Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 151 (2021) 111527

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Biorefinery: A comprehensive concept for the sociotechnical transition

toward bioeconomy
Caroline Conteratto a, *, Felipe Dalzotto Artuzo b, Omar Inácio Benedetti Santos c,
Edson Talamini d
a
Research Group in Bioeconomics Applied to Agribusiness - NEB-Agro, Interdisciplinary Center for Studies and Research in Agribusiness - CEPAN, Universidade Federal
do Rio Grande do Sul - UFRGS, Rua Quintino Bocaiúva, 139, Centro, Chapecó, 89801-080, SC, Brazil
b
Brazilian Institute of Bioeconomy (INBBIO) and Research Group in Bioeconomics Applied to Agribusiness – NEB-Agro, Rua Afonso Tochetto, Bairro Santo André,
Getúlio Vargas, 99900-000, RS, Brazil
c
Brazilian Institute of Bioeconomy (INBBIO) and Research Group in Bioeconomics Applied to Agribusiness – NEB-Agro, Travessa Democrática, 45, apt◦ 301, Bairro
Centro, Sapucaia do Sul, 93214-360, RS, Brazil
d
Department of Economics and International Relations - DERI, Faculty of Economics - FCE. Interdisciplinary Center for Studies and Research in Agribusiness – CEPAN,
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul – UFRGS, Av. Bento Gonçalves, 7712. Bairro Agronomia, Porto Alegre, RS, CEP: 91540-000, Brazil

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Bioeconomy has been presented as an alternative for sustainable development. Public policies and national
Epistemology bioeconomy programs have reserved an essential role for biorefineries. However, the misinterpretation of what a
Biomass biorefinery might be can lead to the adoption of biased public policies, restricting its potential. Therefore, the
Bio-inputs
concept of biorefinery requires a conceptual definition appropriate for the context of bioeconomy. This article
Bioprocesses
Bioproducts
aims to propose a contemporary concept for biorefinery, adjusted to the bioeconomy perspective. An episte­
Circular bioeconomy mological review of the prefix “bio” and the base “refine” was carried out. The biorefinery concepts established
Industrial ecology in the literature were revisited and grouped by their focus on inputs, processes, or bioproducts. The required
concept of biorefinery in the bioeconomy context is discussed. Our updated concept defines biorefinery as “a
physical, chemical, or biological process which purifies, separates, refines, or transforms elements constituting biological
assets from the kingdoms Monera, Protista, Plantae, Animalia, or Fungi, originating from the terrestrial or oceanic
environment, in bioproducts for final use or that serve as raw material for other bioproducts.” Adopting this concept
can promote appropriate public policies for a broader set of biorefineries and pave the way for the sociotechnical
transition toward bioeconomy.

1. Introduction However, primary energy sources, such as petroleum, coal, and natural
gas, have a limited availability [1].
The maintenance and development of socio-biological systems Fossil carbon has become the dominant chemical and energy source
require resources of matter and energy. In general, many of these re­ for humanity since the industrial revolution [2]. However, there is only
sources are obtained through the inversion between matter and energy. a finite amount of fossil energy available. Using the longest time esti­
For a long time, biomass was the primary source of energy for human mate, it would take less than 270 years to completely deplete all pe­
needs. However, relatively recently, humans have started to use fossil troleum on Earth [3,4], making it necessary to explore alternatives to
energy sources, such as oil, coal, and natural gas, to increase their living oil, since the time required to recycle or replenish reserves naturally is
standards. In the last century, oil refineries have played a fundamental about 280 million years [4]. The fossil fuel is replenished when a
role in the industrial and economic development of numerous countries. carbonaceous age is reached on Earth [5], as a result of the preservation
The refining techniques employed by oil refineries allow the decompo­ of a large amount of organic matter [6]. However, it is unlikely that high
sition of petroleum into numerous other carbon-based molecules with carbon storage will occur as long as the human species exists [7,8]. In
applications in various products for intermediate or final consumption. this context, considering the relationship between accumulated

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (C. Conteratto), [email protected] (F.D. Artuzo), [email protected] (O.I. Benedetti Santos), edson.
[email protected] (E. Talamini).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.111527
Received 27 October 2020; Received in revised form 21 May 2021; Accepted 20 July 2021
Available online 29 July 2021
1364-0321/© 2021 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
C. Conteratto et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 151 (2021) 111527

consumption and the growing demand for oil and its meager replace­ leading the sociotechnical transition to more sustainable national
ment rate, there is no guarantee that humanity can survive the fossil economies. However, consolidating this transition requires innovative
replenishment rate [9]. solutions in renewable inputs, processes, and products. To achieve this
In addition to its finitude, there is evidence that greenhouse gas goal, the national policies and strategies for bioeconomy reserve a
emissions from the use of fossil resources have affected the planet’s fundamental role for biorefineries, which have been treated as the
climate, making the use of such sources a major concern. Another physical personification of bioeconomy [18].
recurring problem is a large amount of solid waste, such as plastics. This The expansion and implementation of new biorefineries that
versatile product, derived from the petrochemical industry, has gained personify bioeconomy require the encouragement of appropriate public
full application in the daily life of many societies. However, the lack of policies and programs. Public policies are the result of social construc­
awareness regarding the correct use and disposal of plastic-based tion and interaction between stakeholders, and thus, the biorefinery
products has resulted in severe environmental pollution problems, concepts assumed by the stakeholders are the basis for the elaboration of
with mountains of plastic being deposited in the oceans [10–12]. sectoral policies and programs. In this sense, it is worth reflecting on
Because of the relative depletion of primary fossil sources of matter whether the adopted concept of a biorefinery is broad enough to
and energy and the awareness of society about the environmental im­ incorporate and stimulate all the potential linked to bioeconomy. Brazil,
pacts, research and investment interest have turned to the development for example, could develop competitive advantages based on its high
of alternative sources. The research and development of products from biodiversity. It is estimated that the Brazilian biota has between 170 and
renewable and cleaner primary sources have become an urgent matter, 210 thousand species, which corresponds to about 13 % of the world’s
and migration toward a bio-based research and development model has biodiversity [19]. The new biorefineries make it possible to explore the
been observed. The energy security and industrial and socio-economic potential of biodiversity for many purposes, making it important to re­
development of a country can benefit from an economic model based view the biorefinery concepts already established in the literature and
on biological assets and biodiversity. assessing their adequacy in the context of bioeconomy.
The sociotechnical transition toward a bio-based economy has been Despite the latent potential that biodiversity offers to countries such
directed under the auspices of “bioeconomy.” However, due to its nov­ as Brazil, the meaning attributed to the concept of biorefinery and the
elty, there is no consensus on what bioeconomy means and its scope. understanding of its scope by stakeholders in various sectors (govern­
Vivien et al. [13] point to the existence of three types of bioeconomy, ment, academia, and industry) may be limited. A restricted perception of
highlighting the opposite perspective from the European Union and the the biorefinery concept could be influenced by the development tra­
OECD, for instance. The first type is related to an ecological economy jectory of the refineries themselves, from petroleum refineries to bio­
compatible with the biosphere capacity. The second type maintains a refineries in their subsequent generations. An eventual lack of updating
relationship as an economy based on science and driven by industrial the biorefinery concept could result in exclusive policies, leading to the
biotechnology, whereas the third type considers bioeconomy to be a emergence of several other possibilities. As a result, several activities
biomass-based economy. Befort [14] points to two views on bio­ and enterprises may be neglected or fail to enjoy possible incentives
economy: one oriented toward biotechnology and the other toward promoted by sectorial public policies. This article aims to propose a
biomass, highlighting the need for public policy combinations to meet contemporary concept for biorefinery, adjusted to the bioeconomy
the expectations of different bioeconomy views. Although certain di­ perspective.
vergences have been observed, biological assets are part of the different This article is structured in six sections, in addition to this intro­
views focused on bioeconomy, with biorefineries as proposals for action. duction. In the second section, an epistemological analysis of the prefix
Several countries around the world are currently promoting strate­ “bio” and the base “refine” is made. In the third section, biorefinery
gies for the development of bioeconomy. Publicizing public policies, concepts from the literature are presented. In the fourth section, a new
programs, and strategies aimed at strengthening the bioeconomy has concept of biorefinery is proposed. In the fifth section, the proposed
increased in frequency. For example, Bell et al. [15] and Priefer et al. concept is discussed in the light of its adequacy for the sustainable
[16] present a synthesis of national bioeconomy policies. Since 2009, sociotechnical transition toward the bioeconomy context. In the last
when the OECD published the document “The Bioeconomy to 2030 — section, the final considerations are presented.
Designing a policy agenda”, other countries, in blocks or individually,
have also been including bioeconomy in their development agendas, 2. Biorefinery: an epistemological analysis
promoting specific national policies. In 2012, the European Union
defined its common policy in the document “A Bioeconomy for Europe”; Epistemology is dealt with in different areas of knowledge, including
in Sweden, strategies for bioeconomy were incorporated into the philosophy. As a theory of knowledge, philosophy deals with the nature
“Swedish Research and Innovation — Strategy for a Bio-based Economy”. In of historical advances and developments that society applies to theories,
the United States, the “National Bioeconomy Blueprint” states the guide­ concepts, and practices related to the advancement of knowledge
lines for the North American bioeconomy, whereas the Netherlands [20–22]. The interactions between society and the environment
settled the objectives in the “Framework Memorandum on the Bio-Based constantly evolve, implying the successive generation of human
Economy”. In the following year, 2013, Malaysia implemented its pro­ knowledge in a continuous manner. Therefore, concepts, theories, and
gram entitled “Bioeconomy Transformation Program”, South Africa practices need to be continuously reviewed.
announced its strategies for bioeconomy in the “The Bio-Economy The faculty of knowledge is also developed through analogies.
Strategy”, and Finland launched the program “Sustainable Growth from Analogies from the perceptions resulting from the interaction between
Bioeconomy — The Finnish Bioeconomy Strategy”. In 2014, the West at least two elements are constructed: on the one hand, an inquiring
Nordic countries formulated their common policy defined in “Future subject, and on the other hand, an object [23]. Epistemologically, an
Opportunities for Bioeconomy in the West Nordic Countries”, Germany laid object can be analyzed by its evolutionary trajectory, the study of con­
the foundation for a national strategy in the “National Policy Strategy on cepts, theories, structural paradigms, and the relationship between so­
Bioeconomy”, and the French strategies were established in “A Bio­ ciety and history. A study on the epistemology of sustainable
economy Strategy for France”. Recently, in 2019, the Brazilian govern­ development, prepared by Vildåsen et al. [24], proposed a conceptual
ment promoted the program “Bioeconomia Brasil Sociobiodiversidade” framework developed based on positivism and constructivism. For the
[17]. authors, the conceptual design is shaped over time by factors related to
Therefore, the growth in the number of countries promoting policies, beliefs, values, and norms. Concepts can be defined at least from a
strategies, and programs to strengthen bioeconomy as a sustainable constructivist or positivist perspective. When based on positivism, the
development strategy is well known considerable. Bioeconomy has been concepts consider the existence of a natural world, where reason is

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measured through empiricism and experiments. When they are based on compounds as the primary source for the discovery of new materials and
constructivism, the definition of concepts focuses on values and in­ energy. However, the biological material of organisms from different
terpretations. Constructivism presents knowledge as relative and kingdoms of nature, metabolized for thousands of years, as well as the
dependent on its context. In this case, the constructivist approach to organism itself, can potentially be used both as a primary raw material
knowledge consists of the interpretation of the meaning of words (her­ and for processing other resources [36–38].
meneutics) by individuals [25,26]. In summary, based on the fact that the prefix “bio” means life and
From this perspective and the context of the sociotechnical transition that all kingdoms of nature are home to living organisms, all the
toward bioeconomy, it is essential to understand the meaning of the biodiversity contained in the different kingdoms is liable to be included
term “biorefinery.” By its meaning, it is possible to identify whether its in the scope of the concept of ‘bio’refinery, either as raw material or as a
scope is wide enough to encompass all contemporary opportunities or processing unit.
whether, instead, the term biorefinery requires reframing. Biorefinery is
a compound term. Morphologically, it can be decomposed into its prefix 2.2. The base “refine”
“bio” and the base “refine.” The epistemological analysis of the term
biorefinery can make use of this morphological decomposition, initially The term “refine” refers to the act of refining, purifying, or sepa­
defining the particular meaning of each of the elements (Fig. 1). rating. It is the process of purifying a substance or compound. Refining is
In the epistemological details of the prefix “bio,” the main proposed, usually associated with the processing of petroleum products, such as oil
accepted, and revised hypotheses about life and its origin on Earth are and gas, but also applies to precious metals, especially those used in
revisited and discussed. The analysis of the base “refine,” in turn, pre­ jewelry. Sugar is an example of a product that also undergoes refining,
sents approaches related to its processes. However, this review of sci­ making it less granular and more consistent [39].
entific knowledge seeks to identify the fundamental elements that make In chemistry, for example, the refining of substances has caused the
up the terminology, establish the fundamental meanings for the revision development of industries. In the petrochemical industry, oil refining,
of the concept of biorefinery, and, later, the proposal for its updating. for example, allows the separation of hydrocarbons and the extraction of
numerous derivatives [40,41]. These raw materials, which undergo
distillation, conversion, and treatment processes, support the fuel,
2.1. The prefix “bio” pharmaceuticals, plastics, and fertilizer industries [42].
Chemical refining cycles, in the case of crude oil, are developed by
The prefix “bio” comes from the Greek “bíos,” which means life. distillation, when crude oil is heated until it evaporates and becomes
Therefore, to understand the terminology “bio” and what is part of it, liquid [43]. In this process, according to the degree of heating,
mainly biological assets, it is essential to understand the origin of life. by-products are obtained; the conversion process consists of breaking
Although the evolution of life has been elucidated by analysis at the larger molecules into smaller ones, according to the product to be ob­
molecular level, life’s origin remains one of the most exciting questions tained; treatments are processes dedicated to specific industries, which
for different areas of knowledge [27,28]. demand products with higher added value [44]. In biological processes,
Apparently, the biological evolution process that gave rise to the in many cases, the living organisms themselves can perform the refining
diversity of life forms on Earth was preceded by a phase of chemical process.
transformations [29]. During this stage, the first polymeric molecules
capable of storing information and reproducing were randomly ar­ 3. What is biorefinery? A review of the concepts from the
ranged from organic precursors that would have been available in the literature
early stages of planetary formation [30]. The most efficient replicators
later evolved into deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA), which became the Narratives defining biorefinery will depend on the approach used to
basis of all forms of life on our planet [31–33]. Life took over the earthly construct the meaning and the context in which it is inserted. For
space, evolving and interacting with the most diverse characteristics of example, in Brazil, the first narratives and concepts about biorefineries
environments. The species diversified in their form, composition, and are closely linked to the production of energy for transportation [45].
complexity. However, for our study’s focus, it is worth highlighting a The biorefinery boom occurred in the energy sector through investments
point common to any living organism: its chemical constitution. Life, in sugarcane-processing plants for bioethanol production as a strategy to
based on the organizing genetic code, builds organisms from the face the oil crises of the 1970s. Later, at the beginning of the 21st cen­
smallest chemical elements. tury, the Brazilian government strengthened programs to encourage
Life forms are available in the five kingdoms of nature: Monera, ethanol and biodiesel production and use to make the energy matrix
Protista, Plantae, Animalia, and Fungi [34,35]. Biodiversity existing in cleaner. A further expansion in the number of biorefineries has been
each of the nature kingdoms, and the group of them, allows its appli­ registered. This time, the biorefineries were divided into two groups:
cation for diverse purposes and uses. Similarly, fossil resources preserve one related to the expansion of the processing of sugarcane and the other
the versatility of the organic elements that made them up. For a long consisting of new units for the processing of oilseeds, mainly soybeans,
time, chemical engineers have been encouraged to consider such aiming to sustain the demands for biodiesel [46–49].
However, in institutional documents and research reports, pro­
fessionals in the sector have stated a conceptual plurality for the term
biorefinery. This is observed both in Brazil and in other countries,
demonstrating that the answer to the question “what is biorefinery?”
will depend on who will respond. Despite the different definitions
observed in the literature for the term biorefinery, it is possible to make
a structured analysis of common characteristics. In the sections that
follow, we present a synthesis of the biorefinery concepts, grouping
them by their focus on inputs, processes, or bioproducts.

3.1. Input-based concepts

Fig. 1. Reviewing the concept of biorefinery from its morphological decom­ In a set of documents, it is possible to identify biorefineries’ concepts
position and epistemological analysis. focused on inputs, with biomass being the primary input mentioned

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Table 1 (Table 1). In this sense, the different types of biomass are linked to the
Biorefinery: Input-based concepts and narratives. development of new generations of biorefineries. The emergence of a
Concepts and Narratives Sources new generation is associated with developing new processing technol­
ogies that allow the use of biomass with specific characteristics. The
Biorefining is the transfer of the efficiency and logic of Kamm et al. [89]
fossil-based chemistry and the substantial converting evolution of successive generations of biorefineries has revealed a
industry and the production of energy onto the biomass striking feature of the replacement of valuable biomass, intended to
industry. meet the basic needs of a society, such as food, with alternative raw
The biorefinery concept describes a large, highly-integrated Smith [90] materials [50]. They assist in the solution of the trade-off that involves
complex that incorporates individual processes that
synergistically convert biomass feedstocks into power,
the allocation of resources for the production of food versus energy [51,
biofuels, and value-added chemicals. 52].
Aquatic biorefineries process aquatic biomass, such as Van Ree and The input-based concepts identified in the literature show similarity
micro and macroalgae. Annevelink [64] concerning the generations of biorefineries, mainly using biomass as a
Cereal biorefineries use cereals such as corn, wheat, and rye Van Ree and
conventional model. The first generation of biorefineries uses cultivated
to produce a product portfolio. Annevelink [64]
Lignocellulose biorefineries are based on the fractionation Van Ree and and forest biomass as an input, whereas the second one uses by-products
of biomass rich in lignocelluloses for the production of Annevelink [64] of the cultivated biomass, such as its lignocellulosic residues. The third
intermediate flows of cellulose and lignin, which can be generation is based on the use of inputs from the aquatic environment,
further processed to obtain a portfolio of final products. such as seaweed, and the fourth one uses inputs such as solid and liquid
Biorefineries process bioresources such as agriculture or Huang et al. [91]
forest biomass to produce energy and a wide variety of
waste or municipal waste [53,54].
precursor chemicals and bio-based materials, similar to The most recent narratives have incorporated aquatic biomass, using
the modern petroleum refineries. algae as a source of bio-inputs for the production of energy for transport.
A biorefinery is a facility (or network of facilities) that Cherubini [92] These biorefineries are aligned with the context of the BlueBioeconomy,
integrates biomass conversion processes and equipment
which values the biodiversity of the oceans [55]. Besides, the use of
to produce transportation biofuels, power, and chemicals
from biomass. This concept is analogous to today’s urban waste, both solid and liquid, has been researched, applying raw
petroleum refinery, which produces multiple fuels and materials for biorefineries, mainly in developed countries. The use of
products from petroleum. urban waste helps both to mitigate environmental problems and makes
A biorefinery focused on the transformation of bio- Morrison and Cornips use of a low-value raw material. This is a characteristic of the new
resources, the valorization of biological raw materials, [93]
generations of biorefineries.
and the creation of new value chains. It is a mode of
network production that identifies favorable organic
resources for agroecological, ethical, risky, sustainable, 3.2. Process-based concepts
transdisciplinary, reuse, and recycling practices.
In the biorefinery, the use of cascading biomass is central, Keegan et al. [94]
The concepts and narratives that give meaning to the term bio­
as it highlights efforts to maximize the efficiency of the
use of biomass. refinery also appear in the literature emphasizing the production pro­
The biorefinery concept is still something recent and has a Vaz [95] cess. In this sense, it is often defined as an industrial plant. The industrial
very interesting objective, which is to replace products processing unit approach first appeared in the 1970s, with the first in­
and processes based on sources of non-renewable raw crease in the price of a barrel of oil. At that time, biorefineries were
materials, with products and processes that use biomass
as raw material.
implemented to meet the demand of the transport sector for fuel. In
An insect biorefinery corresponds to an integrated Azagoh et al. [96] other words, biorefineries assumed a direct replacement role for oil re­
technology that enables the valorization of biomass fineries [16,56]. A biorefinery with a connotation associated with the
through its bioconversion by insects that have been process is related to the conventional biomass-processing model. Thus,
reared according to specific and efficient technologies,
the industrial plant approach gives the biorefinery process features that
followed by their transformation into valuable
ingredients. are similar to those of oil refineries, particularly the reference to the
Green biorefineries are multi-product systems that use Rahman et al. [97] distillation process to obtain the desired final products (Table 2).
green biomass as an abundant and versatile raw material The processing and conversion technologies, in many cases, are
for the manufacture of industrial products. analogous to the petrochemical refinery. The extraction of hydrocarbons
The biorefinery aims at the use and availability of Bugge et al. [98]
biodiversity resources and waste management.
by thermochemical and physical processes is the most frequently used
Minimizing the production of organic waste along the method to obtain bioenergy. On the other hand, differentiated processes
value chain is a central concern, and the production of are a way of adding value to biomaterials [42,57].
waste, which cannot be avoided, is an important
contribution to the production of renewable energy.
3.3. Product-based concepts
If developed in developing countries, waste biorefineries Nizami et al. [99]
could provide energy generation, land savings, new
businesses, and consequent job creation, savings of Biorefinery has also had its concept defined from the outputs, namely
landfills costs, GHG emissions reduction, and savings of bioproducts. Concerns about food security, ecological degradation, and
natural resources of land soil, and groundwater. high rates of greenhouse gas emissions claim solutions and technological
Green biorefineries are complex systems based on Sadhukhan et al.
ecological technology that uses materials from renewable [100]
advances. Biotechnologies can respond positively to these challenges,
sources and natural materials, such as green biomass and and biorefinery outputs are sustainable alternatives for bio-based
waste, with a focus on the use of sustainable regional economies (Table 3). Within the structure of biorefineries, several bio­
lands. products can be produced from biomass. The biomass’s specific
In biorefinery, biomass is a versatile feedstock based on Serna-Loaiza et al.
composition as raw material and the processes determine the final
different compounds with the potential to obtain a [101]
considerable spectrum of products. product that can be obtained.
A biorefinery fits the processing based on the raw material, Carmona-Cabello There is an intense debate in the literature about the products offered
with the target of maximizing both recovered nutrients et al. [102] by these biorefineries. The main point of discussion concerns the trade-
and the production of high value-added products. offs between the production of fuel, food, feed, and fiber, one of the main
challenges for the 21st century [58]. In this sense, some studies point to
industrial ecology as how the global industry interacts with the natural
environment, listing opportunities for transformation and optimizing
trade with a sustainable bias. Industrial ecology proposes the connection

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Table 2 Table 3
Biorefinery: Process-based concepts and narratives. Biorefinery: Product-based concepts and narratives.
Concepts and Narratives Sources Concepts and Narratives Sources

A biorefinery is a general concept of a unit for Department of Energy (DOE) It is the sustainable processing of biomass in a International Energy
conversion into convertible biomass sources, [103] spectrum of marketable products (food, food, Agency (IEA) [109]
extracting itself in a spectrum of valuable materials, and chemicals) and energy (fuels, energy,
products, and its operation is similar to the heat).
petrochemical refinery. A biorefinery is a process for obtaining biofuels, Juan et al. [110]
A biorefinery is a facility that integrates American National Renewable energy, and high-value products through the
biomass conversion processes and equipment Energy Laboratory (NREL) [104] transformation of biomass and process equipment.
to produce fuels, power, and value-added The concept of the biorefinery is a promising way to
chemicals from biomass. reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Emissions from
A biorefinery where various conversion Fernando et al. [105] fossil fuels have contributed actively to global
technologies (e.g., thermochemical, warming.
biochemicals) are combined to reduce the The biorefinery is an installation that integrates EMBRAPA [47]
total cost, in addition to having more processes for converting biomass into biofuels,
flexibility in the product generation and chemical inputs, materials, food, animal feed, and
provide their own power. energy. The purpose of a biorefinery is to optimize
Examples of biorefineries that already work in EMBRAPA [47] the use of resources and minimize effluents,
practice, such as sugar, ethanol and maximizing benefits, and profits.
bioelectricity plants based on cane and oil, Biorefineries can produce energy in the form of heat or Liu et al. [111]
feed, biodiesel, and various other soy through the production of biofuels in large volumes
derivatives. and lower sales prices. They also produce molecules
Integrated biorefineries are process facilities Moncada et al. [106] for fine chemicals, cosmetics, or medicinal
that usually reduce waste management and applications and higher sales prices. Also, materials
wastewater treatment, considering different such as plastics and sources of human and animal
raw materials. food can be produced.
The biorefinery concept is analogous to the Lin et al. [107] An integrated biorefinery uses the combination of raw Yue et al. [112]
traditional petrochemical refinery that materials and its basic concept is the production of
maximizes valuable results from petroleum bioenergy platforms and chemical products from
materials processing. biomass through transformation routes, integration
A biorefinery is an industrial site that Schieb et al. [57] of processes, and equipment. Its objective is to
sustainably transforms biomass into human reduce the environmental impact and consume less
and animal food products, biomaterials, fossil energy.
biofuel, and chemical products with high Biorefineries are possibilities for replacing existing De Besi and McCormick
value-added, such as cosmetics. products based on fossil resources; they can also [113]
A biorefinery is often expressed as an industrial De Jong and Jungmeier [108] introduce new products, processes, and services to
structure similar to a refinery, however, with pave the way for the bioeconomy.
biomass as processed raw material and not oil Bioenergy, biofuels and biochemical products are the Sadhukhan et al. [100]
and gas. three main drivers selected at national, regional,
A biorefinery is a network of facilities that Sadhukhan et al. [100] and global levels, produced in biorefineries. As
integrates equipment and processes for refineries, biorefineries can supply various
converting biomass to produce biofuels, chemicals, dividing an initial raw material
energy, and chemicals from biomass. (biomass) into various intermediates
(carbohydrates, proteins, lipids) that can be
converted into value-added products.
between the productive cycles of industries so that the waste generated
by a company’s production process is supplied as raw material for other
companies in the circuit [59–62].

4. Biorefineries in the context of bioeconomy

By comparing the concepts in the literature with our conceptual

proposition, it is possible to verify the existence of different narratives
about the meaning attributed to the same object. During the develop­
ment of new generations of biorefinery, elements and specificities have
been incorporated. In a similar sense, this is also the objective of the
present study, namely to update the concept by adding contemporary
elements to the terminology. As previously mentioned, this is justified as
the use of outdated concepts can lead to neglecting many of the possi­
bilities that can be explored from a wide diversity of biological assets.
When analyzing conventional biorefinery concepts, it is possible to
note that, to a large extent, they mention the use of plant biomass.
Originating mainly from cultivated crops and forest biomass, this type of
input has fostered biorefineries aimed at the production of transport
Fig. 2. Conventional sugarcane biorefinery.
fuel. This focus is highlighted in the European Union’s vision of bio­
economy, which emphasizes the exploitation of biomass from the
conventional perspective, the concept focuses on biomass and its mini­
perspective of the development of bio-based economies [13]. As in
mal processing in industrial plants.
Europe, in Brazil, the tensions caused by the increase in prices for fossil
The narratives involving second- and third-generation biorefineries
fuels in the 1970s boosted the biofuel industry [49]. The Brazilian
show the use of residues from processed biomass as inputs, that is, to use
sugarcane bioethanol industry and, more recently, the use of oilseed
the waste from the first-generation biorefineries. Examples of such input
plant biomass for biodiesel production are examples of the development
are sugarcane bagasse, sawdust from forest biomass residues, straw from
of biorefineries focused on biomass [45,47,48] (Fig. 2). In its

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agricultural crops, and aquatic biomass, such as seaweed. Advances in thermochemical treatment of corn straw has been widely used for bio­
biotechnology have made it possible to obtain additional gains by fuels production [79]. In Europe, cyanobacteria have been synthetically
extracting the remaining energy from such residues [14,54,63]. engineered to create technological routes for the production of hydrogen
Biotechnology has mainly boosted the use of lignocellulosic resources and energy [80,81]. Microorganisms, like bacteria, have been modified
[64,65], and the biotechnology view of bioeconomy highlights the through metabolic engineering for the production of biogas and biofuels
importance of knowledge for developing new processing techniques in the United Kingdom [82,83].
[66]. These practices are aligned with the productive arrangement Unlike the concepts covered in the literature, our conceptual update
model proposed by the industrial ecology [67] and the circular bio­ incorporates biological assets as biorefineries. Life is continually
economy [68], with biotechnology at the center of their development. renewed through the constant change in the assembly of organisms from
Contemporary approaches comprise the fourth generation (4G) of atoms and molecules and their decomposition in these same units, which
biorefineries. The 4G biorefineries make use of inputs from solid and will be used successively in a new cycle of life. The sun is the primary
liquid residues, such as urban waste [69], and emerge as a potential source of energy that supports the process of assembling and dis­
solution for the mitigation of environmental problems generated by the assembling the “blocks” that shape living organisms. The renewability of
large volume of waste resulting from the growing consumption of successive life cycles guarantees the retention of solar energy, which is
industrialized goods [70]. Biorefineries are closely associated with the being used to support life. The biogeochemical cycles of biological assets
assumptions of the bioeconomics stated by Georgescu-Roegen [71], allow them to be produced and reproduced as matter and energy. Thus,
given the concerns about the biophysical limits of the planet and the the role of biorefineries is to enhance the refining of useful molecules
more efficient use of available resources. The relationship between 4G from organisms with a renewing potential, which is the foundation of
biorefineries and concerns about the entropic degradation of natural bioeconomy.
resources, both fossil and biological, supports the importance of devel­
oping the circular bioeconomy [72]. The governance models for the
4.1. The proposition of an updated concept for biorefinery
circular bioeconomy must be committed to the reuse, recycling, and
correct disposal of waste, renewability, and the maximum use of the
In the previous sections, different perspectives related to the defi­
resource in its life cycle [73]. In this context, waste from biological as­
nition of the biorefinery concept were presented. Chronologically, there
sets (e.g., urban and agricultural waste) can be understood as bio-input
are adaptations in the concept to incorporate the domain defined by a
for the generation of energy and materials.
new input, process, or product. An example is the assimilation of ele­
In the literature, there are numerous studies on biological assets that
ments typical of the successive generations of biorefineries. The term
can be considered biorefineries. Examples are seen in studies on bio­
biorefinery has the potential to include several opportunities for the
logical agents from different kingdoms of nature. As previously
development of value chains in the context of bioeconomy. However, as
mentioned, an example is the production of resin by Pinus trees (Fig. 3).
previously mentioned in the text, it is necessary to question whether the
Neis et al. [74] point out that bioresin can be used in the production of a
potential offered by bioeconomy is being adequately addressed in the
series of products, including chemicals, pharmaceuticals, food, biofuels,
concept of biorefinery. Adopting an incomplete or outdated concept can
and substrates for agriculture (biofungicides, bioherbicides, and bio­
result in restrictive and exclusive policies, strategies, and programs
insecticides). Compounds from the sea are another example. The ad­
instead of maximizing the potential of biorefineries in the transition to
vances in the emerging BlueBioeconomy show the potential for
bioeconomy.
bioprospecting a range of marine natural resources to refine bioproducts
Initially, a simplified way to order the elements that make up the
that are already being used in the health and agriculture sectors [55,75].
scope of biorefineries is organizing them in different categories, such as
A success story of BlueBioeconomy is the case of Brazilian Regenera,
the inputs, processes, and products obtained [84]. Type 1 biorefineries
which prospects and refines marine biomolecules derived from sea
have processing structures dedicated to a specific raw material (Fig. 4),
sponges, with applications in food, energy, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals,
whereas Type 2 biorefineries have process flexibility and can produce
agriculture, and fine chemicals [76].
Practical cases in bioeconomy have been seen in several sectors and
countries. Forest waste from the forestry sector in the southeastern
United States is being treated via fast pyrolysis and transformed into
biopolymers and biofuels [77,78]. In the agroindustry sector, the

Fig. 4. Ordering the fundamental elements for the epistemological update of

Fig. 3. Natural Pine Biorefinery - Biorefinery tree. the concept of biorefinery.

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more than one product (for example, energy and fuels) from the same
facility and raw material. An industrial plant that produces ethanol,
sugar, and electricity can be an example of Type 2 biorefineries. In these
facilities, the sugarcane molasses can be diverted to sugar or ethanol
production according to the demand and market conditions [85]. Type 3
biorefineries allow us to combine various inputs and processes to pro­
duce a wide range of products (biomass pretreatment and biological or
chemical transformation, for instance). The numerous constituents of
the raw material can be treated separately to produce various high-value
chemical derivatives. Materials and energy can be obtained by pro­
cessing waste in these types of biorefineries. The proper treatment of
waste corroborates with the principles of the circular bioeconomy,
which is enabled by an industrial ecology approach to reducing, reusing,
and recycling the generated waste.
The biological inputs coming from the kingdoms of nature undergo
processing, which can be chemical, physical, or biological, resulting in
one or more bioproducts. This bioproduct can be used for final con­
sumption or as a raw material to produce other bioproducts. It is
important to note that biological agents can assume the role of inputs,
supplying biorefineries as raw material. At another time, they can also
assume the role of processors in a biorefining process. In other words,
biological assets play a central role in the biorefinery context and are
associated with the various stages of the biorefining process. Thus, a
biorefinery can take on numerous configurations, since each biological
asset present in the biodiversity of each of the kingdoms of nature can be
Fig. 5. Concept of biorefiney including biological assets.
used as bio-input. Likewise, several of these biological agents can be
used in processes for transforming biological or mineral inputs into
bioproducts. Many biological agents naturally exhibit characteristics of living standards in the long run with a finite amount of natural re­
bioprocessors, degrading organic matter and minerals into smaller mo­ sources. Next, we present the concluding remarks regarding the pro­
lecular units. Several biological agents are currently applied in industrial posed concept and the implications for the sociotechnical transition
processes, including biorefineries. However, advances in genetic engi­ toward bioeconomy.
neering and synthetic biology [86,87] point to infinite possibilities for
configuring biological agents, expanding their applications for specific 6. Concluding remarks
purposes, both in terms of the inputs they process and the bioproducts
they can produce. The definitions of the term biorefinery have changed over time. The
In this context, the meaning of biorefinery is much broader. Could a concept evolved from conventional biorefineries, which central idea was
single tree be assumed as a biorefinery? Furthermore, if so, could a forest minimally process biomass in industrial plants. This is a concept closely
be seen as a large-scale biorefinery? In a certain way, the answer is yes. associated with the idea of energy production similar to oil refineries.
This conception can be exemplified by means of plants such as Pinus Following this, the concepts were developed from the perspective of
(Pinus spp.), which can be considered a biorefinery (Fig. 3). To grow, second- and third-generation biorefineries, mainly incorporating aspects
Pinus plants need inputs, such as macro- and micronutrients, water, solar related to biotechnology as a central provider of new processing tech­
energy, carbon. Some of them can be supplied by the decomposition of nologies. The use of waste from first-generation biorefineries as input
the biomass present in the leaves, branches, roots, and barks. Through has also become part of the concept. Contemporary narratives mention
its internal biochemical process, it produces bioresin, which is a the use of inputs from urban waste, characteristic of fourth-generation
marketable bioproduct in its raw or minimally processed form. Essential biorefineries.
oils and natural dyes used as raw material for the production of other In addition to the concepts covered in the literature, our suggestion
bioproducts can be extracted from bioresin, such as biofuels, agro­ of conceptual updating incorporates biological assets as potential bio­
chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and green plastics [74,88]. refineries. In turn, it shows that biogeochemical cycles allow biological
Based on the reflections made up to this point, we have elements to assets to be produced and reproduced as matter and energy. The refining
regroup the prefix “bio” and the base “refine,” updating the biorefinery of biological assets using physical, chemical, or biological processes
concept (Fig. 5). Now, taking into account the epistemological elements, makes it possible to obtain alternative industrial interest compounds.
the conceptual basis previously recorded in the literature, and the The use of unconventional biological assets opens endless possibilities
context of the bioeconomy, we propose that a biorefinery can be un­ for prospecting for new bio-inputs, bioprocesses, and bioproducts. As a
derstood as follows: “a physical, chemical, or biological process which result, new applications may promote renewable and sustainable con­
purifies, separates, refines, or transforms elements constituting bio­ tributions to various sectors, such as pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, en­
logical assets from the kingdoms Monera, Protista, Plantae, Animalia, ergy, chemistry, agriculture, and food. It is an evident change from a
or Fungi, originating from the terrestrial or oceanic environment, in matrix based on oil refineries to one based on biorefineries.
bioproducts for final use or that serve as raw material for other In this context, we understand that it is possible to make use of
bioproducts.” biodiversity in the implementation of new biorefineries. However, the
The proposed concept of biorefinery considers the diversity of bio­ assumed concept is the fundamental basis for the design of sectoral
logical assets, incorporating strategies that corroborate with the pres­ policies and programs. The answer to the question “what is biorefinery?”
ervation of the environment. An example of this is the production of may vary depending on who and where the respondent is. Biodiversity
bioproducts considered sustainable because they originate from varies among countries, and, therefore, the scope of biorefineries
renewable resources to replace products from fossil materials. Such considered by the government, academia, and industry stakeholders
strategies are important when looking for a sustainable socio-technical may be restricted. If true, this fact can lead to public policies, programs,
transition for today’s society, with a view to maintaining or improving and national strategies that limit the emergence of a wide range of

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