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Reviewer: General Biology and cells or the redesign of existing biological

BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY: systems.
Traditional Branches: Proteomics - large-scale study of proteins.
Taxonomy - is the science of naming, defining and Systems Biology - computational and mathematical
classifying groups of biological organisms on the analysis and modeling of complex biological
basis of shared characteristics. systems.
Cytology - studies the structure and function of the CELL THEORY:
cell, which is the basic unit of life. Robert Hooke - devised one of the earliest
*Cell biology is concerned with the microscopes that can magnify every sort of material
physiological properties, metabolic processes, he can find
signalling pathways, life cycle, chemical *Micrographia –manuscript of his
composition and interactions of the cell with observations and his drawings.
their environment. Hooke’s discovery about the cell from a
Embryology - studies the prenatal development of dead cork did not create an immediate impact during
gametes, fertilization, and development of embryos his time. Hooke and Leeuwenhoek continued to make
and fetuses. observations nevertheless. But it had taken 200 more
*teratology - study of congenital disorders that years before it became generally accepted that all
occur before birth. living things are made of cell, which can reproduce
Anatomy - concerned with the study of the structure themselves to perpetuate life. It was because
of organisms and their parts. microscopes were so rare for another 200 years from
Physiology - scientific study of the functions and their time. Since then, this magnificent equipment
mechanisms which work within a living system. The allowed biologists to further examine our natural
focus of physiology is on how organisms, organ world.
systems, organs, cells, and biomolecules carry out the Cell theory - scientific theory that all living
chemical and physical functions that exist in a living organisms are made of cells as the smallest functional
system. unit.
Biochemistry - study of chemical processes within 1. Cells are the fundamental units of life
and relating to living organisms. 2. The bodies of living organisms are made up of
Genetics - study of genes, genetic variation, and cells.
heredity in organisms. 3. All cells come from pre-existing cells.
Ecology - studies the interactions among organisms Matthias Schleiden - “All plants cells are made up
and their environment. of cell”
Evolutionary biology - is the study of the process of Theodor Schwann - “All animals are made up of
evolution, which can occur through mechanisms cells”
including natural selection, sexual selection and Rudolf Virchow - “All cells came from pre-existing
genetic drift. cells”
* Evolution is the process of heritable SPONTANEOUS GENERATION:
change in populations of organisms over multiple Abiogenesis – or spontaneous generation, animals
generations. could come from non-living sources
Modern Branches: (e.g. Frogs developed from falling drops of rain, mice
Bioinformatics - an interdisciplinary field that arose from sweaty underwear, and flies arose from
develops methods and software tools for decaying meat.)
understanding biological data. Francisco Redi (1668) - Italian physician & poet
Genomics - an interdisciplinary field of biology who attempted to disprove the theory of Spontaneous
focusing on the structure, function, evolution, Generation. “All living beings come from seeds of
mapping, and editing of genomes. the plants or animals themselves.”
*Genome - an organism's complete set of John Needham (1745) - English Clergyman)
DNA, including all of its genes. wondered if this would work with microorganisms
Molecular Biology - deals with the structure and in1745.
function of the macromolecules (e.g. proteins and Spallanzani (1745) - disagreed with Needham,
nucleic acids) essential to life. claimed he didn’t seal jars well enough
Pharmacogenomics - study of how genes affect a Louis Pasteur (1859) - (French chemist) entered a
person's response to drugs. contest sponsored by French Academy of Sciences to
Synthetic Biology - design and construction of new prove or disprove Spontaneous generation. Disprove
biological entities such as enzymes, genetic circuits, the idea of abiogenesis completely

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The Power of Authority: - 17th century by Antony
In the past, people believed what they were told by van Leeuwenhoek
“authorities” such as the Church, or the ancient Greek 2. Compound Microscope – magnification of 1000
philosopher Aristotle x but low resolution; monocular or binocular
Questioning Aristotle was like questioning the - bright field microscope
Church.... (specimen is lit from underneath)
3. Stereo Microscope – also called dissecting
MICROSCOPY: microscope; magnification up to 300 x
Compound Microscope – designed with a - also used to look at opaque
compound lens system objects or too large objects that cannot be viewed in
Magnification – enlargement of an object the compound microscope; 3D view of the specimen
Total magnification – ocular power x objective 4. Confocal Microscope – use laser light to scan
power total magnification samples that have been dyed
Resolution – measure of how clearly one can 5. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) – uses
visualize details under microscope electrons rather than light for image formation;
Parts of a Microscope: produces a 3D black and white image
Mechanical Parts: 6. Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) –
1. Arms – support the body tube uses electrons in creating a magnified image and
2. Base – provides firm and steady support to the samples are scanned in a vacuum. 2D view suited for
entire microscope viewing specimen with some degree of transparency
3. Stage – place for the slide PROPER HANDLING OF MICROSCOPE:
4. Stage clips – secures specimen in place 1. When moving your microscope always carry it
5. Nosepiece – revolving part where the objectives with both hands. Grasp the arm with one hand and
are attached place the other hand under the base for support.
6. Body tube – connects the nosepiece to the ocular 2. Turn the revolving nosepiece so that the lowest
lens power objective lens is clicked into position. This is
7. Coarse Adjustment Knob – moves the body tube also the shortest objective lens.
in an upward and downward direction 3. Your microscope slide should be prepared by
8. Fine Adjustment Knob – use to bring the placing a coverslip or cover glass over the specimen.
specimen into sharp focus under low power and is This will help protect the objective lenses if they
used for all focusing when using high power lenses touch the slides. Place the microscope slide on the
9. Diaphragm – regulates how much light and lamp stage and fasten it with the stage clips. You can push
heat passes through the specimen down on the back end of the stage clip to open it.
10. Draw Tube – small cylinder attached to the 4. Look at the objective lens and the stage from the
upper part of the body tube that holds the ocular side (Figure 2, at right) and turn the coarse focus
11. Aperture – hole in the stage through which the knob so that the objective lens moves downward (or
base transmitted light reaches the stage the stage, if it moves, goes upward). Move it as far as
Magnifying Parts: it will go without touching the slide!
1. Ocular lens/ eyepiece – detachable cylinder 5. Now, look through the eyepiece and adjust the
located at the upper end of the tube; capable of illuminator (or mirror) and diaphragm for the greatest
magnifying objects up to 10x amount of light.
2. Objective lenses
a. Low Power Objective (LPO) – magnify up to 10x 6. Slowly turn the coarse adjustment so that the
b. High Power Objective (HPO) – magnify up to objective lens goes up (away from the slide).
40x Continue until the image comes into focus. Use the
c. Oil Immersion Objective (OIO) - magnify up to fine adjustment, if available, for fine focusing. If you
100x have a microscope with a moving stage, then turn the
Illuminating Parts: coarse knob so the stage moves downward or away
1. Condenser – lens located above the diaphragm; from the objective lens.
concentrates light 7. Move the microscope slide around so that the
2. Mirror – found below the stage near the base; image is in the center of the field of view and readjust
collect light and direct it to the object the mirror, illuminator or diaphragm for the clearest
image.
Types of Microscope: 8. Now, you should be able to change to the next
1. Simple Microscope – considered to be the 1st objective lens with only minimal use of the focusing
microscope; magnify between 200-300x adjustment. Use the fine adjustment, if available. If

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you cannot focus on your specimen, repeat steps 4 themselves. Reproduction is the process of making
through 7 with the higher power objective lens in the next generation and may be a sexual or an asexual
place. Do not allow the objective lens to touch the process.
slide! HAVE A COMPLEX CHEMISTRY
9. The proper way to use a monocular microscope is -All living organisms have a complex chemistry. A
to look through the eyepiece with one eye and keep flower has a complicated and beautiful structure. So
the other eye open (this helps avoid eye strain). If you does a crystal. But if you look closely at the crystal,
have to close one eye when looking into the you see no change. The flower, on the other hand, is
microscope, it's ok. Remember, everything is upside transporting water through its petals, producing
down and backwards. When you move the slide to pigment molecules, breaking down sugar for energy,
the right, the image goes to the left! and undergoing many other biochemical reactions
10. Do not touch the glass part of the lenses with that are needed for living organisms to stay alive. The
your fingers. Use only special lens paper to clean the sum of all the chemical reactions in a cell is
lenses. metabolism.
11. When finished, raise the tube (or lower the stage), MAINTAIN HOMEOSTASIS
click the low power lens into position and remove the -A human body has a temperature of 37 degrees
slide. Celsius, (about 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit). If you step
12. Always keep your microscope covered when not outside on a cold morning, the temperature might be
in use. Dust is the number one enemy! below freezing. Nevertheless, you do not become an
ice cube. You shiver and the movement in your arms
and legs allows you to stay warm. Eating food also

gives your body the energy it needs to keep warm.

Living organisms keep their internal environments
within a certain range.
BUILT OF CELLS
-If you look closely at any organism you can see that
it is made of structures called cells. Organisms that
are very different such as ferns, fish, and elephants all
look similar at the cellular level. A cell is the basic
unit of structure and function of all living organisms.
PROPERTIES OF LIVING THINGS All living organisms are made of one or more cells: a
The seven characteristics of life include: simple bacterium will consist of just one cell,
1. Responsiveness to the environment whereas you are made of trillions of cells.
2. Growth and change EUKARYOTIC VS PROKARYOTIC CELLS
3. Ability to reproduce. -The body is composed of trillions of cells - lots of
4. Have a metabolism and breathe different types of cells that make up different organs
5. Maintain homoestasis and other parts of your body. Your body is also
6. Being made of cells; and where 10 times that number of bacteria call 'home
7. Passing traits onto offspring sweet home.' These bacteria do more good than
harm to you.
RESPONDING TO THE ENVIRONMENT PROKARYOTES
-All living organisms respond to their environment. If -means 'before the nut'
you step on a rock, it will just lie there, but if you - Pro 'before'
step on a turtle, it may move or even snap at you. - Karyon 'nut/ kernel'
Living things know what is going on around them - Prokaryotes are organisms made up of cells that
and respond to changes in the environment. lack a cell nucleus or any membrane-encased
GROWTH AND CHANGE organelles.
-All living organisms have the ability to grow and - No cell nuclues and no membrane-bound organelles
change. A seed may look like a pebble, but under the EUKARYOTES
right conditions it will sprout and form a seedling that - Eu 'true'
will grow into a larger plant. The pebble of course - Karyon 'nut/kernel'
will not grow. - Eukaryotes are organisms made up of cells that
REPRODUCTION possess a membrane-bound nucleus that holds
-All living organisms must have the ability to genetic material as well as membrane-bound
reproduce. Living things make more organisms like organelles.

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- Genetic materials (nucleus) -Comprised of sugars and amino acids, and many
- Has a membrane bound organelles have a polysaccharide capsule.
CELLS CELL WALL
- The cell is a fundamental component of our modern - Acts as an extra layer of protection, helps the cell
definition of life and living things. Cells are regarded maintain its shape, and prevents dehydration. The
as the basic building blocks of life and are used in the capsule enables the cell to attach to surfaces in its
elusive definition of what it means to be "alive." environment. Some prokaryotes have flagella, pili, or
-Cells keep chemical processes tidy and fimbriae.
compartmentalized so individual cell processes do Flagella - are used for locomotion.
not interfere with others and the cell can go about its Pili- are used to exchange genetic material during a
business of metabolizing, type of reproduction called conjugation.
PROKARYOTES DIVIDED INTO TWO GROUPS:
1. Bacteria- Some bacteria, including E Coli,
Common characteristics of cells that makes them Salmonella, and Listeria, are found in foods and can
living things. cause disease; others are actually helpful to human
All organisms are: digestion and other functions.
• Composed of cells, the fundamental unit of life. 2. Archaea - were discovered to be a unique life form
• Contains DNA as a heritable genetic material, and which is capable of living indefinitely in extreme
they can reproduce. environments such as hydrothermal vents or arctic
• Transcribes DNA into RNA and translate RNA into ice.
proteins on ribosomes. Organelles- number one biggest difference between
• Can also regulate transport across a cell membrane the bacteria in your body and the cells making up
and require chemical energy for some cellular your body are these tiny cellular components called
process. organelles.
PROKARYOTIC CELLS EUKARYOTIC CELLS
• A eukaryotic cell is a cell that has a membrane-
bound nucleus and other membrane-bound
compartments or sacs, called organelles, which have
specialized function.
•Contain a variety of different compartments with
specialized functions, neatly separated from one
MNEMONICS: DORA another by layers of membrane.
• DNA (composition and structure) EXAMPLES:
• Organelles (types present and relative sizes) Lysosomes
• Reproduction (mode differs according to - a compartment which act as recycling centers for
chromosome structure) the cell, must maintain an acidic pH in order to
• Average size (exceptions may exist) dispose of cellular waste.
- A prokaryotic cell is a simple, single-celled Peroxisomes
(unicellular) organism that lacks a nucleus, or any - carry out chemical reactions called oxidation
other membrane-bound organelle. Prokaryotic DNA reactions and produce hydrogen peroxide, both of
is found in the central part of the cell: a darkened which would damage the cell if they weren’t safely
region called the nucleoid. stored away in their own “room.”
A typical prokaryotic cell might contain the • Ability to maintain different environments inside a
following parts: single cell allows eukaryotic cells to carry out
• Cell wall: the membrane surrounding and complex metabolic reactions that prokaryotes cannot.
protecting the cell • Eukaryotic cells can grow to be many times larger
• Cytoplasm: all of the material inside a cell except than prokaryotic ones.
the nucleus KEY FEATURES OF EUKARYOTIC CELLS:
• Flagella and pili: protein-based filaments found on
the outside of some prokaryotic cells • Membrane-bound nucleus, a central cavity
• Nucleoid: a nucleus-like region of the cell where surrounded by membrane that houses the cell’s
genetic material is kept. genetic material.
• Plasmid : a small molecule of DNA that can • Membrane-bound organelles, compartments with
reproduce independently. specialized functions that float in the cytosol.
• Multiple linear chromosomes, as opposed to the
PEPTIDOGLYCAN single circular chromosome of a prokaryote.

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filter molecules that pass in and out of the cell. A
CELL STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS major role of the cell wall is to form a framework for
a. Animal cell the cell to prevent over expansion.
b. Plant cell Examples:
c. Bacteria Plant- In plants, the cell wall is composed mainly of
CELL strong fibers of the carbohydrate polymer cellulose.
- is the basic unit of life. It performs specific Cellulose is the major component of cotton fiber and
functions in our body in order for us to function and wood, and it is used in paper production.
perform our daily routines. Bacteria- Bacterial cell walls are composed of a
ORGANELLES sugar and amino acid polymer called peptidoglycan.
- are membrane-bound structures inside the cell that Fungi- The main components of fungal cell walls
performs specialized function. are chitin, glucans, and proteins.
* THREE MAJOR PARTS OF THE CELL ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
1. nucleus - a continuous membrane system that forms a series
2. cytoplasm of flattened sacs within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic
3. cell membrane cells and serves multiple functions, being important
NUCLEUS particularly in the synthesis, folding, modification,
• Control center of the cell and transport of proteins .
• Stores hereditary material Smooth ER - creation and storage of lipids.
• Coordinates the cell’s activity - is not associated with ribosomes, and its functions
- Within the nucleus are most of the cell’s hereditary differ. The smooth ER is involved in the synthesis
units, called genes, which control cellular structure of lipids, including cholesterol and phospholipids,
and direct cellular activities. which are used in the production of new cellular
NUCLEOLUS membrane.
-makes ribosomal subunits from proteins and
ribosomal RNA, also known as rRNA. It then sends Rough ER - synthesis and packaging of proteins
the subunits out to the rest of the cell where they - The ribosomes on rough ER specialize in the
combine into complete ribosomes. Ribosomes make synthesis of proteins that possess a signal sequence
proteins; therefore, the nucleolus plays a vital role in that directs them specifically to the ER for
making proteins in the cell. processing.
GOLGI APPARATUS
- Modifies, sorts, concentrates and packs them
Nuclear Envelope (proteins & lipids) into sealed droplets called
- separates the contents of the nucleus from the vesicles.
cytoplasm. - It has been likened to the cell's post office.
Nuclear pores - Involves in the creation of lysosomes.
- regulates the flow of molecules into and out of the - The sacs or folds of the Golgi apparatus are called
nucleus cisternae.
CYTOPLASM Destination 1: within the cell, to organelles called
- Semi-fluid substance of the cell that is present lysosomes.
within the cellular membrane. Destination 2: the plasma membrane of the cell
- Contains molecules such as enzymes which are Destination 3: outside of the cell
responsible for breaking down waste and also aid in LYSOSOMES
metabolic activity. - Hydrolytic enzymes
- Responsible for giving a cell its shape. It helps to - suicide bag of cells
fill out the cell and keeps organelles in their place. - Break down waste materials, digest excess or worn-
NUCLEOPLASM out organelles and food particles.
- The main function of the nucleoplasm is to serve as LYZOZYME - Lysozyme (1,4-β-N-
a suspension substance for the organelles inside the acetylmuramidase) an enzyme that plays an
nucleus. important role in the prevention of bacterial
CELL WALL infections. It does this by attacking a specific
- A rigid layer that surrounds some types of cell component of certain bacterial cell walls,
(plant cell) peptidoglycan.
- The cell wall is the protective, semi-permeable
outer layer of a plant cell. A majorfunction of the cell - Lysosomes contain a wide variety of hydrolytic
wall is to give the cell strength and structure, and to enzymes (acid hydrolases) that break down

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macromolecules such as nucleic acids, proteins, Structures:
and polysaccharides. These enzymes are active only • Cell Membrane
in the lysosome’s acidic interior. • Cell Wall (plant cells only)
PEROXISOMES • Centrosome
- Contains oxidative enzymes • Centriole (animal cells only)
- Oxidize organic compounds, breaks down • Chloroplast (plant cells only)
metabolic hydrogen peroxides. • Cytoplasm
- Peroxisomes contain enzymes that oxidize certain • Cytoskeleton
molecules normally found in the cell, notably fatty • Cytosol
acids and amino acids. Those oxidation reactions • Golgi
produce hydrogen peroxide. Therefore, peroxisomes • Lysosome
also contain enzymes such as catalase that convert Example: Plant and Animal cells
hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen, thereby PLANT CELL (Eukaryotic)
neutralizing the toxicity. Unique parts of the plant cell
Cell wall – a feature of plants cells that functions like
stiff lattice-like wall which helps plant cells maintain
their structure and shape
Chloroplast – a feature of plant cells that allows
plants to do photosynthesis and make their own
glucose

from sunlight, water and carbon dioxide

ANIMAL CELL ( Eukaryotic)
Unique Parts
• Centrioles - Important for coordinating cell division
PROKARYOTIC CELLS
- These cells are simple in structure
- No structured nucleus
- Exist as single-celled organisms
- Bacteria is both helpful and harmful to us and the
environment.
MITOCHONDRIA - Example: Bacterial cells
- Powerhouse of the cell Structures:
- Cellular respiration • Capsule (bacterial cells only)
- HAVE THEIR OWN RIBOSOMES AND DNA • Cell wall
VACUOLES • Chromosomes
- storage areas for the cell • Cytoplasm
- Plants has central vacuole • Flagellum (bacterial cells only)
CHLOROPLAST • Inner membrane
- Responsible for photosynthesis • Outer membrane
NON-ORGANELLE • Pili (bacterial cells only)
- These are structures are not membrane bound. • Ribosomes
RIBOSOMES BACTERIA CELL (Prokaryotic)
- Responsible for protein synthesis Unique Parts
CYTOSKELETON Capsule - Protects the bacterial cell and serves as a
- Is a network of filaments and tubule that extends barrier against phagocytosis by white blood cells.
throughout the cell. Flagellum – “Mobility”. Flagella are long
CENTROSOME & CENTRIOLES appendages which rotate by means of a "motor"
- Assemble microtubules located just under the cytoplasmic membrane.
- Cell division Bacteria may have one, a few, or many flagella in
EUKARYOTIC VS PROKARYOTIC CELLS different positions on the cell.
Eukaryotic cell- animal and plant cell Pili - These hollow, hair-like structures allow
- These cells tend to be larger than the cells of bacteria to attach to other cells.
bacteria (prokaryotic)
- Have a defined nucleus CLASSIFICATION OF BACTERIA
- Found in organisms made up of many cells Modern Prokaryotic Classification

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• Eubacteria
• Archeabacteria
• Cyanobacteria
• Thermophiles
4. Gram Negative Facultative Rods
ARCHEA BACTERIA
-Have no cell nucleus or any other VIBRIO
membrane organelles within their cells. V. cholerae
- Most well known of group
Classification of Bacteria - Very severe dysentery.
• Classification – ordering - Can lose 10-15 liters of water/day.
• Nomenclature – naming - Leads to hypovolemia – low water, hardly
• Often immortalizes the person who discovered it or any water in body
its origin V. vulnificus
Ex. Escherichia coli - Very pathogenic
Theodor Escherich - Can cause flesh eating disease, if it gets in a wound
coli from colon V. parahaemolyticus
• Distinguishing –identification - Found in shellfish – oysters
• Kingdom - Halophile – loves salt (will find in oceans,
• Phylum estuaries)
• Class - Self limiting
• Order 5. Gram Negative Anaerobic Rods
• Family Fusobacterium
• Genus ( 1st name) - Live in between teeth and gums
• Species ( 2nd name identifier) - Cause tooth abscesses and periodontal disease
Remember: King Philip Came Over For Good - Teeth have nothing to anchor – bone is destroyed
Spaghetti
6. Gram Negative Cocci or Coccobaccilli (plump
• Morphology – shape, color, gram specificity rods)
• Metabolism Neisseria gonorrhoeae
• Molecular techniques – Forensics, DNA finger - Usually a diplococcus in PMN
prints, RNA, protein analysis - Sexually Transmitted Disease
1. Gram Negative Spiral Bacteria
• Slender and flexible, come in a lot of different - very antibiotic resistant
shapes 7. Chlamydia Gram Negative Rods
• More rigid than spirochetes (Transitional)
Ex. – Campylobacter jejuni - Very short little rods
2. Gram Negative Spirochetes - Gram negative
• pathogenic - Transitional – doesn’t hold stain well
• very flexible - Do not have the ability to synthesize own ATP,
• tightly coiled, helically coiled therefore and obligate intracellular parasite of other
Ex. syphilis/ Treponema pallidum animals (humans)
Lyme disease - Can go asymptomatic for a long time
Borrelia burgdorferi (organism gets lodged in tissues) Ex.
3. Gram Negative Aerobic Rods C. trachomatis – STD, causes eye infection
Legionella pneumophila C. psittaci – parrot (associated with birds)
- Lower respiratory tract infection 8. Rickettsia Gram Negative Rod (Transitional)
- Needs oxygen - Small gram negative rods
Bordetella pertussis - Transitional – doesn’t hold stain well
- whooping cough - Can’t synthesize it’s own NAD, coenzyme A,
- Needs oxygen therefore an obligate intracellular parasite
Pseudomonas aeruginosa (pigmented) - Causative agent of Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever
- Needs moisture Ex. R. Prowazekii
- Common in hospitals 9 Mycoplasma Gram Positive (Transitional )
- Opportunistic pathogen – causes UTI, skin, and - Gram positive – only because they take in dye in
lung infection cell membrane but it washes away

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-Transitional – doesn’t hold stain well. • Ribosomes
- Have no cell wall • Binary fission
- Can not treat with penicillin
Ex. TISSUES
Mycoplasma pneumoniae – causes LRTI ANIMAL TISSUE
Ureaplasma urealyticum – causes UTI • Anatomy is the study of structure
Both imbed themselves in the tissue. The most cell • Physiology is the study of function
damage is done by the immune system destroying the • Animals consist of hierarchy of levels of
tissue. organization.
• Tissues are an integrated group of similar cells that
10 Gram Positive Cocci perform a common function.
Staphyloccocus aureus • Organs perform a specific task and consist of two
MRSA or more tissues.
- These bacteria can break down all tissues of body. • Organ systems consist of multiple organs that
Streptococcus pyogenes together performs a vital body function.
– no antibiotic resistance right now INTRODUCTION
- These bacteria can break down all tissues of body. * HISTOLOGY - study of tissues
THE ENDOSYMBIOTIC THEORY * TISSUE- group of cells with similar structures and
- The endosymbiotic theory is the idea that a long functions.
time ago, prokaryotic cells engulfed other prokaryotic * They are classified according to the shape of the
cells by endocytosis. This resulted in the first cell, size, intracellular matrix.
eukaryotic cells. FOUR TYPES OF HUMAN TISSUE
- First proposed by Lynn Margulis 1. Epithelial Tissue
- Explains the origin of eukaryotic cells 2. Connective Tissue
- Explains the origin of certain membrane-bound 3. Muscular Tissue
organelles 4. Nervous Tissue
Her hypothesis originally proposed that: The organ may consist of one (heart) or a
1. mitochondria are the result of endocytosis of combination of these tissues (stomach, skeleton, skin)
aerobic bacteria
2. chloroplasts are the result of endocytosis of
photosynthetic bacteria
3. in both cases by large anaerobic bacteria who EPITHELIAL TISSUE
would not otherwise be able to exist in an aerobic - Covers the body and lines the organs and cavities
environment. - Compactly arranged cells connected by intercellular
4. this arrangement became a mutually beneficial junctions.
relationship for both cells (symbiotic). - Lies on a basement membrane
•Each would have performed mutually benefitting - Arise from three germ layers:
functions from their symbiotic relationship. The • Endoderm- inner
aerobic bacteria would have handled the toxic oxygen • Mesoderm- middle
for the anaerobic bacteria, and the anaerobic bacteria • Ectoderm- outer
would ingested food and protected the aerobic. Functions:
Membrane-Bound Organelles • Covers and protect the body
• Mitochondria = membrane-bound organelle that • Lines the body cavities
produces energy for the cell • Transport subtances into and out of the blood.
• Chloroplast = membrane-bound organelle that > Secretion - by glandular ephetilia: for secreting
captures sunlight and uses it to make food for the cell hormones, enzymes, sweat and etc.
> Excretion - Ex. Lining of kidney tubules for
excretion.
> Absorption - Ex. Lining of small intestines
• Form glands
KINDS
Evidence in support of the endosymbiotic theory: Glandular - make up glands
• Similarities between mitochondria, chloroplasts, & > Classification based on shape and complexity of
prokaryotes: duct system.
• Circular DNA • Simple gland
• Simple straight tubular

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• Simple branched tubular - Function: Protective tissue
> Based on method of secretion • Stratified Columnar Epithelium
• Mecocrine- cells excrete substances by exocytosis - Location: The male urethra and the ducts of some
• Apocrine- a portion of the cell membrane is pinced glands.
off - Function: secretes and protects
• Holocrine- entire cell disintegrates • Transitional Epithelium
- Location: Lines the bladder, urethra and ureter.
- Function: Allows the urinary organ to expand and
stretch.
• Membranous- All epithelium that is not responsible CONNECTIVE TISSUES
for making a gland. • cells are not compact
CLASSIFICATION OF MEMBRANOUS • most are vascular
EPITHELIAL TISSUES • most abundant, widely distributed and histologically
• Based on shape variable.
- Squamous • originates from mesenchyme ( loosely organized
- Cuboidal mesodermal embryonic tissue)
- Columnar FUNCTIONS:
• Based on cell layers • Some can bind organs (Ex. Tendon, Ligament)
> Simple - one layer • Support (Ex. Bones, Cartilage)
> Stratified - several layers • Physical Protection (Ex. Cranium, Ribs)
> Pseudos Stratified - comprising only a single layer • Immune Response (Ex. Cells found in blood)
of cell. Has its cell nuclei positioned in a manner of • Movement (Ex. Bones)
suggestive type of epithelia • Storage (Ex. Fats)
DIFFERENT TYPES OF EPITHELIAL • Heat Production (Ex. Metabolism of brown fat)
TISSUES • Transport (Ex. Blood)
• Simple Squamous Epithelia - cells are flat with
smooth edges
-Location: Airsacs of lungs and the lining of the CLASSIFICATION OF CONNECTIVE
heart, the blood vessels and lymphatic vessels. TISSUES BY STRUCTURE OF MATRIX
-Function: Allows materials to pass through by I. FIBROUS TISSUE
diffusion and filtration, and secretes lubricating - Most diverse, has extracellular fibers.
substances. *COMPONENTS*
• Simple Cuboidal Epithelia- square shaped cubes 1. Cells:
- Location: In ducts and secretory portions of small • Fibroplasts- produce fibers; ground substance
gland and in kidney tubules. • Macrophages- Large phagocytic cells that wanders
- Function: secretes and absorbs through convective tissues.
• Simple Columnar Ephithelia - rectangular rod - They activate the immune system.
pillar shaped • Leukocytes- WBC
- Location: Ciliated tissues are in bronchi, uterine - Can crawl out of blood vessels and can stay in the
tube, and uterus; smooth (nonciliated tissues) are in connective tissue.
the digestive tract and bladder. • Plasma Cells- Arise from WBC called lymphocytes
- Function: Absorbs; it also secretes mucous and - synthesize antibodies
enzymes. • Mast Cells- Found along side blood vessels
• Pseudostratified columnar epithelium - secretes heparin -flood clotting
- Location: ciliated tissue lines the trachea and much -form histamine -inflammation response
of the upper respiratory tract. • Adipocytes - cells of adipose tissue
- Function: secretes mucus; ciliated tissue moves 2. Fibers:
mucus. • Collagenous- composed of collagen protein in the
body.
- Also called white fibers because of its color.
• Stratified squamous epithelium • Reticular- form sponge-like framework
- Location: Lines the esophagus, mouth and vagina. • Elastic- made up of protein called elastin.
- Function: Protects against abrassion. - Have the ability to stretch and recoil. (Ex. Lungs)
• Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium 3. Ground Substance:
- Location: Sweat glands, salivary glands and - Empty space between cells and tissue
mammary glands. - Gelatinous and Rubbery

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- Absorve compressive forces II. CARTILAGE
- Protects the cell from mechanical injury - Flexible and rubbery matrix
- Dominant chondrocytes
*COMPONENTS OF GROUND SUBSTANCE* - Has Perichondrium
• Glycosaminoglycan- composed of uronic acid and - Avascular
amino acid. - Matrix is rich in chondroitin sulfate acid and
- Regulates H2O collagen fibers.
- Electrolyte Balance
• Proteoglycan
- Jell-like * TYPES *
- slows down the spread of pathogens 1. Ayaline Cartilage
• Glycoproteins- binds plasma membrane proteins to • Has low amount of collagen fibers
collagen and proteoglycan outside the cell. • Common Type
TYPES OF FIBROUS CONNECTIVE TISSUE 2. Fibro Cartilage
1. Loose/ Areolar/ Ordinary • The strongest and durable type because it contains
- Has more ground substance than epithelial tissue. the highest amount of collagen.
- Fibers are loose hence the name • Acts as shock absorber
♡ CHARACTERISTICS: 3. Elastic
• Stretchable- cause of elastic fibers • Few collagen fibers but many elastic fibers.
• Has collagen III. BONE/ OSSEOUS TISSUE
• Matrix has hyaluronic acid Types: Spongy/ Cancellous and Compact Bone
♡ FUNCTION: - Vascular
• Acts as elastic glue between organs - For support and protection
• Surrounds blood vessels and nerves - Storage of Calcium and Phosphate
2. Adipose Tissue (Fat) - Serves as point of attachment for muscles.
- cells are large but closely packed. IV. BLOOD
- liquid state and has no fiber and ground substance
♡ CHARACTERISTICS:
- Composed of plasma and formed elements called
• Filled with lipids
Erythrocytes, Leukocytes and Thrombocytes.
• Has little extracellular matrix
- Circulates material from the body and protection.
♡ FUNCTION: MUSCLE TISSUE
• Heat storage - It is essential for keeping the body upright, allowing
• Provides thermal insulation to move; even pumping blood and pushing food.
- Composed of muscle cells and muscle fibers.
3. Reticulars Fiber Connective Tissues
♡ CHARACTERISTICS:
- Forms a mesh because it helps the cell filters
• Thread-like hence, it is called muscle fibers.
foreign bodies.
• Contains the proteins actin and myasin, allows them
- Forms the framework of lymph rodes and spleens.
to contract.
- WBC are found between fibers
• Skeletal muscle (Striated muscle)
- Helps the body protect from diseases
• Cardiac muscle (Striated muscle) intercaleted disk.
4. Dense Connective Tissue
- Fibers are densely packed
• Smooth muscle
* TYPES *
NERVOUS TISSUE
REGULAR
- Involve in sensing stimuli and processing and
- Fibers are parallel to each other
transmitting information.
- Collagen is the dominant fiber
*TYPES*
- Has fibroblast and few blood vessels
• Neurons
Types of regular dense:
• Glial Cell/ Olia.
> Collagenous regular dense connective tissue
- makes it durable
> Elastic regular dense connective tissue
-stretchable
IRREGULAR
- Composed the dermis
- Forms protective capsule around the kidney and
spleens.

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