Theoretical Mechanics

-Classical Mechanics

Zixu Wang

January 30, 2024

Contents

1 Survey of the Elementary Principles 1

1.1 Mechanics of a Particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Mechanics of a system of particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 D’Alemberts’s principle and Lagrange’s equation . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5 Velocity-Dependent Potentials and the Dissipation Function . . . 5

2 Variational Principles and Lagrange’s Equations 6

2.1 Hamilton’s Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

3 The Central Force Problem 7

3.1 Reduction to the equivalent one-body problem . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.2 The equations of motion and first integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.3 Attractive inverse-square force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.4 Linear restoring force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.5 The Viral Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.6 The Differential Equation of the Orbit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.7 Conditions for closed orbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

4 The kinematics of rigid body motion 12

i
Chapter 1

Survey of the Elementary

Principles

1.1 Mechanics of a Particle

• Newton’s second law of motion
dp
F= ≡ ṗ,
dt
or
d
F= (mv).
dt
• A reference frame in which this is valid is called an inertial or Galilean
system.
• Conservation Theorem for the Linear Momentum of a Particle:
If the total force, F, is zero, then ṗ = 0 and the linear momentum, p, is
conserved.
• Newton’s second law of rotation
d dL
N= (r × mv) = ≡ L̇.
dt dt

• Conservation Theorem for the Angular Momentum of a Particle:

If the total torque, N, is zero then L̇ = 0, and the angular momentum L
is conserved.
•

• Energy Conservation Theorem for a Particle: If the forces acting

on a particle are conservative, then the total energy of the particle, T + V
, is conserved.

1
CHAPTER 1. SURVEY OF THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES 2

Motion Rotation Relationship

Velocity v= dr
dt ω= dϕ
dt v =r×ω
Momentum p = mv L = r × mv L=r×p
Force/Torque F N N=r×F
Newton’s second law F ≡ ṗ N ≡ L̇

1.2 Mechanics of a system of particles

• Newton’s second law of motion
X (e)
Fji + Fi = ṗi ,
j

• Summed over all particles,

d2 X X (e) X X (e)
2
mi ri = Fi + Fji = Fi .
dt i i i,j i
i̸=j

(Since the law of action and reaction)

• The center of mass: P P
mi ri mi r i
R= P = .
mi M
Thus
d2 R X (e)
M = Fi ≡ F(e) ,
dt2 i

the total linear momentum of the system

X dri dR
P= mi =M .
dt dt

• Conservation Theorem for the Linear Momentum of a System of

Particles: If the total external force is zero, the total linear momentum
is conserved
• Also:
X X d X (e)
X X (e)
(ri ×ṗi ) = (ri ×pi ) = L̇ = ri ×Fi + ri ×Fji = ri ×Fi .
i i
dt i i,j i
i̸=j

(Since the strong law of action and reaction)

• Conservation Theorem for Total Angular Momentum: L is con-
stant in time if the applied (external) torque is zero.
CHAPTER 1. SURVEY OF THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES 3

• The total angular momentum of the system:

X
L = R × Mv + r′i × p′i .
i

Motion Rotation
P
Total momentum of the system P=M dR
dt L = R × M v + i r′i × p′i .
dP dL
Newton’s second law dt = F(e) dt = N(e)

1.3 Constraints
• Holonomic constraints

f (r1 , r2 , r3 , . . . , t) = 0,

• Constraints not expressible in this fashion are called nonholonomic. Like

r 2 − a2 ≥ 0

1.4 D’Alemberts’s principle and Lagrange’s equa-

tion
• A virtual (infinitesimal) displacement of a system refers to a change
in the configuration of the system as the result of any arbitrary infinites-
imal change of the coordinates δri , consistent with the forces and con-
straints imposed on the system at the given instant t.
X
Fi · δri = 0.
i

Decompose into the applied force and the force of constraint

(a)
Fi = Fi + fi ,

• Restrict ourselves to systems for which the net virtual work of the forces
of constraint is zero. X (a)
Fi · δri = 0
i

called the principle of virtual work.

CHAPTER 1. SURVEY OF THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES 4

• D’Alembert’s principle points out that

X (a)
(Fi − ṗi ) · δri = 0,
i

which means that the superscript (a) can now be dropped without ambi-
guity.
• For holonomic constraints, choose independent generalized coordinates, so
that the coefficients of the δqi can be set separately equal to zero.
X ∂ri
δri = δqj .
j
∂qj

In terms of the generalized coordinates, the virtual work of the Fi becomes

X X ∂ri
Fi · δri = Fi · δqj
i i,j
∂qj
X
= Qj δqj ,
j

where the Qi are called the components of the generalized force, defined
as
X ∂ri
Qj = Fi · .
i
∂qj

• Use two basic relations:

∂ ṙi ∂ri
= .
∂ q̇β ∂qβ
   
∂ d d ∂r i
ri = .
∂qβ dt dt ∂qβ
We have    
∂ d d ∂r i
ri = .
∂qβ dt dt ∂qβ
Since the constraints are independent:
 
d ∂T ∂T
− = Qj .
dt ∂ q̇j ∂qj
If the forces are potential forces:
∂V
Qj ≡ − .
∂qj

Also if the system is conservative:

 
d ∂(T − V ) ∂(T − V )
− = 0.
dt ∂ q̇j ∂qj
CHAPTER 1. SURVEY OF THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES 5

Define Lagrangian L as:

L = T − V,
thus  
d ∂L ∂L
− = 0,
dt ∂ q̇j ∂qj
which is called the Lagrange’s equations

1.5 Velocity-Dependent Potentials and the Dis-

sipation Function
• Even if there is no potential function V, the generalized forces can be
written in the form of
 
∂U d ∂U
Qj = − + .
∂qj dt ∂ q̇j

U is called the generalized potential.

Chapter 2

Variational Principles and

Lagrange’s Equations

2.1 Hamilton’s Principle

• The system where all forces (except the forces of constraint) are deriv-
able from a generalized scalar potential that may be a function of the
coordinates, velocities,and time is called monogenic.

• For monogenic systems, Hamilton’s principle can be stated as:

The motion of the system from time t1 to time t2 is such that the line
integral (called the action or the action integral),
Z t2
I= Ldt,
t1

has a stationary value for the actual path of the motion, namely
Z t2
δI = δ L(q1 , . . . , qn , q̇1 , . . . , q̇n , t)dt = 0.
t1

• A deduction:
 
d ∂L
d ∂L ∂L
ẏ − L = 0 ⇔ − = 0,
dx ∂ ẏ dx ∂ ẏ ∂y

6
Chapter 3

The Central Force Problem

3.1 Reduction to the equivalent one-body prob-

lem
•
L = T (Ṙ, ṙ) − U (r, ṙ, . . .)
m1 + m2 2 1 m1 m2 2
⇒L= Ṙ + ṙ − U (r, ṙ, . . .)
2 2 m1 + m2
where the first term not involve r, thus we can drop it.

• Denote
m1 m2
µ= ,
m1 + m2
and we have
1 2
L= µṙ − U (r, ṙ, . . .)
2

3.2 The equations of motion and first integrals

• restrict ourselves to conservative central forces, where the potential is
V (r), and the angular momentum is conserved.
 
d ∂L d  2 
ṗθ = = mr θ̇ = 0
dt ∂ θ̇ dt
or
mr2 θ̇ = l,
The Lagrangian equation is

d ∂V
(mṙ) − mrθ̇2 + = 0.
dt ∂r

7
CHAPTER 3. THE CENTRAL FORCE PROBLEM 8

thus
l2
mr̈ − = f (r)
mr3
where
∂V
f (r) = − .
∂r
The constant of the system is energy
1

E= m ṙ2 + r2 θ̇2 + V (r),
2
namely s  
2 l2
ṙ = E−V − ,
m 2mr2
or
dr
dt = q
.
2
m E−V − l2
2mr 2

• Obviously Z r
dr
t= q
.
r0 2
m E−V − l2
2mr 2

Consider
ldt
dθ = ,
mr2
we have Z t
dt
θ=l + θ0 .
0 mr2 (t)

• Denote
l2
f′ = f +
mr3
and fictitious potential
l2
f′ = f + .
mr3
Thus
1
E = V ′ + mṙ2 .
2

3.3 Attractive inverse-square force

•
k l2
V′ =− + .
r 2mr2
CHAPTER 3. THE CENTRAL FORCE PROBLEM 9

Figure 3.1:

3.4 Linear restoring force

•
1 2 ′ 1 l2
f = −kr, V = kr , V = kr2 + .
2 2 2mr2

3.5 The Viral Theorem

•
1X
T =− Fi · ri .
2 i

• If the forces are derivable from a potential, then the theorem becomes
1X
T = ∇V · ri ,
2 i
CHAPTER 3. THE CENTRAL FORCE PROBLEM 10

Figure 3.2:

and for a single particle moving under a central force it reduces to

1 ∂V
T = r.
2 ∂r

• If V is a power-law function of r

V = arn+1 ,

thus
n+1
T = V.
2
When n=2
1
T =− V.
2

3.6 The Differential Equation of the Orbit

•  
l d l dr l2
− = f (r),
r2 dθ mr2 dθ mr3
using u = 1/r  
d2 u m d 1
+u=− 2 V .
dθ2 l du u
CHAPTER 3. THE CENTRAL FORCE PROBLEM 11

3.7 Conditions for closed orbits

• Bertrand’s Theorem: Whether the extremum of V’ is minimum or
maximum determines the character of the orbit. If minimum then bounded
and if maximum then not bounded or bounded unstably.

∂2V ′ ∂f 3l2
=− + > 0.
∂r2 r=r0 ∂r r=r0 mr04

d ln f
⇒ > −3
d ln r r=r0

For f = −krn , when n>-3 the orbit is bounded.

Chapter 4

The kinematics of rigid

body motion

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