, dolomite, 30-215 m
Silurian Panjpir argillie, phyllite, limestone, meta-sediments & quartzite 400-600 m
Paleozoic Missri Banda Quartzite 200-500 m
Ordovician
Hissar-Tang Argillites & quartzite 400-600 m
Darwaza Limestone, dolomite and maroon shale 500-760 m
Cambrian
Ambar Dolomite, quartzite and argillite 425 m
3.2 Misri Banda Quartzite argillites of the Ambar Formation whereas the upper con-
tact is represented by a basal conglomerate. Based on the
It is a dominantly arenaceous unit, bounded by uncon- Cruziana rugosa fossils Ordovician age is assigned to this
formities, and lies between the underlying Ambar For- rock unit.
mation (Figure 4) and overlying the Panjpir Formation.
The formation contains feldspathic quartzite with thin 3.3 Panjpir Formation
intervals of argillites. The quartzite is cross bedded, and This is dominantly an argillaceous unit lying between
ripple marks are common. The lower contact is marked by the Misri Banda Quartzite and the overlying Nowshera
57
Formation. The formation consists of argillites and phyl-

lites; with interbeds of limestone in the upper part having
crinoids (Figure 5). The lower contact was not exposed
while its upper contact is gradational with the Nowshera
Formation.
3.4 Nowshera Formation

The Nowshera Formation is the youngest stratigraphic
unit in the Peshawar Basin. The dominant lithology of the
Nowshera Formation includes recrystallized limestone,
dolomitic limestone (Figure 6), sandstone and calcareous
quartzite and minor argillite. The Nowshera Formation is Figure 4. The contact relationship of the Ambar Forma-
subdivided into reef core, reef breccia, and unfossiliferous tion and Misri Banda Quartzite in the Turlandi Village
Section.
carbonates. The Nowshera Formation has an unconform-
able contact with the overlying Jafar Kandao Formation
in the north of Swabi. The unconformity is marked by
cobbles of argillite in the quartzite-argillite matrix and a
discontinuous conglomerate bed composed of pebbles.
Figure 5. A close view of the Panjpir Phyllites is exposed

along the Nowshera-Risalpur Road Section.
Figure 2. Salt pseudomorphs can be seen in the dolomite

of Ambar Formation in the Ambar Village Section.
Figure 6. The outcrop of Nowshera Formation, shows the

marble facies along the Nowshera-Risalpur Road Section.
4. Material and Methods

Figure 3. A view of the ripple marks in the Ambar Forma- A total of twenty-eight outcrop samples from the Now-
tion in the Ambar Village Section. shera-Risalpur Road Section, the Turlandi Section, and the
58
Ambar Village Section, were thoroughly investigated for (Plate 2, B) and minor muscovite flakes, some unrecogniz-
the assessment of the hydrocarbon reservoir rocks in the able bioclasts and ore minerals. The quartz grains are fine
Peshawar Basin. At the Central Resource Laboratory of and sub angular to sub rounded (Plate 2, C). The facies is
the University of Peshawar, all the samples were analyzed. laminated (Plate 2, D) in one portion in the Ambar Village
The techniques of thin section petrography, X-ray diffrac- Section. The facies has a network of calcite filled vein that
tion (XRD) analysis, and Scanning Electron Microscopy cross cut each other. Ferruginous stains and stylolites with
(SEM) were used and the results were integrated to better ferruginous and clayey material are also obvious in the
understand the hydrocarbon reservoir characterization in facies at different horizons. The facies contains an overall
the study area. visual porosity of 2% in the thin section. The facies is mud
supported and is almost devoid of any fauna and it seems
5. Results and Discussion to have been to have been deposited in the restricted parts
of the ocean with elevated salinities and less circulation.
5.1 Facies and Depositional Environments
The presence of lamination in the facies is an indication
Ambar Formation of the slow nature of deposition in this environment. This
lagoon was supplied with siliciclastic input by fluvial and
Siltstone Facies: This facies is dominantly composed aeolian processes. The undulose extinction, displayed by
of silty siliceous matrix (Plate 1, A) with some muscovite quartz grains, is because of low grade metamorphism.
grains (Plate 1, B). Some iron stains and heavy minerals
(pyrite) are also obvious in the facies. The Ambar Village
section has more sandy/siliciclastic content that is fine-
grained (Plate 1, C). The facies is characterized by veins
filled with low Mg calcite crystals (Plate 1, D). The facies
shows signs of a low grade of metamorphism. The facies
is very fine-grained, have some heavy mineral concen-
trations and is devoid of any fauna. The facies therefore
represents the inner parts of a restricted environment. The
sand content, present only in the Ambar Village Section is
derived from the fine sand beaches.
Plate 2. A: Photomicrograph showing the Lime Mudstone

Facies of the Ambar Formation; B: the siliciclastic materi-
al (E4); C: fine silt size grains (B4); D: Photomicrograph
showing the laminated fabric.
Dolomitized Ooidal-Peloidal Limestone Facies: The fa-
cies is characterized by the presence of carbonate allochems
that include ooids and peloids (Plate 3, A). These grains are
bounded by sparry cement along with intervening lime
mud at places. The facies has packstone to grainstone tex-
tures. The ooids are radial with peloidal nuclei and some
are micritized and converted into peloids. Both the mic-
Plate 1. A: Photomicrograph showing the silty matrix in ritized peloids and fecal pellets are present in the facies.
the siltstone facies of the Ambar Formation; B: the fer- In some horizons, the cementing material is replaced by
ruginous mineral D4 and Muscovite mineral (D6); C: the dolomite of secondary origin (Plate 3, B). Some siliciclas-
ferruginous mineral filled fracture (D4); D: the calcite tic material in the form of angular to sub-rounded quartz
filled echelon fracture (D3).
is also present, some of which show undulose extinction.
Siliciclastic Lime Mudstone Facies: The facies is charac- Ferruginous stains, stylolites and calcite filled veins are
terized by the dominance of lime mud (Plate 2, A) with var- obvious in the facies at different places.
ying amounts of siliciclastic input, in the form of quartz The facies is grain supported and are bounded by spar-
59
ry calcite cement, some of which have been replaced by minor siliciclastic input is probably derived from the fine
secondary dolomite (Plate 3, C) and some sand grains grained siliciclastic beaches. The absence of planktons
(Plate 3, D). The general absence of fauna, presence of suggests an inner shelf lagoon environment rather than an
faecal pellets, micritized nature of the grains and radial outer shelf.
habit of the ooids indicate that deposition took place on
hyper saline beaches of the lagoons. The presence of lime Missri Banda Quartzite
mud in some sections shows that this environment was At the outcrop, this facies is composed of medi-
subjected to fluctuating energy. um-thick bedded quartzose sandstone having ripple marks
and cross beds at certain intervals. At the thin section lev-
el, this facies is dominantly composed of monocrystalline
(90%) and polycrystalline (2%) quartz (Plate 5, A). The
quartz is angular to subrounded, moderate to well sorted,
tightly packed with straight to sutured contacts. A few
quartz grains show undulose extinction. The feldspars (al-
kali feldspar and plagioclase) constitute about 10% of the
facies. Altered clay lithic fragments constitute about 2%
of the facies. A trace amount of muscovite (1%) is also
present in the facies. Fracture porosity is present in the
facies. The well sorted, sub rounded to rounded, rippled
and cross bedded quartzose sandstone of the Misri Banda
Quartzite is deposited on high energy beaches and fore-
shore environments.
Plate 3. A: Photomicrograph showing the Ooids (C3) in

the dolomitized Ooidal Peloidal Limestone Facies of the
Ambar Formation; B: Peloids (D5) and siliciclastics (D4);
C: Photomicrograph showing the dolomitized cement and
pyrite (D5); D: siliciclastic material within the Ooidal
Peloidal Limestone Facies.
Sandy Siliciclastic Mudstone Facies: The facies is a si-
liciclastic mudstone (Plate 4, A) that has some sandy patches Plate 5. A: Photomicrograph is showing moderately
of fine grained nature. It contains some amounts of muscovite, sorted quartz, Dissolution porosity (EC57), Intraclats (D1)
recrystallized biota and altered clays. The muscovite grains within the Qurtzite of Misri Banda Formation; B: Photo-
are aligned preferentially and show micro folding (Plate 4, micrograph showing moderately the contacts between the
quartz grains (XPL).
B). The facies have some iron rich heavy minerals that ex-
hibit a network of silica filled fractures.
Panjpir Formation
Phyllites: The phyllites of the Panjpir Formation are
dominantly composed of quartz and clays. The segrega-
tion of quartz and clays into separate layers is quite well
developed but not to the degree of schistosity. Very fine
mica is developed in the clay rich layers (Plate 6, A-D).
Prominent segregation and the development of mica sug-
gest that the Panjpir Phyllites have undergone the peak of
Plate 4. A: Photomicrograph is showing Fine Grained low grade metamorphism.
Sandstone Facies showing the siliciclastic input (E5); B: Bioclastic Wackestone Facies: The facies is composed
Muscovite flakes (D4).
of grains to matrix ratio of 1.5:8.5. The grains consist
The facies is siliciclastic mud supported and is devoid mainly of bioclasts of echinoderms (Plate 7, A), pelecy-
of fauna, except for some recrystallized bioclasts. The pods (Plate 7, B), brachiopods, ostracods (Plate 7, C). The
deposition took place in the inner parts of a lagoon. The other grains include siliciclasts (Plate 7, D) of fine sand
60
and have angular to sub rounded shapes. These grains sometimes selective as well. The dolomite has replaced
are embedded in a matrix of lime mud. The facies is mud either the matrix or the grains or both. In some cases, the
supported and contains diverse fauna in the form of bra- signs of the original precursor material are still obvious
chiopods and echinoderms. The facies thus represents a (Plate 8, B). Most of the dolomitization has taken place in
normal salinity low energy environment of the middle the fine grained lime mudstones and wackestones. Some
shelf environment. of the dolomite crystals are euhedral (Plate 8, C), ferroan
and zoned. Silt size siliciclasts are found in some of the
samples. Fracturing, though not common, is found in
some parts of the facies (Plate 8, D).
The facies is characterized by fine to medium dolos-
tones, some of which have euhedral crystals. The orig-
inal precursor material, in some cases, is still obvious.
The facies is therefore considered secondary in nature
replacing the matrix and bioclasts of the mudstones and
wackestones. The Magnesium rich fluids might have been
circulated through the reef complex, particularly in the
back reef portion.
Plate 6. A, B: Photomicrograph showing the quartz, clays

and mica rich layers in the Panjpir Phylites (PPL, XPL); C,
D: preferred orientation of the quartz and clay layers (PPL,
XPL).
Plate 8. A: Photomicrograph showing the presence well

developed dolomite crystals (D5) in the Dolostone facies
of the Nowshera Formation; B: the original precursor (D5);
C: Euhedral dolomites (DE56); D: Photomicrograph is
showing the fractures (E5).
Recrystallized Bioclastic Wackestone/Mudstone
Facies: The facies is represented by mud supported na-
Plate 7. A: Photomicrograph showing the Bioclastic ture and have grains in the form of bioclasts. The facies
Wackestone Facies, confirming echinoderm spine (C5) is dolomitized (Plate 9, A) but the precursor facies is still
within the Panjpir Formation; B: bivalve (E6); C: ostra- evident. The bioclasts consist of crinoid’s ossicles (Plate
code (F2) and brachiopod (C7); D: siliciclasts (H2) are 9, B), bivalves (Plate 9, C), and gastropods. Most of these
common.
bioclasts are recrystallized but their outlines are still obvi-
ous (Plate 9, D). The facies is fractured in some horizons
Nowshera Formation
and stylolites are also obvious.
Dolostone Facies: The dolostone is the most prevalent The facies is supported by lime mud and bioclasts such
facies across the formation in both the Nowshera and Pir as crinoids and mollusks. The crinoids are found in the
Sabak Village Sections. The dolomite (Plate 8, A) ranges reef flank beds [17]. The facies thus represent the reef flank/
in size from fine to medium sand and it is often pervasive, upper slope depositional environment.
61
6. Hydrocarbon Reservoir Characterization

6.1 Ambar Formation
The Ambar Formation is mainly comprised of dolomite
and argillite. The matrix is composed of ferruginous-clay,
dolomite and micrite while the spar is present as fracture
filling and as a product of neomorphism (Plate 11, A, B,
C, D, and E). The XRD analysis indicates that the ferrug-
inous clay matrix constitutes quartz, dolomite, goethite,
kaolinite, albite and illite (Plate 11, F).
Dolomitization may increase the secondary porosity
and is connected to the ferruginous matrix. When rocks
are exposed sub-aerially to meteoric fluids in an exoge-
netic environment, porosity enhancement owing to disso-
lution may also happen to make up for this early porosity
Plate 9. A: Photomicrograph shows the precursor dolo-
loss [19-21]. Twin cleavage plane and high dissolution po-
mite within the Recrystallized Bioclastic Wackestone/
Mudstone facies (E5); B: A view of the Crinoid ossicle rosity which is evident from the SEM images can provide
(E4); C: Photomicrograph showing the bivalve fragment significant pore space to the migrating hydrocarbons thus
(F4); D: Photomicrograph is showing the recrystallized making it an excellent reservoir (Plate 11, G and H).
bioclast (E5).
6.2 Misri Banda Quartzite
Siliciclastic Dolostone Facies: This facies is restricted to
the Pir Sabak Village Section and is composed of dolostones The feldspathic quartzite with subordinate argillite is
with substantial amounts of siliciclasts (Plate 10, A) in the the main lithology in Misri Banda Quartzite. The quartzite
form of quartz. The quartz grains, some of which are frac- is tightly packed with concavo-convex to sutured contacts.
tured (Plate 10, B), are fine-medium sand size, moderately Grains are mostly sub-rounded to rounded having the abil-
sorted and range from sub-angular to rounded (Plate 10, C). ity to adopt the closest packing upon increased pressure.
These grains are set in a mix of fine grained dolomite and At places, a small amount of ferruginous matrix is present
coarse calcite (Plate 10, D). The facies has a preponderance along the fractures. Secondary dissolution porosity has
of quartz grains set in secondary dolomite and calcite. The been developed at the expense of the much unstable sedi-
secondary calcite is formed as a result of the circulation of mentary lithics (Plate 12, A and B). A high concentration
Mg rich lagoon waters [18]. The facies represents the lagoon of quartz and a minor occurrence of microcline and he-
facies with some clastic input from the land area. matite is also evident from the XRD analysis. A minor
amount of kaolinite, illite and chlorite as alteration prod-
ucts of unstable framework grains (feldspar) are present
which can affect the porosity (Plate 12, C). All naturally
occurring smectite clays including kaolinite are suscepti-
ble to chlorite alteration [22 23]. In situations with high pH
values and high Fe and Mg ion levels, smectite changed
into chlorite. Chlorite-smectite mixed layer stage is when
the transition typically takes place [24,25]. This process takes
place at a low diagenetic temperature at a relatively shal-
low depth. In an environment with abundant Fe and Mg
supply, kaolinite changed to chlorite with increasing burial
depth and temperature [26,27]. Illite is present in the form of
flaky pore lining material and partially covers a few of the
pore spaces thus minimizing its reservoir potential (Plate
12, D). Being tightly packed, still there exists intergran-
Plate 10. A: Photomicrograph showing the Siliciclastics ular porosity between the stable grains (Plate 12, E) be-
Dolostone Facies; B: siliciclastic quartz (G5); C: well cause the mineralogical, mature sandstone has the ability
rounded quartz (E4); D: A view of the recrystallized calcite. to retain a high amount of intergranular porosity at greater
62
Plate 11. A, B, C, D, and E are representing the Photomicrographs of Ambar Formation, various blocks of cement ma-
trix types, Ferruginous clays (F). Micrite (M), Calcite filled Veins (CV), Dolomite (D) and calcite; F: The XRD results
showing the bulk rock geochemistry of the Ambar Formation; G, H represent the SEM images focusing the Dissolution
and cleavage plane porosities and calcite mineral.
burial depth. According to earlier research, chlorite coat- rite and kaolinite may have been created by the alteration
ings, particularly in deeper reservoir sandstones are signif- of alkali feldspar or unstable clastic framework grains,
icant contributors to anomalous porosity and permeability. as shown by the XRD study in Plate 13, C. According
The Presence of chlorite and sutured contacts between to Foscolos [28], certain fluids produced during burial di-
quartz grains are indicative of deep burial diagenesis and agenesis aid in the alteration of clay minerals, such as the
very low grade metamorphism, which may have obliterat- transformation of smectite to illite. The burial depth and
ed the depositional porosities to a great extent. temperatures had a significant impact on how quickly kao-
linite turned into chlorite. Almost no porosity is present at
6.3 Nowshera Formation
the thin section level. However, SEM analysis shows that
Limestone, dolomite, and quartzite are the main lithlo- the carbonate of the Nowshera Formation possesses a high
gies in the Nowshera Formation. Between the framework amount of intragranular dissolution porosity and micro
grains, coarse and fine calcite, dolomite, and ferruginous intergranular connecting porosity (Plate 13, D and E). The
clays are present as pore fillers (Plate 13, A and B). Chlo- primary porosity has been reduced as a result of high tem-
63
Plate 12. A, B: Photomicrographs of the Misri Band Quartzite showing tightly packed quartzite with dissolution porosi-
ty (Dp) and ferruginous clays (F); C: The XRD data are showing the bulk rock geochemistry of the Quartzite rocks; D, E:
represent the SEM images showing the pore filling illite and inter-granular porosity.
perature recrystallization, which alters the size, shape, and siliciclastics and carbonates. The siliciclastic lime
lattice of the crystals without altering their mineralogy. mudstones and ooidal peloidal limestones represent
the carbonate portion of this shelf in the form of
7. Conclusions hyper saline lagoons and beaches. Whereas the fine
grained sandstone, siltstone and sandy siliciclastic
Hydrocarbon reservoir characterization has gained
mudstone occupied the clastic dominated beach and
significance as numerous oil fields are getting mature
lagoon environments. The deposition of formation,
around the world. The development of petroleum geology
therefore, took place in the clastic and carbonate
and reservoir characterization over time provides insight
dominated near shore waters of the shelf.
into how these issues have been overcome and what new
● The XRD analysis indicated the presence of dolo-
methods and technologies will be used in the future. Inte- mite, micrite; goethite, kaolinite and illite are pres-
grated sedimentogoloical, mineralogical and Nano poros- ent as an intergranular mass while calcitic spar is
ity analysis of the Cambrian-Devonian clastic-carbonate present as fracture filling and a product of neomor-
mixed lithofacies of the Peshawar Basin in Pakistan has phism in Ambar Formation. Dolomitization induced
been seen as a significant tool in characterizing the hydro- porosity, twin cleavage plane and high dissolution
carbon reservoirs in the study area. porosity confirmed from SEM image can provide
The following conclusions are drawn from current in- significant pore space to the fluids creating it good
vestigations. reservoir.
● The Ambar Formation is characterized by a mix of ● The deposition of the Missri Banda Quartzite oc-
64
Plate 13. A, B: Photomicrographs of the Nowshera Formation illustrating its pore filling material, Calcite (C) Ferrugi-
nous clay (Fc) and dolomite D; C: The XRD data showing the bulk rock geochemistry of the Nowshera Formation lith-
ologies showing the bulk geochemistry; D, E: represent the SEM images of the Nowshera Fm illustrating the dissolution
and inter-granular porosities.
curred on the sandy beaches. The thin section of Authors Contributions

Misri Banda Quartzite shows lithic fragments
dissolution. Hematite with some minor amount of Sajjad Ahmad conceptualized this research and drafted
kaolinite, illite and chlorite as alteration products of this manuscript. Sohail Raza completed his MS Geolo-
unstable framework grains as an intergranular mass gy research in this area of investigation while Suleman
in Misri Banda Quartzite confirmed from XRD anal- Khan’s Contribution in the geological fieldwork and sub-
ysis. Deep seated burial diagenesis has minimized sequent laboratory work are highly appreciated. All au-
the reservoir potential of the unit. It is concluded thors have read and agreed to the published version of the
that Missri Banda Quartzite is a moderate Reservoir. manuscript.
● The reefal buildups (Dolomites and carbonates) of
the Nowshera Formation contain both coarse and
Funding
fine calcite, dolomite, chlorite and kaolinite that oc- This research received no external funding.
cur as pore filling material between the framework
grains. The SEM images display a high amount of
Acknowledgement
intragranular dissolution and micro intergranular The authors acknowledge the help of Rashed Maseh,
connecting porosity in the Nowshera Formation Lab Attendant at the Department of Geology, University
which makes it a promising reservoir. of Peshawar.
65
Data Availability Statement [13] Yeats, R.S., Hussain, A., 1987. Timing of structural
events in the Himalayan foothills of northwestern
Data will be made available on request.
Pakistan. Geological Society of America Bulletin.
Conflict of Interest 99(2), 161-176.
[14] Pogue, K.R., Wardlaw, B.R., Harris, A.G., et al.,
There is no conflict of interest. 1992. Paleozoic and Mesozoic stratigraphy of the
Peshawar basin, Pakistan: Correlations and impli-
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[3] Middlemiss, C.S., 1896. The geology of Hazara and [16] Ahmad, S., Khan, I., Khan, S. (editors), 2015. An
the Black Mountains. Memoir Geological Survey, insight into the southern fringe of Peshawar Basin as
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[5] Martin, N.R., Siddiqui, S.F.A., King, B.H., 1962. tung von Riffkallcen (German) [Types and economic
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29-30. [19] Bathurst, R.G.C., 1972. Carbonate sediments and
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past 700,000 years. Geological Bulletin of the Uni- [21] Harris, P.M., Kendall, C.G.S.C., Lerche, I., 1985.
versity of Peshawar. 16, 43-49. Carbonate cementation—a brief review. SEPM Spe-
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tostratigraphy, fission-track dating, and stratigraphic [22] Grigsby, J.D., 2001. Origin and growth mechanism
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96(4), 539-552. mentary Research. 71(1), 27-36.
[10] Fuchs, G., 1975. Contributions to the geology of the [23] Berger, A., Gier, S., Krois, P., 2009. Porosity-preserv-
North-Western Himalayas. Geologische Bundesan- ing chlorite cements in shallow-marine volcaniclastic
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[12] Pogue, K.R., Hussain, A., 1986. New light on stratig- hedral and trioctahedral smectite, Brazilian offshore
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middle Ordovician trace fossils in NWFP Pakistan. [25] Tian, J.F., Chen, Z.L., Fan, Y.F, et al., 2008. Sha yan
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67

RESEARCH ARTICLE
Interpretation of Geothermal Magnetic Depths, Physicochemical
Parameters and Heavy Metals Determination of Lamurde Hot-spring
in the North-Eastern Benue Trough, Nigeria
Mukaila Abdullahi1* Yunis B. Valdon2 Fartisincha P. Andrew1 Adamu Usman Abba3
Ibrahim Maigari4
1. Department of Science Laboratory Technology, Modibbo Adama University, P.M.B. 2076, Yola, Nigeria
2. Department of Geology, Modibbo Adama University, P.M.B. 2076, Yola, Nigeria
3. Nigerian Geological Survey Agency (NGSA), Abuja Office, 900108, Nigeria
4. Office of the Surveyor General, Adamawa State, Jimeta-Yola, 640001, Nigeria
Article history An integrated interpretation of the magnetic data and the analysis of
Received: 2 May 2023 physicochemical parameters and heavy metals from Lamurde hot spring
has been done for the first time. The temperature of the hot spring was
Revised: 17 August 2023 measured to be at 44 °C while the normal surface temperature is 25 °C.
Accepted: 22 August 2023 Three prominent magnetic anomalies were found at bottom depths of
Published Online: 30 August 2023 11.379 ± 0.253 km, 13.015 ± 2.120 km and 9.161 ± 1.200 km suggesting
that the Lamurde hot-spring is heated at deep mantle (13.015 ± 2.120 km)
Keywords: and issued to the surface through either local or regional fault system or
both. The physicochemical analysis gave pH (7.93 ± 0.06), total chlorine
Aeromagnetic data (125.0 ± 2.89 µg/L), total dissolved solids TDS (202.0 ± 2 ppm), hardness
Lamurde hot-spring (64 ± 1.73 µg/L), alkalinity (210 ± 4 µg/L) and nitrate (1.3 ± 0.3 µg/L).
Geothermal potential In comparison with that of WHO standards, the results indicated that all
the physicochemical parameters studied except for alkalinity fall within
Physicochemical parameters
the permissible limits. Heavy metals were identified and analyzed in the
Heavy metals sampled water: lead (0.1501 ± 0.0007 mg/L), chromium (0.0729 ± 0.0007
mg/L), nickel (0.1987 ± 0.1476 mg/L), cadmium (0.0115 ± 0.0003 mg/L),
copper (0.0442 ± 0.0008 mg/L), arsenic (0.0456 ± 0.0003 mg/L), iron
(0.8016 ± 0.0005 mg/L), cobalt (0.0274 ± 0.0004 mg/L), selenium
(undetectable), manganese (5.31 ± 0.0361 mg/L) and zinc (0.1629 ± 0.0004
mg/L). The concentrations of heavy metals observed in the area with the
exception of Zn, Cu and Se are all above the standards for drinking water.
Their concentrations are in the order of Mn > Fe > Ni > Zn > Pb > Cr >
As > Cu > Co > Cd > Se. These results suggest that the Lamurde hot spring
is a potential zone for Mn, Fe, Ni, Zn and Pb deposit.
Mukaila Abdullahi,
Department of Science Laboratory Technology, Modibbo Adama University, P.M.B. 2076, Yola, Nigeria;
by-nc/4.0/).
68
1. Introduction and other chemical conditions [9].

In the present work, analysis and interpretation of
The study of geothermal energy reserves of hot springs, geothermal potential from magnetic signature and phys-
from different geophysical data and methods, has been the icochemical parameters and heavy metals from sampled
interest of geophysicists to interpret the thermo-tectonics water of Lamurde hot spring has been done.
of a region [1-4]. Spatial mapping of thermally potential
zones from a geophysical point of view requires prior 2. Geology of the Study Area
information that could be in connection with the tectonic
The Lamurde hot spring has a measured area of ap-
orogeny of the region [5]. Hot water from inside the ground
proximately 13.465 km square. The region (Figures 1 and
as a result of naturally occurring geological or tectonic
2) is characterized by undulating surfaces [6]. The area has
phenomena of the past is what is known as ‘hot spring’.
a maximum sedimentary thickness of 6.5 km [10,11].
A study of the Lamurde thermal (hot) spring was recently The Tertiary-Recent sediment of the study area has
conducted using geophysical data [3,6]. Hot water from been compressionally folded, faulted and uplifted in sev-
springs habitually contains huge volumes of dissolved eral places during the mid-Santonian tectonic episode,
minerals in it with low pH [7,8]. producing a series of deformational structures including
The geochemistry of hot springs provides a better un- the Lamurde anticline as one of the major deformational
derstanding of the physicochemical constituents of water structures in the Upper Benue Trough [6]. The major frac-
under study as well as its origin, re-charging circumstanc- ture associated with the Lamurde anticline is the Bara-
es and heavy metals present. In a region under an intense shika fault which cross-cut the Cretaceous sediment. The
volcanic regime, the physicochemical characteristics of Barashika fault provided the post-depositional zones that
hot spring in such regions are altered. are favourable for uranium concentration in the area [10,6].
Lamurde hot spring is a sedimentary-volcanic region, Hence, the area of Lamurde hot spring is associated with
which is expected to have huge concentrations of unlikea- heat-generating lithological factors with a measured hot
ble and more toxic elements like arsenic, iron, lead, man- spring temperature of 44 °C while the normal surface tem-
ganese and so on whose presence is guided by pH value perature is 25 °C.
Figure 1. (a) The geological map of Nigeria shows the location of study. (b) The ground Google map, depicting the
location of the Lamurde hot spring (Ruwan Zafi) measured approximately 13.465 km square and two channels through
which the water from the hot spring run into the main water of the river Benue (i.e., named the thermal streams). These
are shown in a distinctive black.
69
Figure 3. TMI map of the study area delineating the loca-

tion of Lamurde hot-spring (shown with black star mark).
The three prominent anomalies are taken as cells (C1, C2
and C3) for the spectral power spectrum for the calcula-
tion of the geothermal parameters.
3.1 Method of Estimation of Bottom (Curie)

Depths
Figure 2. The Physical photographs of the Lamurde hot
Curie depth with the utilization of the centroid method
spring and environs. The hot spring temperature is meas-
ured to be 44 °C from the central hot-spring/hot-seep/ther- has been done in detail, application of the aeromagnetic
mal-water-outflow zone (a) and thermal-catchment area data of the SW region of the Benue trough [3]. The ap-
(b) while the normal surface temperature is 25 °C. The proach is the modification of Spector and Grant [12] on the
thermal-pool (a) is relatively warm around 39 °C where basis of a power law, to describe geologically, the hetero-
people from the near village called Kwanan Ruwan Zafi geneity of magnetization within a region [13-18,3].
sit in to take their baths. Discussions with people from the Simultaneous calculations of depth and ‘a parameter’
village revealed that the area of the hot spring/hot-seep/ of scaling exponent from magnetic anomaly for the inter-
thermal-water-outflow is very dangerous in fact is a no-go pretation of the geology of a region are usually non-con-
zone. The two channels through which the water from the sistence [19-21]. The scaling exponent for a region of known
hot spring run into the main water of the river Benue are geology assumed a fixed value [21,22]. Hence, in this study,
named the thermal streams (c and d).
the unity value of the scaling exponent for the regions’ ge-
ology is used for the depth computations.
3. Data and Methods of Study
3.2 Chemical Analysis of Water Sample from the
The magnetic anomaly of the area of study is shown in
Lamurde Hot-spring
Figure 3. On the anomaly map, observed three prominent
anomalies. By implication, the zone of low magnetic val- All the chemicals and reagents used in this study were
ue could be associated with thick sediment or basin struc- of analytical grade. Ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid
ture and the zones of high magnetic values are in con- (EDTA), sulphuric acids (H2SO4), methyl red indicator,
nection with the near surface features or basement. From ammonium buffer, ethanol and phenolphthalein indica-
the prominent high anomaly marked (C2), the signature tor were purchased from commercial sources. Deionized
of the Lamurde hot is delineated and shown by a black water was used for the preparation of the sample and the
star mark. The selected window cells (C1, C2 and C3) are standard solutions of the heavy metal ions.
the sizes of anomaly taken for the power spectrum of the The water sample was collected in a washed and
calculation of bottom magnetic depths in the area under cleaned polyethene bottle. During sampling, the bottle
study. was rinsed thrice with the water to be sampled. The col-
70
lected sample was transported to the laboratory and kept

in a refrigerator for further analysis. The water sample
was digested and prepared by methods [23].
Alkalinity and hardness were determined by EDTA
titration, while nitrate, chlorine and heavy metals were de-
termined by instrumental methods using a HACH Bench-
top DR3900 spectrophotometer DR3900 and BUCK sci-
entific 205 Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer.
4. Results and Discussion

4.1 Geothermal Properties from High-resolution
Aeromagnetic Data
Figure 4 shows the calculated depths from window cell
C1 whereas. Table 1 presents the result of depths estimate
of the top (Zt) depths (km) and centroid (Z0) depths (km)
and bottom (Curie) depths (Zb) in the area under study for
the three window cells (C1, C2 and C3). These depths can
be considered only provisional because the area of study
is small for good resolution of depth interpretations [3].
The top depths have been calculated between 0.507 ±
0.0416 km and 0.966 ± 0.0576 km. These depths could be
interpreted as the thickness of the tertiary-recent sediment
within the region of study. The centroid depths as calcu-
lated between 4.46 ± 0.5790 km and 5.80 ± 0.0976 km are
found comparable and inconsistent to the magnetic base-
ment [18] calculated from the south-western region (middle
and lower Benue trough). The present result of the bottom
(Curie) depths between 9.161 ± 1.200 km and 13.015 ±
2.120 km are comparable with those calculated in the
combined middle and lower Benue trough [3]. A higher
calculated Curie depth of 13.015 ± 2.120 km is found over
the location of Lamurde hot-spring which also interpreted Figure 4. Plots of power spectrums for the computation (a)
a higher magnetic basement of 6.43 ± 1.0400 km. The of the top (Zt) and (b) centroid (Z0) and bottom (Zb) depths
intermediate Curie depth of 11.379 ± 0.253 km and mag- with standard errors with the red lines showing the select-
netic basement of 5.80 ± 0.0976 km is calculated over the ed best fit in the C1 window cell.
low magnetic zone in the study area. It could be expected
Table 1. Estimated geothermal parameters with standard
that high magnetic basement as well as Curie depth to
error from the high-resolution aeromagnetic data of the
have been calculated over the low magnetic value [18,3]. In study area.
this case, it could be that basement is high but possibly in-
truded by low susceptibility material. The depth differenc- Cell Depth to top Depth to centroid Depth to bottom
number (Zt) in km (Z0) in km (Zb) in km
es (approximately 2 km) from the three anomalies could
indicate or suggest that the geothermal manifestation of C1 0.966 ± 0.0576 5.80 ± 0.0976 11.379 ± 0.253
the Lamurde hot spring is structurally controlled by local C2 0.600 ± 0.0311 6.43 ± 1.0400 13.015 ± 2.120
and regional deep fault systems. C3 0.507 ± 0.0416 4.46 ± 0.5790 9.161 ± 1.200
4.2 Physicochemical Parameters of Water Sample parameters studied except for alkalinity fall within the
The important physicochemical parameters namely pH, WHO permissible limits. The pH of the water was found
total chlorine, total dissolved solids, total hardness and to be 7.93 ± 0.06, which is within the WHO permissible
nitrate in comparison with that of WHO are presented in limit. This indicates that according to the pH, the water is
Table 2. The result indicates that all the physicochemical fit for drinking, recreation, agricultural and aquatic uses [24].
71
The total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of both ionized ± 0.0004 mg/L and 0.0442 ± 0.0008 mg/L which is within
and unionized matter in water. The desirable limit of TDS the WHO permissible limit of 3 mg/L and 2 mg/L respec-
in drinking is in accordance with WHO ranges (500-1000 tively. The concentration follows the order Mn > Fe >
ppm). The TDS of the water sample analyzed was found Ni > Zn > Pb > Cr > As > Cu > Co > Cd > Se.
to be 202.0 ± 2 ppm which is within the WHO permissible These results suggest that the Lamurde hot spring is
limit. a potential zone for Mn, Fe, Ni, Zn and Pb deposit. The
The mean value of chloride, hardness and nitrate in concentration of Mn is the highest followed by Fe. Water
the water sample were 125.0 ± 2.89 mg/L, 64 ± 1.73 mg/ with high concentrations of Fe and Mn is not healthy for
L and 1.3 ± 0.3 mg/L which is within the WHO values of human consumption [9]. Manganese (Mn) is not found as
250 mg/L, 200 mg/L and 3 mg/L respectively. However, a free element in nature but in combination with iron and
that of alkalinity (210 mg/L) is slightly above the WHO other minerals. It is a metal with important alloy uses and
permissible limit (200 mg/L). High alkalinity has some specifically in stainless steel. Iron and manganese are sim-
positive effect of buffering acid rain and other acid waste ilar in chemistry and the manner; they are distributed and
that may have been washing off into the water body, there- concentrated in rocks [9]. They originate from the Earth’s
by preventing pH changes that may be harmful to aquatic crust and mantle and are usually described as the products
lives [25]. of continental weathering, seafloor hydrothermal activity
and sediment diagenesis [8,9]. The fraction of the iron and
Table 2. Physicochemical parameters of the water sample
manganese from the continental weathering of which the
and WHO permissible limit.
volcanic Lamurde hot spring is one is more geologically
Parameters Water sample WHO permissible limit recycled than that from the oceanic crust and the sedi-
pH 7.93 ± 0.06 6.5-8.5 ment diagenesis in this regard is the process for further
Chloride (µg/L) 125.0 ± 2.89 250 recycling of the metals (Mn and Fe) within the sediment’s
Total Dissolved Solids
202.0 ± 2 1000 column [9].
(ppm)
Hardness (mg/L) 64 ± 1.73 200 Water Sample
5
Alkalinity (mg/L) 210 ± 4 20-200 WHO Permissible Limit
Nitrate (mg/L) 1.3 ± 0.3 3
4
Concentration (mg/L)
4.3 Heavy Metal Analysis

3
The heavy metals analyzed include lead, chromium,
nickel, cadmium, copper, arsenic, iron, cobalt, selenium,
2
manganese and zinc. The concentration of the heavy met-
als observed is shown in Figure 5 except for Zn, Cu and
Se, all the metals analyzed are beyond the WHO permis- 1
sible limit. The concentration of lead was averagely found
to be 0.1501 ± 0.0007 mg/L higher than the 0.01 mg/L
0
WHO permissible limit. The concentration of nickel and Pb Cr Ni Cd Cu As Fe Co Se Mn Zn
iron were found to be 0.1987 ± 0.1476 mg/L and 0.8016 Heavy Metal
± 0.0005 mg/L which are above the WHO permissible
Figure 5. The mean value of the heavy metals compared
limit of 0.07 and 0.3 mg/L respectively. Similarly, the
with WHO Standard permissible limit.
concentration of chromium, cadmium and arsenic were
found to be 0.0729 ± 0.0007 mg/L, 0.0115 ± 0.0003 mg/
5. Conclusions
L and 0.0456 ± 0.0003 mg/L also above the WHO limit
of 0.05 mg/L, 0.003 mg/Land 0.01 mg/L respectively. The high-resolution aeromagnetic data of this region
The concentration of manganese was the highest 5.31 ± is analyzed. From the magnetic data, we see a fault sig-
0.0361 mg/L above the 0.5 mg/L WHO permissible limit, nature from the location of the Lamurde hot spring. The
while selenium was below the detectable limit. Cobalt large differences of geothermal depths (which is beyond
was found to be 0.0274 ± 0.0004 mg/L, although, there is 2 km) calculated over the three magnetic anomalies in
no any WHO prescribed guideline value for cobalt. For the region are also an indication that the water from the
zinc and copper, the concentration was found to be 0.1629 Lamurde hot-spring is heated from deep (13.015 ± 2.120
72
km) Earth’s mantle and issued at the surface through a References

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The Lamurde volcanic hot-spring content concen- [1] Obande, G.E., Lawal, K.M., Ahmed, L.A., 2014.
trations of metals in the order: Mn > Fe > Ni > Zn > Spectral analysis of aeromagnetic data for geother-
Pb > Cr > As > Cu > Co > Cd > Se. Determination of the mal investigation of Wikki Warm Spring, north-east
amount of these elements in the hot spring is in order to Nigeria. Geothermics. 50, 85-90.
[2] Nwankwo, L.I., 2015. Estimation of depths to the
protect public health. This study showed that the concen-
bottom of magnetic sources and ensuing geothermal
tration of Fe and Mn are significantly higher than accept-
parameters from aeromagnetic data of Upper Sokoto
able standards in drinking water.
Basin, Nigeria. Geothermics. 54, 76-81.
Author Contributions [3] Abdullahi, M., Kumar, R., 2020. Curie depth estimat-
ed from high-resolution aeromagnetic data of parts of
Mukaila Abdullahi (MA), Yunis B. Valdon (YBV), Far- lower and middle Benue trough (Nigeria). Acta Geo-
tisincha P. Andrew (FPA), Adamu Usman Abba (AUA), daetica et Geophysica. 55(4), 627-643.
Ibrahim Maigari (IM). [4] Ngansom, W., Pirarai, K., Dürrast, H., 2020. Geolog-
MA, FPA were responsible for project conceptualiza- ical setting and hydrogeothermal characteristics of
tion, administration, data collection, analysis, literature the Kapong non-volcanic hot spring area in Southern
work, funding acquisition and writing of the original draft Thailand. Geothermics. 85, 101746.
of the article. MA, YBV, AUA and IM were responsible [5] Wang, Z., Jiang, G., Zhang, C., et al., 2019. Thermal
for the geological survey of the study area, data genera- regime of the lithosphere and geothermal potential in
tion, review and final editing. Additionally, FPA and MA Xiong’an New Area. Energy Exploration & Exploita-
were responsible for the chemical analysis of the water tion. 37(2), 787-810.
sample from the study area and correspondence respec- [6] Idi, B.Y., Maiha, A.I., Abdullahi, M., 2022. Spatial
tively. mapping and monitoring thermal anomaly and ra-
diative heat flux using Landsat-8 thermal infrared
Acknowledgement
data—A case study of Lamurde hot spring, upper
The aeromagnetic data of this location was obtained part of Benue trough, Nigeria. Journal of Applied
from the Nigerian Geological Survey Agency (NGSA), Geophysics. 203, 104654.
Abuja office. The research was funded by Tertiary Educa- [7] Shanker, R., Thussu, J.L., Prasad, J.M., 1987. Geo-
tion Trust Fund (TETFund), Nigeria under the Institution- thermal studies at Tattapani hot spring area, Sarguja
al Based Research (IBR) fund. The authors also acknowl- district, central India. Geothermics. 16(1), 61-76.
edge the Research and Development (R&D) office of [8] Chandrasekharam, D., Antu, M.C., 1995. Geochem-
Modibbo Adama University Yola, Nigeria through which istry of Tattapani thermal springs, Madhya Pradesh,
the research fund was released, and the Departments of India—field and experimental investigations. Geo-
Science Laboratory Technology and Chemistry where the thermics. 24(4), 553-559.
research was conducted. [9] Esteller, M.V., Kondratenko, N., Expósito, J.L., et al.,
2017. Hydrogeochemical characteristics of a volca-
Data Availability Statement nic-sedimentary aquifer with special emphasis on Fe
and Mn content: A case study in Mexico. Journal of
The data used in the work is readily available on
Geochemical Exploration. 180, 113-126.
request from the corresponding author.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2017.06.002
Funding [10] Haruna, I.V., Ahmed, H.A., Ahmed, A.S., 2012.
Geology and tectono-sedimentary disposition of the
The research was funded by Tertiary Education Trust Bima sandstone of the Upper Benue Trough (Nigeria):
Fund (TETFund), Nigeria under the Institutional Based Implications for sandstone-hosted Uranium deposits.
Research (IBR) fund. Journal of Geology and Mining Research. 4(7), 168-
173.
Conflict of Interest
[11] Abdullahi, M., Singh, U.K., 2018. Basement geology
The authors declare that they have no conflict of inter- derived from gravity anomalies beneath the Benue
est. Trough of Nigeria. Arabian Journal of Geosciences.
73
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[12] Spector, A., Grant, F.S., 1970. Statistical models for African Earth Sciences. 150, 337-345.
interpreting aeromagnetic data. Geophysics. 35(2), [19] Ravat, D., Pignatelli, A., Nicolosi, I., et al., 2007. A
293-302. study of spectral methods of estimating the depth to
[13] Tanaka, A., Okubo, Y., Matsubayashi, O., 1999. the bottom of magnetic sources from near-surface
Curie point depth based on spectrum analysis of the magnetic anomaly data. Geophysical Journal Interna-
magnetic anomaly data in East and Southeast Asia. tional. 169(2), 421-434.
Tectonophysics. 306(3-4), 461-470. [20] Bouligand, C., Glen, J.M., Blakely, R.J., 2009. Map-
[14] Bansal, A.R., Gabriel, G., Dimri, V.P., 2010. Power ping Curie temperature depth in the western United
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relation to seismic properties: An example from the tion. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth.
German Continental Deep Drilling Program (KTB). 114(B11).
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[15] Bansal, A.R., Gabriel, G., Dimri, V.P., et al., 2011. model of Curie-point depths based on EMAG2. Sci-
Estimation of depth to the bottom of magnetic sourc- entific Reports. 7(1), 45129.
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in Germany. Geophysics. 76(3), L11-L22. from a Spector and Grant ensemble. Geophysics.
[16] Bansal, A.R., Dimri, V.P., Kumar, R., et al., 2016. 62(4), 1143-1150.
Curie depth estimation from aeromagnetic for fractal [23] Gerenfes, D., Teju, E., 2018. Determination of some
distribution of sources. Fractal solutions for under- selected heavy metals in water, Oreochromis niloti-
standing complex system in earth sciences. Springer: cus and Labeobarbus intermedius samples from Aba-
Berlin. pp. 19-31. ya and Chamo Lakes. World. 10(6), 1-11.
[17] Kumar, R., Bansal, A.R., Anand, S.P., et al., 2018. [24] World Health Organization, 2004. Guidelines for
Mapping of magnetic basement in Central India from drinking-water quality (Vol. 1). World Health Orga-
aeromagnetic data for scaling geology. Geophysical nization: Geneva.
Prospecting. 66(1), 226-239. [25] Texeira, L., Calisaya-Azpilcueta, D., Cruz, C., et al.,
[18] Abdullahi, M., Kumar, R., Singh, U.K., 2019. Mag- 2023. Impact of the use of seawater on acid mine
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74

RESEARCH ARTICLE
Results of the Application of Direct-search Mobile Technology in the
Exploration Blocks of Shakal and Halabja (Kurdistan)
Mykola Yakymchuk1 Arzu Javadova2* Ignat Korchagin3
1. Institute for Applied Problems of Ecology, Geophysics and Geochemistry, Laboratory Lane, 1, Kyiv, 01133, Ukraine
2. MicroPro GMBH, st. Magdeburg 26, b, Gommern, 39245, Germany
3. Subbotin Institute of Geophysics of the NAS of Ukraine, Palladin Ave., 32, Kyiv, 03680, Ukraine
Article history Using experimental studies of mobile exploration technology, which

Received: 12 May 2023 includes modified methods of frequency-resonance processing, decoding
of satellite and photographic images, vertical electron resonant scanning of
Revised: 16 August 2023 the geological section, and the method of integral assessment of oil and gas
Accepted: 21 August 2023 content, the authors identified the potential of large prospecting blocks and
Published Online: 8 September 2023 licensed areas within the Shakal and Halabja blocks in Kurdistan. In the
Shakal exploration area, the authors received oil responses from 3 intervals:
Keywords: 1) 2771-2794 m, 2) 2795.3-2815.45 m, and 3) 2834.40-2854 m in limestone
sections. In Halabja exploration area, oil responses were obtained from 12
Oil and gas intervals: 1) 297-311.5 m, 2) 328-330 m, 3) 1190-1260 m, 4) 2018-2020
Exploration model m, 5) 2059-2061 m, 6) 2132-2133 m, 7) 2192-2201 m, 8) 2249-2276 m, 9)
Breakthrough technology 2307-2310 m, 10) 2317-2321 m, 11) 2326-2329 m and 12) 3310-3340 m.
These results suggest that the proposed alternative exploration model can
Remote sensing
provide a more direct means of assessing the hydrocarbon potential of large
Mobile technology exploratory areas, even before other geophysical investigations provide
Kurdistan detailed information on possible targets.
1. Introduction number and more diverse range of companies operate in

Kurdistan than in federal Iraq. Initial entrants consisted
The Kurdistan Region of Iraq opened to foreign inves- mainly of European and North American small caps along
tors through licence awards in 2002 and 2004. However, with private investment firms. Significant discoveries by
the main influx started in 2006 with the award of the these companies including DNO (Bastora & Tawke), Gulf
first Production Sharing Contract (PSC) in the region [1]. Keystone (Shaikan), Heritage Oil (Miran West), HKN En-
The approval of the Kurdistan Oil and Gas Law in 2007 ergy (Swara Tika) and Western-Zagros (Kurdamir) have
coincided with a further fifteen licence awards. A larger proven Kurdistan to be a prolific exploration region. In
Arzu Javadova,
MicroPro GMBH, st. Magdeburg 26, b, Gommern, 39245, Germany;
by-nc/4.0/).
75
October 2011, ExxonMobil became the first major IOC to two gas fields, Kormor & Chemchemal.
be awarded contracts in Kurdistan. It signed six PSCs to The Shakal exploration block area is 632 km2 with tar-
become the largest acreage holder in the region. Chevron get study horizons of Paleocene and Miocene carbonate
and Total have since also entered the region with two/ deposits. Shakal-2 (ST-1) was spudded on 23 June 2014
three M & A deals and one licence award each. Signifi- and reached the total depth (TD) of 2950 mMD on 31
cant new oil and gas discoveries have recently been made December 2014. Shakal-3 well was spudded on 6 August
in Kurdistan in northern Iraq, which has emerged as one 2014 and reached TD 3355 mMD on 23 December 2014.
of the Middle East’s most active exploration provinces The Halabja exploration block area is 1519 km2 with
(Figure 1). Continued activity in these areas is expected target study horizons of Cretaceous and Paleocene car-
to lead to reserves growth, even as oil production in- bonate and terrigenous deposits. It is believed that Kurd-
creases. Kurdistan continues to be an active exploration istan has significant yet-to-find reserves, but these two
play involving the largest independent oil companies in exploration block areas’ geologies are more complex than
the region, including Hess, Hunt, Marathon, Murphy, Oil they seem. After the geological and geophysical survey
Search, Repsol, Talisman, OMV and MOL (through its and drilling in the Shakal exploration block area, it needs
subsidiary Kalegran). There are also two Asian NOCs, to understand facies variation and structural evolution.
Sinopec (through Addax) and KNOC operating in Kurd- Regardless of complex geology, both areas are located in
istan, while Dana Gas and Crescent Petroleum operate the a proven oil and gas zone.
Figure 1. Shakal and Halabja area. Surrounding discoveries. Shakal & Halabja blocks are in the vicinity of significant
oil and gas discoveries.
76
2. An Overview of the Regional Geological

Background
From a regional geology point of view, the Zagros
folded region occupies the extreme eastern region along
the border with Iran within Iraqi Kurdistan and has a
width not exceeding 50 km. Sedimentary-volcanogenic
formations of the Mesozoic and Paleogene take part in the
geological structure of the Zagros folded area. Mesozoic
deposits are mainly represented by globigerina marls and
radiolarites. Paleogene deposits—flysch and clastic rocks
with a total thickness of over 5000 meters. The entire ter- Figure 3. Low-folded thrust zone.
ritory is characterized by a complex thrust structure. The The Kurdistan Foreland basin has a complex geology
angles of inclination of the fold along the overthrust vary and tectonostratigraphic framework which is not the sub-
from 20° to 50°. ject of this paper. In the general geology map of Kurdistan
According to tectonic the Iraqi Kurdistan lies on the (Figure 4) exploration blocks of Shakal and Halabja are
border between two main geo-structural units—The Ara- located in the SE area of Iraqi Kurdistan.
bian part of the African platform and the Asian branches According to seismic data, the geological feature of the
of Alpine. In general, three major tectonic zones [2] are surface expression is an NW-SE trending thrust fault that
developed in Northern Iraq (N-S): extends approximately 35 km in the strike direction and
● Thrust Zone up to 8 km in the dip direction. Rocks of Tertiary age (Up-
● Imbricated Zone per Fars and Lower Fars formations) are exposed in out-
● High Folded Thrust Zone (Figure 2) crop and are underlined by a Lower Tertiary to Cretaceous
● Low Folded Thrust Zone (Figure 3) anticline that acted as a buttress and caused the younger
rocks to be displaced by thrusts due to compressional tec-
tonics (Figure 5). The structure extends from the town of
Kalar to the SE and appears to continue the NW Pulkha-
na discovery completed in 2006. The producing fields
of Jampur and Kirkuk are on trend and were originally
thought to be structurally analogous to the Pulkhana and
Shakal complex of structural closure. A review of drilling
indicated that it should be possible to drill all of the pri-
mary objectives (Jeribe, Dhiban, Euphrates, Jaddala, and
Shiranish formations) and potentially reach the secondary
targets (Balambo and Qamchuga formations) as well. The
closest analogue for the southern part of the Shakal block
is Qara Dagh field’s, productive Mio-Oligocene and Cre-
taceous deposits. There are no analogues for the northern
part, all the nearest blocks are at the same stage (Figure 6).
Halabja area is characterized by complex dissected re-
Figure 2. High-folded thrust zone. lief. More than 50% of the area is occupied by medium-al-
titude mountains with absolute elevations of 1200-1600 m,
The occurrences of sediments and traps that generated and in the extreme east and north on the border with Iran
and preserved hydrocarbons are linked to the history of up to 2000 m, only a small part of the territory has hilly
the Arabian plate margin evolution [3]. The thick sedi- and elevated relief. The northern part of the block is com-
mentary cover of the Zagros orogenic belt records all the posed of rocks of the Mesozoic age. The Cenozoic section
stages of evolution of the basin, evolving from a rift and is completely absent. Cretaceous deposits of the Balambo,
passive continental shelf to a foreland basin associated Kometan, Shiranish, Tanjero, and Qulqula formations out-
with several stages of deformation related to obduction crop occur at the surface. The southern part of the block
and collisions. is composed of rocks of the Meso-Cenozoic age. Deposits
77
underlined by a Lower Tertiary to Cretaceous anticline that acted as a buttress and caused the younger
rocks to be displaced by thrusts due to compressional tectonics (Figure 5). The structure extends from
the town of Kalar to the SE and appears to continue the NW Pulkhana discovery completed in 2006.
The producing fields of Jampur and Kirkuk are on trend and were originally thought to be structurally
analogous to the Pulkhana and Shakal complex of structural closure. A review of drilling indicated
that it should be possible to drill all of the primary objectives (Jeribe, Dhiban, Euphrates, Jaddala, and
Shiranish formations) and potentially reach the secondary targets (Balambo and Qamchuga formations)
as well. The closest analogue for the southern part of the Shakal block is Qara Dagh field’s, productive
Mio-Oligocene and Cretaceous deposits. There are no analogues for the northern part, all the nearest
[4]
Geological
Figure 4.blocks mapsame
are at the of the study
stage area in
(Figure 6).the Kurdistan segment of the Zagros fold-thrust belt (modified from ).
[5]
Figure5.5.Geological
Figure Geologicalfeatures
featuresofofthe
theShakal
Shakaland
andHalabja
Halabja blocks
blocks [5]..
78
Based on regional data (Figure 8) and neighbouring

blocks (Qara-Dagh, SanGaw) the following potential res-
ervoirs are expected in the Halabja area; 1) Cretaceous
reservoirs: Qamchuqa, Kometan (Figure 9A) Shiranish; 2)
Jurassic reservoirs: Barsarin (Figure 9B) Mus, Butman.
Figure 6. Lithology and Stratigraphy of Shakal block.
of the Paleocene, Eocene, and Miocene ages of the Ko-

losh, Sinjar, Gercus, Pila-Spi, and Fars formations occur
at the surface. The Halabja block can be divided into two
subblocks Upper Sirwan sub-block and Lower Sirwan
sub-blocks. The Upper Shiwan Blocks occur within the
Imbricated zone and consist of two Main subzones (a. Al-
lochthonous part: consisting of Triassic and Jurassic Units
with igneous intrusions; b. Autochthonous parts: consist-
ing of the Triassic to Cretaceous rocks). Lower Shirwan
sub-blocks consist of the Highly Folded Thrust zone of
the foreland basin, and Low -Folded thrust zone8.whole
Figure Stratigraphy of Halabja area. Oil reservoirs: Fars-N1, Jeribe-N1, Euphrates-Pg3
Figure 8. Stratigraphy of Halabja area. Oil reservoirs:
Group-Pg3,
Tertiary rocks are exposed on the surface (Figure 7).Jaddala-Pg2, Shiranish-K2, Gas reservoirs: Shiranish-K2, Chia Gara-J3, Kurra C
Fars-N1, Jeribe-N1, Euphrates-Pg3, Kirkuk Group-Pg3,
Jaddala-Pg2, Shiranish-K2, Gas reservoirs: Shiranish-K2,
Halabja Block isChia Gara-J3,
a frontier Kurra with
acreage Chine-T3.
no wells yet. Target horizons of the study: C
and terrigenous sediments of the Cretaceous and Paleocene ages. The closest analogue for the
part of Halabja is a Qara Dagh, productive deposits of the Mio-Oligocene and Cretaceous. T
no analogues for the northern part, all the nearest blocks are in the same stage. Acco
geophysical data, the deep junction of structures in the south of the Halabja and Qara Dagh
still unclear, but it is possible that they form a single zone. In terms of surface geology, it is
that Jurassic, Triassic, and possibly Upper Paleozoic deposits are promising.
.
Figure 9. A: Limestones of the Kometan formation; B: Stro-

matolite limestones/dolomites of the Barsarin formation.
Halabja Block is a frontier acreage with no wells yet.
Target horizons of the study: Carbonate and terrigenous
sediments of the Cretaceous and Paleocene ages. The
Figure 7. Halabja area. Tectonic zone. (Low Fold Belt: 36
closest analogue for the southern part of Halabja is a Qara
total identified structures; 27 structures with HC shows;
3 failed structures; 6 undrilled blocks; Geologic Success Dagh, productive deposits of the Mio-Oligocene and
Rate = 90%; High Fold Belt: 25 total identified structures; Cretaceous. There are no analogues for the northern part,
11 structures with shows; 4 failed structures; 2 structures
Figure all the nearest
9. A: Limestones blocks are
of the Kometan in the same
formation; stage. According
B: Stromatolite to
limestones/dolomite
currently being tested; 9 undrilled blocks; Geologic Suc- geophysical data, Barsarin
the deep formation.
junction of structures in the
cess Rate = 73.3%; Thrust belt: Remains untested). south of the Halabja and Qara Dagh blocks is still unclear,
79
but it is possible that they form a single zone. In terms of when we shout and hear a return echo, we know that the
surface geology, it is assumed that Jurassic, Triassic, and sound has reached a wall or other obstacle, reflected, and
possibly Upper Paleozoic deposits are promising. returned. Just like sound, an electrical wave is reflected,
this phenomenon is known as a “standing wave”, that is, a
3. Research Method wave with fixed nodes and antinodes. Tesla wrote: Instead
In geophysics, special attention is paid to electromag- of sending sound vibrations to a distant wall, I sent elec-
netic (or so-called geoelectric) methods of oil and gas trical vibrations deep into the Earth, and instead of a wall,
exploration. To date, there are advanced instruments for the Earth answered me. Instead of an echo, I received a
geophysical research, which can practically be considered standing electrical wave reflected from the distant depths.
direct indicators of hydrocarbons. These devices theo- The model of the structure of a fragment of the earth’s
retically prognosis the presence of oil and gas accumula- crust can be represented as a set of flat capacitors. N. Te-
tions, which even the best seismic methods still cannot do sla believed that the Earth is a spherical capacitor formed
consistently and reliably. This is a direct reconnaissance by different layers (from the core to the surface of the
method based on frequency-resonant processing and Earth) with different parameters—thickness, permittivity,
interpretation of remote sensing data. Direct-search mo- density, and contact potential difference. The model of the
bile technology is carried out using frequency-resonance structure of a fragment of the earth’s crust can be repre-
processing of satellite data and interpretation of space sented as a set of flat capacitors. The dielectric constant of
and photo images. The method also includes vertical elec- the formations is designated as ε1, ε2, ε3 (respectively).
tro-resonant sounding (scanning) of any studied section Between the layers, a contact potential difference ∆U is
with the integral assessment of the prospects for the oil formed and exists, the sign of which depends on the sign
and gas (or ore) potential of search areas [6]. Shortly we of the differences in the dielectric permittivity of the two
named it Mobile technology. Mobile technology success- contact layers. Thus, N. Tesla for the first time experimen-
fully detects any subsurface substance (hydrocarbons, tally substantiated the possibility of sounding and study-
water, or other) with a 100% guarantee. The developed ing the entire Earth using standing electric waves (Figure
method is an effective express technology for the prompt 10).
solution of environmental, engineering-geological, and The theoretical substantiation of this technology is
geological-geophysical problems. A phenomenological based on the fact that the atoms in all molecules have a
description of the technological features of mobile tech- certain spatial position and their electromagnetic field with
nology, in general, is as follows: “It is based on the latest a characteristic spatial-frequency intensity distribution.
achievements in astrophysics, mathematics, knowledge of The spatial-frequency structure of electromagnetic fields
electromagnetic radiation, computer technology, and soft- of any substance is determined by the chemical composi-
ware.” tion and spatial structure of the molecules. A large amount
From basic physics, it is known that the wave can be of a homogeneous substance will create a collective elec-
travelling or standing. A standing wave is an oscillatory tromagnetic field characteristic of this substance, the radi-
(wave) process in distributed oscillatory systems with a ation power of which is proportional to the concentration
characteristic spatially stable arrangement of alternating of the substance in a given direction. We can assume that a
maxima (antinodes) and minima (nodes) of the amplitude. linear polarization wave with a given frequency response,
Such an oscillatory process occurs when several coherent which carries information about the structure of matter, is
waves interfere. An antinode is the section of a standing not absorbed by the medium (environment) and its inten-
wave in which the oscillations have the greatest ampli- sity does not decrease with distance. Then a homogeneous
tude. When do standing waves occur? When primary and substance at a random depth of the Earth will create a field
reflected sound waves meet in space, they overlap and similar to how this substance would be on the surface. It
interact. The result is a standing wave! It got its name turned out that the characteristic of electromagnetic waves
because the distribution of nodes and antinodes in it is of a large amount of hydrogen, oil, gas, water, and other
constant in time. Nikola Tesla was the first to discover substances is fixed in a certain way on a satellite image.
standing electric waves in the deep horizons of the Earth, When carrying out instrumental measurements using
and Dr. Yakimchuk developed the appropriate equipment, the developed computerized complexes, the spectra of sat-
which, based on Tesla’s theory, works as a direct recon- ellite, aerial, and other photographs of objects of study are
naissance method. So, the theoretical basis of the mobile sequentially compared with the spectra of rock samples,
technology method is based on “standing” electric waves, the desired minerals, and chemical elements. In modified
discovered by Nikola Tesla in 1899. The bottom line is versions of the methods of frequency-resonance process-
80
Figure 10. Model of the standing electric waves formation in the deep horizons of the Earth. Model (fragment) of the
Earth’s crust: h1-h3: thickness of sedimentary rock strata; ε1-ε3: their dielectric constant; 1-3: the boundaries of the lay-
ers; I-III: antinode of standing waves the length of the main waves has the following values: λ1 = 2h1; λ2 = 2(h1 + h2);
λ3 = 2(h1 + h2 + h3). The length of other waves is 4 = 2h2, 5 = 2h3, 6 = 2 (h2 + h3), but they may not have antinodes
on the earth’s surface and their effect on the voltage on this plate will be minimal.
ing of satellite images and photographs, as well as vertical the Upper Jaddala and Euphrates formations. Formation
sounding (scanning) of the cross-section, existing databas- water was received from the Dhiban interval. In Shakal-1
es (sets, collections) of sedimentary, metamorphic, and ig- well three DSTs tested in the Jaddala-Aaliji formations,
neous rocks (http://rockref.vsegei.ru/petro/), minerals and which resulted also in oil shows. In the Dhiban interval
chemical elements are used. Features and capabilities of was received formation water.
the used method, as well as the measurement technique, Signals from oil, condensate and sedimentary rocks of
are described in more detail [6-9]. Unlike classical geophys- very weak intensity were recorded from the surface of the
ical methods, the mobile method used makes it possible to local area indicated in Figure 12. In this regard, further
investigate the composition of the studied section. In each work was not carried out to fix the intervals of responses
specific case, we obtain information on what the studied from hydrocarbons. However, within the entire block, in-
section consists of; what rock complexes are in it - sedi- tense signals were recorded from diamonds and graphite,
mentary, metamorphic, or igneous? And we determine in as well as from the kimberlite volcano. The root of the
the first approximation (and clarify at the stage of detail- kimberlite volcano was determined to be at a depth of 723
ing) the intervals of the section that are promising for the km. The upper edge of the kimberlite volcano was fixed
detection of combustible and ore minerals, immediately, at a depth of 120 m. Signals at diamond frequencies were
in the process of measurements (signal registration) by the recorded from 152 m.
developed instrumentation (i.e., without additional stages
of modelling and geological interpretation of the results of 4.1 Local Fragment within the Shakal Area
instrumental measurements). In the area of the drilled wells (rectangular contour in
Figure 12), responses from oil, condensate, bacteria, phos-
4. Results of Instrumental Measurements
phorus, dead water, diamonds and graphite, limestones
The drilled wells within the Shakal exploration area and kimberlites were recorded from the surface. The low-
were discovered by seismic studies shown in Figure 11. er limit of limestones as a potential hydrocarbon reservoir
Shakal-3 well targeted the Jaddala-Aaliji reservoir interval is fixed at a depth of 4676 m. At 2770 m, we determined
which was encountered at a depth of 3280 mMD. The well the boundaries of the lower and upper parts of the produc-
was perforated behind the 7” liner against the reservoir tive section, which consists mainly of limestones. When
intervals of Jaddala Fm. No hydrocarbon flow was found scanning the section from a depth of 2770 m and further,
in the Jaddala-Aaliji interval. Shakal-2 well was initially we obtained responses of oil from limestones from 3 in-
planned to test by perforating behind the 7” liner against tervals: 1) 2771-2794 m, 2) 2795.3-2815.45 m, and 3)
the reservoir intervals of Upper Jaddala and Euphrates 2834.40-2854 m. Below 2854 m was missing oil respons-
formations. However, the interval of Dhiban formation es. It should also be noted that there are no signals from
was kept as an optional case to be reviewed and decided oil at the surface of 2771 m from the upper part of the sec-
according to the results of the first two drill steam tests tion. From this, it follows that the productive hydrocarbon
(DSTs). It was later tested as well and found oil shows in intervals are between 2771 and 2854 meters.
81
Figure 11. Seismic profiles through the Shakal structure.
Figure 12. Satellite image of the Shakal area.
4.2 Halabja Exploration Area Lower Fars is absent and effective hydrocarbon matura-
tion. All blocks around the Halabja area are in the explo-
No exploration drilling took place in the Halabja area.
ration stage. In complex topography, large areas are under
Based on analysis of regional data the expected reservoirs
are carbonate. Local development of the seal is Lower minefields.
Fars formation. On the adjacent block, oilfields are identi- Frequency resonance processing of a satellite image of
fied. High uncertainties in the Halabja area are structures the Halabja block (Figure 13) from the surface of recorded
at target formations; facies distribution and petrophysical responses (signals) at the frequencies of oil, condensate,
properties of expected reservoirs; seal at the areas where gas, phosphorus, bacteria, sodium chloride and dolomites.
82
Figure 13. Satellite image of the Halabja area.
We adhere to the abiogenic-mantle origin of hydrocarbons. travel vertically and horizontally as is common in conven-
In the studied blocks of Kurdistan, the synthesis of hydro- tional seismic surveys. The distinguishing feature is that
carbons occurs at the 57-kilometre border. The applied mo- mobile technology deals with satellite imagery and photo-
bile technology made it possible to register responses at the graphic images. In the study in the integrated mode, the ob-
frequencies of oil, condensate, and gas in the Halabja area. ject under study carries approximate predictive values, and
In this area, the responses of a salt volcano were recorded. in individual objects, it is performed by a limited number of
Scanning of the section made it possible to determine the measurement procedures.
upper boundary of the salt at a depth of 480 m. Oil respons- The selected intervals of responses at the frequencies of
es were also received from 12 intervals: oil and gas are areas for searching for oil and gas deposits.
1) 297-311.5 m, 2) 328-330 m, 3) 1190-1260 m, 4) I would also like to note the fact that a kimberlite volcano
2018-2020 m, 5) 2059-2061 m, 6) 2132-2133 m, 7) 2192- with a root at a depth of 723 km and an upper edge at a
2201 m, 8) 2249-2276 m, 9) 2307-2310 m, 10) 2317-2321 depth of 120 m was discovered within the Shakal block.
m, 11) 2326-2329 m and 12) 3310-3340 m. We traced the When scanning the section, responses at diamond frequen-
section up to 4 km (Figure 13). Below 3340 m there were cies began to be recorded from 152 m. a very interesting
no HC responses. object for the search for diamond ore. The position of a
diamond-bearing kimberlite volcano within the block can
5. Discussions be determined by detailed processing of a satellite image
Pilot studies on the territory of Kurdistan were carried of the block. This means that the scanning procedure must
out with the aim of additional testing, as well as improving be performed with a scanning step of at least 1 meter with
the methodological methods of mobile technology. In fact, a dense horizontal grid. This allows us to get more de-
this was a continuation of earlier work, the results of which tailed information about the distribution of the diamond.
are presented in Yakimchuk et al., 2019 [4] and Yakimchuk The materials presented above also testify to the expe-
et al., 2020 [5-7]. The obtained values of the cross-sectional diency of using direct exploration methods at the stages
parameters at the survey sites in Kurdistan are integral es- of site selection for laying exploration wells. It is also ex-
timates, not point ones. To obtain point estimates, it is nec- pedient to carry out an additional survey of the identified
essary to conduct a study with a dense grid over the entire structures using mobile geological exploration methods at
area. A minimum survey grid should be carried out every 5 the stages of planning on drilling exploration wells within
meters. Electromagnetic, resonant frequency signals must them. It can be assumed that an increase in drilling suc-
83
cess by at least two times will contribute to a significant ogy methods. Arzu Javadova took an active participation
increase in the efficiency of the exploration process. This in exploration drilling and G&G analysis of Shakal and
is also evidenced by the results of the approbation of mo- Halabja area. Ignat Korchagin participated in different
bile technology in areas of exploratory wells in various re- approbation of mobile technology in areas of exploratory
gions of the world. Studies of this nature were carried out wells in various regions.
on drilling rigs in the Black Sea (Maria-1, Melnik-1, with-
in block 1-14 Khan-Kubrat, Tuna-1 area), in the North Funding
Sea (57°10.644’N, 01°07.066’E), South African shelf There was no funding for this research.
(Brulpadda-1AX), Angola shelf (6º19’4.8” S, 10º53’33”
E), Pakistan shelf (“Kekra-1”), shelf Alaska (Mukluk, the Conflict of Interest
most expensive in history), Peru shelf (Marina-1), Uru-
There is no conflict of interest.
guay shelf (Raya-1), Lebanon shelf (Block 4), Azerbaijan
shelf (SAX01), Omelkovschinskoye oil field (Republic References
of Belarus), at the Shebelinskaya-888 well, at the Zapad-
no-Krestishchenskoye field (emergency well) (Yakimchuk [1] Javadova, A., 2015. Kurdistan Operator Activity Up-
and Korchagin [5-7]). Experiments carried out in Kurdistan dates [Internet]. ResearchGate. Available from:
have been added to the database, which testifies in favour https://www.researchgate.net/publication/373489995_
of the deep (endogenous) genesis of hydrocarbons in the Kurdistan_Operator_Activity
process of hydrogen degassing of the Earth. [2] Lawa, F.A., Koyi, H., Ibrahim, A., 2013. Tectono‐
stratigraphic evolution of the NW segment OF the
6. Conclusions Zagros fold‐thrust belt, Kurdistan, NE Iraq. Journal
of Petroleum Geology. 36(1), 75-96.
The results of the conducted experimental investiga-
[3] Berberian, M., 1995. Master “blind” thrust faults
tions of an intelligence nature within two blocks in Kurd-
hidden under the Zagros folds: Active basement tec-
istan allow us to state the following:
tonics and surface morphotectonics. Tectonophysics.
A) Fixation of SW responses during frequency-reso-
241(3-4), 193-224.
nance processing of satellite images of blocks indicates
[4] Sissakian, V.K., 2000 Geological map of Iraq, scale
the expediency of carrying out a detailed search in their
1:1000000, 3rd edition. Iraq Geological Survey Pub-
search work.
lications: Baghdad.
B) According to the results of the study of the section
[5] Javadova, A., 2016. Geological Features of South-
within the local section of the Shakal block, the interval of
west-North East Kurdistan [Internet]. LinkedIn Post.
section 2760-2860 m is the most promising for the search
Available from: https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/
for oil deposits.
geological-feature-south-west-north-east-kurdis-
C) Within the Halabja block, the most promising for oil
tan-dr-arzu-javadova/
exploration are intervals from 295 to 3340 m.
[6] Якимчук, Н.А., Корчагин, И.Н., Бахмутов, В.Г., et
Research materials conducted at sites in Kurdistan
al., 2019. Геофизические исследования в Украин-
demonstrate the operability and effectiveness of mobile ской морской антарктической экспедиции 2018 г.:
technology in the search for hydrocarbon accumulations мобильная измерительная аппаратура, инноваци-
on land. Low-cost technology in general, can be used in онные прямопоисковые методы, новые результа-
various regions for a preliminary assessment of the oil and ты (Russian) [Geophysical research in the Ukrainian
gas potential of little-studied and unexplored prospecting Marine Antarctic Expedition 2018: mobile measuring
blocks and local areas. Promptly conducted additional equipment, innovative direct search methods, new
studies by direct methods in local areas of drilling explo- results]. Геоінформатика. 1, 5-27.
ration wells will contribute to increasing the success of [7] Якимчук, Н.А., Корчагин, И.Н., 2020. Технология
drilling (increasing the number of wells with industrial частотно-резонансной обработки данных ДЗЗ:
hydrocarbon inflows). Well, placement in the areas of ver- Результаты практической апробации при поис-
tical channels of fluid migration can lead to an increase in ках полезных ископаемых в различных регионаз
the inflow of hydrocarbons. земного шара. Часть 1. УДК 528+550.837+553.98.
Geoinformatika, №. 3, pp. 29-51, 2019; Часть II.
Author Contributions
Geoinformatika. № 4, pp. 30-58, 2019; Часть III.
Mykola Yakymchuk is an author of the mobile technol- Geoinformatika. № 1, pp. 19-41, 2020; Часть IV.
84
Geoinformatika. № 3, pp. 29-62 (Russian) [Techno- бурения скважин на нефть и газ (Russian) [On the
logy of frequency-resonance processing of remote feasibility of additional use of mobile direct search
sensing data: Results of practical testing in the se- methods in the areas of drilling wells for oil and gas].
arch for minerals in various regions of the globe. Azerbaijan Geologist. 24. 49-66.
Part 1. UDC 528+550.837+553.98. Geoinformatics, [9] Якимчук, Н.А., Корчагин, И.Н., 2020. Апробация
no. 3, pp. 29-51, 2019; Part II. geoinformatics. No. прямопоисковой технологии частотно-резонансной
4, pp. 30-58, 2019; Part III. geoinformatics. No. 1, обработки спутниковых снимков и фотоснимков
pp. 19-41, 2020; Part IV. geoinformatics. No. 3, pp. на известных месторождениях углеводородов в
29-62]. Available from: http://dspace.nbuv.gov.ua/ различных регионах (Russian) [Approbation of
handle/123456789/125236 direct search technology for frequency-resonance
[8] Я к и м ч у к , Н . А . , Ко рч а г и н , И . Н . , 2 0 2 0 . О processing of satellite images and photographs at
целесобразности допольнительного применения known hydrocarbon deposits in various regions].
мобильных прямопоисковых методок на участках Геоінформатика. 2, 3-38.
85

REVIEW
Origin of the Moon and Lunar Water
Nick Gorkavyi*
Science Systems and Applications, Inc., Lanham, MD 20706, USA
Article history Three principal concepts regarding lunar formation have been examined:
Received: 31 August 2023 the accretion hypothesis, the mega-impact theory, and the multi-impact
model. The multi-impact model amalgamates the salient facets of the mega-
Revised: 11 October 2023 impact theory and the accretion hypothesis. As per this model, fragments of
Accepted: 16 October 2023 the terrestrial crust are ejected into space during collisions with numerous
Published Online: 20 October 2023 planetesimals (proto-asteroids) with diameters around 10-100 kilometers.
In the vicinity of Earth’s orbit, this ejecta interacts with the accretion disk,
Keywords: augmenting its mass. Numerical computations demonstrate that particles
within the prograde-rotating accretion disk effectively capture prograde-
Moon rotating ejecta while shedding retrograde-rotating ejecta onto the planetary
Mega-impact body. The multi-impact theory provides an explanation for the creation of
Water not just the Moon and Charon but also the satellites of asteroids. Several
predictions regarding the parameters of asteroid satellites posited by this
Asteroid satellites
theory have already been validated through statistical analysis of binary
asteroids. Different models of lunar formation yield varied conclusions
regarding the quantity of lunar water, its subsurface distribution, and
isotopic composition. The mega-impact theory postulates the genesis
of a largely desiccated Moon. Consequently, the modest lunar water
content may arise from comets, solar wind, or the transport of water from
Earth’s atmosphere. These mechanisms for lunar water formation imply
its superficial occurrence in polar regions and substantial deviation of the
deuterium-to-hydrogen (D/H) ratio from terrestrial norms. Conversely,
the multi-impact theory posits lunar water’s origin from planetesimals,
akin to terrestrial water. Thus, a significant quantity of lunar water is
inferred, expected to be pervasive across the lunar surface at varying
depths, and possessing isotopic composition analogous to terrestrial water.
Geomorphological structures in the lunar polar regions (smoothed craters,
landslides, regular patterns) suggest the presence of a substantial permafrost
layer with an approximate thickness of a kilometer.
1. Introduction
have been actively advancing. The most ambitious among
In recent years, various lunar exploration programs them are the programs of the United States [1] and China,
Nick Gorkavyi,
Science Systems and Applications, Inc., Lanham, MD 20706, USA;
by-nc/4.0/).
86
yet Russia, India, and Japan also have their lunar initi- observations revealed the presence of four new moons
atives. As part of the Indian project “Chandrayaan-3”, around Jupiter, marking the initiation of a new era of Solar
on August 23, 2023, a lander along with a mobile rover System exploration. In terms of relative mass, the Moon
successfully touched down in the vicinity of the Moon’s exceeded all previously known satellites before 1978.
southern pole. The “Smart Lander for Investigating The Moon’s distinct status as a one-of-a-kind natural
Moon” (SLIM), developed in Japan, was launched to satellite led to the development of a unique theory about
the Moon on September 6, 2023. In November 2024, the its origin: the mega-impact theory. This theory was initial-
American lunar rover “VIPER” (Volatiles Investigating ly proposed by R. Daly in 1946 and was further detailed
Polar Exploration Rover) is planned to touch down in the in a 1975 publication by W. Hartmann and D. Davis [7].
vicinity of the Moon’s southern pole. One of the primary According to this theory, larger celestial bodies that were
objectives facing these lunar landers is the search for and forming near Earth’s orbit could have collided with Earth
study of lunar water. The investigation of lunar water during the first 107-108 years, approximately 4.5 billion
sheds light on the Moon’s origin, making it intriguing to years ago. If a planetesimal with a radius of about 1200
analyze the lunar water predictions of different lunar ori- km struck Earth’s surface at a speed of 13 km/sec, it could
gin models. Early descriptions of lunar formation models have provided enough kinetic energy to eject two lunar
(such as capture and fission due to centrifugal force) can masses at nearly escape velocities [7]. Hartmann and Da-
be found in Ringwood’s book [2]. Herein, our focus centers vis concluded that this model could explain the Moon’s
on three pivotal theories of lunar formation: the accretion characteristics, such as its reduced iron content, increased
model, the mega-impact theory, and the multi-impact abundance of refractory elements, and depletion of vola-
model. tile substances. In accordance with the Hartmann-Davis
hypothesis, the protosatellite disk, and subsequently the
2. Accretion Model of Lunar Formation and moon, are postulated to form from ejected fragments
Its Challenges of Earth’s crust and upper mantle, possessing a density
similar to that of the Moon, approximately 3 g/cm3. This
The Safronov group successfully formulated an ac-
explanation also addresses the Moon’s iron deficiency, as
cretion theory for the formation of terrestrial planets [3].
Earth’s crust and mantle exhibit diminished iron content
Ruskol proposed a similar accretion theory for the Moon’s
(6% FeO) [6] due to its concentration within the molten
formation from near-Earth protosatellite swarms [4]. Such
Earth’s core, where FeO constitutes 83% [6].
a swarm around Earth was envisioned to accumulate from
Hartmann and Davis employed a very moderate im-
particles moving along heliocentric orbits, colliding with-
pactor mass estimate of 6.7 × 10–3 of Earth’s mass, merely
in Earth’s gravitational field, and transitioning to near-
half the mass of the Moon, for their calculations. How-
Earth orbits, thus forming a protosatellite swarm or disk.
ever, Hartmann and Davis’s qualitative model did not ac-
The accretion model faces two significant challenges:
count for the intricate issue of retaining material in near-
a. The accretion mechanism leads to a relatively low
Earth orbit. Within a two-body problem context, matter
mass fraction (10–3 to 10–4 of the planet’s mass) for the
ejected from Earth due to impact cannot persist in near-
protosatellite swarm, which is inadequate to account for
Earth orbit. This ejecta must acquire hyperbolic velocity
the Moon’s substantial mass fraction (1/81 or 1.2% of
and escape onto heliocentric orbits or enter elliptical orbits
Earth’s mass, a record in the Solar System as of 1975);
around Earth, returning to Earth’s surface within a single
b. There is no explanation for the Moon’s average
revolution due to the lower part of such an orbit intersect-
chemical composition, including its low density (3.3 g/
ing Earth’s surface.
cm3) and iron deficiency (13% FeO) [5]. If the accretion Consequently, when scientists embarked on detailed
theory holds, the Moon, formed similarly to Earth from calculations, they significantly deviated from the origi-
planetesimals, should exhibit analogous parameters: a nal Hartmann and Davis estimates. They augmented the
density of 5.5 g/cm3 and an average iron content of 31% impactor mass to the extent that the dynamics of smaller
FeO [6]. fragments conformed to the three-body problem, as frag-
ments moved between Earth and the surviving part of the
3. Mega-Impact Model of Formation and Its
impactor. This adjusted model presented the possibility of
Challenges
retaining at least a fraction of the ejected material in orbit.
Until 1610, the Moon was perceived as a singular ce- In accordance with this model, there was a colossal
lestial body; no other natural satellites were known within collision around 4.5 billion years ago involving Earth and
the Solar System. However, four centuries ago, Galilei’s a massive celestial body named Theia. Theia was approx-
87
imately the size of Mars, with a diameter of around 7,000 from a near-Earth protosatellite disk generated through
km. This extraordinary event resulted in fragments from accretion [5].
the collision being placed into an orbit around Earth. Charon, one of Pluto’s moons, was discovered in
In the most contemporary calculations, the mass of 1978. Despite Pluto being a small, cold dwarf planet on
the impacting planet has reached approximately half of the outskirts of the Solar System, Charon is relatively
the proto-Earth’s mass [8]. As a result of this catastrophic massive compared to its parent body, accounting for 12
impact around Earth, a protolunar disk with significant an- percent of Pluto’s mass. In contrast, the Moon only makes
gular momentum emerged. The model featuring a massive up 1.2 percent of Earth’s mass, thereby diminishing the
impactor resolved the issue of retaining a small amount Moon’s status as a unique satellite in terms of its relative
of ejected material in near-Earth orbit but gave rise to an- mass. Furthermore, the phenomenon of substantial (ap-
other predicament: it was revealed that, under such a sce- proximately 10%) duplicity was observed among small
nario, the Moon is formed not only from Earth’s crust and solid-surfaced celestial bodies—asteroids and trans-Nep-
mantle but also from material derived from the impacting tunian objects [10]. In 1994, the first satellite of an asteroid
Theia. Since Theia’s isotopic composition is expected (Ida) was photographed, followed by the discovery of the
to differ from that of Earth, this implies that the isotopic first triple asteroid (Sylvia) in 2005. Additionally, apart
composition of the Moon, which comprises a substantial from Charon, four smaller and more distant satellites were
portion of Theia’s material, must also differ from that of detected around Pluto. It is noteworthy that the origin of
Earth. However, as demonstrated in a series of studies, the Charon and asteroidal satellites within the framework of
isotopic composition of oxygen, titanium, and tungsten in the mega-impact model appears highly implausible. This
lunar and terrestrial rocks aligns entirely. is due to the fact that collisions among bodies in the aster-
The uniformity of isotopes implies that the material oid belt occur at speeds of several kilometers per second,
found on the Moon originated from the mantle of the early while the initial escape velocity for asteroids is lower by
Earth [9]. 2-3 orders of magnitude. The matter ejected by a massive
There are additional arguments against the mega-im- impactor is simply unfeasible to retain in orbit around an
pact model. Geochemical analyses have led to the following asteroid with weak gravity.
conclusions regarding the catastrophic impact model [5]: In 1989, Ringwood published an article [11] in which he
a. The Moon, which originated from Earth, must be noted that the current version of this hypothesis is unlike-
younger than Earth; ly to be true for several reasons:
b. Due to the mega-impact, both the Moon and Earth 1) The probability of such an event is low.
should have experienced melting. This suggests that both 2) If such a collision had occurred, it would have melt-
Earth and the Moon likely had oceans of molten magma; ed and separated the Earth’s materials, resulting in chemi-
c. The Moon’s lack of volatile elements can be attrib- cal compositions different from what we observe.
uted to the heating of Earth’s material ejected into orbit 3) The mechanics of this collision suggest that the
during the mega-impact. Moon’s composition would primarily come from the
However, empirical data from these geochemical anal- mantle of the impacting body, while the evidence from
yses provide a somewhat different perspective [5]: geochemistry strongly suggests that most of the Moon’s
a. The Moon is older than Earth or, to be more precise, material originated from the Earth’s mantle instead.
the Moon’s core may have formed before Earth’s core; Ringwood concludes that in the Moon’s creation, im-
b. The Moon appears to have been relatively cool and pactors with masses of 0.001 to 0.01 times that of Earth
might not have been entirely covered in molten magma. were involved.
Furthermore, geochemical data contradicts the idea of a As far back as 1986, Ruskol introduced the concept
molten mantle ocean on Earth. For instance, the Earth’s that the Moon didn’t originate from a single massive im-
current mantle shows less differentiation than it would if pact but rather from a series of “macro-impacts”, which
there had been a molten magma ocean in the distant past; are essentially the same phenomenon but on a somewhat
c. The composition of volatile elements found on the smaller scale. In these impactful events involving signif-
Moon doesn’t align with the mega-impact theory. These icant celestial bodies, the developing Earth isn’t entirely
elements cannot be explained as originating from Earth’s obliterated. Instead, the ejections from the impact craters
mantle through heating processes. in the Earth’s mantle are so forceful that they partially es-
As a result, in the year 2000, geochemists J.H. Jones cape Earth’s gravitational pull and spread into the nearby
and H. Palme supported the model of lunar formation space, forming a swarm of materials [12].
88
4. The Multi-Impact Model and Its Predictions Charon-Pluto systems.

b. Asteroid Rotation: Asteroids with satellites should
We maintain that the Hartmann and Davis model [5] rotate faster than single asteroids.
was accurate in its assessments of the maximum impactor c. Satellite Absence: Low-rotating asteroids (or Earth-
mass. These assessments aligned with calculations by the like planets) should generally lack satellites, as is the ob-
Safronov group, which indicated that the mass of the sec- served case with Venus and Mercury.
ond-largest body within Earth’s vicinity should be close d. Satellite Mass: All else being equal, the relative
to 1% of Earth’s mass. The issue of retaining material in mass of satellites can be larger for smaller asteroids.
near-Earth orbit, which remained unresolved in the Hart- e. Crater Dichotomy: The dichotomy of craters should
mann-Davis model, needed to be addressed not by dou- be a common feature of Charon, Pluto, and large asteroid
bling the impactor mass, but by considering an accretion satellites.
disk that would inevitably accumulate near Earth. The f. Moon Signatures: The Moon should exhibit chemi-
interaction between the propelled ejecta and particles of cal, isotopic, and geological signatures of many different
the circumplanetary disk altered the trajectory of the ejec- asteroid impacts from Earth.
ta, taking its dynamics beyond the scope of the two-body This model provides an alternative explanation for the
problem. formation of these celestial bodies without the need for
In 2004, Gorkavyi proposed the multi-impact model for catastrophic events.
the formation of celestial bodies like the Moon, Charon, This qualitative hypothesis needs to be substantiated
and binary asteroids, which doesn’t involve catastrophic through detailed calculations. The most challenging issue
events [13]. Here are the key elements of this new model: pertains to the stability of the protosatellite disk, which
1) Moon Material from Earth: The majority of the is bombarded by ejecta propelled from Earth’s surface by
Moon’s material came from the Earth’s mantle through impacts from planetesimals. These impacts expel ejec-
multiple impacts by large asteroids (approximately 1-100 ta onto both prograde and retrograde orbits. Neglecting
km in size). This explains why the Moon has a “low-iron” Earth’s rotation, the cumulative angular momentum of the
composition, similar to the single-impact model proposed ejecta is zero. How does a low-mass protosatellite swarm
by Hartmann and Davis. with positive angular momentum interact with an intense
2) Prograde Protosatellite Disk: Initially, there was a stream of zero-net-momentum ejecta? Can the ejecta pre-
low-mass prograde protosatellite disk orbiting around the cipitate the protosatellite swarm to Earth?
proto-Earth, similar to those seen around other planets. To address these inquiries, a numerical model was de-
3) Debris Collection: Collisions between Earth debris veloped, which investigated the interaction between proto-
and particles in the prograde protosatellite disk played satellite disk particles and bodies ejected from the Earth’s
a crucial role in collecting the debris into stable orbits. surface [14].
Prograde Earth debris effectively joined the prograde pro- The article by Gorkavyi [14] addresses the planar two-
tosatellite disk, while retrograde debris returned to Earth. body problem in the case of Earth and a particle under the
Due to the prograde rotation of the Earth, the volume of following conditions (neglecting the influence of the Sun
prograde debris exceeds the volume of retrograde ejecta. and Earth’s rotation effects):
4) Optimal Ring Radius: Calculations regarding the 1) The elliptical trajectory of the ejecta particle inter-
transfer of angular momentum showed that the protosatel- sects the circular orbit of the satellite particle in the as-
lite ring should have an optimal radius, close to the aver- cending branch (point A) and descending branch (point B).
age semi-major axis of debris orbits (A.M. Fridman, N.N. 2) The major axis and eccentricity of the intersecting
Gorkavyi “Physics of Planetary Rings”, Springer, 1999, orbits are specified, enabling us to readily determine the
p.222-233). Earth debris pushed away a smaller ring and azimuthal and radial components of velocity for each par-
decreased the angular momentum of a larger ring. ticle at points A and B.
5) Formation of Massive Ring: A massive, low-iron 3) The collision of the two particles forms a cloud of
ring near Earth eventually accreted onto the Moon. In the debris, the center of mass of which moves away from the
final stages, Earth debris bombarded the newly formed collision point with velocities determined by the conserva-
Moon, resulting in a dichotomy of crater populations. tion of momentum and the mass ratio between the ejecta
Predictions from this new multi-impact model include: and satellite particles.
a. Satellite Orbits: Most satellites of asteroids should 4) With knowledge of the velocity vector of the center
have prograde and circular orbits that are close to the of mass of the debris, we determine the major axis and ec-
equator of the central body, similar to the Moon-Earth and centricity of its trajectory and analyze:
89
a. How the debris orbit changes based on the mass ratio orbital motion. The qualitative results remain unchanged
of particles, the orbit parameters of the ejecta, and the ra- under substantial variations in the size distribution law
dius of the protosatellite swarm particle’s orbit. of the ejecta particles or when considering an extensive
b. Whether the debris impacts the planet’s surface or disk extending up to 100,000 kilometers from the planet’s
remains in a stable satellite orbit. surface. These calculations compellingly demonstrate
c. Whether the protolunar disk’s mass decreases or the dynamic efficiency of the discussed lunar formation
increases under the influence of planet-originated ejecta. mechanism.
Does the disk maintain its orbital stability?
We postulate that the distribution of ejecta is symmetric
with respect to the direction of Earth’s revolution—mean-
ing that for a certain number of particles ejected from the
planet’s surface onto prograde near-Earth orbits, an equal
number of particles are ejected onto retrograde orbits.
Two primary scenarios exist for the interaction between
the disk particles and ejecta:
1) Ejecta with retrograde orbital rotation interacts with
particles from the prograde disk, thus inevitably impact-
ing Earth and carrying along a disk particle, if its mass is
smaller or comparable to that of the ejecta particle.
2) Ejecta with prograde orbital rotation interacts with
particles from the prograde disk and is highly likely to Figure 1. (From the article [14]). This graph illustrates the
transition to a stable satellite orbit. Even a slight perturba- changes in surface density within the protosatellite disk
tion from a disk particle is sufficient to induce an increase caused by its interaction with the material ejected from
in the ejecta’s perigee, thus avoiding collision with Earth. Earth, with values measured in arbitrary units. Initially,
the disk, which extends 10,000 kilometers above Earth’s
Figure 1 illustrates the growth and degradation profiles
surface, is considered to be uniform in composition. The
of a disk extending above the Earth’s surface by 10,000
slender curve shows how the surface density of the disk
km. A study was conducted involving 1000 distinct values decreases over time due to the material being expelled
for ejecta particle masses ranging from 0.1 to 10 relative onto Earth after interactions with both prograde and
to the mass of disk particles. The number of particles is retrograde ejecta trajectories. On the other hand, the bold
inversely proportional to their mass. Additionally, 1000 curve depicts how the surface density of the disk increases
disk orbits (with a step of 10 km) of varying radii and over time as a result of material accreting onto it from the
400 ejecta orbits with uniformly distributed eccentricities direct ejecta. The most favorable conditions for satellite
from nearly circular to 1 were examined. All ejecta orbits formation occur within the zone of 2-3 Earth radii, where
are tangential to the Earth’s surface, thus their semi-major the increase (gain) in disk surface density significantly
axes are consistent with this condition. The probability of surpasses the losses.
ejecta interaction with each disk orbit was conventionally In 2017, Rufu, Aharanson, and Perets published a
set at 1%. It is assumed that the debris cloud contributes similar article in Nature-Geoscience on the multi-impact
to the disk orbit with a radius equal to the semi-major axis formation of the Moon, demonstrating that the Moon’s
of the debris cloud orbit. The debris cloud distribution origin could be attributed to numerous moderate impacts
was examined within a space twice the size of the disk, rather than a single mega-impact event [15]. In their study,
up to 20,000 km above the Earth’s surface. A total of 400 they examined a sequence of 20 impacts from bodies with
million debris cloud trajectories were analyzed. masses ranging from 0.1 to 0.01 times that of Earth, which
It is evident that the parts of the protosatellite disk generated disks and subsequently formed satellites. These
closest to the planet are vanishing (due to particle outward 20 satellites eventually merged to form a single larger
migration or collision with the planet), while in the rest of Moon. The structure of the protosatellite disk presented
the disk, a confident growth (gain) is observed, dominat- in the Rufu, Aharanson, and Perets article [15] aligns well
ing over the reduction (loss). The disk’s growth is attribut- with Figure 1 from the article [14].
ed to the accretion of prograde ejecta, which compensates The lunar formation model, which combines the ex-
for the disk’s reduction caused by bombardment from ret- istence of an accretion disk around Earth along with the
rograde ejecta. The examined mechanism effectively se- continuous replenishment of this disk through multiple
lects ejecta trajectories that align with the pro-lunar disk’s macro-impact events, is actively developed within the
90
Moscow Safronov group. See, for instance, the work by Moon is positioned somewhere in the middle of the distri-
Adushkin et al. [16] and the references therein. Ruskol dis- bution of asteroid satellites, thereby definitively shedding
cusses the asymmetry of craters and maria on the visible the aura of uniqueness. Models of Moon formation in
and far sides of the Moon [4]. The higher concentration of proximity to Earth and satellites around solid-surfaced
lunar maria (dark, flat plains) on the side of the Moon that planets must be unified, elucidating both the Moon and
faces Earth, particularly in the leading quarter of the lunar asteroid satellites. A potential question might arise: if the
disk, could suggest that the Moon has been impacted by mechanism of asteroid satellite formation lacks substantial
material ejected from Earth. Thus, the “maria” asymme- constraints on its efficacy, then why do only about 10% of
try suggests the occurrence of numerous and temporally asteroids manifest as binaries or possess satellites?
distributed strong asteroid impacts, transporting material We posit that the actual percentage of duality among
from Earth to the Moon. asteroids and trans-Neptunian objects is considerably
Hence, the multi-impact theory of lunar formation com- higher; however, when the protosatellite disk transforms
bines the strengths of both the accretion theory and the into an actual satellite, the mechanism of selection exclu-
original Hartmann-Davis mega-impact model. This model sively by direct ejection ceases to operate. A substantial
is independently developed by three groups of researchers, satellite absorbs ejected material with a net zero angular
yielding similar outcomes. It remains consistent with con- momentum and converges with the primary body. The
temporary geochemical data and avoids dynamic issues. orbital velocity of the satellite is contingent upon the mass
A significant advantage of the multi-impact theory lies of the central body. Depending on the rotational velocity
in its applicability not only to the Moon’s formation but of the central body, the satellite can gently merge with it,
also to the formation of Charon and asteroid satellites [17]. thereby forming a binary system. Notably, certain aster-
This broadens the opportunities for testing the theory oids, such as 486958 Arrokoth, exhibit a dumbbell shape
against a substantial volume of observational data. or that of two agglomerated bodies (Figure 2).
5. Comparison of Moon Formation and
Binary Asteroids
In the study by Gaftonyuk and Gorkavyi, a database
containing 113 binary asteroids was examined, with rota-
tional periods and diameters of the primary components de-
termined [18]. The predictions of the multi-impact model [13,14,17]
were fully corroborated. The average rotation rate of sin-
gle asteroids amounts to 3.54 rotations per day, whereas
the average rotation rate of the primary bodies of binary
asteroids was found to be nearly twice as high: 6.56 ± 0.28
rotations per day.
Furthermore, it has also been demonstrated that:
1) The satellites of asteroids exhibit solely direct orbits,
typically characterized by low eccentricities and inclina-
tions relative to the equator of the central body, thereby
falling within the class of regular satellites. Figure 2. The most detailed images of 486958 Arrokoth
2) The duality of asteroids (percentage of bodies with (Wenu 21.20 × 19.90 × 9.05 km; Weeyo 15.75 × 13.85 ×
satellites) rapidly increases with the rotational speed of 9.75 km [19]). New Horizons spacecraft, 1 January 2019
(https://www.nasa.gov/feature/new-horizons-spacecraft-
the primary body.
returns-its-sharpest-views-of-ultima-thule).
3) The percentage of duality among asteroids depends
on the size of the main asteroid, and there is a minimum The formation of another satellite on an outer orbit
number of binary asteroids found among those sized be- around such a binary system is also possible. A third body,
tween 10-100 km. Asteroids with satellites are most com- undergoing a similar evolution, may decelerate and be-
monly observed in two size ranges: those smaller than 10 come incorporated into the already merged pair of bodies.
km and those larger than 100 km. This appears to be how the triple body of asteroid 9969
Consequently, asteroid satellite systems are regular and Braille was formed.
akin to satellite systems of typical planets. When consid- In the scenario where the moon follows a circular or-
ering mass relative to their respective primary bodies, the bit and collides tangentially with a large, quasi-spherical
91
asteroid, it would leave an elongated trench (fossa) on the of a dumbbell-shaped asteroid, certain conditions must be
surface of the primary body. The asteroid Vesta, a large met. These conditions include a constrained orbital veloci-
and fast-rotating celestial object with a diameter of 525 ty for the moon, represented as V, where V2 < 2Ev/ρ. Here,
km, is an example of this phenomenon. Despite its size, Ev signifies the specific volumetric energy required for the
Vesta does not possess any moons. However, a distinctive asteroid’s breakup, and ρ represents the moon’s density.
series of enormous fossae were discovered on its surface This velocity threshold is approximately 100 meters per
(indicated by blue arrows in Figure 3). These fossae are second. Consequently, rapidly rotating asteroids with di-
found in two formations: one near the equator (Divalia ameters of several hundred kilometers or less can display
Fossae Formation) and another at approximately 30°N equatorial grooves, which essentially serve as the impact
(Saturnalia Fossae Formation). These grooves extend to scars left by their moons. For asteroids with diameters less
lengths of 300-400 km, widths of 10-20 km, and depths of than one hundred kilometers, the interaction with a moon
up to 5 km (Figure 3). A moon orbiting Vesta would need should result in the formation of a dumbbell-shaped struc-
to travel at a velocity of 900 km/h. If its orbital rotation ture.
aligns with the direction of Vesta’s rotation, the moon In the issue of lunar formation, the primary question
would move relative to Vesta’s surface at approximately revolves around the source of material required for the
600 km/h. According to calculations, a moon with a mass creation of such a satellite. In the issue of asteroid belt
roughly 10–3 times that of Vesta, having the same density, formation, the key query pertains to the whereabouts of
would possess enough kinetic energy before it completely 99.97% of the mass of the belt. Interestingly, these two
breaks apart to create a canyon. This canyon would be 5 questions are intricately interconnected.
kilometers deep, 10 kilometers wide, and 1,000 kilometers The actual masses of Mars and the asteroid belt differ
long, even if the material it is moving through is as tough significantly from the values that would be expected based
as durable granite. The specific energy required for this on theoretical predictions derived from extrapolating the
fragmentation process would be approximately 109 erg/ density of solid materials present in the protoplanetary
cm3. The presence of two distinct sets of grooves suggests disk near Venus and Earth. During collisions of planetes-
that Vesta encountered and incorporated two moons with imals, a significant amount of dust is generated. A more
inclined orbits. The author of this theory first introduced detailed analysis has revealed that 10% of dust particles
this concept in an interview with “New Scientist” [20] in ranging in size from 0.2 to 40 micrometers acquire a sig-
2015 and later elaborated on it in a more comprehensive nificant eccentricity in their orbits due to the pressure of
discussion published in 2019 [21]. solar radiation. Eventually, Jupiter’s gravitational field
Attention is drawn to intriguing spiral structures in the scatters these particles, causing them to exit the Solar Sys-
polar regions, particularly prominent in the vicinity of the tem, on average, within about 30,000 years [22]. This pro-
southern pole (indicated by yellow arrows). As calcula- cess could explain a substantial loss of mass in both the
tions reveal, the absorption of a 50-kilometer-diameter asteroid belt and the Martian region [23]. The effectiveness
satellite, moving in the direction of the blue arrows at a of removing dust particles from asteroids, despite their
velocity of approximately 200 m/s, should lead not only weak gravitational pull, is supported by observations from
to the formation of deep valleys, expanding the satellite’s spaceborne images. These images show that the surfaces
energy, but also to a global acceleration of the asteroidal of small asteroids exhibit rocky features, while the larger
crust in the equatorial region, utilizing the angular mo- Moon’s surface is covered by fine dust, which remains in
mentum of the satellite. Following the satellite’s absorp- place due to the Moon’s gravitational forces (Figure 4).
tion, the crust with a thickness of around 10 km should The isotopic composition of noble gases found in sur-
acquire additional rotation at a rate of about one meter per face regolith samples taken from asteroid 25143 Itokawa
second relative to the satellite’s core and its polar regions. suggests that over a span of more than one million years,
This additional angular momentum may induce a dis- this asteroid, with an average diameter of around 330 me-
placement of the crust with respect to the asteroid’s main ters, experiences a loss of surface material equivalent to a
mass by ~100 km, resulting in the appearance of spiral layer several tens of centimeters thick [24].
structures in the polar region. Hence, asteroids experience a reduction in mass as
Another scenario that should be considered is a gentler they lose a significant portion of their substance, while
interaction between an asteroid and its satellite. This sce- simultaneously generating a region conducive to satellite
nario assumes that the moon has relatively low energy and formation around them. It is the satellites that capture a
cannot create a canyon or crater that is larger in volume fraction of the material ejected from the asteroid’s surface
than the moon itself. In such situations, for the creation and thereby grow. Following a similar mechanism, the
92
Figure 3. The relief map depicts the northern (left) and southern (right) hemispheres of asteroid 4 Vesta. The equatorial
region is omitted from the map. The color scheme corresponds to the distance from Vesta’s center, with lower eleva-
tions represented in violet and higher elevations in red. This map is a result of the Dawn mission and was created using
data from NASA, Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory, Southwest Research Institute, and the National Optical
Astronomy Observatory. Blue arrows on the map indicate the direction of the satellite’s orbital movement, while yellow
inner arrows highlight spiral structures present in the polar regions.
Figure 4. The image on the left displays the surface of the Moon, which is coated with a layer of regolith and dust. It
captures the moment when NASA astronaut Harrison Schmitt was gathering lunar samples as part of the Apollo 17
mission at the Taurus-Littrow landing site on December 11, 1972. The photo credit goes to Eugene A. Cernan/NASA.
On the right side, there is a picture of the rocky surface of the asteroid moonlet Dimorphos, which has a diameter of 150
meters (with a field of view spanning 31 meters across). This image was captured on October 26, 2022, from the DART
spacecraft and is credited to NASA/Johns Hopkins APL.
93
Moon also expands, drawing sustenance from the debris retrograde, like the Pasiphae and Phoebe groups, along
expelled from the Earth’s surface. with the massive retrograde Triton. In the 1995 article, a
The distinction between the formation of the Moon and prognostication was put forth concerning the existence
Charon compared to Phobos, Deimos, and binary asteroids of an as-yet-undiscovered outermost cluster of retrograde
lies primarily in the fact that the Moon and Charon are satellites encircling Saturn. Utilizing numerical simula-
substantial satellites that have moved considerably away tions involving 256 thousand clusters of debris within the
from their respective planets due to tidal interactions. context of the three-body problem, it was determined that
In this context, the relatively faster and longer-lasting the realm occupied by retrograde satellites encompasses
Moon, characterized by a higher rate of radial drift, likely approximately 19 to 31 million kilometers, exhibiting a
absorbed the smaller outer satellites of Earth over time, focal concentration of around 25 to 26 million kilometers.
whereas the slower and younger Charon did not have the The computations indicated that the retrograde satellite
opportunity to do so. It is conceivable that the extensive- Phoebe (positioned at 12.9 million kilometers) should, on
ly discussed enigmatic intense lunar bombardment 3.9 the contrary, be predominantly encircled by prograde sat-
billion years ago, which lacks corresponding evidence on ellites [26].
Earth [24], might have resulted from collisions between ex- In the year 2000, the predicted family of outer retro-
ternal smaller satellites and the Moon, which was drifting grade satellites of Saturn was discovered through telescop-
outward. ic observations. By 2023, within the region spanning from
It is noteworthy that the transfer of material from a sol- 15 to 27 million km, 96 retrograde satellites and only 16
id-surfaced planet to a satellite disk is absent in the case prograde satellites were detected. In the vicinity of Phoe-
of gas giant planets. All matter falling from heliocentric be, ranging from 11 to 15 million km, the reverse trend
orbits onto a gas giant planet becomes incorporated into was observed, with 6 prograde satellites and merely 3 ret-
the planet upon any contact with its surface. Material rograde satellites being identified. Gorkavyi and Taidako-
arriving from heliocentric orbits—both gases and solid va discussed the alignment between theoretical and obser-
bodies—can not only fall onto the planet’s surface but can vational results concerning Saturn’s irregular satellites in
also remain in satellite orbits through fortuitous self-in- December 2001. Based on the 1995 model, they inferred
teractions, rather than interactions with the planet itself. an additional outcome that a group of numerous undis-
This process of gas accretion is extensively elucidated by covered satellites likely exists beyond Triton’s orbit (>
Ruskol [4]. The typical mass of a satellite system of a gas 0.5 million km) around Neptune: “Nereid is probably the
giant planet is approximately ~10–4 of the planet’s mass largest member of the family of prograde satellites mixed
and is found in usually regular and massive satellites, such with more numerous family of smaller retrograde satel-
as Galilean satellites. This gas accretion from heliocentric lites” [27]. Observers announced the discovery of such a
orbits presumably imparts the planet’s rotation rate. An new Neptune satellite group several months later in 2002.
interesting fact emerges: for Jupiter, the equatorial speed Within the range of 15.7-48.4 million km, 2 prograde and
of self-rotation is 12.6 km/s, while its orbital speed around 3 retrograde satellites of Neptune were found. Thus, the
the Sun is 13.07 km/s (a difference of 3.7%). This implies formation of satellite systems around gas giant planets is
that the lower part of Jupiter facing the Sun is almost sta- broadly understood and well-described by an accretion
tionary—similar to the bottom point of a swiftly moving model involving interactions between planetesimals from
train wheel remaining still relative to the rail. For Saturn, heliocentric orbits and the gaseous protosatellite disk.
the equatorial rotation speed around its axis is 9.87 km/s,
while its orbital speed is 9.68 km/s (a difference of 1.9%).
6. Predictions Regarding Lunar Water
These occurrences are likely not coincidental. The giant impact theory posits the complete melting
Small and irregular outer satellites of gas giant planets of the Moon, followed by its gradual cooling, resulting in
exhibit distinct characteristics from the massive inner a state of near-complete dryness. Jewitt and Young dis-
satellites. However, their emergence is also linked to cussed the scenario in which Earth experienced a collision
quasi-accretionary capture of particles and asteroids from with a Mars-sized object about 4.5 billion years ago. This
heliocentric orbits. Gorkavyi and Taidakova demonstrated in collision resulted in the ejection of material, which even-
a series of articles from 1993 to 1995 (references in paper [25]) tually cooled and came together to form the Moon. The
that the interaction between impacting solid bodies from immense energy from this colossal impact would have re-
heliocentric orbits and a protosatellite disk can elucidate moved a significant portion of Earth’s atmosphere, evap-
the formation of groups of irregular satellites—both orated any existing oceans, and created a deep ocean of
prograde, such as the Himalia and Nereid groups, and molten rock. Whether Earth initially had water or not, the
94
powerful impact that led to the Moon’s formation likely suggesting that the Earth’s atmosphere could be a con-
removed most, if not all, of the planet’s original water [28]. tributing source of lunar water. This interaction allows for
Observations have confirmed the presence of a substan- the accumulation of terrestrial water on the Moon, with a
tial amount of water on the Moon, prompting the search potential capacity of approximately 3000 km3 [32].
for mechanisms that deliver new water to the arid lunar Mechanisms related to the solar wind and material
surface. Comets appear as the most plausible candidates transport to polar regions are realistic, but they can only
due to their high ice content and potential encounters saturate the surface layer with water to a depth of several
within the lunar and terrestrial vicinity. The exact quan- decimeters or meters. The multi-impact model posits that
tity of water brought by comets to the Moon remains lunar water shares a common origin with Earth’s water—
uncertain, although their contribution to Earth’s oceans arising from planetesimals that contributed to the forma-
has been established. Notably, comets have introduced tion of both Earth and the Moon. Consequently, water
approximately a quarter of the noble gases, such as xenon, should be present not only in polar but also in equatorial
into Earth’s atmosphere. Consequently, the contribution of regions of the Moon, where it resides at greater depths.
comets to Earth’s oceans is estimated to be less than 1% [29]. The isotopic composition of lunar water is expected to
Furthermore, cometary water exhibits a distinct isotopic mirror that of terrestrial water. The surface layers of reg-
composition, with three times the amount of deuterium olith can contain water from the solar wind, which has a
compared to terrestrial water [30]. different isotopic composition.
He et al. investigate different origins of water on the The presence of lunar water should manifest in the
Moon and perform an examination of the amount, hydro- lunar geomorphology [33,34]. At the LCROSS impact site
gen isotope makeup, and variations from the core to the (Cabeus crater, approximately 85°S), the concentration of
rim of water present in impact glass beads obtained from water ice within the regolith is estimated to be 5.6% by
lunar soil samples collected during the Chang’e-5 mission [31]. mass [35], or potentially even higher [36]. The existence of
Their calculations suggest that the amount of water a permafrost layer beneath the lunar surface can induce
trapped within these impact glass beads within lunar soil alterations in crater shapes, akin to observations in the
could possibly be as high as 2.7 × 1014 kilograms [31]. permafrost zones of Mars [37]. Notably, near certain craters
Recently, a model proposing the transfer of water from within the Moon’s South Pole region, signs of landslides
Earth’s atmosphere to the Moon has emerged [32]. The are evident (Figure 5a), exhibiting diverse scale structures [34]
Moon periodically traverses through the Earth’s magnet- —reminiscent of landslides within Earth’s permafrost are-
ic tail containing terrestrial hydrogen and oxygen ions, as (Figure 5b).
Figure 5. (a) The image shows a landslide occurrence along the edge of a crater situated in the region of 87.1°S and
95.0°W on the lunar surface. Notably, visible are cracks spanning many hundreds of meters, as indicated by the red
arrow. Additionally, smaller folds measuring tens of meters are denoted by the white arrow (refer to the inset). This
figure employs MOONTrek Version: 3.4.140 (source: https://trek.nasa.gov/moon/). (b) This part of the figure displays a
patterned ground formation composed of substantial folds, indicated by the red arrow, alongside smaller wrinkles shown
by the white arrow. This geomorphic feature occurs within the permafrost melting zone on Earth, situated at coordinates
67.4°N and 134.8°E, and is sourced from Google Maps.
95
The depth and morphology of craters located at the as analogous zones on Earth [39] (refer to Figure 5b). Our
lunar South Pole may exhibit distinctive characteristics hypothesis posits that the observed traits of lunar craters
attributed to the presence of a layer of water ice and vola- in the South and North Polar regions of the Moon are in-
tile compounds. These substances are expected to undergo dicative of the presence of permafrost [34].
both melting and sublimation processes during impact When contrasting the topography of the equatorial and
events and over subsequent periods (refer to Figures 5-6). polar regions of the Moon, the latter display notably dis-
An examination of photographs depicting the polar re- tinctive features (see Figure 6): smoothed craters (Figure
gions reveals several notable attributes associated with 6a) and numerous intricate relief patterns (Figures 6b-
small craters in proximity to the lunar poles (as illustrated 6d). It is evident that such features cannot be exclusively
in Figures 5-6): attributed to meteoritic impacts. Consequently, an alter-
1) These craters tend to possess smoother contours, and native factor is at play, influencing geological activity in
the surrounding terrain displays a distinctive pattern [34]. the polar zones. This likely involves a substantial layer of
2) The occurrence of patterned ground is frequently ob- perpetual frost, the evolving dynamics of which give rise
served within the craters and their immediate vicinity [34]. to the distinct relief patterns known as solifluction struc-
3) Notably, landslides and cracks are discernible in are- tures. The estimated thickness of this layer is on the order
as outside the craters [34]. of kilometers, as its influence is observable in the shapes
4) Layers or steps are often apparent on the inner of craters of kilometer-scale dimensions (see Figure 6a).
slopes of these craters [34]. Notably, it is improbable for sources of lunar water such
These characteristics closely resemble those found in as solar wind or Earth’s atmospheric tail to create perma-
craters within the permafrost regions on Mars [38], as well frost layers thicker than a few meters.
Figure 6. (a) Lunar reliefs in the vicinity of the Moon’s North Pole exhibit distinctive features, characterized by
smoothed forms (the lower left corner of the photograph has coordinates 85.8°N, 133.5°E). (b) Landslide at the edge
of a crater (86.0°N, 137.9°E). (c) Patterned surface in the region of 85.9°N, 133.9°E. (d) Regular structures of various
scales in the area of 86.1°N, 125.1°E. The yellow arrows in (b, c, d) indicate quasi-regular structures, often with differ-
ent orientations, which are typical for relief features in permafrost zones [38,39].
Source: NASA/MOONTrek Version: 3.4.140.
96
7. Conclusions Acknowledgement
We have demonstrated that ejecta generated by large- The author expresses gratitude to Tanya Taidakova for
scale impacts on a planet’s surface readily transition to years of fruitful collaboration; John Mather for support
stable satellite orbits, even when interacting with smaller and valuable advice, and astronaut Harrison Schmitt for
particles in the protosatellite disk, which are 10-100 times his insightful lecture at the Goddard Space Flight Center
less massive than the ejecta. A protosatellite disk with pro- in May 2017.
grade rotation effectively captures and incorporates ejecta
with prograde rotation, destabilizing and returning ejecta Data Availability Statement
with retrograde rotation to the planet. The initial protosat- The data supporting these findings are publicly availa-
ellite disk is not destroyed by the impact of ejecta with a ble.
net zero angular momentum, but instead rapidly grows by
absorbing prograde ejecta carrying mass and additional Conflict of Interest
angular momentum.
The author declares no conflicts of interest.
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Earth and Planetary Science - Volume 02 - Issue 02 - October 2023

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Honorary Editor-in-Chief

Editorial Board Members

Angelo De Santis, Italy Xiaojun Xu, China

86 Origin of the Moon and Lunar Water

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

3. Petrography to the rock heterogeneities as feldspar and quartz have

Figure 6. Phyliite (HR92) shows a mineral assemblage

4. Geochemistry and Petrogenesis to 0.83%, respectively. The K2O/Al2O3 ratio is higher as

Tm 0.22 1.214 0.277 0.694

Yb 1.32 7.71 1.723 4.31

Lu 0.18 1.04 0.24 0.56

LREE 58.485 356.902 109.613 419.558

HREE 9.266 39.208 8.167 23.42

REE total 67.751 396.11 117.78 442.978

LREE/HREE 6.311 9.102 13.421 17.914

La/Eu 17.582 31.0234 22.231 49.429

Eu/Lu 3.922 2.376 4.116 3.692

other oxides are shown in Figure 9. The plot of SiO2 ver-

Figure 9. Harker variation diagram of Silica versus major oxides.

Figure 10. Harker variation diagram of Silica versus trace elements.

lisional tectonics and deformation is formed during the

Figure 11. Chondrite normalised plot for Phyllites,

dicating their preponderance of K-feldspars and micas.

Figure 14. SiO2 versus K2O/Na2O for Patharkhola rocks Acknowledgement

References fold developed around Tamadhaun, district almora