Recent Progress in ZN Based Anodes For A

MATERIALS CHEMISTRY
FRONTIERS
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Recent progress in Zn-based anodes for advanced

lithium ion batteries
Cite this: Mater. Chem. Front.,
2018, 2, 1414 a
Lei Wang, Guanhua Zhang, *ab Quanhui Liuc and Huigao Duanab
Developing high-performance anode materials is essential for advanced next-generation lithium ion
batteries. ZnO-based nanomaterials have been considered promising candidates owing to their high
Published on 08 May 2018. Downloaded on 7/27/2021 9:54:37 AM.
theoretical specific capacity, environmental friendliness, and relatively low cost. However, major
Received 24th March 2018, problems, including inherent poor conductivity and huge volume expansion, have severely impeded
Accepted 2nd May 2018 ZnO-based nanomaterials from being viable. Here, we first present a brief review of the most effective
DOI: 10.1039/c8qm00125a strategies to improve the lithium ion storage performance of ZnO-based anodes. In addition, recent
advances in other novel Zn-based nanomaterials are also summarized and discussed. Finally, we
rsc.li/frontiers-materials describe the challenges and prospects of future research trends for Zn-based nanomaterials.
1. Introduction systems, these green energy sources cannot be widely used owing
to their intermittent availability and their instability. In addition,
Renewable energy sources such as solar energy, wind and waves high-performance energy storage and conversion devices are
have attracted enormous attention to address the shortage of becoming more and more important for the rapid development
fossil fuels and the increasingly serious environmental issues.1,2 of smart portable devices, electric vehicles (EVs) and hybrid
However, without effective energy storage and conversion electric vehicles (HEVs).3–19 As one of the most important energy
storage and conversion systems, lithium ion batteries (LIBs) have
a
State Key Laboratory of Advanced Design and Manufacturing for Vehicle Body, achieved wide commercial application owing to their high energy
School of Physics and Electronics, Hunan University, Changsha, 410082, density, lack of memory effect, wide operating temperature range,
P. R. China. E-mail: [email protected] long cycling life, and low self-discharge rate.20,21 The electrodes
b
National Engineering Research Center for High Efficiency Grinding, College of
(including anodes and cathodes) are the key components which
Mechanical and Vehicle Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha, 410082,
P. R. China
will strongly affect the electrochemical performance of LIBs. For
c
School of Physics and Electronics, Hunan University, Changsha, 410082, the anodes of LIBs, carbon-based materials, especially graphite,
P. R. China have played a crucial role since they were first introduced into
Lei Wang is a PhD candidate Guanhua Zhang received her PhD

from the College of Physics and degree from Hunan University, P. R.
Electronics, Hunan University. China in 2016. From 2014 to 2016,
His research interests include she joined Arizona State University,
the design and synthesis of novel as a visiting PhD student. Currently,
nanomaterials and their applica- she is an Associate Professor at the
tion in lithium ion batteries and College of Mechanical and Vehicle
supercapacitors. Engineering, and a member of the
State Key Laboratory of Advanced
Design and Manufacturing for
Vehicle Body, Hunan University, P.
R. China. Her current research is
Lei Wang Guanhua Zhang focused on nanofabrication for
energy conversion and storage
(including lithium/sodium sec-
ondary batteries and super-
capacitors), and electrocatalysis.
1414 | Mater. Chem. Front., 2018, 2, 1414--1435 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry and the Chinese Chemical Society 2018
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Review Materials Chemistry Frontiers
commercial LIBs by Sony in 1991. Nevertheless, the low theore- modification and component regulation, to enhance structure
tical capacity (372 mA h g1) and serious safety concerns greatly stability, ionic diffusion and electronic conductivity of ZnO-based
limit further practical applications of the graphite anode. In anodes. In addition, other novel Zn-based nanomaterials such as
particular, an ever-increasing demand for power batteries with ZnS, ZnSe, ZnP, ZnSb, and ZnTe are introduced. Finally, the
high energy density and high safety cannot be satisfied. There- future challenges and new opportunities of Zn-based anodes are
fore, researchers are focusing on developing novel anode materials outlined.
with high performance for next-generation LIBs.
Based on conversion reaction mechanism, nano-sized
transition metal oxides (TMOs) deliver much higher theoretical
2. Synthetic methods for ZnO-based
specific capacity than the commercial carbon-based anodes.22,23 anodes
Additionally, the higher lithiation potential of the TMOs can
To date, various methods have been developed to synthesize
avoid the formation of lithium dendrites in the anodes, ensuring
ZnO nanostructures with controllable morphologies for lithium
a better safety capability for LIBs. Among various TMOs, zinc
ion storage. According to the initial state of the reactive materials,
oxide (ZnO) has been considered a promising anode material
the fabrication methods can be classified into solid-phase method,
candidate for LIBs, benefiting from high theoretical specific
liquid-phase method and gas-phase method, as shown in Table 1.
capacity, environmental friendliness and low cost.24 In addition,

the low lithiation/delithiation potential of ZnO (lithiation
potential ca. 0.5 V, delithiation potential 0–0.7 V and ca. 1.4 V) 3. Lithium ion storage mechanism of
delivers an obvious advantage for high-output voltage and energy
density.25,26 Unfortunately, the huge volumetric change of ZnO
ZnO-based anodes
during the Li ion interaction/extraction process usually causes ZnO, as a typical TMO, delivers a high theoretical specific
severe pulverization and electrical disconnection between the capacity by redox reaction in a multi-electron process. The
active material and the current collector, leading to a dramatic electrochemical reaction mechanism of the ZnO anodes can
decline of the cycling stability. In addition, the poor intrinsic be described as follows:23,24
electrical conductivity of ZnO is unfavorable for fast electron
transport, limiting the rate capability of the ZnO anodes. There- Conversion reaction: ZnO + 2Li+ + 2e " Zn + Li2O
fore, optimizing the nanostructure to improve the electrochemical (1)
performance of ZnO-based anodes is highly desirable. Alloying–dealloying reaction: Zn + xLi+ + xe " LixZn (x r 1)
Recently, various strategies have been developed to effectively (2)
improve the lithium ion storage performance of ZnO-based
anodes. Despite a previous review outlining the structural design As the above equations represent, the Li ion storage mecha-
of ZnO-based anodes, a systematic summary of the different nism of ZnO anodes includes two stages: conversion reaction to
improvement approaches is of great importance. Under these form Zn metal and Li2O, and then alloying reaction to form
circumstances, in this review we summarize the recently lithium zinc alloy, accompanied by a multi-electron transfer
developed key approaches, including structure design, surface process.
Dr Professor Quanhui Liu (Q. H. Huigao Duan received his BSc

Liu), Director of School for degree (2004) and PhD (2010) in
Theoretical Physics, Hunan Uni- Condensed Matter Physics from
versity. Recent research interest Lanzhou University, P. R. China.
focuses on quantum motion He is currently a Professor at the
constrained on the hypersurface College of Mechanical and Vehicle
such as the nanostructure. He has Engineering, and a member of the
resolved some important problems State Key Laboratory of Advanced
that were long believed intractable, Design and Manufacturing for
such as construction of the Vehicle Body, Hunan University,
fundamental commutation rela- P. R. China. From 2008 to 2010,
tions for the momentum, he joined the Research Laboratory
Quanhui Liu quantum conditions for inclusion Huigao Duan of Electronics, MIT, as a Visiting
of the geometric potential, and he PhD Student. From 2010 to 2012,
identified the presence of the physical quantity, together with coining he worked as a staff Scientist in the Institute of Materials Research
the terminology, geometric momentum. and Engineering, A*STAR in Singapore. His main research interests
include sub-10 nm electron-beam lithography and its related
applications in nanodevices.
This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry and the Chinese Chemical Society 2018 Mater. Chem. Front., 2018, 2, 1414--1435 | 1415
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Materials Chemistry Frontiers Review
Table 1 Available synthetic methods for various ZnO nanostructures
ZnO nanostructures
0D (nanoparticle, 1D (nanorod, nanowire, 2D (nanosheet, nanoplate, 3D (nanoflower,
Synthetic methods nanosphere) nanofiber, nanotube, nanobelt) nanofilm, nanoflake, nanodisk) nanofoam, et al.)
Solid phase Ball milling | |
Solid state reaction | |
Liquid phase Electro depositing | | | |

Sol–gel | | | |
Hydrothermal | | | |
Solvothermal | | | |
Electrospinning | | |
Precipitation | | | |
Gas phase Magnetron sputtering | | |

Pulsed laser deposition | | |
Atomic layer deposition | |
Plasma chemical vapor | | |
deposition
Thermal chemical vapor | | |
deposition
The theoretical specific capacity of ZnO anodes is related to novel nanostructured materials possess a series of unique
the number of electrons transferred during the electrochemical advantages for the improved performance of the batteries.
reaction process and can be calculated according the following The nanoscale size can not only remarkably relieve the volume
equation: expansion to enhance the cycling capability, but also shorten
the path distances of electron transfer and Li ion diffusion for
nF
Q¼ (3) better rate performance. Moreover, nanostructured materials
3:6Mw
with large specific surface areas are beneficial for providing
where Q is the gravimetric theoretical specific capacity more active sites to participate in the electrochemical energy
(mA h g1), F is the Faraday constant (96 500 C mol1), n is storage reactions. Benefiting from the structural advantages,
the number of electrons transferred in the electrochemical various nanostructured ZnO materials ranging from low to high
reaction, and Mw is the molecular weight of active material dimensions have been designed and prepared as the anodes for
(g mol1). As we can see from eqn (1) and (2), three electrons LIBs with obviously enhanced electrochemical performance.
are transferred per mole of ZnO during the electrochemical 4.1.1 Zero-dimensional (0D) nanostructures. In situ study
reaction. Therefore, based on eqn (3), we can calculate a of the electrochemical behavior of ZnO nanoparticles during
theoretical specific capacity of 987 mA h g1, which is almost the lithiation reaction can be conducive to understanding the
twice that of graphite. This high theoretical specific capacity reaction mechanism for ZnO anodes. Su et al. investigated the
demonstrates that ZnO is a promising anode material for next- lithium ion storage process of ZnO nanoparticles (25–45 nm)
generation LIBs. However, the rapid capacity fading during using in situ transmission electron microscopy (TEM) by con-
cycling caused by a huge volume expansion (about 228%) is a structing a nano-LIB based on an individual ZnO/graphene
big challenge of ZnO anodes. Moreover, the low inherent sheet electrode, as shown in Fig. 1a and b.32 Two kinds of
electrical conductivity of ZnO results in a limited rate perfor- reaction modes were revealed which had different reaction
mance. In order to overcome the above drawbacks and realize rates, as illustrated in Fig. 1c. In the violent reaction mode,
the practical application of ZnO-based anodes for next- particles fractured into nanoparticle clusters within the Li2O
generation batteries, lots of effective approaches have been matrix in 1–2 min. During the peaceful evolution, the ZnO
developed to improve the battery performance. The recent key nanoparticle changed into core–shell particles consisting of Zn
progress in designing and fabricating ZnO-based anodes with and LiZn nanograins. In addition, abnormally large Zn nano-
improved performance will be discussed in detail in this review. crystals grew quickly in the violent reaction mode, which can
suppress the formation of LiZn and result in rapid capacity
decay. Recently, the partial recombination of ZnO during the
4. Strategies for improving lithium ion charge reaction was found according to the results from a series
storage performance of ex situ characterization technologies, which may be deter-
mined by the size of the Zn nanocrystallites formed by Li
4.1 Nanostructure design extraction from LiZn (Fig. 1d).33 These results provide direct
Poizot et al. first discovered that TMOs with nanostructure can evidence and deep understanding of the lithiation reaction
be used as high-performance anode materials for LIBs in governing the performance of ZnO-based anodes.
2000.27 Since then, numerous efforts have been devoted to this Developing a facile and scalable method to prepare ZnO
new research field.28–31 Compared with the bulk materials, the nanoparticles is extremely important to their practical
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Fig. 1 (a) Schematic illustration and (b) TEM image of the in situ electrochemical nano-LIB constructed inside a TEM; (c) schematic illustration of the
electrochemical reaction of ZnO with Li+. Reproduced with permission.32 Copyright 2013, IOP Publishing Ltd. (d) High-resolution transmission electron
microscopy (HRTEM) image of ZnO electrode at the fully charged state with the corresponding selected area electron diffraction (SAED) and Fourier
transform (FT) patterns. Reproduced with permission.33 Copyright 2016, Elsevier. (e) HRTEM image of the ZnO nanoparticles; (f) rate capability of lithium
ion cells with the ZnO electrode. Reproduced with permission.34 Copyright 2016, Springer.
application as LIB anode. Highly dispersed ZnO nanoparticles

prepared by a versatile and scalable sol–gel synthetic technique
were reported by Li et al.34 According to Fig. 1e, the spherical
ZnO nanoparticles obtained had an average size of only about
7 nm. Owing to the nano-size of the highly dispersed ZnO
nanoparticles, outstanding electrochemical performance was
demonstrated with a good rate capability of 229 mA h g1 at
1.5C (Fig. 1f).
4.1.2 One-dimensional (1D) nanostructures. Unfortu-
nately, the 0D nanomaterials tend to aggregate due to high
surface energy, resulting in capacity fading and slow kinetics.
Besides, considerable contact resistance originating from
multiple contact interfaces between active materials and binders
or active materials and active materials also impairs the electro-
chemical performance. Compared with the 0D nanomaterials,
1D nanomaterials such as nanorods, nanowires and nanotubes,
can alleviate these issues to some extent.
A series of 1D ZnO nanostructures were designed to further
improve the performance of LIBs.35–43 For example, Wang et al.
prepared ZnO nanorod arrays with dandelion-like morphology
directly grown on copper substrates by a facial hydrothermal
method (Fig. 2a).36 Compared with the bulk ZnO, the ZnO
nanorod arrays showed superior electrochemical performance
with a stable capacity after 40 cycles, which was about four
times that of the bulk ZnO. Kundu et al. further reduced the Fig. 2 (a) Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image of the ZnO nanorod
size of ZnO nanorods via a simple chemical route (Fig. 2b).37 arrays. Reproduced with permission.36 Copyright 2008, Elsevier. (b) HRTEM
The ZnO nanorod electrodes held a capacity of 230 mA h g1 image of the ZnO nanorod. Reproduced with permission.37 Copyright 2015,
after 100 cycles at 0.3C. The crystal structural evolution of a Elsevier. (c) Schematic illustration and (d) the corresponding TEM
images explaining the leapfrog cracking and nanoamorphization lithiation
single ZnO nanowire electrode during the lithiation reaction
mechanism of ZnO nanowires. Reproduced with permission.38 Copyright
was investigated by Kushima and co-workers.38 They observed 2011, American Chemical Society. SEM images of patterned arrays of ZnO
that the solid state amorphization in single-crystalline ZnO nanorods (e) and nanotubes (f). Reproduced with permission.40 Copyright
nanowires was mainly driven by nanocracking, as shown in 2012, American Chemical Society.
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Fig. 2c and d. Initially, in the crystalline nanowire, large tensile oxidation/reduction of nanoscale metal. Porous materials
stresses near the surface induced by partial lithiation resulted possess large electrode–electrolyte contact area and fast Li ion
in multiple nanocracking ahead of the main lithiation front, diffusion paths; thus they usually reveal enhanced electro-
and the nanocracking penetrated the nanowire cross-section. chemical properties for LIBs. The combination of porosity and
Then, Li+ diffused and solid state amorphization occurred along 2D nanostructure provides an effective approach for better
the open crack surfaces. Finally, a glass–glass interface was left electrochemical performance. For example, ZnO nanosheets
after the crack surfaces merged. In the divided segments, the with abundant mesopores were synthesized by two steps, com-
same reaction also repeated, further pulverizing the nanowire prising a simple homogeneous precipitation and a calcination
into different nanoglass domains (nano-amorphization). These process.45 As shown in Fig. 3b, the nanosheets were assembled
results provide useful guidance for developing promising ZnO by interconnected nanostrips and formed a mesoporous net-like
electrode materials with regard to the crystal structure. structure. The mesoporous ZnO nanosheets showed a first discharge
Based on the unique properties of the hollow nanostruc- capacity of 1070 mA h g1 under a current density of 0.1 A g1,
tures, ultrathin 1D ZnO nanotubes were introduced as the with an initial coulombic efficiency of about 60% (Fig. 3c).
anodes for LIBs.40 Pristine solid ZnO nanorods were synthesized Recently, Wang et al. synthesized mesoporous ZnO nanosheets
by a simple hydrothermal method, as shown in Fig. 2e. Then the via a room temperature solvothermal method.46 As seen from
solid nanorods were spontaneously converted into ultrathin ZnO Fig. 3d, the nanosheets possessed a length of 1–2 mm and a
nanotubes in ambient NH3 via a gas-phase chemical process, thickness of 10–20 nm, and large mesopores were embedded in
according to Fig. 2f. Owing to improved ion diffusion and the walls of the nanosheets. The electrochemical results dis-
effective alleviation of volume expansion, the ZnO nanotubes played a high specific capacity of 421 mA h g1 after 100 cycles
delivered a reversible capacity of 386 mA h g1 at a current at 0.2 A g1 and a good rate capability.
density of 0.5C after 50 cycles, which was about five times higher 4.1.4 Three-dimensional (3D) nanostructures. Compared
than that of the original ZnO nanorods (only 83 mA h g1). with lower-dimensional nanostructures, 3D nanostructures
4.1.3 Two-dimensional (2D) nanostructures. 2D nanoma- commonly exhibit more interspace to accommodate volume
terials have aroused increasing attention for high-performance expansion and more active sites to accelerate lithium ion storage,
LIBs owing to their high surface area and short ion diffusion resulting in excellent electrochemical stability and high rate
paths. Fu and co-workers reported ZnO thin films were prepared capability.47–53 Novel ZnO nanoflowers assembled from ultrathin
by reactive pulsed laser deposition in ambient oxygen, and nanosheets exhibited improved electrochemical properties
investigated the effect of the substrate temperature for fabricat- compared with ZnO nanoplates owing to unique 3D structure
ing as-deposited films on the electrochemical performance.44 features. Cauda et al. used a facile hydrothermal process to
They found that highly textured crystalline ZnO films can synthesize flower-like ZnO nanostructure, as shown in Fig. 4a.48
be fabricated based on the optimal substrate temperature of With regard to lithium storage performance, it could exhibit a
about 500 1C (Fig. 3a). Based on ex situ TEM, they proposed a specific capacity of 175 mA h g1 after 200 cycles at a reasonably
reaction mechanism including both the classical alloy and the high 1C rate, which was 42% of the initial reversible capacity at
0.2C (Fig. 4b). It is worth noting that such remarkable rate
performance was obtained without introducing any foreign
additives.
Other complex 3D structures also demonstrate their distinc-
tive advantages. A bramble-like ZnO array was designed and
successfully prepared through a facile two-step hydrothermal
process.50 The corresponding scanning electron microscopy
image is shown in Fig. 4c. Meanwhile, the electrochemical
properties of the bramble-like ZnO electrode were compared
with those of the needle-like ZnO electrode. As shown in
Fig. 4d, after 50 cycles, the bramble-like ZnO still retained a
capacity of 782 mA h g1 corresponding to 74% capacity
retention, which was obviously higher than that of the
needle-like ZnO with 67% capacity retention. The enhanced
electrochemical performance of the bramble-like ZnO electrode
mainly resulted from the nanorod subunits acting as ‘‘bridges’’
to connect the adjacent ZnO needles and providing extra active
sites on the ZnO needles. Another typical 3D structure, hollow
Fig. 3 (a) SEM image of the as-deposited ZnO at 500 1C. Reproduced ZnO with radial morphology, was synthesized based on a
with permission.44 Copyright 2003, The Electrochemical Society. (b) SEM
polystyrene sphere template via a hydrothermal method; the
image of mesoporous ZnO nanosheets; (c) the first two charging/discharging
curves of mesoporous ZnO nanosheets. Reproduced with permission.45
TEM image of the sample is shown in Fig. 4e.51 Good reprodu-
Copyright 2014, Elsevier. (d) SEM image of the ZnO nanosheets. Reproduced cibility and almost accordance in shape were found in the
with permission.46 Copyright 2016, Springer. current–voltage (C–V) curves after the first cycle, indicating
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Fig. 4 (a) SEM image of the flower-like ZnO nanostructure; (b) rate performance at different current densities. Reproduced with permission.48 Copyright
2013, Elsevier. (c) SEM image of the bramble-like ZnO arrays; (d) cycling performance of needle- and bramble-like ZnO electrodes. Reproduced with
permission.50 Copyright 2015, Springer. (e) TEM image of a radial ZnO microstructure; (f) CV curves of a hollow radial ZnO electrode. Reproduced with
permission.51 Copyright 2014, Springer.
high reversibility of the electrode (Fig. 4f). Benefiting from the 4.2.1 Graphene. Graphene, a 2D carbon layer of sp2-bonded
hollow radial architecture providing enormous void spaces and carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal crystal lattice with
plenty of active sites, the electrodes revealed good cycling one-atom thickness, has attracted much attention for various
performance and rate capability for reversible lithium storage. applications.65 Graphene possesses fascinating properties,
For instance, the electrode held a reversible capacity of about such as excellent electrical conductivity, high specific surface
320 mA h g1 at a current density of 0.2 A g1 after 100 cycles. area (42500 m2 g1), superior mechanical strength, and
The relationship between lithium ion storage performance good thermal/chemical stability. Therefore, a great number of
and structural dimensions of ZnO-based anodes is system- researchers have focused on designing various ZnO/graphene
atically exhibited, suggesting the significance of structural composites for high-performance LIBs.66–73
design. The 0D ZnO nanostructures have exhibited potential Hsieh et al. reported that highly-crystalline ZnO nanocrystals
to overcome the challenges existing in the traditional bulk with a size of 80–100 nm were uniformly anchored on both
materials owing to their unique nanostructural properties, sides of graphene nanosheets (GN) by an efficient method
presenting improved battery performance. ZnO electrodes with (Fig. 5a).74 The ZnO/GN composites with an optimum ratio
high-dimensional nanostructures commonly display better showed a superior cycling stability with only 8% capacity decay
electron transmission rate, larger surface area, more inter- after 50 cycles (Fig. 5b). Moreover, an excellent rate performance
spaces to alleviate volume change, and more abundant ion was also achieved, with 60% capacity retention, even with the
diffusion pathways, promoting the reaction kinetics to current density increasing from 0.07 A g1 to 3.5 A g1. These
some extent. Nevertheless, a series of issues accompany high- excellent electrochemical properties were attributed to rational
dimensional ZnO nanostructures, such as low initial coulombic structure design and composition regulation. The ZnO nano-
efficiency resulting from extra lithium ion consumption for solid crystals could efficiently prevent the restacking of graphene
electrolyte interface (SEI) formation, and low packing density nanosheets. Meanwhile, the graphene nanosheets not only
because of large numbers of voids within the nanostructures. provided a high conductive network, but also exhibited a wide
Hence, rational structure design with different dimensions is buffering effect to accommodate the volume change.
necessary to develop high-performance ZnO electrodes. Sun and co-workers prepared uniform ZnO quantum dots
(QDs) with size ranging from 2 to 7 nm homogeneously anchored
4.2 Hybridization with carbonaceous materials along wrinkled graphene sheets by an atomic layer deposition
Other than structure design, introducing carbonaceous materials (ALD) method (Fig. 5c).75 According to the investigation of the
(graphene, carbon nanotubes, and derived carbon) has been relationship between the size and the electrochemical performance,
demonstrated to be a promising way to overcome the inherent they found that smaller-sized QDs on graphene exhibit better
poor conductivity of the ZnO material.25,54–64 Additionally, these electrochemical performance. For 2 nm ZnO QDs, a high reversible
carbon materials with good mechanical ductility can act as a specific capacity of 960 mA h g1 was achieved by deducting the
buffer matrix to relieve the huge volume expansion during the graphene contribution from the composites, approaching the
charging/discharging process. theoretical specific capacity. Moreover, the comparison of
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Fig. 5 (a) TEM image of ZnO@GN composite; (b) cycling performances at 1C. Reproduced with permission.74 Copyright 2013, Elsevier. (c) SEM image
and (d) rate performances of graphene nanosheets coated by ZnO QDs. Reproduced with permission.75 Copyright 2014, Royal Society of Chemistry.
(e) SEM image of graphene-wrapped ZnO nanotubes; (f) cycling performance at 2 A g1. Reproduced with permission.76 Copyright 2016, Royal Society of
Chemistry. (g) SEM image of ZnO-VAGNs. Reproduced with permission.77 Copyright 2014, American Chemical Society.
the rate performances showed that the appropriate proportion electrochemical performance of ZnO/MWCNT nanocomposites.
of ZnO and graphene is critical to obtaining high rate capability With regard to the rate capability, as shown in Fig. 6d, the
(Fig. 5d). A graphene-wrapped ZnO nanotube structure was ZnO/MWCNT/GLY free-standing anode reached a capacity of
synthesized by using graphene oxide nanosheets as a ‘‘soft’’ 375 mA h g1 at 2C, which is obvious higher than that of
sealing layer confining the growth of ZnO nanotubes, as shown ZnO/MWCNT/TEA. In addition, the ZnO/MWCNT/GLY anode also
in Fig. 5e.76 An impressive cycling stability with a high reversible delivered a higher discharge capacity – as high as 460 mA h g1 –
specific capacity of 891 mA h g1 over 1000 cycles at a current of than the capacity of 180 mA h g1 for the ZnO/MWCNT/TEA
2 A g1 was achieved (Fig. 5f). anode after 100 cycles at 0.2C. The authors suggested that the
In order to avoid the use of insulating binder, Li et al. better performance of ZnO/MWCNT/GLY composites resulted
prepared vertically aligned graphene nanosheets (VAGNs) from their smaller ZnO crystallite size, thinner ZnO film and
grown in situ on Cu foil.77 Then ultra-small ZnO nanoparticles mesoporous morphology.
uniformly grew on both sides of the VAGNs as a result of a 4.2.3 Metal organic frameworks (MOFs)-derived carbon.
hydrothermal process (Fig. 5g). Owing to the improved electrical MOFs, as an emerging class of crystalline inorganic–organic
conductivity and reduced Li ion transport path, the ZnO-VAGNs hybrid materials, possess uniform pore size and large specific
composites revealed excellent electrochemical performance. surface area as well as diverse coordination structures, and are
After 100 cycles, the reversible capacity still remained at considered a promising template/precursor from which to
809 mA h g1 at a charging/discharging current of 0.08 A g1, prepare porous carbons. In addition, MOF structures have also
displaying good capacity retention. been used to develop well dispersed ultrathin metal oxide
4.2.2 Carbon nanotubes (CNTs). CNTs possess a series of nanoparticles embedded in porous carbon matrices. Here the
fascinating properties, such as extraordinary conductivity MOFs-derived porous carbon skeleton demonstrates multiple
(104 S cm1), high specific surface area, and excellent thermal functions, including enhancing the electrical conductivity,
and mechanical properties, which are considerably beneficial relieving the volume expansion, and avoiding the agglomera-
for energy storage applications. It is worthy of note that new tion of metal oxide nanoparticles. Recently, various Zn-based
possibilities in promoting the electrochemical properties have MOF precursors or sacrificial templates have been used to
been created by constructing ZnO/CNTs composites.78–83 construct ZnO-based nanoarchitectures for LIBs.26,84–92
CNTs-supported ZnO composites were synthesized via an Yang et al. converted the metal–organic framework IRMOF-1
in situ co-precipitation process, in which ZnO nanohexagonal into porous carbon-coated ZnO QDs (B3.5 nm) via pyrolysis at
disks were well dispersed on the surface of the modified CNTs high temperature.93 Fig. 7a and b confirm that the highly
(Fig. 6a).79 As displayed in Fig. 6b, the ZnO/CNT electrodes crystalline ZnO QDs were well dispersed without agglomeration
showed a reversible capacity of 602 mA h g1 after 50 cycles, in the amorphous carbon matrix. When evaluated as an anode
which was much higher than that of the bare ZnO electrodes for lithium ion batteries, the porous carbon-coated ZnO QDs
(478 mA h g1). Köse et al. reported free-standing ZnO and multi- electrode exhibited a remarkable cycling stability with nearly
walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT) nanocomposites prepared 100% capacity retention after 50 cycles and an outstanding rate
with two different chelating agent additives, namely, triethanol- performance of 400 mA h g1 at 3.75 A g1. In another
amine (TEA) and glycerin (GLY) (Fig. 6c).81 It is interesting representative work, Han et al. proposed a strategy by coating
that the chelating agent additives have an effect on the ZIF-8 nanoparticles with chitosan, and then the coated ZIF-8
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Fig. 6 (a) TEM image of ZnO/CNT composites; (b) cycling performances of bare CNTs, ZnO, and ZnO/CNT electrodes. Reproduced with permission.79
Copyright 2013, Springer. (c) Schematic illustration of facile sol–gel synthesis of nanocomposite anodes; (d) the rate capabilities of the ZnO/MWCNT
buckypaper nanocomposite anodes. Reproduced with permission.81 Copyright 2015, Elsevier.
were wrapped by ZIF-8-derived porous carbon matrices with

a thickness of several nanometers. The carbon matrices
protected both the ZnO particles and the residual ZnO core
from aggregating and expanding. Meanwhile, abundant meso-
pores were beneficial for lithium ion access and transport,
which could result in high cycling performance and excellent
rate capability. When directly used as the anode, the ZnO@ZnO
QDs/C core–shell NRAs presented a high first-cycle coulombic
efficiency of around 92% and an outstanding rate capability
(Fig. 8d and e). It was concluded that the integration of
ZnO@ZnO QDs/C and current collector without using binder
reduced interface resistance, ensuring fast electron transport;
furthermore, the in situ coating of the MOF-derived N-doped
porous carbon suppressed the volume expansion of ZnO,
guaranteeing superior cycling stability. Similarly, Li et al.
Fig. 7 (a) SEM image and (b) TEM image of ZnO QDs@porous carbon. provided new insight into the preparation of nanomaterials
Reproduced with permission.93 Copyright 2013, American Chemical
via the pyrolysis of MOFs.96 ZnO nanosheets grown on
Society. (c) Synthetic route of ZIF-8@chitosan–800N. Reproduced with
permission.94 Copyright 2014, Royal Society of Chemistry. MOF-derived porous carbon matrix were synthesized by con-
trolling the intermediate structures of MOF precursors during
the pyrolysis process by introducing terephthalic acid and
was further pyrolyzed at 800 1C (Fig. 7c).94 This strategy can triethylenediamine as ligands (Fig. 8f). These ZnO nanosheets
effectively enhance the electrochemical performance of LIBs. As had an average thickness of 18.2 nm based on statistical
a result, a reversible capacity of 750 mA h g1 was obtained at a results. The cycling performance of the composites manifested
current density of 0.05 A g1, and 99.6% capacity was retained a rather high specific capacity of 920 mA h g1 after 150 cycles
after 50 cycles. at a current density of 0.05 A g1, suggesting a promising
It is worth noting that our group constructed self-supported prospect in lithium storage application.
ZnO@ZnO QDs/C core–shell nanorod arrays (NRAs) via an ionic 4.2.4 Other derived carbon. Importantly, other carbon
exchange route (Fig. 8a).95 Ultimately, an integrated, binder- materials, derived from various precursors such as organic
free, and lightweight ZnO@ZnO QDs/C electrode was obtained, polymers, organic acids and organometallic complexes,
as shown in Fig. 8b. As clearly displayed in Fig. 8c, the ZnO QDs also enormously extend the application of carbon-coated
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Fig. 8 (a) Schematic illustrating the synthesis procedure, (b) SEM image, (c) TEM image, (d) galvanostatic charging/discharging profiles, and (e) rate
performance of core–shell ZnO@ZnO QDs/C NRAs grown on flexible carbon cloth. Reproduced with permission.95 Copyright 2015, Wiley-VCH. (f) SEM
image of ZnO nanosheets grown on porous carbon matrix. Reproduced with permission.96 Copyright 2017, Royal Society of Chemistry.
ZnO composites.97–111 The electrochemical performance Recently, we proposed a solid-solution-like (SSL) concept to
of ZnO-based electrodes could be greatly improved by prepare ZnO/C composite nanofibers as anode materials for
introducing these carbon materials; a great number of inves- LIBs by a simple electrospinning technology, using polyacrylo-
tigations have demonstrated that the carbon sources and the nitrile (PAN) as carbon source (Fig. 9a).98 In this SSL nano-
synthesis method have a significant effect on the ultimate structure, amorphous ZnO was atomically ‘‘dissolved’’ in a
promotion level. Thus, future work will focus on seeking carbon matrix to maximize the synergistic effect by creating
suitable carbon precursors and developing a facile and large- the most metal oxide/carbon interfaces and defects possible, as
scale synthetic method to produce the best electrochemical shown in Fig. 9b. The composite nanofibers showed a high
properties. reversible capacity of 813.3 mA h g1 after 100 cycles at a
Fig. 9 (a) Schematic illustration of preparation process of SSL ZnO/C and ZnO NPs@C composites; (b) SEM image of SSL ZnO/C NFs; (c) cycling
performance of SSL ZnO/C NFs at 0.1 A g1 under the various ambient temperatures. Reproduced with permission.98 Copyright 2015, Elsevier. (d) SEM
image and (e) TEM image of yolk–shell structured YC–ZnO. Reproduced with permission.100 Copyright 2017, Elsevier. (f) TEM image of a single
ZnO–NMPCS particle. Reproduced with permission.103 Copyright 2016, Elsevier. (g) SEM image of ZnO@C-5. Reproduced with permission.105 Copyright
2014, Elsevier.
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current density of 0.1 A g1 (Fig. 9c). Furthermore, an out- Compared with the pure ZnO electrodes, the ZnO/C composite
standing rate performance was also demonstrated: even when electrodes showed obviously enhanced rate capability and
the current density was increased by 40 times, the discharge cycling performance. After 200 cycles, the ZnO/C composite
capacity still remained at 53.5% of the initial value. Fan et al. electrodes held a reversible capacity of 700 mA h g1 at a
used polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP) as the carbon source to current density of 0.1 A g1.
synthesize hierarchical yolk–shell carbon-coated ZnO micro- As a typical organometallic complex, C4H4ZnO6, as the
spheres (YC-ZnO), as shown in Fig. 9d and e.100 An impressive precursor for both ZnO and carbon, was pyrolyzed in an inert
performance delivering a discharge capacity of 659 mA h g1 atmosphere to prepare zinc oxide nanoparticles embedded in a
was retained after 300 cycles at a current density of 0.5 A g1. carbon framework (ZnO@C).108 Benefiting from the in situ
Even with high current density of up to 10 A g1, the YC-ZnO introduction of carbon, the ZnO@C composite displayed an
electrodes also manifested superior cycling stability, with initial reversible capacity of 680 mA h g1 at 1 A g1, and 89.7%
96.9% capacity retention after 5000 cycles. capacity retention even after 300 cycles.
Sun et al. prepared a mesoporous N-doping spherical carbon
matrix from melamine and phenol precursors.103 Then a novel 4.3 Doping with metal/metal ion
ZnO/carbon mesoporous composite (ZnO–NMPCS) was formed Heteroatom doping is another important way to improve the
by the confined growth of ZnO nanoparticles in the carbon electrochemical properties of electrode materials, which can
sphere (Fig. 9f). As a result, the developed ZnO–NMPCS nano- obviously enhance the electrical conductivity. A variety of metal/
composite exhibited an excellent cycling stability, with a metal ions, including Au, Ag, Co, Cu, Sn, Ni, Mn, Al, and Fe, have
capacity of 1058.9 mA h g1 after 100 cycles at a current density been doped into ZnO-based materials.112–128 In general, for the
of 0.2 A g1. Moreover, a capacity of 425 mA h g1 after metal doping, the heteroatoms and ZnO are hybridized at the
1800 cycles was obtained even at a current density of 5 A g1. nanoscale level. However, for metal ion doping, the doping
A composite material consisting of tetrahedral ZnO nano- occurs at the atomic level by substituting Zn in the lattice by
crystals embedded in a three-dimension (3D) carbon frame- other metals. Large numbers of results have certified that this
work derived from oleic acid and oleylamine was designed and modified strategy highlights a promising approach to develop
fabricated via a simple internal-reflux method by Ren and high-performance ZnO-based electrode materials.
co-workers (Fig. 9g).105 When treated by subsequent calcination For instance, Peng and coworkers combined a facile electro-
at 500 1C, the ZnO@C composite demonstrated the best electro- static attraction approach and subsequent annealing treatment
chemical performance. For instance, a high capacity of in argon to produce sandwich-like Ag–C@ZnO–C@Ag–C hybrid
518 mA h g1 was achieved after 300 cycles under a current hollow microspheres (Fig. 10a and b).129 As the anode materials
density of 0.11 A g1. Chae et al. synthesized nano-sized ZnO/C for LIBs, the composites revealed a very high reversible capacity
composites to investigate the role of carbon in the electrochemical of 1670 mA h g1 after 200 cycles at a current density of 0.2 A g1
properties, citric acid being chosen as carbon precursor.107 (Fig. 10c). Meanwhile, at current densities of 1.6 and 10 A g1,
Fig. 10 (a) SEM and (b) TEM images of sandwich-like Ag–C@ZnO–C@Ag–C hybrid hollow microspheres; (c) cycling performances at 0.2 A g1.
Reproduced with permission.129 Copyright 2015, American Chemical Society. (d) SEM image and (e) CV curves of the C/Cu/ZnO hybrids. Reproduced
with permission.130 Copyright 2014, American Chemical Society. (f) SEM image of the CZO@C. Reproduced with permission.131 Copyright 2014,
American Chemical Society.
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specific capacities of about 1063 and 526 mA h g1, respectively, on the atomic level rather than on the microscale or nanoscale,
could be retained. These superior electrochemical performances Zn atoms being replaced by transition metal atoms within the
resulted from the modification of silver and 3D carbon frame- wurtzite lattice (Fig. 11a and b).132 The results of in situ X-ray
work, as well as hollow nanostructure. As we know, Cu not only diffraction revealed that the alloying of lithium and zinc and
possesses high electrical conductivity, but also has a consider- the reduction of iron and zinc occurred simultaneously to a large
ably lower cost than noble metals. C/Cu/ZnO porous hybrids extent. The Fe-doped ZnO nanoparticles displayed obviously
were prepared by Wang and co-workers, in which the sizes of enhanced specific capacities and rate performance compared with
ZnO and Cu nanoparticles were distributed in the range pristine zinc oxide when used as lithium ion anode. Inspired by
5–10 nm, as shown in Fig. 10d.130 The current–voltage (C–V) natural fibrous roots, Yu et al. designed ZnxCo3xO4@Zn1yCoyO
curves after the first cycle are almost coincident, indicating binary TMO nanoarrays on Cu substrates as an integrated LIB
excellent reversibility of the C/Cu/ZnO electrode (Fig. 10e). The anode, in which the Zn1yCoyO nanowires acted as the root part
cycling performance showed high and stable specific capacities and the ZnxCo3xO4 nanorods were the fibrous part (Fig. 11c).133
of 818 mA h g1 and 689 mA h g1 at current densities of Owing to the synergistic effect, the binary TMO nanoarray
0.05 A g1 and 0.2 A g1, respectively, after 100 cycles. Yue et al. electrodes could hold a high reversible capacity of 804 mA h g1
synthesized Co-doped MOF-5s by a secondary growth method, after 100 cycles at 0.5 A g1, which was much higher than that
and then obtained Co-doped ZnO coated with carbon (CZO@C) of the unitary cobalt-based and zinc-based nanoarrays.
by heat treatment under a nitrogen atmosphere (Fig. 10f).131
Interestingly, they found that the doping with Co had a dual 4.4 Compositing with metal oxides
function, including improving the conductivity of the material ZnO-based composites synthesized by addition of other metal
and enhancing the graphitization degree of the carbon in the oxides, such as CoOx, CuO, NiO, Fe2O3, SnOx, TiO2, MnOx, Al2O3,
material, which was beneficial for fast electron transfer. Based and ZnFe2O4, have also demonstrated unique characteristics
on the synergetic effect of Co doping and carbon coating, the for high-performance LIBs.134–163 They have an obvious effect in
CZO@C showed a high reversible capacity of 725 mA h g1 at a relieving the volume expansion and improving the specific capacity,
current density of 0.1 A g1 after 50 cycles, which was much owing to the synergistic effect between the components.
higher than that of ZnO@C composites without Co doping Fang et al. prepared 2D porous hybrid bimetallic Co3O4/ZnO
(335 mA h g1). nanosheets via a facile thermal treatment, using the synergistic
Bresser et al. presented n-type transition-metal (TM)-doped effects between the two components for outstanding electro-
zinc oxide nanoparticles with the general formula Zn0.9TM0.1O chemical capability (Fig. 12a).164 A series of materials with
(TM = Fe or Co), in which the transition metals mixed with zinc different Co : Zn molar ratios (1 : 0, 2 : 1, 1 : 1, 1 : 2, and 0 : 1)
Fig. 11 (a) TEM and (b) HRTEM images of Fe-doped ZnO nanoparticles, inset in panel (b) showing the corresponding FT. Reproduced with permission.132
Copyright 2013, American Chemical Society. (c) Preparation procedure of ZnxCo3xO4@Zn1yCoyO binary nanoarrays. Reproduced with permission.133
Copyright 2016, American Chemical Society.
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Fig. 12 (a) Schematic of the synthesis of 2D porous hybrid Co3O4/ZnO nanosheets. Reproduced with permission.164 Copyright 2017, Royal Society of
Chemistry. (b) TEM image of SnOx–ZnO CNFs. Reproduced with permission.165 Copyright 2016, American Chemical Society. (c) SEM image and (d) SAED
pattern of ZnO–NiO–Co3O4 hybrid nanoflakes. Reproduced with permission.166 Copyright 2017, Royal Society of Chemistry. (e) Schematic illustration for
the preparation process and (f) TEM image of ZnO/ZnFe2O4/C nanoparticles. Reproduced with permission.173 Copyright 2014, Wiley-VCH.
were designed and their corresponding electrochemical proper- Zou et al. reported porous hollow ZnO/ZnFe2O4/C octahedra
ties were compared in detail. The results suggested that the using a MOF as both the precursor and the self-sacrificing
Co3O4/ZnO composite with the molar ratio of 1 : 1 showed the template by an ordinary refluxing reaction followed by thermal
best electrochemical performance for LIBs, which benefited annealing in N2, as shown in Fig. 12e.173 In the nanostructure,
from an appropriate ratio of Co3O4 and ZnO and the electro- ultrafine ZnO and ZnFe2O4 nanocrystals of less than 5 nm were
chemical synergistic effects. Flexible, freestanding, and binder- uniformly embedded in a 3D interconnected, porous carbon
free electrodes consisting of amorphous SnOx–ZnO particles framework (Fig. 12f). An outstanding electrochemical lithium-
uniformly dispersed in carbon nanofibers (CNFs) were devel- storage performance was demonstrated, in which superior
oped via a simple electrospinning method by Joshi et al. specific capacities were as high as 1390 mA h g1 and
(Fig. 12b).165 Compared with pure CNFs, ZnO CNFs, and SnOx 988 mA h g1 after 100 cycles at the current densities of 0.5 A g1
CNFs electrodes, SnOx–ZnO CNFs with a Sn : Zn ratio of 3 : 1 and 2 A g1, respectively. The rate performance exhibited a specific
displayed the highest first discharge and charge capacities capacity of 762 mA h g1 even at a high current density of 10 A g1.
(1910 and 1400 mA h g1, respectively) and a high reversible An intriguing phenomenon, that nano-sized Zn-based com-
capacity of 963 mA h g1 at a current density of 0.1 A g1 after posite anodes always deliver higher specific capacities than the
55 cycles. Lu et al. developed ZnO–NiO–Co3O4 hybrid nano- theoretical capacity, has been reported in the literature.68,76,77,113
flakes based on the idea of introducing a small amount of Similar to other nano-sized transition-metal oxides, the extra
Co3O4 as a catalyzing and performance-enhancing agent capacity may originate from the formation of polymer/gel-like
(Fig. 12c and d).166 Although only a small amount was present, film, the surface/interface lithium ion storage and synergistic
Co3O4 played a vital role as it can further enhance the con- effects of composites.93,123,126,133,174–177 For example, the hybrid
ductivity and catalytic activity of the hybrid materials. When ZnO QDs@porous carbon anode exhibited a reversible capacity
applied as anode materials, the hybrid nanoflakes exhibited an of 1150 mA h g1, which was obviously beyond the theoretical
excellent reversible capacity of 1060 mA h g1 after 300 cycles at capacity of 817 mA h g1 considering the relative amounts of
a current density of 0.5 A g1. ZnO and amorphous carbon.93 The extra capacity came from
Recently, nanostructured ZnO and ternary ZnM2O4 interfacial charge storage via weak bonding between Li+ and the
(M = Ge, Fe, Co etc.) composites have generated increasing surface of ZnO QDs, reactions with the electrolyte, charge
interest as promising lithium-storage materials for LIBs.167–172 separation at the SEI layer, and synergistic effects of the
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composites of ZnO and amorphous carbon. The mechanism of and vulcanizing zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 (ZIF-8) with
this phenomenon needs to be further studied in order to better polyhedral morphology (Fig. 13a and b).186 Thus a ZnS/NPC hybrid
optimize the performance of the Zn-based negative electrodes showed a high reversible specific capacity of 1067.4 mA h g1 at a
from the aspects of structure design and component control. current density of 0.1 A g1 after 200 cycles. As shown in Fig. 13c, it
displayed an excellent rate capability with a specific capacity of
364.6 mA h g1 even at 4 A g1. It exhibited superior long cycling
5. Other Zn-based nanomaterials performance, with a reversible capacity of 856.8 mA h g1 after
1000 cycles at a high current density of 1 A g1.
In addition to ZnO, lots of other Zn-based nanomaterials, such As another kind of typical metal chalcogenide, ZnSe
as ZnS, ZnSe, ZnP, ZnSb, and ZnTe, have also been reported as possesses a high theoretical capacity of 557 mA h g1 based
attractive anode candidates for Li ion batteries. Generally, these on the alloying and conversion reaction mechanism.187 Thus,
Zn-based nanomaterials show different advantages for electro- numerous efforts have been made to realize its much better
chemical features owing to their different properties. performance as anode for LIBs.188,189 In order to address the
As a kind of typical transition metal sulfide, ZnS has been drawbacks of huge volume change up cycling and the intrinsic
considered a promising electrode material for next-generation LIBs, low electrical conductivity, composites of ZnSe and carbon are
owing to its high theoretical specific capacity of 962.3 mA h g1. considered promising electrode materials with an obvious enhanced
Unfortunately, similar to ZnO electrodes, the huge volume and electrochemical performance.190–192 Chen et al. designed three-
structure changes in the lithiation/delithiation process and the dimensional composites consisting of ZnSe nanodots uniformly
poor conductivity greatly hinder the practical application of confined within an N-doped porous carbon network, showing a
ZnS-based electrodes. Rational structure design, by reducing high reversible capacity of 1134 mA h g1 after 500 cycles at a current
the size to the nanoscale and hybridizing with conductive density of 0.6 A g1 and excellent rate capability of 474 mA h g1 at a
carbonaceous materials, has been demonstrated an effective current density of 12.8 A g1 (Fig. 13d and e).191 In general, ZnSe
strategy for improving the lithium storage performance. Up to electrodes displayed rising and additional reversible capacities
now, various carbonaceous materials, such as citric acid, graphene, beyond their theoretical capacities during cycling. Xu et al. investi-
porous carbon, reduced graphene oxide, C2H2, and glucose, have gated the origin of the additional capacities in ZnSe@C compo-
been adopted to alleviate the volume variations and enhance the sites by employing ex situ X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and
electrical conductivity of ZnS electrodes, which has usually resulted controlling the electrochemical charging/discharging process.192
in obviously improved electrochemical performances.178–185 Their results showed that the generated and activated Se made
Especially, Li et al. prepared ZnS nanoparticles decorated on the major contribution to the extra rising capacity in this system
nitrogen-doped porous carbon (NPC) polyhedra by carbonizing during the electrochemical process.
Fig. 13 (a) SEM image, and (b) TEM image of ZnS/NPC hybrid; (c) rate performances of ZnS/NPC and ZnS. Reproduced with permission.186 Copyright
2017, Royal Society of Chemistry. (d) Schematic illustration for the construction of ZnSe ND@N-PC architecture; (e) rate capability at various current
densities of ZnSe ND@N-PC composite electrodes. Reproduced with permission.191 Copyright 2017, Tsinghua University Press and Springer.
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As promising anode materials for LIBs, ZnxP2 (x = 1, 3) have atoms are connected by screw-type layered chains along the
also been reported by many research groups.193,194 Bichat et al. b-axis. Park & Sohn reported the quasi-intercalation behavior of
obtained Zn3P2 powders with various morphologies by three ZnSb reacting with Li ions.203 During the charging process,
different solid state preparation routes and revealed the Li the insertion of Li ions transformed the puckered hexagonal
insertion mechanism into the Zn3P2 electrode.195 The Li ion channels into regular hexagonal channels. Then, the layered
storage process included two distinct but parallel reversible Zn–Sb planes were rearranged, periodic Li arrays passed
pathways: one pathway employed exclusively phosphide phases through the cleavage, and puckered Zn–Sb chains were recombined.
(Zn3P2, LiZnP, Li4ZnP2, and Li3P) and the other pathway The electrochemical testing results showed an excellent cycling
involved only Li–Zn alloys (Zn, LiZn4, and LiZn). Self-supported stability with the ZnSb electrode demonstrating 80% capacity
Zn3P2 nanowire arrays grafted on different conductive substrates retention compared with the first discharge capacity after
have been designed and directly used for electrodes.196,197 For 1000 cycles at 0.1 A g1. Xu et al. directly grew one-
instance, Zn3P2 nanowire arrays on carbon fabric cloth as an dimensional Zn4Sb3 structures such as nanotubes, nanowires
integrated binder-free anode via a facile chemical vapor deposi- and nanorods on Cu foil by a simple CVD method (Fig. 14c).204
tion (CVD) were reported by Li et al. (Fig. 14a).197 The results The obtained Zn4Sb3 nanotubes exhibited better electrochemical
showed an impressive electrochemical performance with a performance than the other Zn4Sb3 structures, because the
coulombic efficiency up to 88%, excellent cycling stability with- one-dimensional transport nature and the tubular structures
out obvious decay after 200 cycles, and high rate capability of are beneficial for high rate performance and excellent cycling
400 mA h g1 even at 15 A g1. Compared with zinc-rich Zn3P2 durability. In Fig. 14d, a reversible capacity of 450 mA h g1 after
(1241 mA h g1), phosphorus-rich ZnP2 possesses a higher 100 cycles at a current of 0.1 A g1 is demonstrated.
theoretical specific capacity (1581 mA h g1). Monoclinic ZnP2, Recently, ZnTe has been proposed as a potential electrode
tetragonal ZnP2, and orthorhombic ZnP2 electrodes have been material for rechargeable LIBs. ZnTe possesses a much higher
investigated. Recently, Chen et al. synthesized orthorhombic density of 6.34 g cm3 compared with those of ZnO (5.61 g cm3),
ZnP2 nanowires with diameters ranging from 10 to 50 nm ZnS (4.09 g cm3), and ZnSe (5.27 g cm3), which will result in
by a solvothermal method (Fig. 14b).198 The electrochemical high volumetric capacity when it is applied in the Li ion battery.
measurement results showed a high first discharge specific Seo & Park prepared a ZnTe/C nanocomposite, composed of
capacity of 1415 mA h g1 at 0.3C with a high initial coulombic 5–10 nm ZnTe nanocrystallites uniformly distributed within a
efficiency of 89% and an excellent cycling performance, which carbon matrix (Fig. 14e and f).205 They revealed the reaction
demonstrated that ZnP2 nanowires are a promising anode process during the first charging/discharging cycle was as
material for lithium ion batteries. follows:
Intermetallic compounds ZnxSby, such as ZnSb and Zn4Sb3,
have been investigated as anodes for LIBs.199–202 Orthorhombic ZnTe - Li2Te + Zn - Li2Te + LixZn
ZnSb possesses a puckered layer structure, in which Zn and Sb - Li2Te + LiZn (discharge process) (4)
Fig. 14 (a) SEM image of Zn3P2 nanowire arrays grown on carbon cloth. Reproduced with permission.197 Copyright 2016, Royal Society of Chemistry.
(b) SEM image of ZnP2 nanowires. Reproduced with permission.198 Copyright 2017, Royal Society of Chemistry. (c) SEM image of Zn4Sb3 nanotubes
deposited on copper foil; (d) cycling performances of Zn4Sb3 nanotubes, nanowires, and nanorods at 0.1 A g1. Reproduced with permission.204
Copyright 2013, Wiley-VCH. (e) TEM image and (f) HRTEM image of ZnTe/C nanocomposite, insert showing the SAED pattern. Reproduced with
permission.205 Copyright 2014, Royal Society of Chemistry.
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Li2Te + LiZn - Li2Te + LixZn - Li2Te + Zn irreversible capacity loss and improve the initial coulombic
efficiency.67,209–212
- ZnTe (charge process) (5)
When applied as anode, the ZnTe/C nanocomposite showed 6. Lithium ion full cells with Zn-based
an outstanding electrochemical performance: an initial charge anodes
capacity of 530 mA h g1, long cycling stability holding a
specific capacity of 623 mA h g1 over 200 cycles, and fast rate It is worth noting that the aforementioned progress of Zn-based
capability with 92% and 84% retention of the initial charge anodes is based on half cells (Table 2). However, in order to
capacity at rates of 1C and 3C, respectively. further evaluate the performance and practical applicability of
The above novel Zn-based nanomaterials demonstrate Zn-based composites, the study of Zn-based anodes assembled
superior electrochemical performance including high specific in full cells is desperately needed.213 Zn-based anode full
capacity, excellent rate capability, and long cycling life. cells formed by coupling with commercial cathode materials
Compared with ZnO-based materials, these Zn-based electro- (such as LiCoO2, LiFePO4, and LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2) have been
des exhibit a series of advantages, such as improved conduc- investigated by a few research groups (Table 3).214–223
Liu et al. directly grew 3D ZnCo2O4 nanowire arrays on
tivity for ZnS, higher theoretical specific capacity for ZnP2, and
higher density for ZnTe. However, continuous efforts are still flexible carbon cloth as a binder-free anode and coupled this
required to overcome challenges to the practical application anode with a conventional LiCoO2 cathode to construct a
of the novel Zn-based electrodes, such as low yields, high flexible full cell (Fig. 15a).215 The initial discharge capacity
cost, complicated procedures, poor conductivity and structural of 1314 mA h g1 and the capacity retention of approximately
stability. 1300 mA h g1 indicated a high reversibility (Fig. 15b). They
In general, an SEI film will be formed during the first cycle, also synthesized ZnCo2O4 urchins on carbon fiber cloth to
which results from the interface reaction of the active materials fabricate high-performance flexible cells.216 A full cell combin-
and the electrolyte. Owing to the irreversibility of Li+ consump- ing the ZnCo2O4 anode and a commercial LiCoO2 cathode
tion in forming the SEI film, electrodes suffer a relatively large demonstrated a lithium storage capacity of 1172 mA h g1 even
irreversible capacity loss, leading to a low initial coulombic after 50 cycles at 0.2C. Xiong et al. reported flexible full cells
efficiency. But the stable SEI film is favorable to avoid the with 2D ZnMn2O4/graphene nanosheet anodes and LiFePO4
further reaction of the active materials and the electrolyte nanosheet cathodes, considering the advantages of the unique
and improve the electrochemical performance. During the 2D nanosheets, such as excellent electronic conductivity, short
charging/discharging process, traditional bulk Zn-based Li ion diffusion path, and more active surfaces (Fig. 15c).218 The
anodes undergo huge volumetric change and structural break- as-prepared full cells exhibited superior cycling performance
ing, causing the continuous forming of the SEI film and low and rate capability. Furthermore, the stable cycling behavior
coulombic efficiency. Furthermore, the thus continuously could still be obtained under bending, folding and rolling
thickened SEI film also reduces electrical contact between the (Fig. 15d). An impressive cycling performance with 85% capacity
active materials and the current collector. Nanostructural retention after 10000 cycles based on carbon-coated ZnFe2O4
Zn-based anodes can effectively overcome the pulverization of anode and LiFePO4–CNT composite cathode coupled full cells
electrode materials and form a stable SEI film. Unfortunately, was demonstrated by Varzi et al. (Fig. 15e).220 In addition, the
larger irreversible capacity loss and lower initial coulombic authors claimed that the observed maximum specific energy and
efficiency are observed for nanostructural Zn-based anodes, power densities were 202 W h kg1 and 3.72 kW kg1, respec-
because the high surface area of nanostructural materials tively (Fig. 15f). However, the related research on Zn-based
provides more contact area between the electrodes and the full cells is still limited, and more efforts should be made in
electrolyte for interface reaction. Therefore, the irreversible this field.
capacity loss and the initial coulombic efficiency hold a
close relationship with the size, structure and morphology of 7. Summary and outlook
Zn-based materials.
Enormous efforts have been taken to ameliorate the initial In this review, we have summarized the most recent progress of
coulombic efficiency of Zn-based anodes. Electrolyte optimiza- zinc-based nanomaterials as LIB anodes. So far, the main
tion is another effective strategy to improve the lithium storage modification methods used to improve the capability for
performance of Zn-based anodes through modifying the lithium ion storage of ZnO-based anodes fall into four categories.
surface chemistry.206–208 For example, the addition of fluoro- First, various ZnO nanostructures with tunable dimensions have
ethylene carbonate (FEC) in the electrolyte could promote the been rationally designed. Benefiting from rationally designed
formation of a more uniform and stable SEI film and improve structures with more active sites and superior mechanical
the electrochemical performance of the ZnCo2O4 electrode.208 stability, these ZnO electrodes display obviously enhanced
Additionally, coating a protective layer on the Zn-based electrochemical performance. Second, combining ZnO with
materials, supplying additional Li resources for pre-lithiation, carbonaceous materials can not only effectively improve elec-
and modifying binder also have been deployed to reduce the tronic conductivity of the electrodes, but also relieve the huge
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Table 2 A summary of Zn-based anodes for lithium-ion half cells
1st discharge–charge Rate capability

Material Synthesis method capacity (mA h g1) Cycling stability (mA h g1) Ref.
ZnO nanoparticles Ball milling 1100/683 at 0.1 A g 1
570 mA h g (200 cycles)
1
371 at 2C 33
ZnO nanosheets Solvothermal 1523/B780 at 0.2 A g1 421 mA h g1 (100 cycles) 325 at 1 A g1 46
ZnO/carbon black Atomic layer deposition B1572/1081 at 0.1 A g1 769.5 mA h g1 (500 cycles) B1014 at 0.5 A g1 60
B810 at 2 A g1
ZnO QD/carbon bubble CVD & annealing 1914/1054 at 0.1 A g1 510 mA h g1 (400 cycles) 530 at 1 A g1 61
at 1 A g1 210 at 8 A g1
ZnO/graphene oxide Precipitation B1540/780 at 0.1 A g 1
752.8 mA h g1 (65 cycles) 404.4 at 1 A g1 68
259.7 at 2 A g1
Graphene-wrapped ZnO Hydrothermal & annealing 1511/1011 at 0.1 A g1 891 mA h g1 (1000 cycles) 514 at 0.5 A g1 76
nanotubes at 2 A g1 389 at 2 A g1
ZnO/multiwalled CNT Precipitation & annealing 1477/845 at 0.1 A g 1
419.8 mA h g1 (100 cycles) 326.8 at 1 A g1 82
at 0.2 A g1
ZnO@ZnO QDs/C Hydrothermal & annealing B1610/1160 at 0.1 A g1 699 mA h g1 (100 cycles) 530 at 1 A g1 95
core–shell NRAs at 0.5 A g1
ZnO nanosheet/porous Hydrothermal & annealing B1920/880 at 0.05 A g 1
920 mA h g1 (150 cycles) 363 at 1 A g1
96
carbon 50 at 10 A g1
ZnO/C nanofibers Electrospinning & annealing 1750/1319 at 0.1 A g1 452 mA h g1 (500 cycles) 591 at 2 A g1 97
at 2 A g1
YC-ZnO Precipitation & annealing 1501/1168 at 0.1 A g 1
B254 mA h g1 (5000 cycles) 485.7 at 2 A g 1
100
at 10 A g1 289.6 at 10 A g1
ZnO-NMPCS Sol–gel & hydrothermal 2627/1667 at 0.2 A g1 425 mA h g1 (1800 cycles) 840 at 0.2 A g1 103
at 5 A g1 471 at 4 A g1
Ge-Doped ZnO CVD 1496.5/1014 at 0.1 A g 1
B690 mA h g1 (100 cycles) B515 at 0.4 A g1 112
B430 at 0.8 A g1
Co-Doped ZnO Sol–gel & annealing 1338.7/1134.7 at 0.1 A g1 412.5 mA h g1 (1000 cycles) 370.4 at 3 A g1 123
at 1 A g1
Cu-Doped ZnO/carbon Precipitation & annealing 1472/876 at 0.2 A g1 769 mA h g1 (500 cycles) 350 at 1 A g1
124
Ag-Doped ZnO/carbon Sol–gel & annealing 2396/1569 at 0.1 A g1 1670 mA h g1 (200 cycles) 1063 at 1.6 A g1 129
at 0.2 A g1 526 at 10 A g1
Co-Doped ZnO Hydrothermal & annealing 1692/1241 at 0.5 A g1 804 mA h g1 (100 cycles) 738 at 1 A g1 133
ZnO/ZnFe2O4 submicrocubes Precipitation & annealing 1892/1371 at 0.1 A g1 837 mA h g1 (200 cycles) 728 at 1 A g1 163
at 1 A g1 667 at 2 A g1
Co3O4/ZnO nanosheets Precipitation & annealing B690/420 at 0.1 A g1 442 mA h g1 (1000 cycles) 404 at 4 A g1 164
at 3 A g1
SnOx/ZnO/C nanofibers Electrospinning & annealing 1910/1400 at 0.1 A g1 963 mA h g1 (55 cycles) 600 at 0.5 A g 1
165
400 at 1 A g1
Co3O4/NiO/ZnO nanoflakes Hydrothermal & annealing 1454/993 at 0.1 A g1 1060 mA h g1 (300 cycles) 667 at 2 A g1 166
at 0.5 A g1
ZnO/ZnFe2O4/C Precipitation & annealing 1385/1047 at 0.5 A g 1
1390 mA h g1 (100 cycles) 762 at 10 A g 1
173
ZnS/C nanoparticles Hydrothermal & CVD 1157/694 at 0.1 A g1 506 mA h g1 (600 cycles) 363 at 5 A g1 184
at 0.5 A g1
ZnS/porous carbon Precipitation & annealing 1445.3/839.3 at 0.1 A g1 1067.4 mA h g1 (200 cycles) 364.6 at 4 A g1 186
ZnSe nanodots/porous Precipitation & annealing 871/494 at 0.6 A g1 1134 mA h g1 (500 cycles) 696 at 6.4 A g1 191
carbon 474 at 12.8 A g1
ZnP2 nanowires Solvothermal 1575/1415 at 0.3C 1066 mA h g1 (500 cycles) 309 at 4C 198
Zn4Sb3 nanotubes CVD 1160/B590 at 0.1 A g1 450 mA h g1 (100 cycles) 204
ZnTe/C Ball milling 690/530 at 0.1 A g1 623 mA h g1 (200 cycles) 550 at 1C 205
504 at 3C
Table 3 Recent work on Zn-based anodes for lithium-ion full cells
Rate capability
Anode material Cathode material Capacity (mA h g1) Cycling stability (mA h g1) Ref.
ZnO/C LiNi0.6Co0.2Mn0.2O2 180 at 0.1C 126.1 mA h g (30 cycles) at 1C
1
214
ZnCo2O4 nanowires LiCoO2 1314 at 0.2 A g1 1300 mA h g1 (40 cycles) 215
ZnCo2O4 urchins LiCoO2 1175 at 0.2C 1172 mA h g1 (50 cycles) B810 at 5C 216
ZnCo2O4 spheres LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2 B70 at 0.2C B70 mA h g1 (10 cycles) 217
ZnMn2O4/graphene LiFePO4 132 at 0.2C 124 mA h g1 (100 cycles) 122 at 0.5C 218
90 at 2C
ZnFe2O4/graphene LiFePO4 805 at 0.1 A g1 B440 mA h g1 (10 cycles) 219
ZnFe2O4/C LiFePO4/CNT 41 mA h g1 (10 000 cycles) at 3 mA cm2 220
volume expansion during the charging/discharging process. ZnO-based anodes, resulting in improved electrochemical
Third, doping ZnO with highly conductive metal heteroatoms properties. Fourth, compositing ZnO with other metal oxides
is an effective method to enhance the electronic conductivity of produces outstanding electrochemical performance with the
View Article Online

Fig. 15 (a) Schematic illustration of the synthesis of flexible 3D ZnCo2O4 nanowire arrays/carbon cloth; (b) charging/discharging curves of the full
flexible battery. Reproduced with permission.215 Copyright 2012, American Chemical Society. (c) Schematic of Li-ion full cell using 2D ZnMn2O4/
grapheme (ZMO–G) nanosheet anode and LiFePO4 (LFP) nanosheet cathode; (d) cycling performance of the pouch cell under flat, 901 bent, 1801 bent,
and roll states for 20 cycles, respectively. Reproduced with permission.218 Copyright 2015, Elsevier. (e) Cycling stability and the coulombic efficiency of
LFP and TOT (TOT = LFP+ZFO). (f) Ragone-like plot of ZnFe2O4/LiFePO4-CNT (ZFO/LFP-CNT) full cells employing anodes with different degrees of
lithiation. Reproduced with permission.220 Copyright 2014, Wiley-VCH.
aid of the synergistic effect between the different components. produce high-performance Zn-based electrode materials on a
In addition, other newly developed Zn-based nitrogen and oxygen large scale for commercial applications is urgently needed. The
group compounds with unique physical and chemical properties solid-phase method may be a potential strategy for the commer-
demonstrate fascinating features as anode candidates for LIBs. cialization of ZnO-based anodes because of the facile reaction
In view of the unclear mechanism of the synergistic effect in conditions, low cost, and excellent compatibility with industrial
increasing the capacity of ZnO and other metal oxide compo- equipment.
sites, more attention needs to be paid to in-depth mechanism Over the past few years, intense research has proved
analysis. At present, ZnO electrode performance still can be Zn-based nanomaterials to be a promising anode material
further enhanced by heteroatom doping and carbon coating, for LIBs, but there is still a long way to go before real-
but the major drawbacks are difficulty in determining the life application. A series of problems such as cost, initial
optimized additive proportion of heteroatoms or carbon in coulombic efficiency, capacity decay, volumetric energy
the ZnO material and realizing uniform doping or coating. density, electrical conductivity of materials, and safety should
A single modification method can only address a partial issue be solved to meet the actual market requirements. In addition,
to a certain degree. Combining two or more approaches advanced equipment and techniques should also be devel-
simultaneously is worth exploring for Zn-based electrodes oped for the nanomaterial systems. Further studies are
with satisfactory reversible capacity and cycling stability. necessary to determine how nanostructure and morphology
The currently developed modification strategies concentrate can be manipulated to achieve optimal electrochemical
on promoting the electrochemical performance of the electrodes. performance. And more continuous efforts are required to
Unfortunately, the issues of cost and mass production are achieve the final success of Zn-based nanomaterials for next-
commonly ignored. Development of a cost-effective method to generation LIBs.
View Article Online
Conflicts of interest 21 Z.-D. Huang, Z. Gong, Q. Kang, Y. Fang, X.-S. Yang, R. Liu,
X. Lin, X. Feng, Y. Ma and D. Wang, Mater. Chem. Front.,
There are no conflicts to declare. 2017, 1, 1975–1981.
22 M. V. Reddy, G. V. Subba Rao and B. V. Chowdari, Chem.
Rev., 2013, 113, 5364–5457.
Acknowledgements 23 K. Cao, T. Jin, L. Yang and L. Jiao, Mater. Chem. Front.,
We gratefully acknowledge financial support from the Fundamen- 2017, 1, 2213–2242.
tal Research Funds for the Central Universities (531107040992), 24 J. Zhang, P. Gu, J. Xu, H. Xue and H. Pang, Nanoscale, 2016,
National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant no. 8, 18578–18595.
11574078, 51702095), the National Excellent Doctoral Disserta- 25 Q. Xie, X. Zhang, X. Wu, H. Wu, X. Liu, G. Yue, Y. Yang and
tion of China (201318), and the Natural Science Foundation of D.-L. Peng, Electrochim. Acta, 2014, 125, 659–665.
Hunan Province (2015JJ1008, 2015RS4024). 26 Z. Zhou, K. Zhang, J. Liu, H. Peng and G. Li, J. Power
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Recent Progress in ZN Based Anodes For A

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MATERIALS CHEMISTRY

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Recent progress in Zn-based anodes for advanced

Lei Wang is a PhD candidate Guanhua Zhang received her PhD

Review Materials Chemistry Frontiers

capacity, environmental friendliness and low cost.24 In addition,

Dr Professor Quanhui Liu (Q. H. Huigao Duan received his BSc

Materials Chemistry Frontiers Review

Table 1 Available synthetic methods for various ZnO nanostructures

Liquid phase Electro depositing | | | |

Gas phase Magnetron sputtering | | |

Review Materials Chemistry Frontiers

application as LIB anode. Highly dispersed ZnO nanoparticles

Materials Chemistry Frontiers Review

Review Materials Chemistry Frontiers

Materials Chemistry Frontiers Review

Review Materials Chemistry Frontiers

were wrapped by ZIF-8-derived porous carbon matrices with

Materials Chemistry Frontiers Review

Review Materials Chemistry Frontiers

Materials Chemistry Frontiers Review

Review Materials Chemistry Frontiers

Materials Chemistry Frontiers Review

Review Materials Chemistry Frontiers

Materials Chemistry Frontiers Review

Review Materials Chemistry Frontiers

Table 2 A summary of Zn-based anodes for lithium-ion half cells

1st discharge–charge Rate capability

Table 3 Recent work on Zn-based anodes for lithium-ion full cells

Materials Chemistry Frontiers Review

Review Materials Chemistry Frontiers

28 J. Zhang, T. He, W. Zhang, J. Sheng, I. S. Amiinu,

Materials Chemistry Frontiers Review

Review Materials Chemistry Frontiers

Materials Chemistry Frontiers Review

Review Materials Chemistry Frontiers

253–264. 2018, 6, 2974–2983.

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