Optics

-notebook

Zixu Wang

January 30, 2024

Contents

I Geometry Optics 1
1 Fermat principle 2
1.1 Refractive index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Optical Path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Fermat principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2 Gradient Index Optics 4

II Wave Optics 5
3 Introduction to wave optics 6
3.1 Light is electromagnetic wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.2 Stationary light waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.2.1 monochromatic plane wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.2.2 monochromatic spherical wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.2.3 Relation between light density and complex amplitude . . 8
3.3 Wavefront function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.4 The relationship between spherical and plane monochromatic wave 9
3.4.1 Off-axis point source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

4 Optical Interference 10
4.1 An Introduction to Optical Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.1.1 linear optical system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.2 Interference device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.2.1 Division of wavefront-Young . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.2.2 Fresnel double-sided mirror . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.2.3 Fresnel double prism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.2.4 Lloyd‘s Mirror . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.2.5 Division of amplitude-thin film . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.2.6 Equal inclination interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.2.7 Equal thickness interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.2.8 Newton Ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.3 Space-time coherence of light field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

i
CONTENTS ii

5 Diffraction 17
5.1 An Introduction to Diffraction of Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.1.1 Huygens-Fresnel principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.1.2 Classification of Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.1.3 Babinet principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5.2 Single slit Fraunhofer diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5.3 Fraunhofer slit diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.4 Fresnel diffraction of round hole and round screen . . . . . . . . 20

6 Polarization 23
6.1 An Introduction to Polarized Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6.2 Double Refraction of crystal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

7 Dielectric interface optics 27

7.1 Fresnel’s Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
7.2 reflectivity and transmissivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
7.3 Phase change of reflected light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
7.4 Polarization of reflected light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
7.5 The transmitted field in total reflection-evanescent wave . . . . . 32

III Molecular Optics 33

8 Absorbing 34

9 Dispersion 35
9.1 Cauchy Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

10 Scattering 37

11 Appendix 38
11.1 Matrix Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
 Part I

Geometry Optics

1
Chapter 1

Fermat principle

1.1 Refractive index

• Definition:
sin i1 n2
= n12 = ,
sin i2 n1
or
n1 sin i1 = n2 sin i2 .
n12 is called the relative index of refraction, while n is called the
absolute index of refraction.
• Light with different wave length has different refraction index, which is
called dispersion.

• Dispersive power is defined by

nF − nC
∆= ,
nD − 1
while its reciprocal is called dispersive index.

• From huygens principle, we have

sin i1 v1
=
sin i2 v2
thus
c
n= .
v
Use
v = fλ
we have
f 0 λ0
n= ,
fλ

2
CHAPTER 1. FERMAT PRINCIPLE 3

where f is independent with n. Thus

λ0
λ= .
n

1.2 Optical Path

• Definition:
L(QP ) = nl.

• Optical Path with phase difference:

2π
φ (P ) − φ (Q) = − L (QP ) .
λ0

• Optical Path with time difference:

L(QP ) = c(lP − lQ ).

1.3 Fermat principle

• Z P
δ n (r) ds = 0
Q
Chapter 2

Gradient Index Optics

• Ray equation
d2 y 1 d(n2 )
2
= 2 2 · .
dx 2n0 sin θ0 dy
More generally
d  d⃗
r
n = ∇n(r).
ds ds

4
 Part II

Wave Optics

5
Chapter 3

Introduction to wave optics

3.1 Light is electromagnetic wave

• Maxwell equation: 

 ∇ · E = 0,






 ∇ × E = −µµ0 ∂H
∂t .




 ∇ · H = 0,





∇ × H = εε0 ∂E
∂t .

We can deduct:  2 2
 ∇ E − εε0 µµ0 ∂∂tE2 = 0,

 2
∇2 H − εε0 µµ0 ∂∂tH
2 = 0,

1
v=√
εε0 µµ0
1
c= √
ε0 µ 0
√
n = εµ.

• Wave function:
E(r, t) = E0 cos(ωt − k · r + φE ),
H(r, t) = H0 cos(ωt − k · r + φH ),

We can deduct:
√ √
H ⊥ E, φ H = φE , µµ0 H0 = εε0 E0 .

6
CHAPTER 3. INTRODUCTION TO WAVE OPTICS 7

• Energy flux density of electromagnetic wave:

S = E × H,
while light density, namely the average Energy flux density of electromag-
netic wave: r
1 εε0 2
S̄ = E ∝ nE02
2 µµ0 0

3.2 Stationary light waves

• The wave everywhere has the same frequency and the amplitude is inde-
pendent with time is called the stationary wave.
• Since magnetic field play a small part in interaction, the light wave can
be described by
E(P, t)
, and any of its component has
∂ 2 Ei ∂ 2 Ei ∂ 2 Ei ∂ 2 Ei
2
+ 2
+ 2
− εε0 µµ0 2 = 0.
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
Thus we can use scalar to describe
1 ∂2U
∇2 U − = 0,
v 2 ∂t2
the scalar wave function is
U (P, t) = A(P ) cos(ωt − φ(P )).
In complex form:
Ũ (P, t) = A(P )e±i(ωt−φ(P )) = A(P )e−i(ωt−φ(P ))
The typical three types: monochromatic plane wave:
Ũ (r, t) = Aeik·r · e−iωt
monochromatic spherical wave:
a1 ikr −iωt
Ũ (r, t) = e ·e
r
monochromatic cylinder wave:
b1
Ũ (r, t) = √ eikr · e−iωt
r

• Complex amplitude:
Ũ (P ) = A(P )eiφ(P ) ,
Ũ (P, t) = A(P )e−i(ωt−φ(P )) = Ũ (P )e−iω t
CHAPTER 3. INTRODUCTION TO WAVE OPTICS 8

3.2.1 monochromatic plane wave

•
Ũ (r) = Aeik·r = Aei(kx x+ky y+kx z) = Aeik(cos α·x+cos β·y+cos γ·z) ,
phase is linear with its position (x, y, z).
(kx , ky , kz ) is the direction of propagation.
q 2π
kz2 + ky2 + kz2 = k = .
λ

3.2.2 monochromatic spherical wave

•
a1 ikr a1 √ 2 2 2
Ũ (P ) = e =p eik x +y +z .
r x2 + y 2 + z 2

3.2.3 Relation between light density and complex ampli-

tude
I(P ) = Ũ (P ) · Ũ ∗ (P ) = A2 (P ) .

3.3 Wavefront function

• A wavefront is a surface of constant propagation time from the source.
•
Ũ1 (x, y) = Aeik sin θx .

• p
a1 ikr
Ũ3 (x, y) = e , r= x2 + y 2 + R 2 .
r
CHAPTER 3. INTRODUCTION TO WAVE OPTICS 9

3.4 The relationship between spherical and plane

monochromatic wave
• Paraxial condition
a1 ik z2 +y2 ikx
Ũ (x, y) ≈ ·e 2z ·e
z
while
z 2 ≫ ρ2 .
• Far field condition
a1
Ũ (x, y) ≈ x2 +y 2
eikz
z+ 2z

while
zλ ≫ ρ2 .
• When z 2 ≫ ρ2 and zλ ≫ ρ2
a1 ikz
Ũ (x, y) = e ,
z

3.4.1 Off-axis point source

• Paraxial condition
a1 ik (x−x0 )2 +(y−y0 )2 ikz x2 2
0 +y0 x2 +y 2 xx0 +yy0
Ũ (x, y) = e 2z · e ∝ eik 2z · eik 2z · e−ik z .
z
• If the source point follow Far field condition
x2 +y 2 xx0 +yy0
Ũ (x, y) ∝ eik 2z · e−ik z

• If the field point follow Far field condition

x2 2
0 +y0 x0 x+y0 y
Ũ (x, y) ∝ eik 2z · e−ik z .
Chapter 4

Optical Interference

4.1 An Introduction to Optical Interference

• Incoherent superposition

I(P ) = I1 (P ) + I2 (P ).

Condition: Orthogonal or Different Frequency.

• Coherent superposition

I(P ) = I1 (P ) + I2 (P ) + ∆I(P ).
p
∆I(P ) = A1 A2 cos δ(P ) = 2 I1 I2 · cos δ(P ).

• Define Contrast:
IM − Im
γ= .
IM + Im
Consider two beam interference
√
2 I1 I2
γ= .
I1 + I2
We have
I(P ) = I0 (1 + γ cos δ(P )).

• Consider the intersection angle:

1 1
IM = I0 (6 + 2 cos a) , Im = I0 (2 − 2 cos a) ,
2 2
1
γ= (1 + cos a).
2

10
CHAPTER 4. OPTICAL INTERFERENCE 11

4.1.1 linear optical system

• incoherent superposition linear system:
X
I(P ) = Ii (P ),

• coherent superposition linear system:

X
Ũ (P ) = Ũi (P ),

4.2 Interference device

• division of wavefront like Young’s double-slit interference experiment.
• division of amplitude like film interference and michelson interference.

4.2.1 Division of wavefront-Young

•
2π  
δ= r2 − r1
λ
which is a hyperbola.
• When d, x, y ≪ D,
d 2π d
r2 − r1 ≈ x, δ = x
D λ D
• fringe spacing
D
∆x = λ
d

• Density of light
p 2πd
I(P ) = I1 (P ) + I2 (P ) + 2 I1 I2 cos δ(P ) δ= x
λD
CHAPTER 4. OPTICAL INTERFERENCE 12

Contrast √
2 I1 I2
γ=
I1 + I2
Rewritten

I = I0 1 + γ cos δ(P ) , I 0 = I1 + I2

• When the source is not on the axis:

 
2π d d
δ≈ ξ+ x
λ R D
 
2 πd D
I = 4I0 cos (x + ξ)
λD R

• When the source is not a dot:

!
1 2πd
I(x) = 2I0 1 + sin u · cos( x)
u λD

where
πdb
u=
λR
CHAPTER 4. OPTICAL INTERFERENCE 13

Limit width
b0 d0 = λR

4.2.2 Fresnel double-sided mirror

•
D
∆x = λ
d

4.2.3 Fresnel double prism

•
D
∆x = λ
d
CHAPTER 4. OPTICAL INTERFERENCE 14

4.2.4 Lloyd‘s Mirror

•
D
∆x = λ
d

4.2.5 Division of amplitude-thin film

•
λ
∆ = 2nd cos γ +
2
CHAPTER 4. OPTICAL INTERFERENCE 15

4.2.6 Equal inclination interference

•
λ
δγ = −
2nd sin γ

4.2.7 Equal thickness interference

•
λ
∆ = 2nd +
2
CHAPTER 4. OPTICAL INTERFERENCE 16

4.2.8 Newton Ring

•
λ
∆ = 2nh +
2
where
r2
·h ≈
2R

4.3 Space-time coherence of light field

Chapter 5

Diffraction

5.1 An Introduction to Diffraction of Light

5.1.1 Huygens-Fresnel principle
• ZZ ZZ
eikr
Ũ (P ) = ⃝ dŨ (P ) = K ⃝ f (θ0 , θ)Ũ0 (Q) dS.
r
Σ (Σ)

• Kirchhoff
ZZ
−i 1 1
Ũ (P ) = ⃝ (cos θ0 + cos θ)Ũ0 (Q) eikr dS.
λ 2 r
(2)

5.1.2 Classification of Diffraction

• Fresnel diffraction

• Fraunhofer diffraction

17
CHAPTER 5. DIFFRACTION 18

5.1.3 Babinet principle

• For
Σa + Σ b = Σ 0 ,
we have
Ũ∗ (P ) + Ũb (P ) = Ũ0 (P ),

5.2 Single slit Fraunhofer diffraction

• vector diagram method
2π 2π
∆ = L(BP ) − L(AP ) = nBC = na sin θ, δAB = ∆= a sin θ.
λ0 λ

δ d
AB δ sin δ
A(θ) = 2R sin =2 sin = A0 δ
2 ,
2 δ 2 2
Introduce
δ d
AB δ sin δ
A(θ) = 2R sin =2 sin = A0 δ
2 ,
2 δ 2 2
 2
sin α
I(θ) = I0 ,
α

• General Method:
Z
−i a/2
Ũ (θ) = Abeik0 L0 e−ik sin θ∗x0 dx0 ,
λf −a/2

 2
sin α sin α
Ũ (θ) = c̃eik0 L0 · , I(θ) = Ũ Ũ ∗ = I0 ,
a a
CHAPTER 5. DIFFRACTION 19

The extremum appears at

!
d sin α cos α sin α
= − 2 = 0,
dα α α α

namely
α = tan α

• angular breadth
λ
∆θ =
a
• The width’s influence on the pattern:

• When the source is not on the axis:

π
α= a(sin θ + sin i)
λ
CHAPTER 5. DIFFRACTION 20

5.3 Fraunhofer slit diffraction

•  2  2
sin α sin N β
I(θ) = I0
α sin β
•
λ λ
∆θk = =
N d cos θk D cos θk

5.4 Fresnel diffraction of round hole and round

screen
• diffraction pattern of round hole

• diffraction pattern of round screen

CHAPTER 5. DIFFRACTION 21

• vector diagram method- half-wave zone method

1
A0 = A1
2
When k is even:

Ũ (P0 ) = A1 − A2 + A3 − A4 + · · · − Ak ≈ 0, I(P◦ ) ≈ 0,

When k is odd:

Ũ (P0 ) = A1 − A2 + A3 − A4 + · · · + Ak ≈ Ak ≈ A, = 2A0 ,
I(P0 ) = 4A20 = 4I0 ,
CHAPTER 5. DIFFRACTION 22

• r r
Rbλ √ Rbλ
ρk = k = kρ1 , ρ1 = .
R+b R+b
  2
1 1 ρ
k= + · .
R b λ

• General Method:
Z b+mλ/2
2πa1 ikR
Ũ (b) = K · e eikr dr,
(R + b) b

a1

Ũ (b) = − eik(R+b) · eimπ − 1 ,
(R + b)
a21 a21  π
I(b) = Ũ (b) · Ũ ∗ (b) = · 2(1 − cos mπ) = 4 sin 2
m ,
(R + b)2 (R + b)2 2
where  
1 1 ρ2
m= + · ,
R b λ
Chapter 6

Polarization

6.1 An Introduction to Polarized Light

•
Ex2 Ey2 Ex · E y
+ −2 cos δ = sin2 δ.
A2x A2y Ax Ay

• malus law:
IP (α) = I0 cos2 α,

• For natural light:

1
IP (α) = I0
2
For partial polarized light and elliptically polarized light:

IP (α) = Im cos2 a + IM sin2 a.

23
CHAPTER 6. POLARIZATION 24

For linear polarization light:

IP (α) = I0 cos2 α,

For

6.2 Double Refraction of crystal

• Ordinary light obey the refraction principle when the other one, extra-
ordinary light does not. This phenomenon appears with polarization.
• Crystal has a special direction which has not birefrigence, called the
optical axis.

Define principal refractive index

c c
n0 = , ne = .
v0 ve
For negative crystal
ve ⩾ vo
CHAPTER 6. POLARIZATION 25

• Use geometry to explain:

⃗ is the direction of phase velocity of ⃗k, while OR

• ON ⃗ is the direction of
energy flow or group velocity.

vN = vr cosα.
CHAPTER 6. POLARIZATION 26

• The index of vN is

n2o n2e
n2 (θ) =
n2e cos2 θ + n2o sin2 θ

and we can use

n2o
cot θ = cot ξ
n2e
to calculate the angle of vr .
• Take use of birefrigence, we can get elliptical polarized light
2π 2π
∆φ = δ= (no − ne )d
λ λ
Chapter 7

Dielectric interface optics

7.1 Fresnel’s Formula

• Three Elementary wave function
incident light:

E 1 (r, t) = Ẽ 10 eik1 ·r · e−iωt , Ẽ 10 = E 10 eiφ10 ,

reflected light:
′ ′ ′
E ′1 (r, t) = Ẽ 10 eik1 ·r · e−iωt , Ẽ 10 = E ′10 eiφ10 ,

refracted light:

E 2 (r, t) = Ẽ 20 eik2 ·r · e−iωt , Ẽ 20 = E 20 eiφ20 ,

• boundary value relation



 ε1 E1n = ε2 E2n

E = E
1t 2t

 µ H = µ2 H2n


1 1n
H1t = H2t
or 

 en × (E2 − E1 ) = 0

e × (H − H ) = α
n 2 1

 en · (D2 − D1 ) = σ


en · (B2 − B1 ) = 0

27
CHAPTER 7. DIELECTRIC INTERFACE OPTICS 28

• Fresnel’s Formula

 n2 cos i1 − n1 cos i2 tan(i1 − i2 )
Ẽ1p

′
= Ẽ1p = Ẽ1p ,

 n2 cos i1 + n1 cos i2 tan(i1 + i2 )



 2n1 cos i1


Ẽ2p = n cos i + n cos i Ẽ1p .
2 1 1 2
 ′
 n1 cos i1 − n2 cos i2 sin(i2 − i1 )

 Ẽ = Ẽ1s = Ẽ1s ,
 1s
 n1 cos i1 + n2 cos i2 sin(i2 + i1 )



 2n1 cos i1 2 cos i1 sin i2

 Ẽ2s = Ẽ1s = Ẽ1s .
n1 cos i1 + n2 cos i2 sin(i2 + i1 )
CHAPTER 7. DIELECTRIC INTERFACE OPTICS 29

7.2 reflectivity and transmissivity

•  ′

 Ẽ1p n2 cos i1 − n1 cos i2

r̃p ≡ = ,
Ẽ1p n2 cos i1 + n1 cos i2
′

 Ẽ n1 cos i1 − n2 cos i2

r̃s ≡ 1s
= ;
Ẽ1s n1 cos i1 + n2 cos i2



Ẽ2p 2n1 cos i1
t̃p ≡ = ,
Ẽ1p n2 cos i1 + n1 cos i2

 Ẽ2s 2n1 cos i1
t̃s ≡ = .
Ẽ1s n1 cos i1 + n2 cos i2
If normal incidence
n2 − n1 n1 − n2
r̃p = , r̃s = ,
n2 + n1 n2 + n1

2n1
t̃p = t̃s = .
n2 + n1

• reflectivity and transmissivity of light density

′ ′
I1p I
Rp ≡ = rp2 , Rs ≡ 1s = rs2 ;
I1p I1s
I2p n2 2 I2s n2 2
Tp ≡ = t , Ts ≡ = t .
I1p n1 p I1s n1 s
CHAPTER 7. DIELECTRIC INTERFACE OPTICS 30

• brewster angle
n2
tan iB = .
n1

• reflectivity of light power

Rp = Rp , Rs = R s .

• transmissivity of light power

cos i2 cos i2
Tp = Tp , Ts = Ts .
cos i1 cos i1

• Conservation of Light Energy

cos i2 cos i2
Rp + T = 1, Rs + T = 1.
cos i1 p cos i1 s

7.3 Phase change of reflected light

•
′ n2 cos i1 − n1 cos i2
r̃p = rp eiδp =
n2 cos i1 + n1 cos i2
′ n1 cos i1 − n2 cos i2
r̃s = rs eiδs =
n1 cos i1 + n2 cos i2
where Phase shift factor
′ ′ ′ ′
δp = φ1p − φ1p , δs = φ1s − φ1s .
CHAPTER 7. DIELECTRIC INTERFACE OPTICS 31

Figure 7.1: Using MATLAB

•
CHAPTER 7. DIELECTRIC INTERFACE OPTICS 32

7.4 Polarization of reflected light

Figure 7.2:

7.5 The transmitted field in total reflection-evanescent

wave
 Part III

Molecular Optics

33
Chapter 8

Absorbing

• Linear absorbing principle

dI = −αIdx

thus
I(l) = I0 e−al .

34
Chapter 9

Dispersion

9.1 Cauchy Formula

• Normal dispersion
B C
n=A+ 2
+ 4.
λ λ
where A,B,C is determined by the medium.

• Anomalous dispersion

35
CHAPTER 9. DISPERSION 36
Chapter 10

Scattering

37
Chapter 11

Appendix

11.1 Matrix Optics

 
x
• We use to describe rays of light.
θ
• For a optic system, we use  
A B
C D
to calculate the change of light.

• homogeneous space  
1 z
Ospace =
0 1

38
CHAPTER 11. APPENDIX 39

• Interface  
1 0
Ointerf ace =
0 n1 /n2

• Curved interface
 
1 0
Ocurvedinterf ace =
(n1 /n2 − 1)/R n1 /n2

• Thin Lens  
1 0
Othinlens =
−1/f 1
where
1/f = (n − 1)(1/R1 − 1/R2 )

• Plane Mirror  
1 0
Oplanemirror =
0 1

• Curved Mirror  
1 0
Ocurvedmirror =
−2/R 1
CHAPTER 11. APPENDIX 40

• Square-index medium
 q  q q  
k2 k k2
cos l sin k l
 k k2 

O= q 
q  q 
− kk2 sin k2
k l cos k2
k l

• For a imaging system, B=0.

• Specially, for a lens  
M 0
O=
−1/f 1/M
where
1 1 1
+ =
do di f
and
di
M =−
do
• A character is that
A B n1
det T = = AD − BC =
C D n2