Trends in Food Science & Technology 12 (2001) 7–16

Review

Designer eggs: from

that while our lifestyle (which includes factors such as
improvement of diet, stress, smoking, medical attention, exercise and
genetics) is a major determinant of our health status it is

egg composition to diet that has the pivotal role. The change in focus of the
study and practice of nutrition in the USA and Europe
from combating nutrient deficiencies to addressing
functional food nutrient needs for good health throughout the life [1]
reflects this.
Arguably one of the most fascinating ideas in human
nutrition is that selected foods and their components
can improve physical or mental performance or
P.F. Surai* and N.H.C. Sparks decrease disease risk [2,3]. Thus, beyond meeting nutri-
tion needs, diet may modulate various body functions
Avian Science Research Centre, and may play detrimental or beneficial roles in the
SAC, Auchincruive, Ayr, KA6 5HW, development of some diseases [4]. For example, dietary
Scotland, UK (fax: +44-1292-525-177; factors are considered to be major contributors to the
e-mail: [email protected]) leading causes of death of Americans, including cor-
onary heart disease and certain types of cancer [3]. Epi-
demiological findings, supported by animal studies,
Diet plays an important role in maintaining health. Among have led to recommendations that people should con-
the different products delivering essential nutrients to the sume at least two servings of fruit and three servings of
body, an egg has arguably a special place, being a rich and vegetable daily [5] as well as at least two servings of fish
balanced source of essential amino and fatty acids as well weekly [6]. While findings and reports such as these have
some minerals and vitamins. This paper focuses on the had an impact on the type and quantity of the food that
benefits to the consumer of improving the nutritional qual- many of us eat [7] the majority of adults in so-called
ity of eggs by enhancing levels of anti-oxidants and n-3 fatty developed countries fall well short of meeting healthy
acids such as docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). The advantages eating guidelines. This paper focuses on one potentially
of simultaneous enrichment of eggs with vitamin E, car- important dietary ingredient, the egg. Eggs are of parti-
otenoids, selenium and DHA include better stability of cular interest because they are relatively rich in fatty
polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) during egg storage and acids and the associated fat soluble compounds and the
cooking, high availability of such nutrients as vitamin E and type and ratios of fatty acids are, it is now being appre-
carotenoids, absence of off-taste and an improved anti-oxi- ciated, an important determinant of human health.
dant and n-3 status of people consuming these eggs. Hav-
ing reviewed the relevant scientific literature it is concluded Diet optimization and human health
that ‘‘designer eggs’’ can be considered as a new type of Major advances have been made in recent years in our
functional food. # 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights understanding of the molecular mechanisms whereby
reserved. dietary fatty acids influence the body’s metabolism. It
has become clear that in addition to their well defined
roles in energy metabolism and as constituents of bio-
logical membranes, polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA)
Introduction also have specific regulatory functions through the
Discussions about factors that determine our health synthesis of different biologically active compounds,
started long ago, Hippocrates observing a relationship including eicosanoids. PUFA may be subdivided into
between health and food choices some 2500 years ago. families depending on the position of the double bond
During the last decade it has become increasingly clear in the molecules. Two of the important groups of
PUFA in human nutrition are the n-6 or omega-6 fatty
*Corresponding author. acids (the double bond closest to the non-carboxyl end
0924-2244/00/$ - see front matter Copyright # 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 92 4 - 2 24 4 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 04 8 - 6
8 P.F. Surai, N.H.C. Sparks / Trends in Food Science & Technology 12 (2001) 7–16

is located at the C-6) and the n-3 or omega-3 fatty acids their development are associated with free radical pro-
(the same double bound is located at the C-3). The pre- duction and metabolism. Normally, there is a delicate
cursors of the n-6 and n-3 family of fatty acids are balance between the amount of free radicals generated
linoleic acid (LA, 18:2n-6) and alpha-linolenic acid in the body and the anti-oxidants to protect against
(ALA, 18:3n-3), respectively. These PUFA have to be them. However, an excess of free radicals, or lack of
supplied by the diet [8]. The n-3 and n-6 PUFAs are not anti-oxidant protection, will shift this balance produ-
inter-convertible in the human body and affect eicosa- cing oxidative stress. Food components can modulate
noid metabolism, gene expression and intercellular cell- this balance and may thereby influence the rate of aging
to-cell communication [9]. LA and ALA can be elon- [15] as well as disease-resistance of the human [5]. The
gated and desaturated into their longer-chain active most important step in balancing oxidative damage and
metabolite arachidonic acid (20:4n-6) and eicosapentae- anti-oxidant defence in the human body would be to
noic acid (EPA; 20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid enhance the anti-oxidant capacity by optimizing the
(DHA; 22:6n-3) [10]. Because these two classes of dietary intake of anti-oxidants through, for example,
PUFA are metabolically and functionally distinct and in increased consumption of anti-oxidant-rich foods. These
many cases have opposing physiological effects [9], the could be foods natural rich in anti-oxidants as in the case
absolute level and the balance between n-6 and n-3 with some fruits and vegetables [5] or through mod-
PUFA in the diet is considered to be an important ification as with so-called modified or functional foods.
determinant of many metabolic functions in the human
body (Table 1). Functional foods
Because the typical ‘Western’ diet, provides high The concept of healthy food additives has come from
levels of n-6 PUFAs and low levels of n-3 PUFAs, it is Japan in the 1970s with the term ‘functional foods’
considered to be unbalanced and to be associated with appearing in 1984 [16]. Indeed this ‘changing face’ of
the increased incidences of certain diseases [11]. There food has led to the development of a new area of food
are a number of potential solutions to this problem. For science [17]. The Food and Nutrition Board of the
example: National Academy of Sciences defines a functional food
as one that encompasses potentially healthy products
1. Increase consumption of fish and fish products. providing health benefit beyond that of traditional
However, world stocks of cold water fish, which nutrients it contains [3]. This is in agreement with the
are rich in n-3 PUFAs, are decreasing and their data of the recent USA study from written ques-
farmed equivalent usually contains much lower tionnaires completed by 2074 qualified respondents in
levels of DHA compared to wild fish [12]. Fur- 1998 indicating that most shoppers believe foods can
thermore, a large proportion (up to 65%) of the offer benefits that reach beyond basic nutrition to func-
population, do not eat fish regularly [13]. tional nutrition for disease prevention and health
2. Use of a capsulated form of DHA or other n-3 enhancement [18]. However, in the recent survey in the
fatty acids. This option has the advantage of being USA, respondents have reported that taste is the most
able to delivering a known quantity of n-3 PUFA important influence on their food choices, followed by
but the capsules can be relatively expensive and cost [19]. Similarly, in the survey in Ireland, ‘quality/
some individuals do not like swallowing capsules. freshness of food’ was the most frequently selected food
3. Produce designer or so-called functional foods, choice factor (51%) followed by ‘taste’ (43%) and ‘try-
enriched with n-3 fatty acids. This option has been ing to eat a healthy diet’ (36%) [20].
embraced during the last few years and there are Today, functional foods receive substantial attention
now many products in the market that are enri- [21,22] and represent one of the fastest growing segments
ched with n-3 fatty acids, including various oils,
bakery products, infant formula milk, mayon- Table 1. Beneficial effects of n-3 fatty acids for human in
naise, margarine, salad dressings and others [9]. prevention and management of human diseases [adapted from
Among them, eggs could have a special place as an [9,79]
ideal delivery system for n-3 fatty acids. Disease Disease

Another well documented and food-related cause of Coronary heart disease Embolism
Hypertension Allergic problems
disease are free radicals (Table 2). Free radicals are Trombosis Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
implicated in the initiation or progression phase of var- Type 2 diabetes Prostate and breast cancer
ious diseases, including cardiovascular disease, some Renal disease Immunological functions
forms of cancer, cataracts, age-related macular degen- Rheumatoid arthritis Autoimmune disease
eration, rheumatoid arthritis and a variety of neuro- Ulcerative colitis Fetal brain and visual development
Crohn’s disease Improvement of learning ability
degenerative diseases [14]. In general, it is widely Depression Positive effects on longevity
believed that most human diseases at different stages of
 P.F. Surai, N.H.C. Sparks / Trends in Food Science & Technology 12 (2001) 7–16 9

of the world food industry [16]. For example, dairy easy to produce and has so many uses in cookery, but
products and other processed foods, including mayon- also because of its nutritive quality [28].
naise, margarine, dressings containing DHA [23] as well Of the three dietary essentials—proteins, fats, and
as n-3 enriched eggs [24,25] are already on the market in carbohydrates—the egg is composed largely of the first
different countries. Se-enriched pork is produced in two. Furthermore, the nutritive quality of an egg
Korea and there are good prospects of producing enhances the value of any food in which it is incorpo-
chicken meat enriched in Se as well [26]. Anti-oxidant- rated. Its wide use in cookery for purposes of leavening,
fortified margarine is shown to be effective in the delivery thickening, binding, and emulsifying considerably
of vitamins E and C as well as a- and b-carotene to improves the human diet [29]. Egg proteins are highly
human [27]. In the USA, annual sales of functional food digestible containing the most important essential
products comprise around $50 billion [16]. amino acids in a profile that is not dissimilar to the ideal
balance of amino acids needed by men and women.
Eggs as an integral part of the diet Eggs also supply various minerals, some in significant
Hens’ eggs have been used as a food by human beings amounts, and contain major vitamins. For example, in a
since antiquity. Compared with the egg, no other single recent study in the USA it has been shown that eggs
food of animal origin is eaten by so many people all contributed 10–20% of daily intake of folate and total,
over the world and none is served in such a variety of saturated and polyunsaturated fat, and 20–30% of daily
ways. Its popularity is justified not only because it is intake of vitamins A, E and B12 [30]. In this respect, an

Table 2. Free radical involvement in the development of human diseases (adapted from [15,80–83]
Liver Macular degeneration
Reperfusion Ocular hemorrhage
Toxic effects of chemicals: halogenated hydrocarbons, Cataracts
quinones, iron, acetaminophen, ethanol Muscle
Endotoxin Muscular dystrophy
Kidney Multiple sclerosis
Autoimmune nephrosis:inflammation Exercise
Toxic effects of chemicals: aminoglycosides, heavy metals Skin
Lung Radiation (UV or ionizing)
Normobaric hyperoxic injury Thermal injury
Bronchopulmonary displasia Toxic effects of chemicals: tetracyclines stimulating
Toxic effects of chemicals: paraquat, bleomicin photosensitization
Emphysema Contact dermatitis
Asbestosis Porphyria
Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis Brain and nervous system
Heart and cardiovascular system Parkinson’s disease
Atherosclerosis Alzheimer’s disease
Hemochromatosis Tardive dyskinesia
Reperfusion: after infraction or transplant Neuronal ceroid lopofuscinosis
Selenium deficiency (Keishan disease) Neurotoxins
Toxic effects of chemicals: ethanol, doxorubicin Hypertensive cerebrovascular
Myocardial infarction Injury,
Gastrointestinal tract Allergic encephalomyelitis
Reperfusion Inflammatory-immune system
Toxic effects of chemicals: nonsteroidal Glomerulonephritis
and anti-inflammatory agents, alloxan, Vasculitis (hepatitis B virus, drugs)
iron Autoimmune disease
Pancreatitis, Colitis Reumatroid arthritis
Blood Miscellaneous/general
Malaria Aging
Various anemias AIDS, Cancer, Diabetes
Protoporphyrin photooxidation Inflammation
Toxic effects of chemicals: phenylhydrazine, primaquine and related Trauma
drugs, sulfonamides, lead etc. Ischemia/reperfusion
Favism Radiation injury
Fanconi’s anemia Rheumatoid arthritis and lupus
Eye Toxic effects of chemicals: alloxan (diabetes), iron overload
Retionopathy of prematurity Acute pancreatitis, Amyloidosis
Photic retinopathy
10 P.F. Surai, N.H.C. Sparks / Trends in Food Science & Technology 12 (2001) 7–16

egg can deliver (as % the daily value for a nutrient) flaxseed or low levels of a high quality oil, e.g. 1.5% (or
protein: 10, riboflavin: 15, vitamin B12: 8, vitamin A: 6, less) menhaden fish oil [41–44]. In this respect, a dried
vitamin D: 6, folate: 6, vitamin B6: 4, vitamin E: 3, DHA-enriched marine micro-algal product showed
thiamin 2, zinc 4 and iron 4. Many of those nutrients in promising results [45–56]. The fishy taint can result from
the egg can be manipulated by dietary means; however, rancidity of the n-3 enriched diet, therefore the quality
a real value for improvement of human diet could have of oils used is important in eliminating off-flavour in
only those nutrients which are usually in short supply eggs. While the oil can be protected with anti-oxidants
with other products or have a positive effect on human or micro-encapsulated once the oil is oxidized the addi-
health when consumed in excess. Among them n-3 fatty tion of anti-oxidants will not reverse this situation.
acids, vitamin E, carotenoids and selenium have attrac- It is notable that the acceptability of ‘fishy’ taints
ted a lot of attention in nutritional sciences. varies from country to country. For example, eggs pro-
duced in some countries (Chile), where fish meal as well
Omega-3-enriched eggs as fish oil are usual components of the chicken diet,
Commercial table eggs contain a high proportion of contain quite high level of DHA and in many cases have
n-6 PUFA (mainly 18:2n-6) but are a poor source of n-3 a fishy taste (personal experience of PFS). Generally,
fatty acids. Attempts to produce eggs high in n-3 PUFA the public in Chile are used to this taste and accept it as
can be divided into two groups. The simplest way is to normal while, for Europeans, for example, it would be
produce an egg enriched in linolenic acid [24], which is a unacceptable.
precursor of DHA and is also considered to have a Cooking characteristics of omega-3 eggs, including
protective effect against fatal ischemic heart disease emulsification capacity, hardiness and springiness of
[31,32]. For this purpose, the hen’s diet is usually rela- sponge cakes prepared using these eggs, were the same
tively rich in flaxseeds, linseeds or their corresponding as in ordinary eggs [25]. Data on effects of n-3 enrich-
oils; as a result the egg’s yolk is enriched with alpha- ment on egg quality during storage are limited and
linolenic acid (ALA) and the level of DHA is also sometimes contradictory. For example, it has also been
enhanced [33]. shown that there is no alteration in fatty acid profile of
However, given that most of the health promoting eggs enriched with n-3 PUFAs during cooking [34] or
properties of n-3 fatty acids are associated with DHA, during storage for 7 weeks at 25 C [47] whereas other
the health benefits of ALA-enriched eggs could be lim- studies have reported an increased susceptibility to oxi-
ited (since the conversion of linolenic acid into DHA in dation [48] during storage and cooking. Enrichment of
human body is not always effective). This is especially so egg yolk in vitamin E is thought to be an effective means
in the elderly and children when their diets are rich in n- to resolving this problem [48] and has been shown to
6 PUFAs. The second group or route to enhancing significantly decrease thiobarbituric acid values
levels of n-3 in the egg, by including pre-formed DHA (TBARS) in n-3-enriched eggs [49]. In other experi-
in the hen’s diet, usually in the form of fish (menhaden, ments, yolk TBARS values in n-3-enriched eggs were
herring or tuna) oil, is a more promising one (See [25] not significantly different from those in control eggs
for review). However, this may be associated with a [50]. However, it needs to be recognized that this para-
pronounced fishy taste in the egg yolk. meter depends on the analytical technique used and the
level of the egg enrichment with n-3 PUFA. Therefore
Organoleptic quality of omega-3-enriched eggs attention needs to be paid to the organeloleptic proper-
The organoleptic quality of omega-3 eggs tends to be ties of n-3-enriched eggs and in particular the relation-
similar to regular table eggs although in some cases ship between n-3 levels and organoleptic quality.
panellists are able to detect off-flavours [34–36]. A
‘fishy’ or fish-product related flavour was detected in Health benefits of omega-3 enriched eggs
eggs from hens on diet containing 15–20% flax seed The major advantage to the consumer of omega-3
[37,38] and the data of Leeson et al. [39] also suggest eggs is an enrichment of plasma lipids with these fatty
that high (>10%) levels of flax seed will result in some acids [33,51,52] and as a result health benefit (Table 1).
decrease in overall egg acceptability as assessed by There are also reports indicating other beneficial effects,
aroma and flavour. This remains a problem associated including decreased plasma triglyceride concentration
with the commercial production of this type of product. [53–54] and lowered systolic and diastolic blood pres-
It has been suggested that the use of combinations of sures [55–57] and platelet aggregation [58]. In some
anti-oxidants in the hen’s diet could help to suppress experiments, even total plasma cholesterol level was
these off-flavours [40]; however, high levels of vitamin E reduced [59] due to consumption of modified eggs.
did not prevent the formation of off-flavours in hens fed Therefore, consumption of 1–2 omega-3 eggs daily
on the high (>10%) flax diet [39]. may have health-promoting properties increasing n-3
In general, therefore, fishy taints in eggs are not fatty acid levels in blood lipids and in some cases even
detectable provided that the hens are fed 5% (or less) reducing cholesterol and triglyceride levels in the
 P.F. Surai, N.H.C. Sparks / Trends in Food Science & Technology 12 (2001) 7–16 11

plasma. What is also important is that in most studies Omega Tech launched the sale of DHA eggs in Ger-
there were no significant increases in plasma cholesterol many, Spain, Portugal, Belgium, Norway and Andorra,
or triglyceride levels as a result of consuming even rela- selling over 100 million eggs in 1996. The contribution
tively large numbers of omega-3 eggs. However, in a that DHA-enriched eggs can potentially make was
recent study by Lewis et al. [59], two of the 25 partici- recognized by their being awarded the ‘Most Innovative
pants responded to the increase in dietary cholesterol Finished Food Product Award’ in 1996 at the annual
through egg consumption with a significant increase in Food Ingredients Europe Conference in Paris.
serum total and LDL-cholesterol. They called these Eggland’s Best, Inc. markets premium quality shell
participants ‘‘responders’’, concluding that in a human eggs under the Eggland’s Best brand name [62]. They
population there are individuals for whom increased claim to have increased by 7-fold the generic level of
consumption of normal or n-3 eggs is not recommended vitamin E, by three-fold the level of omega-3 fatty acids
[60]. This finding may account for the inconsistency of and iodine and to have reduced by 25% the saturated
results of the effect of egg consumption on the choles- fat when compared with standard eggs. In general, spe-
terol level in the plasma published for the last 20 years. ciality eggs at the US market comprise about 5% and
Generally speaking, however, the results clearly show are growing by 1% a year.
that eggs enriched with n-3 PUFAs are a valuable The production of designer eggs involves extra cost
source of nutrients, and particularly the n-3 fatty acids and they are usually sold at premium prices. The prices
of which scientific opinion recommends we increase our could differ substantially, but in the UK they are likely
intake. to be not dissimilar from prices currently being paid for
free range and organically produced free-range eggs
Commercial production of omega-3 enriched eggs (which are almost twice the price of normal table eggs).
There are various egg types on supermarket shelves in In fact, in the USA egg price is substantially higher for
different countries. For example, in the UK, the only the speciality eggs (averaging $2.18/dozen, nutritionally
designer egg available through the supermarkets is the altered eggs $1.81/dozen) compared to white eggs
‘Columbus’ egg produced by a Belgium company, ($1.23/dozen) [63]. The price will ultimately depend in
Belovo. These eggs, enriched in n-3 fatty acids and part on the sources of nutrients used in the dietary for-
vitamin E, first appeared in Belgium in 1997, and since mulations. As discussed above, enriching eggs with
then they have been sold in the UK (1998), The Neth- ALA is much easier and cheaper compared to enrich-
erlands (1999) and India, Japan and South Africa ment with DHA. In order to avoid a fishy taste, it is
(2000). Currently, production of the Columbus egg necessary to use stabilized sources of fresh fish oil,
exceeds 50 millions per year in Europe. These eggs are which can be relatively expensive. Using algae sources
characterized by a balanced nutritional lipid composi- of DHA could be a cheaper alternative. Therefore, there
tion (C18, omega-6:omega-3=1:1) and a favourable is a need to differentiate DHA-enriched eggs from
structural lipid ratio (long-chain PUFA, omega- ALA-enriched eggs. This would reflect the added bene-
6:omega-3=1:3). When fed to selected groups of peo- fits of DHA-enriched eggs compared to ALA-enriched
ple, Columbus eggs have been shown to improve the eggs. It appears that consumers are ready to pay extra
circulating cell membrane fatty acid composition by for designer eggs provided that they understand the
favourably altering the omega-3:omega-6 ratio [60]. The possible health-promoting properties. For example, a
level of ALA in Columbus eggs is about 12.6% while survey conducted in five major Texas cities with over
DHA comprises about 2% of total fatty acids in the egg 500 consumers indicated that 65% of consumers were
yolk. Therefore, these eggs could adjust a diet toward willing to purchase n-3 fatty acid-enriched table eggs
recent nutritional recommendations regarding the fatty and, of these, 71% were willing to pay an additional
acid profile of the diet. In particular, it is recommended $0.5 per dozen [44].
LA:ALA ratio in the diet to be 5:1–10:1 and n-3 PUFA
to provide 0.4–2% of total energy [61]. In this respect, it Other types of designer egg
is worth mentioning that recent n-3 PUFA consumption In the recent USA survey, most modifications to the
in the UK provides only 0.23% of total energy and in nutritional profile of eggs were associated with
such countries as The Netherlands, Belgium, Germany, decreased cholesterol, fat or calories or increased vita-
Ireland and Italy this figure is even lower [10]. min E [62]. However a substantial increase in nutrients
Pilgrim’s Pride Company, the largest producer of was obvious only for folate (2-fold) and vitamin E (up
poultry products in North America and Mexico intro- to 6-fold). Our recent results [26,64,65] showed that the
duced the so-called EggsPlus with an increased level of inclusion of organic selenium in the chicken diet could
vitamin E and omega-3 fatty acids. Similar eggs are substantially increase the accumulation of this trace
produced by Gold Circle Farms (containing 150 mg element in the egg. Indeed the production of Se-fortified
DHA and 6 mg vitamin E, CO, USA) and OmegaTech eggs is extremely simple: when Se supplementation of
(USA), produce the so called Gold Circle Farms Eggs. the diet is at a level of 0.4 mg/kg diet in the form of Se-
12 P.F. Surai, N.H.C. Sparks / Trends in Food Science & Technology 12 (2001) 7–16

enriched yeast, an egg would contain approximately 30 ‘healthy eggs from healthy birds’ since these four nutri-
mg of Se (Table 3) which is about 50% of daily require- ents are as important for the hen’s health as for human
ment. This could be used to improve the Se status of the health.
population in many countries including Scotland where By manipulating the feed of laying hens it was possi-
the selenium content of the diet meets only 50% of the ble to enhance the levels of Se, vitamin E, lutein and
requirement [66]. This valuable option awaits response DHA by 7.7-, 26.8-, 15.9- and 6.4-fold, respectively. A
from the food industry. single designer egg could therefore contain 50% of the
It has been shown that eggs produced by hens fed RDA of Se, 100% of the RDA of long chain n-3
5.0% conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) contained 310–365 PUFAs, and 150% of the RDA of vitamin E. It would
mg of CLA per egg [67] providing a substantial amount also supply 1.91 mg lutein (no reference nutrient intake
of CLA in human foods. However the daily requirement has yet been established) (Table 4). A human trial
in this important compound has not been established demonstrated that the consumption of sthese modified
yet. Furthermore, CLA can negatively affect general egg eggs (an egg per day during 8 weeks) was associated
quality [68]. with a significant increase in a-tocopherol, lutein and
DHA concentrations in plasma (Figs 1 and 2). Our
Development of an egg enriched with Omega-3 results also indicate that the two major anti-oxidant
PUFA, selenium, carotenoids and vitamin E constituents of the egg, vitamin E and lutein, were
In many respects, the nutrients in eggs are a feature of stable during egg boiling [71]. In this experiment, a
the diet. For example, unlike eggs from birds fed a combination of high levels of two anti-oxidants, vitamin
manufactured diet, analyses of eggs obtained from wild E and lutein, in the designer eggs significantly decreased
and free-range birds [69,70] showed very high con- MDA formation as a result of Fe-stimulated lipid per-
centrations of n-3 fatty acids, vitamin E and lutein. It oxidation, in spite of the high content of the highly
was decided, therefore, to produce, under commercial unsaturated DHA in hens’ eggs.
conditions, a table egg that had enhanced levels of these The major advantages of the combination of DHA
components and also of selenium (Se). The concept was and anti-oxidants in the egg yolk are:

Table 3. Effect of selenium dietary supplementation on its content in the egg (adapted from [26])
Organic Se added to the feed (ppm) Se in egg yolk (ng/g) Se in egg white (ng/g) Se per egg (g) RDA from one egg (%)
0 298.3 50.7 7.10 11.4
0.2 605.3 193.7 18.04 28.9
0.4 854.0 403.7 30.67 49.1
0.8 1087.3 621.7 43.35 69.4

RDA (USA) for selenium: men 70 mg/day; women 55 mg/day; average 62.5 mg/day.

Figure 1. Effect of super egg consumption during 8 weeks on vitamin E and lutein levels in human plasma (adapted from [71])
 P.F. Surai, N.H.C. Sparks / Trends in Food Science & Technology 12 (2001) 7–16 13

Figure 2. Effect of super egg consumption during 8 weeks on docosahexaenoic acid levels in human plasma. PL, phospholipid; TG, tria-
cylglycerol; FFA, free fatty acids; CE, cholesterol ester (adapted from [71]).

Table 4. Major nutrients in a super egg 4. Se as an integral part of the anti-oxidant enzyme
glutathione peroxidase, protects intestinal mem-
Nutrient in Amount % Recommended Similar amount
the egg (mg) dietary allowances provided by: branes against lipid peroxidation during DHA
digestion;
Vitamin E 19.3 150 100 g corn oil
150 g margarine
300 g peanuts Since natural anti-oxidants play important roles in
1 kg butter preventing stress-related diseases, the eggs, either whole
10 kg meat or as processed products, could be of great importance
Lutein 1.91 RDA 50 g celery to people living in polluted areas, (e.g. Chernobyl,
not known 100 g green peas Ukraine) and in areas with very low temperatures (e.g.
200 g asparagus
200 g green pepper Polar expeditions) and extreme conditions (e.g. sub-
200 g yellow pepper marine teams). Similarly, they could benefit the com-
Selenium 0.032 50 100 g wheat bread promised host (e.g. very young, the elderly and pregnant
150 g brown bread women).
500 g meat
1 kg vegetables
DHA 209 100 49 g sardine Eggs as a functional food
165 g Atlantic cod Analyses of recent literature and our own research
170 g haddock allowed us to arrive at the conclusion that eggs ideally
180 g carp fit the requirements of a functional food. For example,
Table eggs contain 0.72 mg vitamin E, 0.12 mg lutein, 0.004 mg
the levels of certain nutrients (vitamin E and DHA)
selenium and 32.4 mg DHA. could be increased in the egg to such an extent that
consumption of a single egg could deliver these nutri-
ents in amounts comparable or higher than daily
requirement [71]. However, a significant barrier to
1. vitamin E, lutein and Se protect DHA from oxi- increasing egg consumption in western countries is the
dation during absorption and metabolism thereby perception that egg consumption is associated with a
preventing a ‘fishy’ taste formation; rise in blood cholesterol levels [73] and as a consequence
2. egg yolk lipids are necessary for the efficient is deleterious to health and life expectancy. In this
absorption of vitamin E and lutein in human respect, expert opinion on the role of dietary cholesterol
intestine (6 g lipids in the egg yolk is sufficient in the development of heart diseases has changed
amount of lipids needed for an efficient absorption recently, indicating that, for the general population,
of vitamin E and lutein in the human intestine) dietary cholesterol makes no significant contribution to
[72]; atherosclerosis and risk of cardiovascular disease [74].
3. lutein interacts with vitamin E and phospholipids, Furthermore, results of many studies [9,75,76] have
increasing the yolk’s anti-oxidant potential and shown that relatively large numbers of eggs can be con-
improving egg storability; sumed without any significant changes to plasma cho-
14 P.F. Surai, N.H.C. Sparks / Trends in Food Science & Technology 12 (2001) 7–16

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in J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 92, 1456
ched with DHA, vitamin E, lutein and selenium, are 2 Milner, J.A. and Craig, L. (2000) ‘Introduction and Conference
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components, including 150% RDA in vitamin E, 50% I.J., Kotchen, T.A., Lichtenstein, A.H., Mitch, W.E., Mullis, R.,
RDA in Se and a substantial amount of lutein), devel- Robinson, K., Wylie-Rosett, J., St Jeor, S., Suttie, J., Tribble, D.L.
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egg delivers 50% of RDA in Se, which is considered as 7 Margetts, B.M., Thompson, R.L., Speller, V. and McVey, D.
having an effect on human mood). Beyond this, a range (1998) ‘Factors Which Influence ’Healthy’ Eating Patterns:
of bioactive peptides in the egg have been characterized Results from the 1993 Health Education Authority Health and
with anti-hypertensive, phagocytosis-stimulating and Lifestyle Survey in England’ in Public Health Nutr 1, 193–198
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